GEOTEXTILES

Hsu-Yeh Huang and Xiao Gao

1. INTRODUCTION
According to the historical record, it is believed that the first applications of
geotextiles were woven industrial fabrics used in 1950s. One of the earliest
documented cases was a waterfront structure built inFlorida in 1958. Then, the
first nonwoven geotextile was developed in 1968 by the Rhone Poulence
company in France. It was a comparatively thick needle-punched polyester,
which was used in dam construction in France during 1970.
In fact, the geotextile is one of the members of the geosynthetic family. Those
members include the following items as shown in Fig.1: [1-2]

Fig. 1: Typical geosynthetic materials

1. Geogrids
2. Geonets
3. Geotextiles
4. Geomembranes
5. Geosynthetic Clay Liners

6. Geopipe
7. Geocomposites

What is geotextile?
As we know, the prefix of geotextile, geo, means earth and the textile means
fabric. Therefore, according to the definition of ASTM 4439, the geotextile is
defined as follows:[1]
"A permeable geosynthetic comprised solely of textiles. Geotextiles are used
with foundation, soil, rock, earth, or any other geotechnical engineering-related
material as an integral part of human-made project, structure, or system."
The ASAE (Society for Engineering in Agricultural, Food, and Biological
Systems) defines a geotextile as a "fabric or synthetic material placed between
the soil and a pipe, gabion, or retaining wall: to enhance water movement and
retard soil movement, and as a blanket to add reinforcement and separation." A
geotextile should consist of a stable network that retains its relative structure
during handling, placement, and long-term service. Other terms that are used by
the industry for similar materials and applications are geotextile cloth,
agricultural fabric, and geosynthetic [2].
2. THE TYPES OF GEOTEXTILE [1]
In general, the vast majority of geotextiles are made from polypropylene or
polyester formed into fabrics as follows:

Woven monofilament

Woven multifilament

Woven slit-film monofilament

Woven slit-film multifilament

Nonwoven continuous filament heat bonded

Nonwoven continuous filament needle-punched

Nonwoven staple needle-punched

Nonwoven resin bonded

Other woven and nonwoven combinations

Knitted

Fig. 2a: Non-woven

fabrics [7]

Fig 2b: Woven geotextile

3. RAW MATERIAL OF GEOTEXTILE

The four main polymer families most widely used as the raw material for
geotextiles are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Polyester
Polyamide
Polypropylene
Polyethylene

The oldest of these is polyethylene, which was discovered in 1931 in the

research laboratories of the ICI. Another group of polymers with a long
production history is the polyamide family, the first of which was discovered in
1935.The next oldest of the four main polymer families relevant to geotextile
manufacture is polyester which was first announced in 1941.The most recent
polymer family relevant to geotextiles to be developed was polypropylene,
which was discovered in 1954. The comparative properties of these four
polymer are shown in very general items in Table 1 [3].

Table 1
Polyester

Polyamide

Polypropylene

Polyethylene

Strength

Elastic modulus

Strain at failure

Creep

Unit weight

Cost

U.V. light
stabilized

unstabilized

Alkalis

Fungus, vermin

Fuel

Detergents

Resistance to:

H: High; M: Medium; L: Low

4. THE BASIC PROPERTIES OF GEOTEXTILE[1]

The properties of polymer material are affected by its average molecular weight
(MW ) and its statistical distribution. Increasing the average MW results in
increasing:

tensile strength

elongation

impact strength

stress crack resistance

heat resistance

Narrowing the molecular weight distribution results in:

increased impact strength

decreased stress crack resistance

decreased processability

Increasing crystallinity results in:

increasing stiffness or hardness

increasing heat resistance

increasing tensile strength

increasing modulus

increasing chemical resistance

decreasing diffusive permeability

decreasing elongation or strain at failure

decreasing flexibility

decreasing impact strength

decreasing stress crack resistance

5. MARKET ACTIVITY

To say that the market activity of geosynthetics in the geotechnical,

transportation, and environmental areas is strong is decidedly an
understatement. To obtain an insight into the vitality of geosynthetics, note the
curves in the graphs in fig 3a and 3b. The curves in Fig. 3a gives the estimated
amount of geosynthetics used in North America over the years(geopipe is not
shown ), while the curve in Fig 3b gives the estimated in-place expenditures of
these products.

Fig. 3a

Fig. 3b
Used in the calculations were the data for 1995 (note that the values are in
millions of square meters and millions of dollars ) [ 1 ]:
Geotextiles 500 Mm2 @ $ 0.9 / m2 = $ 450 M
Geogrids 40 Mm2 @ $ 2.50 / m2 = $ 100 M
Geonets 50 Mm2 @ $ 2.00 / m2 = $ 100 M
Geomembranes 75 Mm2 @ $ 10.00 / m2 = $ 750 M
Geosynthetic clay linears 50 Mm2 @ $ 2.5 / m2 = $ 125 M
Geocomposites 25 Mm2 @ $ 5.00 / m2 = $ 125 M
Geo-others 5 Mm2 @ $ 4.00 / m2 = $ 20 M
Total ( 1995 ) $ 1670 M
6. THE BASIC FUNCTION OF GEOTEXTILE

Geotextiles form one of the two largest groups of geosynthetics. Their rise in
growth during the past fifteen years has been nothing short of awesome. They
are indeed textiles in the traditional sense, but consist of synthetic fibers rather
than natural ones such as cotton, wool, or silk. Thus biodegradation is not a
problem. These synthetic fibers are made into a flexible, porous fabric by
standard weaving machinery or are matted together in a random, or nonwoven,
manner. Some are also knit. The major point is that they are porous to water
flow across their manufactured plane and also within their plane, but to a
widely varying degree. There are at least 80 specific applications area for
geotextiles that have been developed; however, the fabric always performs at
least one of five discrete functions:
1. Separation [ 4 ]

Geotextiles function to prevent mutual mixing between 2 layers of soil

having different particle sizes or different properties. Table 2 shows the
required properties for separation:

Fig. 4: Illustration of a geotextile fabric separating a gravel layer from

the underlying soil material[7]

Table 2 The required properties for separation [4]

Mechanical

During installation

Impact resistance

Hydraulic

Apparent opening

Long-term
Performance

UV resistance

Elongation at break

size ( A.O.S.)
Thickness

During construction

Puncture resistance

Apparent opening

Chemical stability

Elongation at break

size ( A.O.S.)

UV resistance

Thickness

After completion of
construction

Puncture resistance

Apparent opening

Chemical stability

Tear propagation
resistance

size ( A.O.S.)

Resistance to decay

Thickness
Elongation at break
2. Drainage :

The function of drainage is to gather water, which is not required

functionally by the structure, such as rainwater or surplus water in the
soil, and discharge it [ 4 ].

Fig. 5: Drainage [9]

Table 3. The required properties for drainage: [ 4 ]

Mechanical

Permanent drainage
function

Influence of normal
overburden pressure

Hydraulic

Permeability
Thickness

Temporary drainage
function

Influence of normal
overburden pressure

Long-term
Performance

Chemical
properties of
water and soil

Apparent opening

Chemical stability

size (A.O.S.)

Decay resistance

Permeability
Thickness
Apparent opening
size (A.O.S.)

3. Filtration :

Filtration involves the establishment of a stable interface between the

drain and the surrounding soil. In all soils water flow will induce the
movement of fine particles. Initially a portion of this fraction will be
halted at the filter interface; some will be halted within the filter itself
while the rest will pass into the drain. The geotextile provides an ideal

interface for the creation of a reverse filter in the soil adjacent to the
geotextile. The complex needle-punched structure of the geotextile
provides for the retention of fine particles without reducing the
permeability requirement of the drain [5].

Fig.6: Filtration [5]

Table 4. The required properties for Filtration: [4 ]

Mechanical filter
stability

Permanent
A.O.S.
filter function
Thickness

Hydraulic filter
stability

Long-term
performance

Geotextile
permeability

Chemical properties
of water and soil
Chemical stability
Decay resistance

Temporary
A.O.S.
filter function
Thickness

Geotextile
permeability

4. Reinforcement

Due to their high soil fabric friction coefficient and high tensile strength,
heavy grades of geotextiles are used to reinforce earth structures
allowing the use of local fill material.

Fig. 7: Reinforcement [9]

Table 5: The required properties for reinforcement:[4]

Mechanical

Hydraulic

Long-term

performance

Base failure

Shear strength of
bonding system

Hydraulic boundary
conditions

Chemical and decay

resistance

Top failure

Tensile strength of
geotextile

Hydraulic boundary
conditions

Chemical and decay

resistance

Geotextile/ soil
friction

Slope failure

Tensile strength of
geotextile
Geotextile/ soil
friction

Creep of the
geotextile/ soil
system
Chemical and decay
resistance

5. Protection:

Erosion of earth embankments by wave action, currents and repeated

drawdown is a constant problem requiring the use of non-erodable
protection in the form of rock beaching or mattress structures. Beneath
these is placed a layer of geotextile to prevent leaching of fine material.
The geotextile is easily placed, even under water [6].

Fig.8: Protection [6]

Table 6:. The required properties for protection [4]

Mechanical

Tunnel construction

Long-term performance

Burst pressure resistance

Chemically stable: pH=2-13

Puncture resistance

Decay resistance

Abrasion resistance

Landfill and reservoir

geomembrane construction

Puncture resistance

Chemically stable: pH=2-13

Burst pressure resistance

Decay resistance

Friction coefficient

Flat roof construction

Puncture resistance

Chemical compatibility

7. APPLICATIONS
Case ( I ) : [7]
Wet soil conditions in animal feeding and high-traffic live-stock handling areas
cause problems for both animals and producers, as well as the environment.
Ruminating animals, such as beef, dairy, and sheep, often concentrate at stream
crossings, in paddock lanes, and in feedlots and barnyards. In association with

animal production, there will be concentrated farm vehicular and equipment

traffic. When the animal and/or equipment traffic is excessively high, the
vegetation is destroyed. During and after rainy weather, the soil in these areas
turns to mud, creating an unhealthy environment for optimal livestock
production, poor traction for farm equipment, and potentially poor surface
water quality. Once these areas dry, they may provide rough and possibly
hazardous footing for the animals.
After the vegetation in these concentrated areas is destroyed, the soil is bare
and subject to erosion. In addition, once wet soil that has been trampled by
livestock dries, it has a greatly reduced infiltration rate, and thus a much higher
potential for producing runoff of soil and manure. Both of these conditions are
conducive to creating a water quality problem. However, all of the conditions
summarized above cause problems for producers as they try to properly
manage the many operations for a profitable livestock production system.
The use of geotextile fabric in these high-traffic livestock areas can
substantially reduce the occurrence of adverse conditions (see Figure 1). The
installation of geotextile fabric combined with gravel can help provide a proper
surface that animals, humans, vehicles, and equipment can travel on, and can
also provide an erosion control benefit.
The purpose of this publication is to help producers, landowners, and agency
and industry personnel who work with producers and landowners, understand
the proper application, installation, and maintenance of geotextile fabric for
agricultural applications. This publication provides an overview of a
demonstration project (Using Geotextile Cloth in Livestock Operations to
Reduce Nutrient and Sediment Loading in the Olentangy Watershed) on the use
of geotextile fabric in high-traffic livestock areas. Some of the material
provided is based on cooperative agency-industry-producer experiences from
twelve project sites constructed in Morrow County, Ohio, during 1994.

Figure 9a:. Illustration of a site before geotextile fabric application [7]

Fig. 9b:Similar site after application of the geotextile fabric [7]

Case ( II ): [8]
The leading cause of pavement and roadway failure in the U.S. is
contamination of the aggregate base and the resulting loss in aggregate
strength. When aggregate is placed on a subgrade, the bottom layer becomes
contaminated with soil. Over time, traffic loading and vibration punches
pavement base aggregate into the soil and causes silt and clay to migrate
upward. On wet sites, construction traffic causes pumping of weak subgrade
soils into overlying aggregate. All of these conditions decrease the effective
aggregate thickness destroying the road support and reducing roadway
performance and life.

Fig. 10a: Illustration with geotextiles [8]

Fig.10b: Illustration without geotextile [8]

REFERENCES
1. Robert M. Koerner Designing with Geosynthetics, 1998
2. (http://www.drexel.edu/gri/gmat.html

3. John N.W. M Geotextile , 1987

4. TANFEL Advertisement report 1990
5. http://www.geofabrics.com.au/bidim.htm#filtration
6. http://www.geofabrics.com.au/bidim.htm#embankment
7. http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/aex-fact/0304.html
8. http://www.acf-environ.com/stabprod.html
9. http://www.cofra.com/typar.html

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