CHAPTER I CRIMINOLOGY

CRIMINOLOGY defined
Is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon
(Tradio, 1999). It may also refer to the study of crimes and criminal and the attempt
of analyzing scientifically their causes and control and the treatment of criminals.
Criminology is a multidisciplinary study of crimes (Bartol, 1995). This means that
many disciplines are involved in the collection of knowledge about criminal action,
including psychological, sociology, anthropology, biology, neurology, political
science and economics. But over the years, sociology, psychology and psychiatry
have dominated the study of crime.
a. Sociology (Sociological Criminology)
The study of crime focused on the
group of people and
society as whole. It is primarily based on the
examination of the relationship of
demographic and group variables to crime.
Variables such as socioeconomic status,
interpersonal relationships, age, race,
gender, and cultural groups of people are
probed in relation to the environmental
factors that are most conducive to criminal
action, such as time, place, and
circumstances surrounding the crime.
b. Psychology (Psychological Criminology)
The science of behavior and
mental process of the
Criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked,
maintained and modified. Both the
environmental and personality influences are
considered, along with the mental processes
that mediate the behavior.
c. Psychiatry (Psychiatry Criminology)
The science that deals with the study
of crime through
Forensic psychiatry, the study of criminal
behavior in terms of motives and drives that
strongly relies on the individual.
(Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud
Traditional view). It also explains that
criminals are acting out of uncontrollable
animalistic, unconscious or biological urges
(modern view).
Scope of the Study of Criminology

Criminology is a broad field of study of crimes and criminals. It covers several

principal areas or divisions (Tradio, 1999), which are:
1. Criminal Behavior or Criminal Etiology the scientific analysis of the
causes of crime.
2. Sociology of Law the study of law and its application;
3. Penology or Correction the study that deals with punishment and the
treatment of criminals;
4. Criminalistics or Forensic Science one more are of concern in crime
detection and investigation.
Criminalistics is included as a division in criminology because of Criminologists are
also engaged in studying criminal things, the analysis of physical evidences of
physical evidences take from the crime scene left behind by a criminal perpetrator.
Importance of Studying Criminology
Studying crime is very important. In fact in crime has always been high (Bartol,
1995). However, understanding why it occurs and that to do about it has always
been a problem. The offer is simple solutions for obliterating crime is not enough
because of its complexities. But understanding crime as a complex phenomenon
can be:
1. A source of philosophy of life the knowledge derived from studying crime is
a good foundation for an individuals philosophy and lifestyle.
2. A background for a profession or for social service.
3. Because criminals are legitimate objects of interest. They should be
understood in order to know how to control them.
4. Because crime is a costly and intangible costs of pain and suffering is too
high as a result of victimization.
Purpose of Studying Criminology
Studying criminology is aimed towards the following:
1. The primary aim is to prevent the crime problem.
2. To understand crimes and criminals which are basic to knowing the actions
to be done to prevent them.
3. To prepare for a career in law enforcement and scientific crime detection.
4. To develop an understanding of the constitutional guarantees an due
process of law in the administration of justice.
5. To foster a higher concept of citizenry and legal responsibilities to his
fellowmen, his community and the nation.
Nature of Criminology

Understanding crime is a s complex as other fields of interest. It requires

therefore a systematic and balanced knowledge in the examination of why they
exist. In this sense, criminology is:
1. An Applied Science Anthropology, psychology, sociology and other
natural sciences may be applied in the study of the causes of crime while
chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, ect. maybe utilized in crime
detection.
2. A Social Science Inasmuch as crime is a societal creation and the it
exists in a society, its study must be considered a part of social science.
3. Dynamic Criminology changes as social condition changes. That means
the progress of criminology is concordant with the advancement of other
sciences that have been applied to it.
4. Nationalistic The study of crime must always be n relation with the
existing criminal law with in the territory.
OBJECT OF INTEREST IN CRIMINOLOGY
The four major of interest in criminology are crimes (criminal acts), criminals
(perpetrators of crime), criminal behavior and the study of victims.
Other interests in criminology such as criminal detection, treatment of
criminals and the criminal law are discussed in the other chapter of this book.
CRIME defined
Inasmuch as the definition of crimes is concerned, many field of study like
law, sociology and psychology have their respective emphasis on what crime is:
Crime maybe defined as:
1. An act or omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point.
2. An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms
of society; they are the unacceptable acts in its social definition.
3. Psychologically, crime is not an act, which is considered undersirable due to
behavioral maladjustment of the offender acts that are caused by
maladaptive or abnormal behaviors.
CRIME in also generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or
misdemeanor.
Offense is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws (a special
law is a statue enacted by Congress, penal in Code) such as Republic Acts,
Presidential Decrees, Executive Orders, Memorandum Circulars, Ordinances and
Rules and Regulations (Reyes 1960)
Felony is an act or omission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code,
the criminal law in the Philippines (Reyes, 1960)

Delinquency/Misdemenor acts that are in violation of simple rules and

regulations usually referring to acts committed by minor offenders.
Criminological Classification of Crime
Crimes are classified of Crime
Crimes are classified in order to focus a better understanding on their
existence. Criminologists consider the following as criminological classification of
crimes (Criminology Reviewer, 1996)
a. Acquisitive and Extinctive Crimes
Acquisitive Crime is one which when committed; the offender acquires
something as a consequence of his criminal act. The crime is extinctive
when the result of criminal act is destruction.
b. Seasonal and Situational Crimes
Seasonal crimes are those that are committed only at a certain period
of the year while situational crimes are committed only when given a
situation conducive to its commission.
c. Episodic and Instant Crimes
Episodic crimes are serial crimes; they are committed by means of
series of act within a lengthy space of time. Instant crimes are those
that are committed the shortest possible time.
d. Static and Continuing Crimes
Static crimes are crimes that are committed only in one place.
Continuing crime are crimes that are committed in several places.
e. Rational and Irrational Crimes
Rational crimes are those committed with intent; offender is in full
possession of his mental faculties/capabilities while irrational crimes
are committed without intent; offender does not know the nature of his
act.
f.

White Collar and Blue Collar Crimes

White Collar and are those committed by a person of responsibility and
of upper socio-economic class in the of course of their occupation
activities. Blue Collar Crimes are those committed by ordinary
professionals to maintain their livelihood.

g. Upper World and Underworld Crimes

Upper World Crimes are those committed by individuals belonging to

the upper class of society. Under World Crimes are committed by
members of the lower or under privilege class of society.
h. Crimes by Imitation and Crimes by Passion
Crimes by Imitation are crimes committed by merely duplication of
what was done by others. Crimes by the passion are crimes because of
the fit of great emotions.
i.

Service Crimes
Service Crime refers of crimes committed through rendition of a
service to satisfy of another.

Legal Classification of Crimes

Under the law, crimes are classified as:
a. Crimes against National Security and the Law of Nations
Example Treason, Espionage, Piracy
b. Crimes against the Fundamental Law of the State
Example Arbitrary Detention, Violation of Domicile
c. Crimes against Public Order
Example Rebellion, Sedition, Coup detat
d. Crimes against Public Interest
Example Forgery, Falsification, Fraud
e. Crimes against Public Morals
Example Gambling and betting, offenses against decency and good
customs like scandals, obscenity, vagrancy, and prostitution.
f. Crimes Committed by Public Officers
Example Malfeasance and Misfeasance
g. Crimes against Person
Example murder, Rape, Physical Injuries
h. Crimes against Properties
Example Robbery, Theft
i. Crimes against Personal Liberty and Security
Example Illegal Detention, Kidnapping, Trespass to Dwelling, Threat and
Coercion
j. Crimes against Chastity
Example Bigamy and other Illegal Marriages
k. Crimes against Civil Status of Persons
Example Bigamy and other Illegal Marriages
l. Crimes against Honor

Example Libel, Oral Defamation

m. Quasi offenses or Criminal Negligence
Example Imprudence and Negligence
THE CRIMINAL
On the basis of the definition of crime, criminal may be defined in three ways:
1. A person who committed a crime and has been convicted by a court for the
violation of a criminal law. (Legal definition)
2. A person who violated a social norm or one who did an anti social act.
(Social definition)
3. A person who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral maladjustment.
(Psychological definition)
CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICAITON OF CRIMINAL
The following are the criminological classification of criminals (Criminology
Reviewer, 1996)
BASED ON ETIOLOGY
ACUTE CRIMINAL is one who violates a criminal law because of the impulse or
fit of passion. They commit passionate crimes.
Chronic Criminal is one who commits crime acted in consonance of deliberate
thinking. He plans the crimes ahead of time. They are the targeted offenders.
Based on Behavioral System
Ordinary Criminal is considered the lowest for m of criminal in a criminal
career. He doesnt stick to crime as a profession but rather pushed to commit
crimes due to great opportunity.
Organized Criminal is one who associated him with other criminals to earn a
high degree of organization to enable them to commit crimes easily without being
detected by authorities, they commit organized crimes.
Professional Criminal is a person who is engaged in criminal activities with
high degree of skill. He is usually one who practices crime as a profession to
maintain a living.
Based on Activities
Professional Criminals are those who practice crime as a profession for a
living. Criminla activity is constant inorder to earn skill and develop ability in their
commission.

Accidental Criminals are those who commit crimes when the situation is
conducive to its commission.
Habitual Criminals are those who continue to commit crime because of
deficiency of intelligence and lack of self control.
Based on Mental Attitudes
Active Criminals those who commit due to aggressiveness.
Passive Inadequate Criminals are those who commit crimes because they are
pushed to it by reward or promise.
Socialized Delinquents are criminals who are normal in behavior but defective
in their socialization process or development.
Based on Legal Classification
Habitual Delinquent is a person who, with in a period of ten years from the
date of his release or last conviction of the crimes of serious or less serious physical
injuries, robbery, estafa, or falsification is found guilty of any of the said crimes or a
third time oftener.
Recidivist is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime, shall have been
previously convicted by final judgment of another crime embraced in the same of
the Revised Code.
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
Crimes in its legal definition may constitute act in violation of the criminal law
and penalized by the state a felony, offense or misdemeanor. Criminal behavior,
therefore, is an intentional behavior tht violated a criminal code (Bartol, 1995)
Criminal behavior may also refer to the study of crimes and their contributory
role, if any, in crime causation. It is also the scientific process of gaining substantial
amounts of knowledge on offender characteristics by studying the nature of victims.
Chapter 2 Approaches and Theories of Crime
If you were to find answers of why some people commit crimes, where would
you look for the answer? Would you search for events that might have influence a
criminal to commit crimes? There are many approaches in the explanation of
crimes in order to come to an answer to these question. Among them are the
subjective, objective and the contemporary approval which most criminologists
today adopted to be most significant.
In general, the approaches in the study of crime are:
1. Subjective approach

2. Objective approach
3. Contemporary approach
SUBJECTIVE APPROACHES
It deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms
of abnormalities that exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the
commission of the crime (Tradio, 1999). Included under this approach are:
1. Anthropological Approach the study on the physical characteristics of an
individual offender with non offenders in the attempt to discover covering
criminal behavior (Hooton).
2. Medical Approach the application of medical examinations on the individual
criminal explain the mental and physical condition of the individual prior and
after the commission of the crime (Positivist)
3. Biological Approach the evaluation of generic influences to criminal
behavior. It is noted that heredity is one force pushing the criminal to crime.
(Positivist)
4. Physiological Approach the study on the nature of human being concerning
his physical needs in order to satisfy his wants. It explains that the
deprivation of the physical body on the basic needs in an important
determiner of the commission of crime (Maslow).
5. Psychological Approach it is concerned about the deprivation of the
psychological needs of man, which constitute the development of deviations
of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions it is concerned about
the deprivation for the psychological needs of man, which constitute the
development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant
emotions. (Freud, Maslow).
6. Psychiatric Approach the explanation of crime through diagnosis of mental
diseases as a cause of the criminal behavior (Positivist).
7. Psychoanalytical Approach the explanation of the repression of the basic
drives (Freud).
OBJECTIVES APPROACHES
The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, social processes and
institutions as influences to behavior. They are primarily derived from social
sciences (Tradio, 1999). Under this are:
1. Geographic Approach 0 this approach considers topography natural
resources, geographical location, and climate leads an individual to
commit crime (Quetelet).
2. Ecological Approach it is concerned with the biotic grouping of men
resulting to migration, competition, social discrimination, division of labor
and social conflict as factors to crime (Park).

3. Economic Approach it deals with the explanation of crime concerning

financial security of inadequacy and other necessities to support life as
factors to criminality (Merton).
4. Scio Cultural Approach these that focus on institutions, economic,
financial, education political and religious influences to crime (Cohen).
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES
Modern days put emphasis on scientific modes of explaining crime and
criminal behavior. This approach is focused on the psychoanalytical, psychiatric and
sociological drawn from different sources (Schemalleger, 2997).
THEORIES OF CRIME
The formal development of criminology as a field of discipline is recent, but
the ideas of people who might be called criminologists can be traced historically.
Most of those people were lawyers, doctors, philosophers, psychologists and
sociologists whose primary interest was reforming the criminal law, not in creating a
science of criminal behavior. Nevertheless, their contributions to criminology are
immense, and for an adequate understanding of current criminologists theories,
some familiarity with these approaches is essential.
EARLY BEGINNING
The Demonological Theory
Before the development of more scientific theories of criminal behavior, one
of the most popular explanations was Demonology (Hagan, 1990).
According to this explanation, individuals were thought to be possessed by
good or evil spirits, which caused good or evil behavior. The theory maintains that
criminal behavior was believed to be the result of evil spirits and demons something
of natural force that controls his/her behavior. Centuries ago, guilt and innocence
were established by a variety of procedures that presumably called forth the
supernatural allies of the accused. The accused were innocent if they could survive
an ordeal, or if miraculous sings appeared. They were guilty it they died at stake, or
if omens were associated with them (Bartol, 1995). Harsh punishments were also
given.
PRE TWENTIETH CENTURY
(18th C 1738 1798)
In the eighteenth century, criminological literature, whether psychological,
sociological, or psychiatric in bent, has traditionally been divided into three bread
schools of thought about the cause of crime: the classical, neo classical and the
positivist school of criminology.

The Classical School of Criminology

This is the school thought advocated by Cesare Beccaria who real name is
Cesare Beonsara Marchese de Beccaria together with Jeremy Bentham (1823) who
proposed Utilitarian Hedonism, the theory, which explains that a person always
acts in such a way as to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
Cesare Beccaria in hhis ESSAY on Crimes and Punishment presented his key
ideas on the abolition of torture as a legitimate means of extracting confessions.
The Classical theory maintains that man is essentially a mortal creature with
absolute free will to choose between good and evil. Therefore, stress is placed upon
the criminal himself; that every man is responsible for his acts.
Freewill (Beccaria) a philosophy advocating punishment sever enough for
people to choose. It includes the belief that a certain criminal act warrants a certain
punishment without any variation.
Hedonism (Bentham) the belief that people choose pleasure and avoid pain.
According to Beccaria, the crime problem could be trace not to bad people
but to bad laws based on assumption of freewill. He proposed the following
principles (Adler, 1995).
Laws should be used to maintain the social contract laws are the
conditions under which men united themselves in society
Only legislators should create laws the authority of making penal
laws can only reside with the legislator, who represents the whole
society united by the social compact.
Judge should impose punishment only in accordance with law.
Punishment should be based on the pleasure-pain-principle please
and pain are the only springs of actions in being endowed with
sensibility If an equal punishment be ordained in two crimes that injure
society in different degrees, there is nothing to deter men from
committing the greater as often as it is intended with greater
advantage.
The punishment should be determined by the crime if mathematical
calculations could be applied to the obscure and infinite combinations
of human actions, there might be a corresponding scale of
punishments descending from the greatest to the least.
Punishment should be based on the act, not on the actor crimes are
only to be measure by the injuries done to the society.
Punishment should be prompt and effective the more immediate
after the commission of a crime a punishment is inflicted, the more just
and useful it will be.
All people should be treated equally the punishment of a nobleman
is no differ from that of the lowest member of society.

Capital punishment should be applied only to serious crimes against

the state (Schamalleger, 1997)
The use of torture to gain confession should be abolished.
It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them.
Although the classical doctrine had an immediate and profound impact on
jurisprudence and legislation, there are action arguments against it.
Arguments about the Classical Theory
(Tradio, 1999)
1. Unfair
- it treats all men as if they were robot without regard to the
individual differences and the surrounding circumstances when the crime is
committed.
2. Unjust Having the same punishment for first and redicivists.
3. The nature and definition of punishment is not individualized.
4. It considers only the injury caused not the mental condition of the offender.
The Neo Classical School of Criminology
The neo-classical school of criminology argued that situations or
circumstances that made it impossible to exercise freewill are reasons to exempt
the accused from conviction.
The school of thought maintains that while the classical doctrine is correct in
general, it should be modified in certain details:
a. That children and lunatics should not be regarded as criminals and
free from punishment.
b. It must take into account certain mitigating circumstances.
The Postiivist/Italian (1838 1909)
The school that composed of Italians who agreed that in the study of crime
the emphasis should be on scientific treatment of the criminal, not on the penalties
to be imposed after conviction.
It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural phenomenon and is
comparable to disaster or calamity. That crime as a social and moral phenomenon
which cannot be treated and checked by the imposition of punishment but rater
rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual measures.
Cesare Lobroso and his two students, Enrico Ferri and Rafaele Garofalo
advocated this school.
Cesare Lombroso (1836 1909) the Italian leader of the positivist school of
criminology, was criticized for his methodology and his attention to the biological

characteristics (father of modern criminology. His major contribution is the

development of a scientific approach to the study of criminal behavior and to reform
the criminal law. He wrote the essay entitled CRIME: Its Causes and Remedies that
contains his key ideas and the classification of criminals.
Classification of Criminals by Lombroso
1. Born Criminals there are born criminals according to Lombroso, the belief
that criminal behavior is inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion are individuals who are easily influenced by great
emotions like fit of anger.
3. Insane Criminals are those who commit crime due to abnormalities or
psychological disorders. They should be exempted from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid a person who commit crime due to less physical stamina/selfcontrol.
5. Occasiona l Criminal are those who commit crime due to insigficant reasons
that pushed them to do at a given occasion.
6. Pseudo criminals are those who kill in self defense.
Enrico Ferri (1856 1929) He was the best known Lombrosos associate.
Member of Parliament, accomplished public lecturer, brilliant lawyer, and scholar.
Although he agreed with Lombroso on the biological bases of criminal behavior,
his interest in socialism led him to recognized the importance of social, economic
and political determinants.
His greatest contribution was his attack on the classical doctrine of free will,
which argued that criminals should be held morally responsible for their crimes
because they must have made a rational decision to commit the crime.
He believed that criminals could not be held morally responsible for their
crimes because they did not choose to commit crimes but, rather, were driven to
commit them by conditions in their lives. He also claimed that strict adherence
to preventive measures based on scientific methods would eventually reduce
crime and allow people to live together in society with less dependent on penal
system (Adler, 1995)
Raffaele Garofalo (1852 1934) Another follower of Lombroso, an Italian
nobleman, magistrate, senator, and professor of law. Like Lombroso and Ferri, he
rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the only way to
understand crime was to study it by scientific methods influenced on Lombrosos
theory of atavistic stigmata (man/s inferior/ animalistic behavior), he traced the
roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to their psychological
equivalents which he called moral anomalities.
According to his theory, natural crimes are found in all human societies,
regardless of the views of the lawmakers, and no civilized society can afford to
disregard them.

Natural Crimes, according to Garofalo, are those that offend the basic moral
sentiments of probity (respect for property of others) and piety (revulsion against
the infliction of sufferings on others) (Adler, 1995)
Types of Criminals by Garofalo
1.
2.
3.
4.

Murderers those who are satisfied from vengeance/revenge.

Violent Criminals those who commit very serious crimes.
Deficient Criminals those who commit crime against property.
Lascivious Criminals those who commit crime against chastity.

The Classical and Positivist School Compared

Classical School

Legal definition of Crime

Punishment fit the crime

Doctrine of fee will
Death penalty allowed
No empirical research
Positivist School

Not to legal definition

Punishment fit the
criminal
Doctrine of determinism
Abolition of death
penalty
Inductive method

EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY

David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858 1917)
He advocated the Anomie Theory, the theory that focused on the
sociological point of the positivist school, which explains that the absence of norms
is a society provides a setting conducive to crimes and other anti social acts.
According to him, the explanation of human conduct lies not in the individual but in
the group and the social organization.
Durkheim proposed the following principles:

Crime is a natural thing in the society.

The concept of wrong is necessary to give meaning to what is right.
Crime help society for change it means that society to be flexible to permit
positive deviation must permit negative deviation as well.

He also framed the early development of the Consensus Theory in sociology.

He argue that mainly order, integration and smooth functioning characterize
social life. According to him, the order of social life does not derive from
individuals but from society because the individual is not sufficient unto him, it is
the society that receives everything necessary to him.
He also maintained that crime is an important ingredient of all health
societies because crime make people more aware of their common interest and
help to define appropriate, moral, or lawful behavior.
Sigmund Feud (1856 1969)
Psychologists have considered a variety of possibilities to account for
individual differences defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate
childhood socialization, maternal deprivation and poor moral development.
The Freudian view on criminal behavior was based on the use of Psychology
in explaining an approach in understanding criminal behavior.
Sigmund Freud in his Psychoanalytical Theory maintains that
Criminal behavior is a form of neurosis, that criminality may
result from an over active conscience.
Crime is the result of the compulsive need for punishment to
alleviate guilt and anxiety.
Criminal behavior is a means of obtaining gratification of need.
Criminal conducts represents a displace hostility. Criminality is
essentially representation of psychological conflict.
Robert Ezra Park (1964 1944)

Park is a strong advocate of the scientific method in explaining criminality but

he is a sociologist. He advocated the Human Ecology Theory. Human Ecology is
the study of the interrelationship of people and their environment. This theory
maintains that crimes is a function of social change that occurs along with
environmental change. It also maintains that the isolation, segregation, competition,
conflict, social contract , interaction and social hierarchy of people are the major
influences of criminal behavior and crimes.
MIDDLE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Ernest Kretschmer (1888 1964)
The idea of somatotyping was originated from the work of a German
Psychiatrist, Ernest Kretschmer, who distinguished three principal types of physique
as:
1. Asthenic - lean slightly built, narrow shoulders.
2. Athletic medium to tall, strong, muscular, course bones
He advocated the Dot Differential Opportunity Theory. This theory explained
that society leads the lower class to want things and society does things to
people.
Ohlin claimed that is different opportunity, or access, to success goals by
both legitimated and illegitimate means depending on the specific location of the
individual within the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are provided with
greater opportunities for the acquisition of deviant acts.
Frank Tennenbaum Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker (1822 1982)
They are the advocates of the Labeling Theory the theory that explains
about social reaction to behavior. The theory maintains that the original cause of
the individual within the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are groups are
provided with greater opportunities for the acquisition of deviant acts.
Earl Richard Quinney (1934)
Quinney is a Marxist criminologist who advocated the Instrumentalist Theory
if capitalist rule. He argued that the state exist as a device for controlling the
exploited class the class that labors for the benefit of the ruling class. He claimed
that upper classes create laws that protect their interest and at the same time the
unwanted behavior of all other members of society.
Quinney major contribution is that he proposed the shift in focus from looking
for the causes of crime from the individuals to the examination of the Criminal
Justice System for clues.
OTHER THEORISTS

Charles Darwins Theory (1809 1882)

In the theory of evolution, he claimed that humans, like other animals, are
parasite. Man is an organism having an animalistic behavior that is dependent on
other animals for survival. Thus, man kills and steal to live.
Charles Gorings Theory (1870 1919)
The medical officer in prison in England who accepted the Lombrosos
challenge that body physique is a determinant to behavior. Goring concluded that
there is no such thing as physical criminal type. He contradicted the Lombrosos
idea that criminality can be seen through features alone.
Earnest Hootons Theory (1887 1954)
An Anthropologist who reexamined the work of Goring and found out that
Tall thin men tend to commit forgery and fraud, undersized men are thieves and
burglars, short heavy person commit assault, rape and other sex crimes; whereas
mediocre (average) physique flounder around among other crimes.
He also contended that criminals are originally inferior, and that crime is the
result of the impact of environment.
Adelphe Quetelet (1796 1874)
Quetelet was Belgian statistician who pioneered Cartography and the
Carthographical School of Criminology that place emphasis on social statistics. He
discovered, basing on his research, that crimes against increased during summer
against property tends to increased during winter.
A broad analysis of the relationship between personal and socials is found in
Walter Reckless Containment Theory. This theory is a form of control, which
suggests that a series of both internal and external factors contributes to criminal
behavior (Schmalleger, 1998)
The Containment Theory assumes that for every individual there exists a
containing external structure and a protective internal structure, both of which
provide defense, protection or insultation against crime or delinquency.
According to Reckless, the outer structure of an individual are the external
pressures such as poverty, unemployment and blocked opportunities while the inner
containment refer to the persons self control ensure by strong ego, good self
image, well developed conscience, high frustration tolerance and high sense of
responsibility. (Adler, 1995)
Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger (1818 1940)
They are the proponents of the Social Class and Capitalism Theory.

Marx and Engel claimed that the ruling class in a capitalist society is
responsible for the creation of criminal law and their ideological basis in the
interpretation and enforcement of the laws. All are reflected in the ruling class, thus
crime and delinquency are reflected on the demoralized surplus of population,
which is made up of the underprivileged usually the unemployed and
underemployed.
William Bonger, a Marxist Socialist, on the other hand, place more emphasis
on working about crimes of economic gain. He believes that profit-motive of
capitalism generates an egoistic personality. Hence, crime is an inevitable outcome.
LATE 20TH CENTURY:
THE CONTEMPORARY PIONEERS
Robert King Merton (1910)
He advocated is the premier sociologist of the modern days who are
Durkheim also related the crime problem to anomie. He advocated the Strain
theory, which maintains that the failure of man to achieve a higher status of life
caused them to commit crimes in order for that status/goal to be attained. He
argued that crime as means to achieve goals and the social structure is the root of
the crime problem. Mertons explanation to criminal behavior assumes that people
are law abiding but when under great pressure will result to crime.
Albert Cohen (1918)
He advocated the Sub- Culture Theory of Delinquency. Cohen claims that the
lower class cannot socialized effectively as the middle class in what is considered
appropriate middle class behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered share their
common problems, forming a subculture that rejects middle class values. Cohen
called this process as reaction formation. Much of this behavior comes to be called
delinquent behavior, the subculture is called a gang and the kids are called
delinquents. He put emphasis on the explanation of prevalence, origins, process and
purposes as factors to crime.
Gresham Sykes (1922)
He advocated the Neutralization Theory. It means that an individual will obey
or disobey societal rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he
is protected from hurt or destruction. People become law abiding if they feel they
are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are not favorable to them.
3. Pyknic medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face.

Krestchmer related theses body physique to various psychotic behavioral

patterns. Pyknic to manic depression, asthenics and athletics t
oschizophrenia.
William II, Sheldon (1898 1977)
Sheldon is an influenced of the Somatotype School of Criminology,
which related body built to behavior. He became popular of his own
Somatotyping Theory. His key ideas are concentrated on the principle of
Survival of the Fittest as a behavioral science. He combines the biological
and psychological explanation to understand deviant behavior.
Sheldons Somatotyping Theory maintains the belief of inheritance
as the primary determinants of behavior and the physique is a reliable
indicator of personality.
Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon
a. Endomorphy a type with relatively predominance of soft, roundness
throughout the regions of the body. They have low specific gravity. Persons
with typically relaxed and comfortable disposition.
b. Mesomophy athletic type, predominance of muscle, bone and connective
tissue, normally heavy, hard and firm, sting and tough. They are the
people who are routinely active and aggressive, and they are the most
likely to commit crimes.
c. Ectomogrphy this physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body,
slender, poorly muscled. They tend to look more fatigue and withdrawn.
Edwin Sutherland (1883 1950)
Sutherland has been referred to as the most important criminologist of the
twentieth century because his explanation about crime and criminal behavior can
be seen as a corrected extension of social perspective. For this reason, he was
considered as the Dean of Modern Criminology.
Sutherlnads Nine Propositions (Adler, 1995)
1. Criminal behavior is learned.
2. Crime is learned by participation with other in verbal and non verbal
communications.
3. Families and friends have the most influence on the learning process.
4. The learning process includes the techniques of committing the crime and the
specific direction of motives, drive and attitude.
5. Not everyone in the society agrees that the laws should be obeyed, some
people define it unimportant.

6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess definition favorable to

the violation of laws over to the definitions will result in criminality patterns
involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.
7. Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity.
The extent to which associations and definitions will result in criminality
patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.
8. The process of learning behavior by association with criminal and anti
criminal patterns involves all the mechanism that are involved in any other
learning.
9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and value, it is not
explained by those general needs and values, since non criminal behavior is
an expression of the same needs and values.