Basic Survey Principles: GE2152 Basic Civil & Mechanical Engineering A

GE2152
BASIC CIVIL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIT I SURVEYING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Basic Survey Principles

Introduction
The basic principle of surveying is to be able to work out the position of a point from some other
point or points, positioning from the known features to the unknown ones.
To start a survey all you do is to measure the distance between two points on the site then draw
this to scale on a piece of paper, your site plan. By measuring the distance from these two points
to other points on the site the other points can be plotted relative to the two initial points on your
plan. You can draw up a network of points joined by distance measurements on your site plan, to
scale, as they are on the seabed. Thats it.
Four problems complicate this simple idea:
Sites are three-dimensional so we need to deal with differences in height or depth

Your measurements will have mistakes in them
Your measurements are not perfect
Site plans get complicated when there are lots of points and measurements
The simple survey described above works well enough for sites that are flat, as soon as there are
any significant differences in depth then it stops working. We need to be able to account for the
differences in depth.
Expect to make mistakes in your measurements. Previous surveys have shown that between 5%
and 15% of measurements made underwater are wrong so we need to add procedures to find
these measurements.
All measurements are not perfectly accurate, they are all plus or minus a bit where only the size
of the 'bit' differs. As we will see later, this measurement error affects the accuracy with which we
can position artefacts and ship's structure on our site.
Where we have lots of points to position on a site the number of points and measurements can
get too large to deal with easily. To get around this problem we set up a network of points around
the site from which we position artefacts and structure. The control point network is a cornerstone
of surveying, it looks like yet more work but in fact makes surveying easier.
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Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been classified into:
Control surveying : To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.
Land surveying : To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as
property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.
Topographic survey : To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as and
man-made features including elevation.
Engineering survey : To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of engineering
projects. Three broad steps are
1) Reconnaissance survey : To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.
2) Preliminary survey : To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for
planning and design.
3) Location survey : To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of the project.
Route survey : To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals,
pipelines, and other linear projects.
Construction surveys : Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines, grades, and
for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the structural design has
been done).
Astronomic surveys : To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and azimuth
(of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation.
Mine surveys : To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining purposes.
The Survey Procedure

All survey work follows a simple four-step procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Planning
Collecting Measurements
Processing Measurements
Drawing Up
Each step is discussed in detail below:
Planning
The actual amount of time the team will spend on site and underwater is usually very short. It is
essential that any work is well planned before it is started so work on site is efficient, safe and
problem-free.
The level of detail and accuracy required more or less define the techniques that can be used,
these should be specified in the research design. The equipment available and the experience of
the team also limit the techniques that can be used but the overriding factor may be the site type.
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Collecting Measurements
By the time you come to start recording the site the plan should have been explained to all
involved. This is the point where teamwork and communication become very important. If the
team are well briefed before work and de-briefed afterwards then the team leader can deal with
problems as they are found.
Any recording forms that have measurements on them should be well looked after. The forms are
the primary record of your work and should be kept even after they have been processed.
Keeping a notebook with day to day accounts, speculations and ideas about the site is often
useful, the notes can be handy later on when the measurements are being processed.
To be efficient the team needs to be well trained and well practised. If any team member needs a
refresher then the survey techniques to be used can be practised on dry land beforehand.
Processing Measurements
In the processing stage the measurements that have been collected are used to calculate the
positions of the points or detail we are trying to record. Often this process is done while drawing
up the site plan if the points are to be plotted by hand.
For some methods distance measurements are corrected for differences in depth. Depth
measurements should be corrected for changes in the height of tide during recording. At this
stage any mistakes need to be identified and repeat measurements requested.
Drawing Up
With sketches or measurements collected from your site you can start to create the site plan. The
plan may be drawn by hand or drawn on a computer. Computer generated plans are more useful
as printed copies can easily be made, they can be printed at different scales and the level of
detail shown can vary as the work progresses.
If the site has not been recorded before then the sketches or assessment survey results can be
turned into a site plan. In doing this you are likely to find that something has been missed and
additional work is required.
If a recording survey is being done then the first step is to position the control points
around the site on the site plan. Measurements may be needed from the control points to a
couple of the main features on the site to align previous site plan with the control points.
With the control in
3.4 Observation vs. Measurement

An observation is a single, unadjusted determination of a linear or angular value. A single
reading of an angle or a single reading of an EDM is an observation. An observed value is
a quantity that is obtained by instrumental measurement of the quantity. A direct
observation is an observation of the desired quantity while an indirect observation is a
quantity computed from direct observations. For example, rod readings in leveling are
direct observations and the elevation difference between two points that is computed
from these rod readings is an indirect observation.
A measurement is the entire process of obtaining a desired quantity. A measurement
entails performing a physical operation that usually consists of several more elementary
operations such as preparations (instrument calibration and setup), pointing, matching,
and comparing (reading). The result ofpdfMachine
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Surveys should be considered as measurements not as observations. With the advent of

electronic readouts of linear or angular quantities everyone can make an observation. It
requires a surveyor to make a measurement.
3.5 Linear Measurement

This section covers two methods of obtaining linear measurement: taping and EDM.
Linear measurements with GPS are discussed in Chapter 4.
3.5.1 Taping
EDM instruments have largely replaced steel tapes in practically all measurements,
except lower order work, such as close staking out, building measurements, etc.
Wherever feasible, distances over 30 meters (100 feet) should be measured with an
electronic measuring device. Accurate distances under 30 meters can be obtained with a
calibrated steel tape.
Many surveyors believe that third order accuracy is a natural result of taping a distance.
This is not true. Taped measurements will produce a linear accuracy of one part in 7,500
and yield a position closure of one part in 5,000 only if correct procedures are used. Such
correct procedures would include standardization of tape, application of temperature
correction, application of correct tension (particularly if tape is suspended), correct
horizontal and vertical alignment of tape, and careful plumbing procedures.
It is anticipated that taping will not be used in critical measurements and a detailed
explanation of taping procedures will not be included in this discussion.
3.5.2 Electronic Distance Measuring

General Detailed operating instructions, instrument specifications and field adjustment
information are included in the Operation Manual furnished with each instrument. The
instrument manual should be kept with the instrument at all times.
Training Prior to performing field surveys, each operator should be thoroughly trained
in the care and use of the measuring device and the allied equipment used therewith. The
operator should be made fully aware of the instrument's limitations, possible causes of
measurement errors, and have a thorough knowledge of the various functions performed
by the instrument.
Checking Instrument When an instrument is received by a crew, whether new or
transferred from another crew, the instrument should be checked on a known distance
base line with the reflectors to be used with that instrument. All EDMs should be checked
periodically, particularly prior to starting an important survey.
NGS calibrated base lines are currently available in different locations within the state.
Each calibrated base line has permanent monuments set to test instruments at several
distances. A description of the test areas is included in Appendix B. Caution should be
exercised to insure use of the most current data. Current data is available through the NJ
DOT Geodetic Survey office or the WWW site of NGS www.ngs.noaa.gov
Atmospheric Correction Atmospheric correction must be calculated and entered
according to the instrument manufacturers directions. Directions are usually supplied in
the operators manual for any instrument.
3.5.3 Common Sources of EDM Error

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A. Setting Up The heavier EDM equipment puts an added strain on tripods and
instrument stands. The tripods used to support EDM equipment should be
sturdy and in good condition. Therefore, hinge and foot screws should be
checked for tightness quite regularly.
B. Tribrachs Plumbing errors cannot be eliminated by measuring procedures.
Therefore, tribrachs must be checked for adjustment (bubble and optical
plummet) frequently. This includes not only the tribrachs used for the EDM
instrument, but also those used with the reflectors. If a tribrach is
accidentally bumped, dropped, or knocked over, it should be checked before
any additional measurements are made.
C. Range Pole Mounted Prisms Range pole mounted prisms will seldom be
used for measurements on the control traverse. When such prisms are used
for tying in supplemental points and topographic features or staking out, an
out of adjustment pole level can be the source of considerable error. Pole
levels should be checked frequently and when in use should be attached
securely to the pole in a position that can easily be viewed by the holder.
D. Reflections From Extraneous Objects Under most circumstances, an EDM
measurement will be within the accuracy specified for that instrument even if
the line of sight passes through leaves, fences, or other obstructions.
However, such objects can sometimes reflect or interrupt the light rays and
cause erroneous measurements. This occurs usually when the object is
relatively close to the instrument. Roadside reflectors, windows, or other
reflective objects in the path of or behind the prism can often cause
erroneous measurements. When the line of sight cannot be cleared, such
conditions should be recorded. Then, if poor closures result, those distances
can be isolated and rechecked. When measuring various distances along a
straight line, only one reflector should face the instrument. Otherwise, the
instrument may be measuring to the wrong reflector.
E. Light Wave Skip All EDMs have the inherent capability of false readings due
to light wave skips. The skip is generally in increments of 1, 10, 20 or more
meters. Generally, the skip is of sufficient magnitude to alert the operator
that an erroneous measurement is being made. However, at some distances
the skip will be small and difficult to eliminate. Repeat measurements are
often successful, but not always.
Quite often the small one meter skip will not be evident until the survey is
closed. An analysis of the traverse can sometimes indicate the false
measurement.
A routine method of checking for skip is by eccentric measurement. The
reflector can be moved two or three feet on line and a check measurement
taken. If the check measurement is near the eccentric difference, in all
likelihood there is no skip present.
F. Improper Prisms or Preset Prism Constants Most EDM prisms have built
in cross lens constants of 30 millimeters (0.098 feet). Each EDM manufacturer
provides for their instruments' direct measurements by the combination of an
internal adjustment within the instrument, and position of the prism in
relation to the vertical axis of the prism.
In the final analysis, extreme caution should be exercised to make sure that the EDM
prism constant setting coincides with that of the prisms being used. Be sure to check the
EDM operators manual and the specifications for the type prisms currently being used.
3.5.4 Number of Measurements

The number of measurements that should be made is a function of the characteristics of
the survey. NGS has a set of standards and specifications for control surveys and the
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping/ American Land Title Association
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(ACSM/ALTA) has another set of specifications
for land surveying work. Other
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specifications outline the number of linear measurements that are to be performed.

Under some circumstances, the distance between two points may be determined only on
one line and only in one direction. In other words, reciprocal measurements or
measurements to eccentric points may not necessary. A good rule of thumb to follow is
that any time an angular direction is measured to a prism pole with a total station, a
distance should be measured as well. There is very little extra effort involved in
measuring the extra distance while the redundant measurement can provide a valuable
check for the quality of the survey.
All base and control measurements should be the average of at least three
measurements made in the standard (normal) measurement mode. Measurements made
to set construction control stakes or points of equal importance should also be made in
the standard mode.
Measurements made for topographic surveys, spot elevations, etc., can be made in the
tracking mode. In order for the tracking mode to operate at the speed required, the
instrument rounds off the displayed measurement.
3.7.3 Planning
By the time a project survey is completed from preliminary through the construction
phase, each benchmark will have been used many times to provide the base for vertical
measurement. Proper planning in anticipation of the future uses of vertical control
benchmarks is as essential as that required for the horizontal control. Some
considerations in that plan should be:
A. Location of the primary control (generally on the base traverse monuments).

B. Permanence (outside of anticipated construction limits), and type of
monument set
concrete monuments (permanent).
Iron pins (semi permanent).
wooden hubs (temporary)
C. Accessibility (on the Right of Way or other accessible lands).
D. Spacing (generally at 300 meters (1.000 feet) or less).
E. Visibility.
3.7.4 Methods
Vertical measurements are made directly or indirectly. The choice of the method and its
procedures depend on present and future accuracy requirements and the relative cost.
Considerations in selecting the method and procedures should include:
Classification of controlling benchmarks. (The precision of the survey should

be compatible with the accuracy of the controlling monuments.)
Type of equipment available.
Future survey needs.
3.7.5 Direct Vertical Measurement

This method means "the direct reading of elevations or vertical distances". The two
common types of direct elevation determinations are readings from altimeters and from
direct elevation rods. Tape (or Laser) measurement of a building height or depth of a
mine shaft are also examples of direct measurements.
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Elevations obtained by any of the above direct methods are less accurate and their
application quite limited in highway surveys.
3.7.6 Indirect Vertical Measurement

Indirect vertical measurements require the use of calculations to determine elevations or
vertical distances.
Most vertical measurements made in highway surveys are made by indirect methods,
such as spirit level (differential) and trigonometric leveling. There are numerous
procedural systems used in both methods to achieve various levels of accuracy versus
the expenditure of field and office time. In recent years, vertical measurements are made
by GPS as well. It has been proven that careful GPS leveling can yield accurate elevations
that are comparable with those of differential or trigonometric leveling. GPS leveling will
be discussed in Chapter 4.
Prior to the development of the total station, almost all vertical measurements on
highway projects were made by differential leveling. By strict adherence to distance
limitations and other procedural methods, trigonometric measurements can often be the
best option for making vertical measurements.
3.7.6.1 Accuracy
Tolerances for the various types of control points and other elevation points are a
function of the needs of a given project. The general requirements are cited here for
reference.
A. Base traverse and monumented control points:

Second order Class II misclosure (mm) is 8 x square root of D(D =
shortest length of section in kilometers) or
Maximum loop misclosure (mm) is 8 x square root of E (E = perimeter
of loop in kilometers).
B. Secondary control, such as construction benchmarks, horizontal vertical photo
control hubs, etc.:
Third order misclosure (mm) is 12 x square root of D (D = shortest
length of section in kilometers) or
Maximum loop misclosure of 12 x square root of E (E = perimeter of
loop in kilometers).
Vertical only spot elevations, slope stakes, etc. 0.015 meters (0.05 feet
What is Land Surveying?

Called "Geomatics" in Canada and much of Europe, land surveying is known as the
world's second-oldest profession. It dates back to ancient Egypt and Babylonia.
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and mapping land. While the entire scope of our profession is vast, it all eventually boils
down to determining where people's land boundaries are located. Without this service,
railroads could not be built, skyscrapers could not be erected, and individuals could not
put up fences around their yards, for fear of trespassing on someone else's land. Would
you like an interstate highway to be built in your backyard, one you've paid for,
maintained, and paid taxes on for years, without your permission? Of course, how
would you know it was in your backyard without a surveyor to tell you where your
property even was? We also stake out boundaries of roads to be built, monitor
skyscrapers to make sure they are being erected vertically, and measure airports so that
the runways are perfectly aligned and smooth. So, if you see a guy in the road looking
through an instrument on a tripod, that is a surveyor, now you know that he is doing
more than taking pictures.
What do I do?
I am a Professional Land Surveyor (PLS), licensed in the states of Washington, Oregon,
California, and Colorado. I am also a Certified Water Rights Examiner (CWRE) in
Oregon. I manage survey projects from the office, performing calculations, contract
management, and other office tasks, such as writing legal descriptions, mapping, and
prepare finished products for our clients. I've been surveying full-time since I was 15
years old, and I now work for W&H Pacific, one of the premier multi-disciplinary
engineering and consulting firms in the Western United States.
What is a surveyor?
A surveyor is more than one of those guys you see out in the road.
Surveying is a vital
part of the design and construction process. We perform boundary surveys to tell
people where their property is, map the topography of land for engineering design,
establish elevations of homesites for flood insurance, perform title surveys for real
estate transactions, certify that structures are built according to design, lay out
buildings, subdivisions and other construction projects so the construction companies

can relate the engineering plans to the real world, and build control networks that all
land parcels can relate to in a given area. We also map slopes and areas for pay
volumes or quantities, map river bottoms for dredging, lay out photo control for aerial
photography and photogrammetry, write legal descriptions that are used to describe
pieces of property, map and layout corriors for tunnels, roads, airports, pipelines,
cellular networks and railroads, and split up properties into new lots, such as
subdivisions. Below, I'll give you a brief overview of what the guys you see in the road
are really doing. The photos are a bit out of date, but you'll get the idea.
Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS is a tool we use for precise positioning
of points. It operates through satellites
which send out signals to our receiver (the
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transmits those signals to our data collector

(the thing I'm holding), which stores the
data. After we get it into the office, we
download the data into the computer, and

the computer software resolves from the
data the exact position of our point within a

few millimeters.
Traditional Total Station Surveying

The primary function of the field surveyor is
measuring, mapping, and observing. Our
most important tool for these purposes is

our total station (that's what I'm using in
the top photo). It's given this name
because it incorporates a distance meter for

measuring distances and a theodolite for
measuring angles into one instrument.
The total station measures by sending a

beam of infrared light toward a prism,
usually supported either by a tripod or a
pole (like I'm holding in the center photo).
The light reflects off the prism directly back

to the total station. By measuring the time
it takes for the light to return, the total
station calculates the distance away that the

prism is.
The information that the total station
measures (angles and distances) is recorded

in a data collector (that's what I'm holding
in the bottom photograph) for later
downloading into a computer in the office.

The data collector also doubles as a field
computer, enabling us to calculate
coordinate geometry in the field and figure

out the proper position in which to put our
stakes.
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Leveling & 3-D Surveying

There are different ways we compute
elevations of land. The way I'm doing it in

the picture is called differential leveling.
It's called this because you are calculating

the difference in elevation between two
points on the ground. You basically look at

a ruler held on the ground and see how
high above the ground your level is set up.

Then you look at the same ruler on a
different spot on the ground and see how

high above that spot your level is set up.
This gives you the difference in elevation

between the points.
We also derive elevations with our total
station by using geometry and measuring

the angles and distances, and by Global
Positioning System by intersecting vectors
from satellites in space, but this is often the

easiest way.
Project Management
Our party chiefs are also in charge of
coordinating the job with the office, who
coordinates it with the client. If the site is a

construction site, then they have to
coordinate it with the contractor. They
receive instructions from the contractor or

our office as to what needs done, and
develop a plan on how to accomplish it in

an appropriate time frame. You see our
truck in the picture in Columbia County,
Oregon near Goble (don't tell me you don't

know where that is!)
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

BRICKS
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Brick
An old brick wall in English bond laid with alternating courses of headers and stretchers.
A brick is a block of ceramic material used in masonry construction, laid using mortar.
Methods of Manufacture
Brick making at the beginning of the 20th century.

Bricks may be made from clay, shale, soft slate, calcium silicate, concrete, or shaped
from quarried stone.
Clay is the most common material, with modern clay bricks formed in one of three
processes - soft mud, dry press, or extruded.
In 2007 a new type of brick was invented, based on fly ash, a by-product of coal power
plants.
[edit] Mud bricks

The soft mud method is the most common, as it is the most economical. It starts with the
raw clay, preferably in a mix with 25-30% sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay is first
ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency. The clay is then pressed into
steel moulds with a hydraulic press. The shaped clay is then fired ("burned") at 900-1000
C to achieve strength.
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[edit] Rail kilns
Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo in the former Transkei in 2007.

In modern brickworks, this is usually done in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which the
bricks move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars to achieve
consistency for all bricks. The bricks often have added lime, ash, and organic matter to
speed the burning.
[edit] Bull's Trench Kilns

In Pakistan and India, brick making is typically a manual process. The most common type
of brick kiln in use there are Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by
British engineer W. Bull in the late nineteenth century.
An oval or circular trench, 6-9 meters wide, 2-2.5 meters deep, and 100-150 meters in
circumference, is dug in a suitable location. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the
center. Half or more of the trench is filled with "green" (unfired) bricks which are stacked
in an open lattice pattern to allow airflow. The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of
finished brick.
In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the
brick pile; cooled finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport. In the
middle the brickworkers create a firing zone by dropping fuel (coal, [wood], oil, debris,
etc) through access holes in the roof above the trench
Stones
Traditional Dry-Stack Stone Walls: Stone masonry originated with dry-stacked stonework
where the walls are carefully layed up without mortar. Gravity serves as the glue that holds
everything together. Free-standing dry-stack stone walls are usually made larger at the base and
then taper in slowly as the height increases. For absolutely no expense but the labor, farmers
built miles upon miles of stone fences this way in Ireland and in the northeastern states.
Many old Irish houses were built in a similar way. Where "mortar" was used, it was often
merely mud or limestone plasters with little strength. The mortar functioned as caulking to stop
the flow of air, rather than as cement to bond the stones together. Short, dry-stacked stone walls
are especially ideal for landscaping projects. Taller walls require more skill and time. For more
details on dry-stack stone walls, be sure to check out Building Stone Walls and Stonework:
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Traditional Mortared Stone Walls: Mortared stone walls evolved out of dry-stack stone work
with the emergence of cement mortars. The first cements were made of burnt gypsum or lime
mixed with water to make a paste with slight bonding capability. Stone walls still had to be built as
carefully as they were without mortar. The cement paste just filled the gaps between the stones
and cured to form a soft, rock-like substance.
The basic formula for modern cement originated in England in 1824. It is called "Portland
cement" because the color is similar to the rocks on the English island of Portland. It is still called
Portland cement everywhere in the world it is manufactured. This cement is made with calcium
from limestone or chalk, plus alumina and silica from clay and shale. The ingredients are ground,
mixed in the right porportions and burnt in a kiln at a temperature of about 2500 degrees F
(1350C) to drive out water bound up in the raw materials. In the kiln it fuses into chunks called
clinker. It is cooled and powdered, and gypsum is added to control how fast it sets up. Portland
cement is mixed with sand and water, and often lime to make a smooth mortar for stone and brick
work. Adding the lime makes the mortar softer and more flexible.
With the aid of Portland cement it is possible to build a taller stone wall that does not taper
inward like a dry-stacked wall. The cement has some ability to "glue" a stone wall together with
less care, but proper stoneworking techiques are still important. Building a free-standing stone
wall is a true art and requires a lot of time and skill to do it well. For more details on traditional
mortared stone walls, be sure to check out Building with Stone.
Veneered Stone Walls: Most stonework today consists of a non-structural veneer of stone
against a structural wall of concrete or cinderblock. Concrete consists of Portland cement mixed
with sand, gravel and water. The larger particles of gravel interlock like little fingers to make the
concrete resistant to cracking. Steel reinforcing bar can be added to serve as much longer
"fingers" to make a wall that is very resistant to cracking. Concrete is a fast and relatively
inexpensive way to put up a structural wall, so few people take the time for labor intensive
traditional mortared stone walls any more.
Instead, the structural wall is put up first, and thin, flat stones are essentially glued onto the
face of the wall with cement mortar. Metal tabs in the structural wall are mortared in between the
stones to tie everything together, otherwise the stonework would just peel right off the wall. The
structural wall serves as a form on one side of the wall to make it really easy to lay up the
stonework, provided the rocks have good flat edges to
work with.
Slipform Stone Walls: A slipformed wall might be
described as a cross between traditional mortared
stone wall and a veneered stone wall. This is the
method of stone masonry we have used the most.
Short forms, up to two feet tall, are placed on both
sides of the wall to serve as a guide for the stone work.
You place stones inside the forms with the good faces
against the form work and pour
concrete in behind the rocks. Rebar
is added for strength, to make a wall
that is approximately half concrete
and rebar and half stonework. The wall can be faced with stone on one side or
both sides. With slipforms it is easy even for the novice to build free-standing
stone walls.
Tom's article The Art of Slipforming was featured in the December
1997/January 1998 issue of The Mother Earth News magazine. We received
more than 150 letters from people enthusiastic to learn slipform masonry firsthand. Those who are familiar with the slip-forming process wrote to tell us the article was a
significant advancement over the available literature on the subject. That article and much more
are included in my book Living Homes: Integrated Design & Construction.
Framed-One Side Stone Walls: If you build a slipform stone building with stone on the
outside and framed walls on the inside, then
you eventually have to come to the conclusion that it
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the formwork done, plus a straight and plumb guide to work from for doing your stonework. This is
exactly the method used by Charles Long , featured in The Stone Builder's Primer. Long
doesn't use slipforms at all, but simply does traditional mortared stone masonry with the benefit of
a frame wall to serve as a form on the back. This method works exceptionally well when the rocks
are squared and brick-like, but for rounded stones the novice would need forms to aid in the
process.
Cements
In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance which sets and
hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces
to the Romans, who used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry which
resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The
volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives which were added to the burnt lime to obtain
a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment and cement.
Cements used in construction are characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic.
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete - the bonding
of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is durable in
the face of normal environmental effects.
Cement should not be confused with concrete as the term cement explicitly refers to the
dry powder substance. Upon the addition of water and/or additives the cement mixture is
referred to as concrete, especially if aggregates have been added.
Chemical Composition of Portland Cement

Module by: Andrew R. Barron
Summary: Chemical composition of Portland cement.
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There are four chief minerals present in a Portland cement grain: tricalcium silicate
(Ca3SiO5), dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4), tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6) and calcium
aluminoferrite (Ca4AlnFe2nO7). The formula of each of these minerals can be broken
down into the basic calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron oxides (Table 1). Cement
chemists use abbreviated nomenclature based on oxides of various elements to indicate
chemical formulae of relevant species, i.e., Ca=CaO, S=SiO2, A=Al2O3, and F=Fe2O3.
Hence, traditional cement nomenclature abbreviates each oxide as shown in Table 1.
Chemical formulae and cement nomenclature for major constituents of Portland
cement.
Mineral
Chemical Formula Oxide Composition Abbreviation
Tricalcium silicate (alite)
Ca3SiO5
3CaO.SiO2
C3S
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Dicalcium silicateA(belite)
Ca SiO4
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Tricalcium aluminate
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
Ca3Al2O6
Ca4AlnFe2nO7
3CaO.Al2O3
4CaO.AlnFe2nO3
C3A
C4AF
Abbreviation notation: C=CaO, S=SiO2, A=Al2O3, F=Fe2O3

The composition of cement is varied depending on the application. A typical example of
cement contains 5070% C3S, 1530% C2S, 510% C3A, 515% C4AF, and 38%
other additives or minerals (such as oxides of calcium and magnesium). It is the
hydration of the calcium silicate, aluminate, and aluminoferrite minerals that causes the
hardening, or setting, of cement. The ratio of C3S to C2S helps to determine how fast the
cement will set, with faster setting occurring with higher C3S contents. Lower C3A
content promotes resistance to sulfates. Higher amounts of ferrite lead to slower
hydration. The ferrite phase causes the brownish gray color in cements, so that white
cements (i.e., those that are low in C4AF) are often used for aesthetic purposes.
The calcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) forms a continuous phase around the other mineral
crystallites, as the iron containing species act as a fluxing agent in the rotary kiln during
cement production and are the last to solidify around the others. Figure 1 shows a typical
cement grain.
A Cement Grain
Figure 1: A pictorial representation of a cross-section

of a cement grain. Adapted from Cement Microscopy,
Halliburton Services, Duncan, OK.
It is worth noting that a given cement grain will not have the same size or even
necessarily contain all the same minerals as the next grain. The heterogeneity exists not
only within a given particle, but extends from grain to grain, batch-to-batch, plant to
plant.
Concrete
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about the construction material.
For other uses, see Concrete
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1930s vibrated concrete, manufactured in Croydon and installed by the LMS railway
after an art deco refurbishment in Meols.
concrete plant facility (background) with concrete delivery trucks

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as
well as other cementitious materials such
as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate
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such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures. The word concrete comes from the Latin
word "concretus", which means "hardened" or "hard".
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical
process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other
components together, eventually creating a stone-like material. Concrete is used to make
pavements, architectural structures, foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses,
parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for gates
edit] Composition
A shovel being used to mix cement with sand.

There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the
main ingredients below.
The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete will be
mixed and delivered, and how it will be placed to form this structure.
[edit] Cement
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar, and plaster. English engineer Joseph Aspdin patented
Portland cement in 1824; it was named because of its similarity in colour to Portland
limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London
architecture. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland
cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with
clay, and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly
gypsum).
[edit] Water
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of
hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and allows
it to flow more easily.
Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water
will give an easier-flowing concrete with a higher slump.[4]
Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems, when setting, or in causing
premature failure of the structure.
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the
reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together
the individual sand and gravel particles, and other components of the concrete, to form a
solid mass.
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Reaction
Cement Chemist Notation: C3S + H2O ------> CSH(gel) + CaOH
Standard Notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O ------> (CaO)(SiO2)(H2O)(gel) +
Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O ------> 3(CaO)2(SiO2)4(H2O)(gel) +
3Ca(OH)2
[edit] Aggregates
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel
and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from
construction, demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial
replacements of natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates,
including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular
among landscape designers.
[edit] Reinforcement
Installing rebar in a floor slab during a concrete pour

Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression
load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding
either metal reinforcing bars, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.
Structural steel

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please
improve this article if you can. (January 2008)
Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape or
cross section and certain standards of chemical composition and strength. Structural steel
shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc, is regulated in most industrialized
countries.
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Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which
allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area.
A steel I-beam, in this case used to support wood beams in a house.
Structural steel in construction: A primed steel beam is holding up the floor above,
which consists of a metal deck (Q-Deck), upon which a concrete slab has been poured.
Steel beam through-penetration with incomplete fireproofing.
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Metal deck and OWSJ (Open Web Steel Joist), receiving first coat of spray fireproofing
plaster, made of polystyrene leavened gypsum.
[edit] Common structural shapes

In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published standards,
although a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available.
I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams (UB)

and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD and
other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF) and H sections)
Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)
HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow
section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross
sections)
Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
Channel (C-shaped cross-section)
Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
o Railway rail
o Vignoles rail
o Flanged T rail
o Grooved rail
Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide
so as to be called a sheet.
Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and dowel.
Plate, sheet metal thicker than 6 mm or 1/4 in.
Open web steel joist
UNIT II
BUILDING COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURES
Foundation (engineering)
Shallow foundations of a house versus the deep foundations of a Skyscraper.

A foundation is a structure that transfers loads to the earth. Foundations are generally
broken into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations.
[edit] Shallow foundations

Main article: Shallow foundation
Shallow foundations are usually embedded a meter, a foot, or an inch or so into soil. One
common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of concrete (or other
materials) which extend below the frost
line and transfer the weight from walls and
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south foundation where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a
concrete slab placed at the surface.
[edit] Deep foundations

Main article: Deep foundation
Deep foundations are used to transfer a load from a structure through an upper weak
layer of soil to a stronger deeper layer of soil. There are different types of deep
foundations including helical piles, impact driven piles, drilled shafts, caissons, piers, and
earth stabilized columns. The naming conventions for different types of foundations vary
between different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced
concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete. Sometimes these foundations penetrate.
[edit] Earthquake-protective foundations

Main article: Base isolation
Earthquake-protective foundation, also known as seismic or base isolation system, is a
collection of structural elements which should substantially decouple a superstructure
from its substructure resting on a shaking ground thus protecting a building or nonbuilding structure's integrity. It is believed to be the most powerful tool of the earthquake
engineering pertaining to the passive structural vibration control
BRICK MASONRY LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
Upon completing this section, you should be able to explain the elements of brick masonry. Brick masonry
is construction in which uniform units (bricks), small enough to be placed with one hand, are laid in
courses with mortar joints to form walls. Bricks are kiln baked from various clay and shale mixtures.
The chemical and physical characteristics of the ingredients vary considerably. These characteristics
and the kiln temperatures combine to produce brick in a variety of colors and harnesses. In some
regions, individual pits yield clay or shale which, when ground and moistened, can be formed and baked
into durable brick. In other regions, clay or shale from several pits must be mixed. BRICK
TERMINOLOGY Standard U.S. bricks are 2 1/4-by-3 3/4-by-8 inches nominal size. They may have
three core holes or ten core holes. Modular U.S. bricks are 2 1/4-by-3 5/8-by-7 5/8 inches nominal size.
They usually have three core holes. English bricks are 3-by-4 1/2-by-9 inches; Roman bricks are 1
1/2-by-4-by-12 inches; and Norman bricks are 2 3/4-by-4-by-12 inches nominal size. Actual brick
dimensions are smaller, usually by an amount equal to a mortar joint width. Bricks weigh from 100 to
150 pounds per cubic foot, depending on the ingredients and duration of firing. Fired brick is heavier than
under-burned brick. The six surfaces of a brick are called cull, beds, side, end, and face, as shown in figure
8-30. Occasionally you will have to cut brick into various shapes to fill in spaces at corners and other
locations where a full brick does not fit. Figure 8-31 shows the more common cut shapes: half or bat,
three-quarter closure, quarter closure, king closure, queen closure, and split. TYPES OF BRICKS Brick
masonry units may be solid, hollow, or architectural terra cotta. All types can serve a structural
function, a decorative function, or a combination of both. The various types differ in their formation
and composition. Building brick, also called common, hard, or kiln-run brick, is made from ordinary
clay or shale and is fired in kilns. These bricks have no special shoring, markings, surface texture, or
color. Because building bricks are generally used as the backing courses in either solid or cavity brick
walls, the harder and more durable types are preferred. Face brick is better quality and has better
durability and appearance than building brick. Because of this, face bricks are used in exposed wall
faces. The most common face brick colors are various shades of brown, red, gray, yellow, and white.
Clinker brick is over burned in the kiln. Clinker bricks are usually rough, hard, durable, and sometimes
irregular in shape. Pressed brick is made by a dry-press process rather than by kiln firing. Pressed
bricks have regular smooth faces, sharp edges, and perfectly square corners. Ordinarily, they are
used like face brick. Glazed brick has one surface coated with a white or colored ceramic glazing. The
glazing forms when mineral ingredients fuse together in a glass like coating during burning. Glazed
bricks are particularly Figure 8-31.-Common cut brick shapes. 8-25
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Stonemasonry
Stonemasonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical
shapes, mostly simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the
resulting stones, often together with mortar, to form structures.
Quarrymen split the rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from the
ground.
Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cubes, to required size with diamond-tipped
saws.
Banker masons are workshop based, and specialize in carving stones into
intricate geometrical shapes required by a building's design. They can produce
anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed
mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working
a stone from a sawn block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right
way, so the finished work sits in the building in the same orientation as it was
formed on the ground. The basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason
has existed as a trade for thousands of years.
Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their artistic ability to carve stone
into foliage, figures, animals or abstract designs.
Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting
tackle, and traditional lime mortars and grouts, sometimes modern cements,
mastics and epoxy resins are used usually on specialist applications such as stone
cladding, metal fixings from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single
application fixings are also used. The precise tolerances necessary make this a
highly skilled job.
Memorial masons carve gravestones and inscriptions.
The modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in
the working environment, hands on skill is complimented by intimate knowledge of each
stone type, its application and best uses, and how to work and fix each stone in place, he
may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the various branches of
stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards
adaptability.
Beams and columns

Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Beams :
1. The crack patterns observed for reinforced geopolymer concrete beams were similar to
those reported in the literature for reinforced Portland cement concrete beams. All beams
failed in flex in a ductile manner accompanied by crushing of the concrete in the
compression zone.
2 As expected, the cracking moment increased as the concrete compressive strength
increased.
3. As expected, the flexural capacity of the beams was influenced by the longitudinal
tensile reinforcement ratio and the concrete compressive strength.
4. The ductility of reinforced geopolymer concrete beams, as indicated by the ratio of
mid-span deflection at ultimate moment-to-mid-span deflection at yield moment,
increased as the tensile reinforcement ratio decreased.
5. The flexural capacity of test beams were calculated using the flexural design provisions
contained in the draft AS3600 (2005). Good correlation is found between the test and
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calculated using the serviceability provisions of draft AS3600 (2005). Good correlation
between test and calculated values is found.
7. The study demonstrated that the design provisions contained in the draft Australian
Standard for Concrete Structures AS3600 (2005) are applicable to reinforced geopolymer
concrete beams.
Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Columns :
1. The crack patterns and failure modes observed for geopolymer concrete columns were
similar to those reported in the literature for reinforced Portland cement concrete
columns.
2. As expected, the capacity of test columns was influenced by the longitudinal
reinforcement ratio, concrete compressive strength, and the load-eccentricity.
3. The mid-height deflection of test columns decreased as the load-eccentricity
decreased. The behaviour of geopolymer test columns was similar to that of reinforced
Portland cement columns reported in the literature.
4. The load capacity of test columns were calculated using a simplified stability analysis
proposed by Rangan (1990) for reinforced Portland cement concrete columns, and the
design provisions contained in Section 10.4 of AS3600 and Rule 10.12 of ACI318-02.
Good correlation between test and calculated failure loads is found.
5. The study demonstrated that the design provisions contained in the Australian
Standard for Concrete Structures AS3600 and the American Concrete Institute Building
Code ACI318-02 are applicable to reinforced geopolymer concrete columns.
Steel Lintel Bearing on Masonry

Dave,
Most of what I have to say about lintels is pretty basic, but, for what it's worth:
1. For CMU, the beams need to be in multiples of 8 inches. I suppose you could make a 12 inch
beam work with a half height (4 inch) course, but it's usually not worth it. (Like I said, pretty
basic.)
2. For openings of maybe 8 feet or less, we usually have a choice between CMU bond beam and
steel beam with plate. The bond beam is fireproof and rustproof, but you can look up and know
the steel beam has been placed. We've also had problems with masons substituting block with
knockout tabs for the typical U-shaped bond beam block. The reinforcing ends up in the middle
of the block instead of at the bottom. Our Structural Notes now forbid this for lintels, although we
permit the knockout block for continuity bondbeams (e.g. at the top of a wall). "Forbid" is a
relative term, of course; it assumes someone reads the notes, and then follows them.
3. Any time we have brick to support over more than about 4 feet, we use an HSS section with
an eccentric plate. For 4 feet or less, we usually end up talking ourselves into a galvanized angle
for the brick. I'm not aware of any problems with this, but I won't claim it's the greatest because
we usually end up bearing it on the brick. I'll wait for the flamers to nail me for this. The bigger
openings, or unusual brick overhangs (e.g. fancy corbeled cornices) cause concern for
overturning of the beam at the reactions. We bury a steel column in the wall rather than try to
carry this into the CMU.
4. We try very hard to hold deflection to less than L/600. This helps a host of problems, edgebearing overstress being high on the list.
5. We don't assume arching of the carried masonry. Too many times, the architects have thrown
an extra door or window in at the end of a wall, believing our details will still work and invalidating
the arching assumptions.
6. As previous posters have said, lateral loads are an issue. An HSS usually performs a lot
better than a wideflange. A related issue is unbraced length; we consider the beam unbraced. If
the lintel is carrying an interior wall, unbraced
length may matter more than the nominal lateral
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load required by code. If you have something to dump lateral load into, of course, it can also
brace your beam.
7. For spans longer than about 8 feet, we deal in steel or reinforced concrete beams. A few
years back, one of my supervisors, now retired, put a concrete beam over a sixteen foot opening
in an otherwise steel framed building. The contractor went nuts, because he had to bring a trade
back for just one item. On the other hand, the concrete beam has the same advantages listed
above for the CMU bond beam: it doesn't need fireproofing and it won't rust if exposed.
8. You mentioned openings up to 30 feet. This, in my experience, is pretty big. Any span close
to this will require columns at the ends of a large steel beam. You still need to try hold deflection
down to L/600.
9. Some engineers weld rebar dowels on top of their lintel beams. I've never decided whether
this is worthwhile or not. I suppose it is if the wall above takes lateral load, and the beam has to
resist it (as opposed to dumping it into a floor slab). It does make shipping difficult.
10. Our bearing plates are usually just a continuation of the 5/16 inch plate shelf, primarily
because it's simple. This has the disadvantage of potentially causing stress concentration at the
edge of the opening. It hasn't proven a problem for us, primarily because of the stiffness we
design into our beams and the use of columns for longer spans.
This is all I can think of in one sitting (...and 15,000 engineers breathe a collective sigh of relief...),
and I really haven't addressed your question. No, we don't get too excited about therrmal
expansion gradients. We're more concerned with holding the lintel in place.
A Few Common Roof Types

Here is a standard hip roof on a rectangular plan. The four faces of the roof are almost always at
the same pitch, which makes them symmetrical about the center line
.
Roof basics - A hip roof with overhanging

eaves.
Hip roofs usually have a consistent level fascia, meaning that a gutter can be fitted all around.
The overhang of the roof at the wall is called the eaves. So we could typically say "the eaves are
900", meaning that the overhang of the roof at the eaves is 900.
If you are going to line your eaves, (cover them in, not leave the rafters showing) it is important to
get the fascia parallel to the wall and the rafters cut off to the right size for whatever eaves lining
material you use.
The eaves of a roof perform valuable functions apart from the looks. They protect the walls from
the weather. From the rain and hence less maintenance, and importantly for us In Australia, from
the sun. Wide eaves help to keep the walls shaded and cool, reducing power use. We have a
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building code that tells us we have to shade our windows in new construction, under certain
conditions, to comply with energy efficiency needs. Eaves often do just that.
Basics of plastering the wall with mud.

Clay is essential for stickiness. Do a shake test by placing your sifted earth in a jar of
water with salt added and shaking it thoroughly. When it settles, the clay will be the top
layer, the silt is in the middle, and the heavier particles of sand will have sunk to the
bottom. Plaster dirt should be at least 20% clay. Even at this percentage, you may wish
to add manure or flour paste to make it stickier.
When plastering straw bales, I find it easiest to first spread a thin layer of mud with a
high clay content and no additional sand or straw on the bales, to lock into the straw and
provide a surface upon which the next layer can adhere. If you use this technique on
tight bales, you can avoid using stucco netting. Even when chicken wire or lath are used,
the smooth mud will penetrate the metal and leave no air spaces to cause future cracks.
You don't have to wait for this to dry before applying the thicker layer of plaster with
straw added.
On rough cob or adobe and for the next layer on straw bales, I like to use a plaster with
high clay content and lots of straw mixed to a slippery, easily spreadable consistency.
This can be applied with the hands to a dampened wall and is very good for filling in
depressions. (It gets rid of your own depression too because it feels so good to sling that
mud around.) The condition of your walls and how much shaping they need will
determine whether to use long straw, chopped straw or a combination. The thicker the
layer needs to be, the more long straw it should have. Don't trowel this layer down
smooth, but get it as flat as you can with your hands and let it dry out thoroughly. It will
make lots of little cracks and provide a perfect surface for the next layer to adhere to.
Always try out an earth plaster you are not familiar with by making a test patch of several
square feet. Clays differ in their shrinkage rates and if it cracks too much, you need to
add sand and more straw. I've seen some plasters dry into the sort of cracks you find on
the bottom of a dry lake bed, and fall off the wall. This happens more often to a trowelled
surface because there is less surface area to release moisture than if it's left rough.
Design of a truss bridge

The nature of a truss allows for the analysis of the structure using a few assumptions and
the application of Newton's laws of motion according to branch of physics known as
statics. For purposes of analysis, truss are assumed to be pin jointed where the straight
components meet. This assumption means that members of the truss (chords, verticals
and diagonals) will only act in tension or compression. A more complex analysis is
required where rigid joints impose significant bending loads upon the elements, as in a
Vierendeel truss.
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Warren-type through truss bridge of the former Seaboard Air Line Railway, located near
the village of Willow, Florida. Abandoned since the mid-1980s.
27398.08N 822024.58W
In the bridge illustrated in the infobox at the top, vertical members are in tension, lower
horizontal members in tension, shear, and bending, outer diagonal and top members are
in compression, while the inner diagonals are in tension. The central vertical member
stabilizes the upper compression member, preventing it from buckling. If the top member
is sufficiently stiff then this vertical element may be eliminated. If the lower chord (a
horizontal member of a truss) is sufficiently resistant to bending and shear, the outer
vertical elements may be eliminated, but with additional strength added to other
members in compensation. The ability to distribute the forces in various ways has led to a
large variety of truss bridge types. Some types may be more advantageous when wood is
employed for compression elements while other types may be easier to erect in particular
site conditions, or when the balance between labor, machinery and material costs have
certain favorable proportions.
Bridges/Dams
Econo Dams portable dams assisted with this BRIDGE REPAIR at the
Middlefork River in Queens, West Virginia. 150 linear feet of 5 foot high water
filled barriers were installed in 4 hours.
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Econo Dams water filled barriers can be installed in a canal block formation
during BRIDGE PROJECTS that are in narrow streams, because the system
only requires one installation and removal. A diversion pipe can be utilized to
maintain appropriate upstream water levels.
Types of dams
Karun-3 dam, Iran.

Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of
wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size
(height), intended purpose or structure.
[edit] By size
International standards define large dams as higher than 15-20 meters and major dams
as over 150-250 meters in height.[11]
The tallest dam in the world is the 300 meter high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.[12]
[edit] By purpose
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Intended purposes include providing water
for irrigation to town or city water supply,
improving navigation, creating a reservoir of water to supply industrial uses, generating
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hydroelectric power, creating recreation areas or habitat for fish and wildlife, retaining
wet season flow to minimise downstream flood risk and containing effluent from industrial
sites such as mines or factories. Few dams serve all of these purposes but some multipurpose dams serve more than one.
A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a
primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent
of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or
saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is
contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes
are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a
levee, which is a wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent
land from flooding.
An overflow dam is designed to be over topped. A weir is a type of small overflow dam
that are often used within a river channel to create an impoundment lake for water
abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement.
A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion.
Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a
faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.
A dry dam is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and
allows the channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would
otherwise cause flooding downstream.
A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river
from its natural course.
[edit] By structure
Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as timber dams, arch-gravity
dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.
[edit] Masonry dams

[edit] Arch dams
Gordon Dam, Tasmania is an arch dam.

Main article: Arch dam
See also: Geotechnical engineering
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In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the
upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation
by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical
cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the dam in a vertical and
horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more
complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the
arch action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above.
For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the basterds abutments (either buttress or
canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a
narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock.[13] The safety of an arch
dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the
arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be
carefully inspected.
Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle and the constantradius dam. The constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all elevations of
the dam, which means that as the channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the
dam the central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls
Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a
variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a constant and the variation in distance
between the abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying the radii. Constantradius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a
constant-angle arch dam.
A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain
City, Nevada in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction
minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to
the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a
distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens
as viewed from downstream.
The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses
as the supporting abutments. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses
as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads
are heavy.
[edit] Gravity dams
The Gilboa Dam in the Catskill Mountains of New York State is an example of a "solid"
gravity dam.
In a gravity dam, stability is secured by making it of such a size and shape that it will
resist overturning, sliding and crushing at the toe. The dam will not overturn provided
that the moment around the turning point, caused by the water pressure is smaller than
the moment caused by the weight of the dam. This is the case if the resultant force of
water pressure and weight falls within the base of the dam. However, in order to prevent
tensile stress at the upstream face and excessive compressive stress at the downstream
face, the dam cross section is usually designed so that the resultant falls within the
middle at all elevations of the cross section (the core). For this type of dam, impervious
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When situated on a suitable site, a gravity dam inspires more confidence in the layman
than any other type; it has mass that lends an atmosphere of permanence, stability, and
safety. When built on a carefully studied foundation with stresses calculated from
completely evaluated loads, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed
example of the art of dam building. This is significant because the fear of flood is a strong
motivator in many regions, and has resulted in gravity dams being built in some
instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.
Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow." The solid form is the more widely used
of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Gravity
dams can also be classified as "overflow" (spillway) and "non-overflow." Grand Coulee
Dam is a solid gravity dam and Itaipu Dam is a hollow gravity dam. A gravity dam can be
combined with an arch dam, an arch-gravity dam, for areas with massive amounts of
water flow but less material available for a purely gravity dam.
[edit] Embankment dams
The San Luis Dam near Los Banos, California is an embankment dam.
Main article: Embankment dam
Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill
and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of
water, like the gravity dams made from concrete.
[edit] Rock-fill dams

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an
impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a large percentage of large particles
hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of
masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The
impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a
core. In the instances where clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is
referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of clay into the rock fill due
to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil
designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at
hand, transportation is minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill
dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control
during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can
lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be
reduced by keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate
compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in
California.
[edit] Earth-fill dams

Main article: Embankment dam
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Earth-fill dams, also called earthen, rolled-earth or simply earth dams, are constructed as
a simple embankment of well compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is
entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep
water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a
locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments
employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity
of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction
utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ
a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of
temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes is the frozen-core dam, in which
a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region of
permafrost within it.
Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they
can be very cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete
would be prohibitive.
[edit] Asphalt-Concrete Core

A third type of embankment dam is built with asphalt concrete core. The majority of such
dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this
design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962.
All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The
type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plastic material that can adjust to the movements
and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the
foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt make such dams especially suited in
earthquake regions.
[edit] Cofferdams
A cofferdam during the construction of locks at the Montgomery Point Lock and Dam.
Main article: Cofferdam
A cofferdam is a (usually temporary) barrier constructed to exclude water from an area
that is normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet piling,
cofferdams are used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges,
and similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam may be demolished
or removed. See also causeway and retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include
construction and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is
fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped into the
space, displacing the water allowing a dry work environment below the surface. Upon
completion the cofferdam is usually deconstructed unless the area requires continuous
maintenance.
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[edit] Timber dams
A timber crib dam in Michigan, photographed in 1978.

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial revolution and in frontier
areas due to ease and speed of construction. Rarely built in modern times by humans due
to relatively short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber dams
must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water retention properties and
limit deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most
economical to build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to
transport, and either a low head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue.
Timber dams were once numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have
failed, been hidden under earth embankments or been replaced with entirely new
structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.
Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log
house and the interior filled with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the
dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help
float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction
methods utilizing heavy timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.
Very few timber dams are still in use. Timber, in the form of sticks, branches and withes,
is the basic material used by beavers, often with the addition of mud or stones.
[edit] Steel dams

Main article: Steel dam
Red Ridge steel dam, b. 1905, Michigan.

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around the turn of the 19th20th Century which uses steel plating (at an angle) and load bearing beams as the
structure. Intended as permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed)
experiment to determine if a construction technique could be devised that was cheaper
than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.
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Design Basics
When it comes to interior design, many of us know what like but are
unsure how to pull it all together. Though there are no concrete set of
rules that define all interior design possibilities, following a few
guidelines can help focus your project and planning to create a more
harmonious design. While learning the "rules" of interior design, always
keep in mind that your home should reflect your lifestyle and tastes.
Defining Style
Creating a Floorplan
Planning and Layout
Designing with Color
Designing with Texture and Patterns
Style
Before starting your interior design project, take time to discover your personal
decorating style. To help find your style, visit our design idea center where you can find
sources of inspiration and learn about numerous design styles including Tuscan, Asian
and Contemporary. Be sure to consider your taste in collectable and accessories.
If you do not wish to use an existing style, make your own by selecting a theme and/or
a simple color scheme to create a look that reflects your personality and interests. Begin
with a signature piece such as a favorite piece of artwork, rug, draperies, lamp or
upholstered item to focus your decorating decisions. Pull your color pallet that item and
use it to set the mood for the room. Read Design in Color for more information on
selecting a color scheme.
Once you have decided on a style, define it in writing. Use specifics such as Tuscan
design with wrought iron accents and the colors black, olive, and violet. Then, commit to
making the room either formal or casual. This will help put you on a definite decorating
path.
When you begin decorating, use contrasts in color, patterns, texture, and sizes to create
interest in a room and repetition of colors, patterns, textures, and motifs to create
rhythm. To create a feeling of unity between rooms, repeat colors, patterns and motifs
in varying combinations throughout your home.
Creating a Floorplan
Defining your space is crucial for creating a harmonious environment. It is also
important to know your space limitations before you begin moving and placing furniture.
The foundation of a comprehensive interior design plan includes accurate dimensions of
your living space.
Learn more about creating a floorplan
Planning and Layout

Before deciding on furnishings and planning the layout, consider the uses and function of
a room and identify the room's primary focal point. Focal points can be a fireplace, a
view, a piece of art, an architectural element, or an interesting piece of furniture. Once
these have been determined, use a floorplan to construct the layout of the room.
Proper layout creates a feeling of balance
in a room. Layouts for formal rooms consist
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arrangements
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balance. Symmetrical balance is created by arranging objects as though they were a

mirror image, such as placing matching end-tables and lamps on each end of a couch.
Asymmetrical balance is created by balancing unlike objects of equal visual weight and
scale such as using mismatched end-tables and topping one with a lamp and the other
with a floral arrangement.
When decorating a room, pay attention to scale - how an items size relates to the room
overall, and proportion - how items in a room related to each other. An example of
improper scale would be to use an overstuffed couch in a small sitting room. An example
of improper proportion would be to place a delicate side table next to the overstuffed
couch.
When devising a rooms' layout, keep the rooms' natural pathways open. To maintain
overall balance, place large heavy pieces of furniture around the room, not grouped
together on one side. For open floor plans, define smaller spaces with furniture
groupings anchored by area rugs.
Learn more about planning and layout
Designing with Color

If you feel helpless when it comes to picking and blending colors, your answer could be
as far away as your nearest pillow. Here is a quick way to create a color scheme for your
home with PICK - SEE -LMD.
Learn more about designing with color
Designing With Textures and Patterns

You can use patterns and textures to add spark and character to an otherwise plain color
scheme. Begin by collecting samples of patterns and textures that appeal to you and
work well with your overall plan. Though the number of styles and combinations
available may seem limitless and overwhelming, following these simple tips can help you
make knowledgeable selections to create dramatic arrangements and enhance any
room.
Learn more about designing
LANDSCAPING
For a gardener who is taking on some landscaping it is important for them to understand
the basics of landscaping. There are certain elements of good landscape design. Knowing
these elements is a part of creating landscaping that works. Landscaping basics are quite
simple to understand and most will come naturally. The following list outlines these basic
elements.
Unity - The idea of unity means that everything works together. It applied to colors,
shapes, heights and every other aspect of the design. Using consistency and repetition is
a great way to ensure unity.
Simplicity - Simplicity does not have to mean the design is limited. It means the design
should be limited in different color shades, types of plants and also keeping the design
looking clean. An overwhelming design is confusing to the eye. This is especially true if
working with a large area. Having too pdfMachine
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Balance - Balance is simply keeping the design proportions equal throughout. One side
should not be full and the other scarce. Balance includes colors and heights, in addition to
the overall look of the landscaping.
Focalization - This simply means the design should have some central element that
catches the eye. Some landscapers use a special tree or bush, while others use things
like fountains and statues. In a large scale landscaping design the focal point may be a
garden.
These four elements are the basic keys to landscaping design. It doesnt matter if it is a
small garden or huge yard, these elements apply in every landscaping situation.
Ultimately, though, the beauty of a landscaping design is in the eye of its creator. What is
beautiful to one may not be to another. However, the having a knowledge of the basic
elements of landscaping can help a beginner develop a landscaping plan easier and give
them a starting point to use.
Jeanette Pollock is a freelance author and website owner. She publishes articles and
reports in various ezines and also contributes on a regular basis to
FreeNetPublishing.com.
Everyday we hear about the problems the world faces. War, famine, diseaseand the list doesn't
end there. Every year, roughly 13 millions hectares (ha) of land is deforested, mainly through
conversion for other uses, like parking lots and roads [source: WWF]. How will Earth function if
we deprive it of its natural state of being and its ever important ecosystems? And what can we do
about it now?
Well, the answer just may be to rebuild the world from the ground up. And even the smallest
contribution can make a positive impact.
Essentially, that's the idea behind landscape restoration, sometimes referred to as forest
landscape restoration. As far as the big picture is concerned, landscape restoration is defined
as a planned process that aims to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in
deforested or degraded forest landscapes. The idea isn't just to plant new trees, but to rebuild
successful complete ecosystems within large-scale areas, not just small individual sites.
Restoration aims to improve water quality, re-habituate species to their original homes and
stabilize healthier soil (and in turn healthier vegetation).
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B MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNIT III POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
Hydropower Plants
Worldwide, hydropower plants produce about 24 percent of the world's electricity and supply
more than 1 billion people with power. The world's hydropower plants output a combined total of
675,000 megawatts, the energy equivalent of 3.6 billion barrels of oil, according to the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. There are more than 2,000 hydropower plants operating in the
United States, making hydropower the country's largest renewable energy source.
In this article, we'll take a look at how falling water creates energy and learn about the hydrologic
cycle that creates the water flow essential for hydropower. You will also get a glimpse at one
unique application of hydropower that may affect your daily life.
When watching a river roll by, it's hard to imagine the force it's carrying. If you have ever been
white-water rafting, then you've felt a small part of the river's power. White-water rapids are
created as a river, carrying a large amount of water downhill, bottlenecks through a narrow
passageway. As the river is forced through this opening, its flow quickens. Floods are another
example of how much force a tremendous volume of water can have.
Hydropower plants harness water's energy and use simple mechanics to convert that energy into
electricity. Hydropower plants are actually based on a rather simple concept -- water flowing
through a dam turns a turbine, which turns a generator.
Here are the basic components of a conventional hydropower plant:
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Dam - Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back water, creating a large
reservoir. Often, this reservoir is used as a recreational lake, such as Lake Roosevelt
at the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State.
Intake - Gates on the dam open and gravity pulls the water through the penstock, a pipeline
that leads to the turbine. Water builds up pressure as it flows through this pipe.
Turbine - The water strikes and turns the large blades of a turbine, which is attached
to a generator above it by way of a shaft. The most common type of turbine for
hydropower plants is the Francis Turbine, which looks like a big disc with curved
blades. A turbine can weigh as much as 172 tons and turn at a rate of 90 revolutions
per minute (rpm), according to the Foundation for Water & Energy Education (FWEE).
Generators - As the turbine blades turn, so do a series of magnets inside the
generator. Giant magnets rotate past copper coils, producing alternating current (AC)
by moving electrons. (You'll learn more about how the generator works later.)
Transformer - The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC and converts it
to higher-voltage current.
Power lines - Out of every power plant come four wires: the three phases of power
being produced simultaneously plus a neutral or ground common to all three. (Read
How Power Distribution Grids Work to learn more about power line transmission.)
Outflow - Used water is carried through pipelines, called tailraces, and re-enters the
river downstream.
Diesel power station

Diesel power station: A Technical Support Agreement with BWSC is a comprehensive form of technical
assistance, which will ensure plant owners optimal availability, reliability, and cost effectiveness of the
plant by having all-round diesel power plant expertise at hand through the permanent presence of one or
more experienced BWSC diesel power plant engineers.
Read more on diesel power station
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following categories:
-
General introduction to diesel power plants

Operation of diesel power plants
Maintenance of diesel engines
Maintenance of mechanical auxiliary equipment
Maintenance of electrical equipment
Instrumentation and control systems
Management
Hands-on training at diesel power plants managed and operated by BWSC.
The training courses are based on a modular system, which enables us to perform tailor made courses
with duration and content to suit the requirements of each individual plant.
In addition to the above training courses, BWSC has developed and implemented a long-term training
system aimed at new as well as existing power plants manned with a combination of experienced and new
staff. The system, which is a combination of theoretical and practical training, can be tailored to run from
a few months up to several years and is structured to meet the different levels of knowledge and
experience of the different staff groups and professions. The progress for each participant will be
documented throughout the training program in a training logbook.
Nuclear Power Plant

To turn nuclear fission into electrical energy, the first step for nuclear power plant operators is to
be able to control the energy given off by the enriched uranium and allow it to heat water into
steam.
Enriched uranium is typically formed into inch-long (2.5-cm-long) pellets, each with approximately
the same diameter as a dime. Next the pellets are arranged into long rods, and the rods are
collected together into bundles. The bundles are submerged in water inside a pressure vessel.
The water acts as a coolant. For the reactor to work, the submerged bundles must be slightly
supercritical. Left to its own devices, the uranium would eventually overheat and melt.
To prevent overheating, control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are inserted into
the uranium bundle using a mechanism that can raise or lower the control rods. Raising and
lowering the control rods allow operators to control the rate of the nuclear reaction. When an
operator wants the uranium core to produce more heat, the control rods are raised out of the
uranium bundle (thus absorbing fewer neutrons). To create less heat, they are lowered into the
uranium bundle. The rods can also be lowered completely into the uranium bundle to shut the
reactor down in the case of an accident or to change the fuel.
The uranium bundle acts as an extremely high-energy source of heat. It heats the water and turns
it to steam. The steam drives a turbine, which spins a generator to produce power. Humans have
been harnessing the expansion of water into steam for hundreds of years. To learn more about
the properties involved,
Nuclear Fission
Everyone from comic book writers to theoretical physicists have characterized the splitting of the
atom as the ultimate act of man playing God, so it's easy to forget that nuclear fission happens
naturally every day. Uranium, for example, constantly undergoes spontaneous fission very
slowly. This is why the element emits radiation, and why it's a natural choice for the induced
fission that nuclear power plants require.
Uranium is a common element on Earth. It's been around since the planet formed. Uranium-238
(U-238) has an extremely long half-life (the time it takes for half its atoms to decay) of 4.5 billion
years. Therefore, it's still present in fairly large quantities. U-238 makes up 99 percent of the
uranium on Earth, while uranium-235 (U-235) makes up about 0.7 percent of the remaining
uranium found naturally. Uranium-234 is even rarer, formed by the decay of U-238. U-238 goes
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through many stages of decay in its life span, eventually forming a stable isotope of lead, so U234 is just one link in that chain.
Uranium-235 has an interesting property that makes it handy for the production of both nuclear
power and nuclear bombs. U-235 decays naturally, just as U-238 does, by alpha radiation: It
throws off an alpha particle, or two neutrons and two protons bound together. U-235 also
undergoes spontaneous fission a small percentage of the time. However, U-235 is one of the few
materials that can undergo induced fission. If a free neutron runs into a U-235 nucleus, the
nucleus will absorb the neutron, become unstable and split immediately. See How Nuclear
Radiation Works
Thermal power station

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven.
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical
generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser;
this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power
stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center
because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.
Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants,
as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently
combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be
used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency.
Such power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale and designed for
continuous operation
Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal power station

Typical diagram of a coal-fired thermal power station
1. Cooling tower
10. Steam control valve
11. High pressure steam
2. Cooling water pump
turbine
3. Three-phase transmission
12. Deaerator
line
4. Step-up transformer
13. Feedwater heater
5. Electrical generator
14. Coal conveyor
6. Low pressure steam
15. Coal hopper
turbine
7. Boiler feedwater pump
16. Coal pulverizer
8. Surface condenser
17. Boiler steam drum
9. Intermediate pressure
steam turbine
18. Bottom ash hopper
19. Superheater
20. Forced draught (draft)
fan
21. Reheater
22. Combustion air intake
23. Economiser
24. Air preheater
25. Precipitator
26. Induced draught (draft)
fan
27. Flue gas stack
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The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for
the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. The generator includes the economizer, the steam
drum, the chemical dosing equipment, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and the superheater
coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and
flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft
(ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack
Steam turbine-driven electric generator
Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station

Main article: Turbo generator
The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work
satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally
has a heavy, large diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also
has to be kept in position while running. To minimise the frictional resistance to the
rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft
rotates, are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided
to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat
generated.
Centrifugal pump
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Warman centrifugal pump in a Coal Handling and Preparation Plant (CHPP) application
A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the
velocity of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to move liquids through a
piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is
accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber,
from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are used for
large discharge through smaller heads
UNIT IV
I C ENGINES
Two-stroke Basics
This is what a two-stroke engine looks like:
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You find two-stroke engines in such devices as chain saws and jet skis because two-stroke
engines have three important advantages over four-stroke engines:
Two-stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their construction and lowers
their weight.
Two-stroke engines fire once every revolution, while four-stroke engines fire once
every other revolution. This gives two-stroke engines a significant power boost.
Two-stroke engines can work in any orientation, which can be important in something
like a chainsaw. A standard four-stroke engine may have problems with oil flow unless
it is upright, and solving this problem can add complexity
Horsepower
to the engine.
For
a
complete
explanation of
These advantages make two-stroke engines lighter, simpler
what horsepower is and what it
and less expensive to manufacture. Two-stroke engines also
means to performance, check
have the potential to pack about twice the power into the same out How Horsepower Works.
space because there are twice as many power strokes per
Disadvantages of the Two-stroke

You can now see that two-stroke engines have two important advantages over four-stroke
engines: They are simpler and lighter, and they produce about twice as much power. So why do
cars and trucks use four-stroke engines? There are four main reasons:
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Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. The lack of a
dedicated lubrication system means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear a lot
faster.
Two-stroke oil is expensive, and you need about 4 ounces of it per gallon of gas. You
would burn about a gallon of oil every 1,000 miles if you used a two-stroke engine in a
car.
Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently, so you would get fewer miles per
gallon.
Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution -- so much, in fact, that it is likely that
you won't see them around too much longer.
.
Understanding the Diesel engines

If you read How Two-stroke Engines Work, you learned that one big difference between twostroke and four-stroke engines is the amount of power the engine can produce. The spark plug
fires twice as often in a two-stroke engine -- once per every revolution of the crankshaft, versus
once for every two revolutions in a four-stroke engine. This means that a two-stroke engine has
the potential to produce twice as much power as a four-stroke engine of the same size.
The two-stroke engine article also explains that the gasoline engine cycle, where gas and air are
mixed and compressed together, is not really a perfect match for the two-stroke approach. The
problem is that some unburned fuel leaks out each time the cylinder is recharged with the air-fuel
mixture. (See How Two-stroke Engines Work for details.)
It turns out that the diesel approach, which compresses only air and then injects the fuel directly
into the compressed air, is a much better match with the two-stroke cycle. Many manufacturers of
large diesel engines therefore use this approach to create high-power engines.
The figure below shows the layout of a typical two-stroke diesel engine:
At the top of the cylinder are typically two pdfMachine

or four exhaust valves that all open at the same time.
There is also the diesel
fuel
injector
(shown
above
in yellow).
Thewith
piston
is elongated, as in a
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gasoline two-stroke engine, so that it can act as the intake valve. At the bottom of the piston's
travel, the piston uncovers the ports for air intake. The intake air is pressurized by a turbocharger
or a supercharger (light blue). The crankcase is sealed and contains oil as in a four-stroke
engine.
The two-stroke diesel cycle goes like this:
1.
When the piston is at the top of its travel, the cylinder contains a charge of highly
compressed air. Diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder by the injector and immediately
ignites because of the heat and pressure inside the cylinder. This is the same process
described in How Diesel Engines Work.
2.
The pressure created by the combustion of the fuel drives the piston downward. This
is the power stroke.
3.
As the piston nears the bottom of its stroke, all of the exhaust valves open. Exhaust
gases rush out of the cylinder, relieving the pressure.
4.
As the piston bottoms out, it uncovers the air intake ports. Pressurized air fills the
cylinder, forcing out the remainder of the exhaust gases.
5.
The exhaust valves close and the piston starts traveling back upward, re-covering the
intake ports and compressing the fresh charge of air. This is the compression stroke.
6.
As the piston nears the top of the cylinder, the cycle repeats with step 1.
From this description, you can see the big difference between a diesel two-stroke engine and a
gasoline two-stroke engine: In the diesel version, only air fills the cylinder, rather than gas and air
mixed together. This means that a diesel two-stroke engine suffers from none of the
environmental problems that plague a gasoline two-stroke engine. On the other hand, a diesel
two-stroke engine must have a turbocharger or a supercharger, and this means that you will
never find a diesel two-stroke on a chain saw -- it would simply be too expensive.
The two-stroke engine article also explains that the gasoline engine cycle, where gas and air are
mixed and compressed together, is not really a perfect match for the two-stroke approach. The
problem is that some unburned fuel leaks out each time the cylinder is recharged with the air-fuel
mixture. (See How Two-stroke Engines Work for details.)
It turns out that the diesel approach, which compresses only air and then injects the fuel directly
into the compressed air, is a much better match with the two-stroke cycle. Many manufacturers of
large diesel engines therefore use this approach to create high-power engines.
The figure below shows the layout of a typical two-stroke diesel engine:
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At the top of the cylinder are typically two or four exhaust valves that all open at the same time.
There is also the diesel fuel injector (shown above in yellow). The piston is elongated, as in a
gasoline two-stroke engine, so that it can act as the intake valve. At the bottom of the piston's
travel, the piston uncovers the ports for air intake. The intake air is pressurized by a turbocharger
or a supercharger (light blue). The crankcase is sealed and contains oil as in a four-stroke
engine.
The two-stroke diesel cycle goes like this:
7.
When the piston is at the top of its travel, the cylinder contains a charge of highly
compressed air. Diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder by the injector and immediately
ignites because of the heat and pressure inside the cylinder. This is the same process
described in How Diesel Engines Work.
8.
The pressure created by the combustion of the fuel drives the piston downward. This
is the power stroke.
9.
As the piston nears the bottom of its stroke, all of the exhaust valves open. Exhaust
gases rush out of the cylinder, relieving the pressure.
10. As the piston bottoms out, it uncovers the air intake ports. Pressurized air fills the
cylinder, forcing out the remainder of the exhaust gases.
11. The exhaust valves close and the piston starts traveling back upward, re-covering the
intake ports and compressing the fresh charge of air. This is the compression stroke.
12. As the piston nears the top of the cylinder, the cycle repeats with step 1.
From this description, you can see the big difference between a diesel two-stroke engine and a
gasoline two-stroke engine: In the diesel version, only air fills the cylinder, rather than gas and air
mixed together. This means that a diesel two-stroke engine suffers from none of the
environmental problems that plague a gasoline two-stroke engine. On the other hand, a diesel
two-stroke engine must have a turbocharger or a supercharger, and this means that you will
never find a diesel two-stroke on a chain saw -- it would simply be too expensive.
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UNIT V REFRIGERATION
ANDproduces
AIR CONDITIONING
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Refrigeration - Basic Cycle

Concepts
General
Heat energy always flows naturally from a

higher to a lower temperature level. That
is, hot areas naturally cool off and cold
areas naturally warm up. Therefore,
moving heat from a lower to a higher
temperature requires the input of work
(or heat), usually to create a pressure
differential in the cycle refrigerant.
The refrigerant (acting as a heat transfer
fluid) is used to transfer heat energy from
a lower temperature to a higher
temperature. The refrigerant is
evaporated at a temperature lower than
the desired temperature in the freezer or
cooler. The condensing temperature of the refrigerant is increased by compression so
that it can either be rejected to the environment or recovered as useful heat. The basic
refrigeration cycle, with all steps combined, is shown:
Step One, Evaporation:

Liquid refrigerant at a sufficiently low pressure is brought into contact with the heat
source (the medium to be cooled). The refrigerant absorbs heat and boils, producing
a low-pressure vapor. The heat exchanger used for this process is called the
evaporator.
Step Two, Compression:

The compressor raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor, normally using an
electric motor drive. This increases the temperature at which the vapors will
condense to a temperature above the temperature of the heat sink. Most common
compressors are reciprocating (piston and cylinder) or screw (looking much like an
old meat grinder) compressor designs.
Step Three, Condensing:

The high-pressure refrigerant gas now carrying the heat energy absorbed at the
evaporator plus the work energy from the compressor, enters the condenser. Since the
refrigerant's condensing temperature is higher than that of the heat sink, heat transfer
will take place, condensing the refrigerant from a high-pressure vapor to a high-pressure
liquid.
Step Four, Expansion:
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The condensed liquid's pressure is reduced (called "throttled") to the lower pressure
evaporator using a valve, orifice plate or capillary tube device. In actual practice, the
condenser cools the refrigerant a bit more, subcooling it below the condensing
temperature. This is an important efficiency improving attribute to the cycle, since it
reduces the amount of refrigerant liquid that has to evaporate (it is called flashing at this
stage in the cycle) to a gas in the expansion valve to reduce the pressure and
temperature of the liquid entering the evaporator. This reduction in flash gas is important
to improve system performance.
Vapour absorption system
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Basic Survey Principles: GE2152 Basic Civil & Mechanical Engineering A

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Basic Survey Principles: GE2152 Basic Civil & Mechanical Engineering A

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GE2152

BASIC CIVIL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT I SURVEYING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Basic Survey Principles

Sites are three-dimensional so we need to deal with differences in height or depth

The Survey Procedure

Each step is discussed in detail below:

3.4 Observation vs. Measurement

Surveys should be considered as measurements not as observations. With the advent of

3.5 Linear Measurement

3.5.2 Electronic Distance Measuring

3.5.3 Common Sources of EDM Error

3.5.4 Number of Measurements

specifications outline the number of linear measurements that are to be performed.

A. Location of the primary control (generally on the base traverse monuments).

Classification of controlling benchmarks. (The precision of the survey should

3.7.5 Direct Vertical Measurement

3.7.6 Indirect Vertical Measurement

A. Base traverse and monumented control points:

What is Land Surveying?

buildings, subdivisions and other construction projects so the construction companies

Global Positioning System (GPS)

which send out signals to our receiver (the

transmits those signals to our data collector

download the data into the computer, and

data the exact position of our point within a

Traditional Total Station Surveying

most important tool for these purposes is

because it incorporates a distance meter for

The total station measures by sending a

usually supported either by a tripod or a

pole (like I'm holding in the center photo).

The light reflects off the prism directly back

station calculates the distance away that the

The information that the total station

measures (angles and distances) is recorded

downloading into a computer in the office.

coordinate geometry in the field and figure

Leveling & 3-D Surveying

elevations of land. The way I'm doing it in

It's called this because you are calculating

points on the ground. You basically look at

high above the ground your level is set up.

different spot on the ground and see how

This gives you the difference in elevation

We also derive elevations with our total

station by using geometry and measuring

Positioning System by intersecting vectors

from satellites in space, but this is often the

coordinating the job with the office, who

coordinates it with the client. If the site is a

coordinate it with the contractor. They

receive instructions from the contractor or

develop a plan on how to accomplish it in

truck in the picture in Columbia County,

Oregon near Goble (don't tell me you don't

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Brick making at the beginning of the 20th century.

[edit] Mud bricks

[edit] Rail kilns

Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo in the former Transkei in 2007.

[edit] Bull's Trench Kilns

Chemical Composition of Portland Cement