European Journal of Soil Science, June 1996, 47, 15 1- 163

Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world

N.H.BATJES
International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC), PO Box 353, 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands

Summary
The soil is important in sequestering atmospheric C02 and in emitting trace gases (e.g. C 0 2 , CL,
and N20) that are radiatively active and enhance the greenhouse effect. Land use changes and
predicted global warming, through their effects on net primary productivity, the plant community
and soil conditions, may have important effects on the size of the organic matter pool in the soil and
directly affect the atmospheric concentration of these trace gases.
A discrepancy of approximately 350 x loi5g (or Pg) of C in two recent estimates of soil carbon
reserves worldwide is evaluated using the geo-referenced database developed for the World
Inventory of Soil Emission Potentials (WISE) project. This database holds 4353 soil profiles
distributed globally which are considered to represent the soil units shown on a % latitude by W
longitude version of the corrected and digitized 1 : 5 M FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World.
Total soil carbon pools for the entire land area of the world, excluding carbon held in the litter
layer and charcoal, amounts to 2157-2293 Pg of C in the upper 100 cm. Soil organic carbon is
estimated to be 684-724 Pg of C in the upper 30 cm, 1462-1548 Pg of C in the upper 100 cm, and
2376-2456 Pg of C in the upper 200 cm. Although deforestation, changes in land use and predicted
climate change can alter the amount of organic carbon held in the superficial soil layers rapidly,
this is less so for the soil carbonate carbon. An estimated 695-748 Pg of carbonate-C is held in the
upper 100 cm of the worlds soils. Mean C : N ratios of soil organic matter range from 9.9 for arid
Yennosols to 25.8 for Histosols. Global amounts of soil nitrogen are estimated to be 133-140 Pg
of N for the upper 100 cm. Possible changes in soil organic carbon and nitrogen dynamics caused
by increased concentrations of atmospheric COz and the predicted associated rise in temperature
are discussed.

Introduction
Soil organic matter is a key component of any terrestrial
ecosystem, and any variation in its abundance and composition
has important effects on many of the processes that occur
within the system. Nonetheless, the size and dynamics of the
carbon and nitrogen pools in the soils of the world are still
poorly known (IPCC, 1990; Legros et al., 1994). Three main
reservoirs regulate the carbon cycle on earth (IPCC, 1990):
the Oceans ~ 3 9 0 0 x0 lOI5 g (or Pg) of C; the atmosphere
( m 750 Pg C), and terrestrial systems ( x 2200 Pg C). Although
the soil-vegetation carbon pool is small compared with that of
the oceans, potentially it is much more labile in the short term.
The carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems can be changed
markedly by the direct impact of human activities-including
deforestation, biomass burning, land use change, and environmental pollution-which release trace gases that enhance the
greenhouse effect (Bolin, 1981; Trabalka & Reichle, 1986;
IPCC, 1990).

Received 10 April 1995; revised version accepted 12 December 1995

0 1996 Blackwell

Science Ltd.

Organic matter amounts in the soil are regulated essentially

by net primary production, the distribution of photosynthates
into roots and shoots, and the rate at which these various
organic compounds decompose. Plant residues (litter) that fall
on the soil are gradually altered through physical fragmentation, faunal and microfloral interactions, mineralization and
humus formation. Litter is not included in the calculation of
soil organic carbon mass (Buringh, 1984; Kimble et al., 1990;
Sombroek et al., 1993), although amounts of carbon stored in
the litter layers of many virgin and forested soils can be
considerable.
The soil is the largest terrestrial pool of organic carbon, with
global estimates ranging from 1115 to 2200 Pg of C (see
Batjes, 1992), 1576 Pg of C (Eswaran et al., 1995), and
1220 Pg of C (Sombroek e l al., 1993), respectively. Most
methods for determining soil organic carbon do not account
for resistant forms such as charcoal (Skjemstad et al., 1990;
Sanford et al., 1985); thus, it remains difficult to quantify this
source of organic carbon in global budgets. Reserves of
inorganic carbon (as carbonate) stored in soils have been
estimated to be 780-930 Pg of C by Schlesinger (1982), and
151

152 N.H.Barjes
720 Pg of C by Sombroek et al. (1993), which can be released
by weathering.
Global calculations of the pool of carbon and nitrogen in the
soil are complicated by a number of factors, notably: (1) the
still limited knowledge of the extent of different kinds of soil;
(b) the limited availability of reliable, complete and uniform
data for these soils; (c) the considerable spatial variation in
carbon and nitrogen content, stoniness and bulk density of
soils that have been classified similarly; and, (d) the confounding effects of climate, relief, parent material, vegetation and
land use.
The discrepancy of approximately 350 Pg of C in global
amounts of soil organic carbon between the estimates of
Sombroek et al. (1993) and Eswaran et al. (1993) is addressed
here. New estimates of the soil carbonate carbon and nitrogen
pools are also presented, and possible changes in soil C and N
dynamics induced by enhanced atmospheric COz concentrations and predicted climatic change are discussed. The study
is based on the global soil database, World Inventory of Soil
Emission Potentials (WISE), developed at the International Soil
Reference and Information Centre (Batjes & Bridges, 1994).

Materials and methods

Source of soil data

The most appropriate way to study the organic and carbonate

carbon contents of soil is on a unit area base, for a specified
depth interval, which requires information of the spatial
distribution of different types of soil, soil carbon, bulk density,
and stoniness with depth. The relevant data were derived from
the WISE database which consists of two main components
(Fig. 1). The spatial component is a %" by %" version of the
edited and corrected 1 :5 M Soil Map of the World (FAO,
1991). For each grid cell the typology and relative extent of the

soil units are known. Thus, the FAO-UNESCO (1974) legend

can be used to aggregate available soil profile data and to link
derived interpretations of soil properties with the soil units on
the grid map. The profile or attribute data component of the
WISE database currently holds 4353 profile descriptions,
corresponding to 19 222 horizons, of which 86% have data for
organic carbon, 45% for nitrogen, 32% for carbonate, 3 1 % for
bulk density, and 21% for the amount of fragments > 2 mm.
The geographical distribution of the profiles is: Africa (1799);
South West and North Asia (522); South East Asia (553);
Australia and the Pacific Islands (122); Europe (492); North
America (266); and, South America and the Caribbean (599).
Most profiles in the WISE database came from five main
sources: (a) ISRIC's Soil Information System, ISIS (Van de
Ven & Tempel, 1994); (b) the Soil Database System (SDB) of
the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 1989); (c)
digital soil data compiled by the National Soil Conservation
Service of the United States of America (NRCS); (d) profiles
obtained by WISE project staff from national soil survey
organizations which supplied descriptions and analyses of
profiles which were representative of the units of the World
Soil Map present in their individual countries; and (e) suitable
profiles gathered from ISRIC's library collection. Special
attention was given to the way that the original profile data
were collected and also to the way in which this information
was compiled from records for WISE. The original laboratory
methods were recorded in WISE.
The profiles held in ISIS were compiled specifically to
represent the map units of the Soil Map of the World, with
special emphasis on the Subtropics and Tropics in view of
ISRIC's international mandate. They have all been described
using the Guidelinesfor Soil Description (FAO-ISRIC, 1990)
and analysed by a common methodology in the ISRIC laboratory (Van Reeuwijk, 1992). The profiles in the NRCS set
originate from the USA and 41 other countries of the world.

................................................................................................................................................................................
WISE SOIL DATABASE

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the WISE

database.

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal of Soil Science, 47,

151-163

Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world

They are described according to the Soil Survey Manual

(USDA, 1993), and were analysed at the Lincoln laboratory
(USDA, 1984). These analytical methods compare well with
those used at ISRIC (Kimble and Van Reeuwijk, personal
communication). Profiles from the SDB database (FAO, 1989)
were described using the same guidelines as ISRIC, but the
chemical and physical analyses were done in different laboratories as was the case for profiles obtained directly from
various national soil survey organizations. Therefore, Vogel
(1994)camed out a comparison of the different soil analytical
methods.
As many countries could not respond to the WISE request
for profiles, more use had to be made of soil profile information in ISRICs library. It contains many soil monographs
from many parts of the world that were commissioned for
different reasons. Although the associated profile descriptions
vary in completeness and quality, it was possible to extract
about 1900 profiles from this source. In all cases the source of
the data has been stored in WISE, and the inferred quality of
the profile data was coded.
Analytical methods
Soil carbon and nitrogen. Sources of uncertainty in soil
carbon and nitrogen data, related to differences in sampling
methodology, season of sampling, land use history, and laboratory methods, are well documented. Organic carbon is universally determined by oxidation to C02, and is directly measured
as CO2 or by weight loss of the sample or by back-titration of
the excess of the added oxidant. Carbon values determined by
dry and wet combustion are comparable because they all
recover 100% of the organic C (Vogel, 1994). Indirect combustion methods, such as that of Kurmies and Tinsley, can
recover most of the organic C, and the results are comparable
with those obtained by direct methods. The Walkley-Black
method, however, gives variable recovery of soil organic C.
Nonetheless, standard conversion factors of 1.33 for incomplete oxidation and of 58% for the carbon : organic matter
ratio are commonly used to convert Walkley-Black carbon to
the total organic-C content, even though the true factors vary
greatly between and within soils because of differences in the
nature of organic matter with soil depth and vegetation type
(Grewal et al., 1991). Therefore, the Walkley-Black method
-which was used for 85% of the profiles in WISE-gives
only an approximation of soil organic carbon content. This is a
common problem in global studies of soil carbon stocks
(Schlesinger, 1977).
Both volumetric and gravimetric methods have been used to
determine the soil carbonate values in the WISE database.
Their results are considered to be comparable, particularly for
the larger carbonate contents (Van Reeuwijk, personal communication).
Soil nitrogen content of about 93% of the profiles in WISE
was determined by the Kjeldahl method. This method
0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal ofSoil Science, 47, 151-163

153

determines all soil nitrogen, including absorbed NH;, except

that in nitrates.
Bulk density. Bulk density is critical for converting organic
carbon percentage by weight to content by volume (e.g. kg
m-2 to 1-m depth), but it varies with the structural condition of
the soil, in particular the mineralogy, water content and
packing. In general, bulk density determined by the core
sampling method is comparable with values obtained by the
clod method (Vogel, 1994). However, bulk density measurements for gravelly to extremely gravelly soils are difficult to
compare because results vary significantly with sample volume
(Vincent & Chadwick, 1994).
Bulk density is not determined in most routine analyses, so
values have to be determined using pedotransfer functions or
rules (Bouma & Van Lanen, 1987). Linear regressions of bulk
density against combinations of the controlling variables
described earlier often give rather small coefficients for linear
determination (?) (e.g. Post et al., 1982), which restricts their
predictive use. An alternative is to use pedotransfer rules based
on expert judgment. Firstly, the mean bulk density was
computed for each profile; this mean was then used for all
horizons with missing bulk density data. All substituted values
were flagged in the derived database to differentiate them
from the measured data. Secondly, the mean bulk density was
calculated for each FAO-UNESCO soil subunit. Finally, if
there were no bulk density data for a particular soil profile, the
mean bulk density for the corresponding subunit was used in
the derived database.
Computation of soil carbon and nitrogen stocks
General procedure. There are three stages in determining the
size of the organic carbon pool. First, the amount of organic
carbon is determined for individual soil profiles. Second, this
information is analysed on the basis of the FAO-UNESCO
(1974) soil subunit. Finally, the results of these analyses are
combined with information on the spatial extent of the various
soil subunits in the world to estimate the global size of the
organic carbon pool. A similar approach was also used to
calculate the size of the soil carbonate carbon and soil nitrogen
pools.
Calculation for individual projles. For an individual profile
with k layers, the total organic carbon by volume is:
k

where Td is the total amount of organic carbon (in Mg m-2)

over depth, d , pi is the bulk density (Mg m-3) of layer i , Pi
is the proportion of organic carbon (g C g-l) in layer i, Di is
the thickness of this layer (m), and Si is the volume of the
fraction of fragments > 2 mm. In the absence of measured
data, Si was approximated by using the median concentration

154 N.H. Batjes

of fragments
subunit.

> 2 mm of the particular FAO-UNESCO soil

Calculations per FAO- UNESCO soil subunit. Total organic

carbon mass, M, for the land area of the world was determined
by :
n

j= I

where k f d is the total mass of organic carbon (Pg C) held in the

upper d cm of the soil, n is the total number of %" by %" grid
cells ( n = 259 200), A , is the area of soil unit i in grid cell j ,
Tijd is the mean organic carbon content of individual soil
subunits i of grid cell j over the depth interval d . It is assumed
that each soil profile in WlSE represents the corresponding
FAO-UNESCO subunit uniformly.
In computing the world soil carbon and nitrogen pools it was
also important to include the miscellaneous units considered
on Soil Map of the World (FAO, 1991). To this end expert
estimates of organic carbon, carbonate carbon and soil
nitrogen content were assigned to the 'salt flats', areas of
'rock debris and desert detritus', 'dune sands and shifting
sands' and areas termed 'not determined' in the 'derived' data
base (by depth zone).

Results
Soil Map of the World consists of 26 major soil units, differentiated at the highest level on the basis of effects of different
soil forming processes, insofar as these are reflected in
observable and measurable properties. Although the original
analyses in this study were carried out for the 106 subunits
(see Table 2), the results presented are mainly for the soil unit
level. This has been done largely to enhance the legibility of
the tabular output.
Ranges observed per FAO-UNESCO unit
Bulk density. Table 1 lists the means and extremes of bulk
density. For mineral soils, except those formed on volcanic ash
(Andosols), the mean ranges from 1.26 Mg m-3 for Ferralsols
to 1.67 Mg m-3 for Vertisols. Andosols have a mean bulk
density of 0.73 Mg m-3. The variation of measured bulk
density for the mineral soil units is moderate, with coefficients
of variation of 6%to 28%.Histosols have a mean bulk density
of 0.31 Mg m-3 with a large coefficient of variation (80%),
which is attributed to differences in fibre content and degree of
humification of the peat soils considered. In other global
studies a mean bulk density of 0.15 to 0.25 Mg m-3 has been
used for organic soil (Buringh, 1984; Sombroek et al., 1993).
Soil carbon content. In most studies, soil organic carbon
content has been calculated to a depth of 100 cm, except for
the shallow Lithosols, Rankers and Rendzinas, with special
reference to the upper 50 cm. The latter encompasses the

Table 1 Mean and range in bulk density by FAO-UNESCO soil

unita (Mg m-3)
Soil unita
Acrisols
Cambisols
Chernozems
Podzoluvisols
Rendzinas
Ferralsols
Gleysols
Phaeozems
Lithosols
Fluvisols
Kastanozems
Luvisols
Greyzems
Nitosols
Histosols
Podzols
Arenosols
Regosols
Solonetz
Andosols
Rankers
Vertisols
Planosols
Xerosols
Yermosols
Solonchaks

Min.

Max.

Mean

CVb

990
1219
120
48
34
724
486
500
1
496
48
1030
5
219
106
20 1
103
167
173
353
2
636
67
253
I 75
150

0.54
0.53
1.07
1.15
0.53
0.69
0.54
0.80
1.42
0.55
1.02
0.60
1.34
0.58
0.03
0.52
1.22
0.91
0.95
0.28
1.26
0.90
0.60
0.90
0.5 1
0.63

I .98
2.47
2.34
1.88
1.94
2.00
2.17
2.31
1.42
2.02
2.25
2.45
1.58
1.85
0.94
2.16
1.90
2.13
2.01
0.99
1.70
2.5 1
2.00
2.02
2.27
2.01

1.41
1.36
1.45
1.65
1.34
1.26
1.38
I .46
1.42
1.40
1.55
1.54
1S O
1.43
0.31
1.32
1.61
1.51
1.64
0.73
1.48
I .67
1.57
1.49
1.51
1.48

15
20
17
9
28
18
24
16

17
21
14
6
17
80
24
8
14
12
22
15
16
16
12
14
19

asoil units are listed in alphabetical order, based on the first letter of the
FAO-UNESCO (1974) legend code (e.g. A, Acrisols; B, Cambisols, and
so on).
bCV is the coefficient of variation (%).

depths that are most directly involved in interactions with the

atmosphere, and that are most sensitive to land use and
environmental changes (see reviews by Bouwman, 1990;
Batjes, 1992). In this study, depth intervals of 0-30 and
0-50 cm are used to enable a comparison with the results of
other studies. Generally, fewer samples were taken from the
deeper layers than from the superficial layers. This difference
in the number of samples at the various depths must be kept in
mind when interpreting Table 2, as it implies that the results
are less reliable for the deeper layers.
Large amounts of soil organic carbon lie below 100 cm in
both mineral and organic soils (Sombroek et al., 1993;
Tarnocai, 1994). So far, available data have often precluded
worldwide calculations of these less dynamic reserves of soil
carbon. However, the WISE data set has made it feasible to
suggest estimates to a depth of 200 cm for those soil units and
areas where such depths are applicable. These are mainly deep
soils in the Tropics and Subtropics, such as Acrisols, Ferralsols
and Nitosols, as well as some organic and alluvial soils. In
other cases, such as Lithosols, Rendzinas and Rankers, a
shallower depth has always been used in the calculations.

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal of Soil Science, 47, 151- 163

Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world

155

Table 2 Mean organic carbon contents for four depth intervals by FAO-UNESCO soil unitslkg m-
0-50 cm

0-30 cm

0-100 cm

0-200 cm

Soil unit

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Acrisols
Femc
Gleyic
Humic
Orthic
Plinthic

5. I
3.7
6.2
10.6
3.7
5.1

83
65
97
54
52
64

309
122
19
71
63
34

6.7
4.8
7.9
14.1
5.0
6.8

84
59
96
57
46
63

302
120
18
70
60
34

9.4
6.7
9.0
20.3
7.1
9.2

82
49
60
57
43
59

269
104
16
63
55
31

10.4
6.8
11.5
29.3
7.3
6.5

113
49

56
23
1
15
12
5

Carnbisols
Chromic
Dystric
Eutric
Ferralic
Gleyic
Humic
Calcic
Vertic
Gelic

5.0
4.4
7.6
4.4
4.2
5.2
11.6
3.0
4.6
6.6

91
62
82
97
51
67
59
89
59
56

53 I
30
85
124
44
47
45
100
42
14

6.9
6.0
9.5
6.3
5.5
6.8
16.1
4.3
6.4
9.7

82
62
73
68
50
61
60
78
55
55

48 1
30
82
99
43
45
42
90
36
14

9.6
8.2
12.5
8.8
7.3
9.0
21.1
7.1
9.5
12.4

77
58
47
63
49
60
68
70
53
80

332
18
59
68
35
26
31
67
25
3

15.7
15.8
19.5
12.0
10.9
19.5
45.6
-

Chernozems
Glossic
Haplic
Calcic
Luvic

6.0
8.0
4.6
6.9

60
-

8.6
11.1
6.8
9.6

56

60
-

18
-

16.1
10.3
12.1

54
57
60

44
0
16
20
8

19.6

42
59
63

61
0
21
28
12

12.5

42
58
69

64
0
21
30
13

18.1
21.3
-

2
21
-

Podzoluvisols
Dystric
Eutric
Gleyic

5.6
5.9
6.0
3.2

65
65
71
-

9
4
4
I

5.9
6.9
5.3
3.7

52
54
24

43
42
21
-

7
4
2

7.8
8.7
6.3

7.3
8.6
6.3
4.8

31
31
-

7
4
2

-_

3
2
1
0

Rendzinas

13.3

1 I4

19

Ferralsols
Acric
Humic
Orthic
Plinthic
Rhodic
Xanthic

5.7
5.4
9.3
5.4
5.3
4.9
4.3

60
50
49
51
33
53
53

256
22
50
83
8
43
50

17.6
7.4
13.2
7.0
6.9
6.4
5.9

61

25 1
22
49
82
8
42
48

10.7
10.2
19.0
9.6
10.1
9.1
8.2

63
44
52
53
30
50
39

228
21
47
72
4
39
45

16.9
14.5
26.0
16.2
15.1
11.7
12.2

61
40
53
40

79
12
26
15
1
14
11

Gleysols
Calcaric
Dystric
Eutric
Humic
Mollic
Plinthic
Gelic

7.7
4.8
6.8
5.8
15.8
10.3
8.5
10.5

109

243
14
57
86
31
45
3
7

9.7
4.2
9.4
7.1
19.4
13.1
10.6
13.4

100
57
125
66
76
65
45

21 1
9
50
78
28
39
3
4

13.1
5.0
12.6
9.7
29.3
16.8
12.6
20.4

109

90
146
74
80
55
66
103

142
5
33
54
18
28
3

19.9
16.9
9.8
86.6
51.5
21.4

Phaeozems
Calcaric
Gleyic
Haplic
Luvic

7.7
7.0
7.2
7.8
7.8

53
56
68
61
42

202
24
17
70
91

10.5
9.7
9.3
10.6
11.0

48
51
62
56
37

194
24
17
64
89

14.6
12.8
11.7
15.0
15.6

47
51
60
57
31

147
20
13
50
64

21.6

Lithosols

3.6

128

51

49
51
32
54
44

45

69
68
65
99
70
59

11.5

64
40
82
92

43
50
40
45
66
37

45
23
212

-_
56
34
126
5
54

36
1
7
6
8
3
4
7
0
0
6
0
3
3
0

14
0
4
5
2
1
2
0

20.4
21.6
21.8

91
21

15
0
1
4
10

Table continued on next page

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal of Soil Science, 47, 151-163

156

N.H.Batjes

Table 2 (Continued)
0-30 cm

0-50 cm

0-100 cm

0-200 cm

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Fluvisols
Calcaric
Dystric
Eutric
Thionic

3.8
2.4
6.2
4.2
8.3

114
86
52
124
69

300
121
29
127
23

5.6
3.7
8.3
6.2
12.5

122
77
53
134
77

278
115
27
113
23

9.3
6.3
12.2
10.9
23.2

136
56
76

16.1
12.8
11.5
16.7
41.6

172
67

89

200
87
18
78
17

18
8
1
7
2

Kastanozems
Haplic
Calcic
Luvic

5.4
7.2
4.4
4.5

52
46
48
-

22
9
12

55
58
43
-

19
7
11

9.6
13.8
7.1
10.3

50
44
35

8
3
4

7.5
9.7
6.5
6.8

Luvisols
Albic
Chromic
Ferric
Gleyic
Calcic
Orthic
Plinthic
Vertic

3.1
3.4
3.9
2.6
3.7
2.0
3.6
2.7
4.6

I03
I43
76
83
1 I9
63
95
60
45

604
23

4.3
5.0

100

5.5
3.7
4.7
3.O
4.7
3.7
7. I

85
122
67
75

555
19
92
98
77
116
127

6.5
5.7
8.0
5.8
7.0

Greyzems
Gleyic
Orthic

10.8
10.2

11.0

49
57

Nitosols
Dystric
Eutric
Humic

4. I
3.8
3.1
10.0

Histosols
Dystric
Eutric
Gelic

Soil unit

103
84
128
139
11

16

101

65
77
53
40

5.1

140

191
43
-

0
0
0
0

78
97
51
59
1 I9
64
70
51
25

377
13
56
79
52
72
86
8

56
33
78
47
51
23
-

42
0
7
12
1
5
13
3

11

9.9
13.2
7.4
9.0
10.7
11.8
5.3
15.8

53

23.3
47.1
11.3

87
-

2
1
1

47
22
53

20
7
12
1

31

4
1
0
3

11

7.1
5.3

15

11.1

78

3
1
2

13.6
16.9
12.6

67

19.7
28.6
16.3

85
66
89
50

77
23
41
13

5.6
5.2
4.3
13.5

80
59
80
47

74
22
39
13

8.4
8.1
6.5
18.2

72
49
70
47

67
20
35
12

11.3
12.3
10.0
26.1

28.3
25.1
34.2
40.6

47
54
39

42
28
10
4

46.4
42.5
51.0
66.7

47
53
41
7

42
28

47
50

77.6
72.9
72.4
125

12

34
21
9
4

218
123
264

Podzols
Ferric
Gleyic
Humic
Leptic
Orthic
Placic

13.6
17.6
9.8
10.3
12.8
17.8
16.9

101
45
143
89
71
96
81

82
2
14
18

17.3
22.2
14.4
12.0
17.7
21.9
21.9

92
29
123
80
65
88
73

75
2
14
17
7
25
10

24.2
26.4
24.4
17.8
11.9
38.2
22.4

94
33
90
79
75
82
71

43
2
9
13
3
13
3

59.1
43.0
111
-

Arenosols
Albic
Cambic
Ferralic
Luvic

1.3
2.5
1.2
1.6
1 .O

108
119
111
85
49

262
145
75
31

1.9
3.4
1.8
2.3
1.5

93
97
97
81
42

237
10
129
71
27

3.1
3.4
2.9
3.7
2.6

77
29
76
80
38

166
7
88
53
18

5.5
4.4
6.7
6.2

58
28
59

14
0
6
7
1

Regosols
Calcaric
Dystric
Eutric
Gelic

3.1
1.6
5.2
2.8
11.8

122
81
89
142
48

86
22
26
36
2

4.0
2.1
6. I
3.6
19.7

114
90
88
127
45

66
15
20
29
2

5.0
4.5
5 .O
4.6
-

133
75
83
122

42
11
9
21
0

7.0
8.4
6.2
8.2

48
59
55
45

9
2
5
2
0

11

10

28
10

11

53

10

54

60
-

75

17

6
0
0
4
0
2
0

Table continued on next page

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal of Soil Science, 47,

151- 163

157

Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world

Table 2 (Continued)
0-30 cm

0-50 cm

0-100 cm

0-200 cm

Soil unit

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Mean

Solonetz
Gleyic
Mollic
Orthic

3.2
4.7
7.7
2.3

92
70
71
82

59
17
5
37

4.2
6.5
5.9
3.3

78
67
33
73

53
16
3
34

6.2
9.4
7.4
4.8

83
75
26
71

39
12
3
24

5.1
5.7
4.9

Andosols
Humic
Mollic
Ochric
Vitric

11.4
13.3
9.2
12.2
8.2

69
63
52
82
77

160
89
27
15
29

16.5
19.1
13.2
15.7
12.7

65
60
56
83
72

154
88
27
14
25

25.4
29.4
20.3
16.3
20.7

69
62
72
78
88

120
75
23
5
17

31.0
29.9
35.3
24.1

13
8
4
0
0

CV

n
4
1

0
3

15.9

153

Vertisols
Chromic
Pellic

4.5
3.8
5.5

87
61
91

267
146
121

6.7
5.8
8.0

71
53
73

254
137
117

11.1
9.5
13.2

58
46
59

205
110
95

19.1
15.0
25.6

29
16
13

Planosols
Dystric
Eutric
Humic
Mollic
Solodic
Gelic

3.9
5.4
2.8
8.8
8. I
3.O
-

99
114
73
16
58

5.2
6.3
4.1
10.2
10.2
3.9
-

86
111
60

48
9
16

56
60
54

28
3
9

16.9

25
70
-

7
8
0

14.3
18.4
17.6

54
10
18
1
8
17
0

0
1
0
1
2
0

Xerosols
Haplic
Calcic
Luvic
Gypsic

2.0
2.8
3.2
1.6
2.8

64
34
47
68
62

113
16
14
75
8

73
14
8
44
7

8.7
8.9
12.8
7.4

8
4
1
3
0

Y ermosols
Haplic
Calcic
Luvic
Takyric
Gypsic

1.3
1.2
1.2
1.9
0.9
0.8

121
85
67
120
59

24
5
6
8
0

6.6
7.0
5.9

3
2
0
1
0

Solonchaks
Gleyic
Mollic
Orthic
Takyric

1.8
1.8
5.1
1.6
3.3

73
82
38
59
-

Rankers

18
53
-

8
14
0

7.7
6.6
5.7
12.1
13.8
6.5
-

2.8
3.9
4.1
2.3
3.9

61
30
46
65
65

I03
15
12
68
8

4.8
5.9
6.0
4.2
6.2

53
31

44
7

1.8
1.9
2.4
1.5
1.1

37
7
7
13
9

3.0
3.1
3.5
3.4
2.0

44
56

10
15
1
11

93
71
56
98
36

63
19
3
40
1

2.6
2.5
7.0
2.3
5.2

67
73
37
51
-

59
19
3
36
1

4.2
4.3
10.1
3.8
8.9

1.7

45

60
54

41

31
30
67
81
44
52
-

5
42
13
2
26

5.7
15.6
3.2
-

0
3
1
0
2

CV is coefficient of variation (%); n is the number of observation by depth interval.

Depth interval for Lithosols (I) is 0-10 cm.

The data in Table 2 provide mean figures for global assessments of soil carbon and nitrogen pools that could not be
applied satisfactorily in national studies, as regional differences in microclimate, parent material and land use for soils of
a particular FAO-UNESCO subunit were not taken into
account. Additionally, there are no data to indicate that the
available profiles are statistically representative of the world
wide distribution of these soil units; this problem is commonly
encountered and recognized (Kimble et al., 1990; Sombroek et
al., 1993).

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal of Soil Science. 47,

151-163

Mean soil organic carbon content in the upper 100 cm of the

various FAO-UNESCO soil unit ranges from 3.1 kg C m-
for sandy Arenosois to 77.6 kg C m- for Histosols. The large
values for the latter are due to the slow decomposition of
organic matter under water saturated conditions, particularly
when mean soil temperatures are low (see Gelic Histosols).
Small amounts of organic carbon are encountered in Xerosols
(4.2-6.2 kg C m-*) and Yermosols (3.1-3.4 kg C m-) from
the arid regions where plant growth is limited. Humic subunits
typically contain large amounts of organic carbon, ranging

158 N.H. Batjes

from 18.2 kg C m-2 for well drained Humic Nitosols to
29.3 kg C m-2 for poorly drained Humic Gleysols. Similarly
large amounts (23.3 kg C mP2) are encountered in poorly
drained Thionic Fluvisols which form in brackish environments rich in organic matter. The large value for Andosols
(25.4 kg C m-2) can be explained by the protection of organic
carbon by allophane (Mizota & Van Reeuwijk, 1989). Generally, the stabilizing effect of clay particles on soil organic
matter decreases in the sequence: allophane > amorphous and
poorly crystalline Al-silicates > smectite > illite > kaolinite
(Van Breemen & Feijtel, 1990).
Changes in the relative distribution of soil organic carbon
with depth have been studied only on those profiles with
complete data to a depth of 100 cm (Table 3). On average,
39-70% of the total organic carbon in the upper 100 cm of
mineral soil is held in the first 30 cm, and 58-81% in the first
50 cm. These figures illustrate the potentially large amounts of
COf that can be released when tropical soils are deforested,
with changes in land use, or increased oxidation of superficial peat layers on drainage (Detwiler, 1986; Veldkamp,
1993).
Table 3 Relative distribution of organic carbon as a function of
depth by FAO-UNESCO soil units (except Rendzinas, Rankers and
Lithosols)

Ba

A
Soil unit
Acrisols
Cambisols
Chernozems
Podzoluvisols

Ferralsols
Gleysols
Phaeozems

Fluvisols
Kastanozems
Luvisols
Greyzems
Ni tosols
Histoso1s
Podzols
Arenosols
Regosols
Solonetz
Andosols
Vertisols
Planosols
Xerosols
Yermosols
Solonchaks

Soil nitrogen density. The N-content for each soil unit to a

depth of 100 cm is given in Table 4. Because the analyses were
based on sites with varying types of land use or vegetation the
figures provide only a global impression of total soil N. The
general figure observed for the upper 100 cm of the soil is from
0.37 kg N m-* for arid Yermosols to 4.01 kg N mW2for
Histosols. The figures in Table 4 are similar to those given for
similar mineral soils in the Amazon basin (Moraes et al.,
1995).

Soil C : N ratios. The C :N ratio is a good indicator of the

degree of decomposition and quality of the organic matter held
in the soil. However, ratios are prone to considerable variation
resulting from errors in determining both variables. Therefore,
the data were edited before analysing the C : N ratios. All
horizons with C : N ratios smaller than 2 and greater than 70
were considered to be outliers and were omitted from the
analyses. The mean C : N ratio across the soil units ranged
from 9.9 for Yermosols to 29.8 for Histosols. The general
trend of the values in Table 5 suggests a decrease in C : N ratio
with depth, which reflects a greater degree of breakdown and
older age of the humus stored in the lower parts of the profile.
The mean C :N ratio for the 30-50 cm and 50- 100 cm depth
interval is identical for the Vertisols; this reflects the intense
mixing or churning typical of these deep cracking-andswelling clay soils.

Mean

CV

Mean

CV

Estimates of world soil C- and N-pools

269
332
44
7
228
142
147
200
8
311
3
61
34
43
166
42
39
120
205
28
73
24
42

54
52
50
I0
53
59
53
44
40
41

20
29
31
19
18
29
20
36
27
28
33
24
41
31
29
33
33
29
28
22
24
31
33

I1

13
18
20

Organic carbon. In the following text, two estimates are

given for the soil carbon pool of the world (by depth range).
The first value is based on the median stone content and the
second is for so-called stone-free soils. The total mass of
organic carbon stored in the upper 100 cm of the soils of the
world is 1462-1548 Pg of C (Table 6). The stone-free value of
1548 Pg C agrees well with the 1576 Pg of C published by
Eswaran et al., (1993), who based their study on a map of the
Major Soil Regions of the World which uses the USDA Soil
Taxonomy (USDA, 1975) to group the soils. This means that
comparable results for the soil carbon pool in the upper 100 cm
have now been obtained using different approaches to soil
classification and mapping. Sombroek et al., (1993), however,
obtained a somewhat smaller estimate of 1220 Pg C in the top
100 cm using the digital Soil Map ofthe World (FAO, 1991)
and about 400 profile descriptions.
The total content of carbon in organic soil varies with peat
fibre and ash contents. Reserves of carbon in the top 100 cm of
the worlds peat soils have been estimated variously at 300 Pg
of C (Sjors, 1980), 202-377 Pg of C (Adams et al., 1990), and
357 Pg of C (Eswaran et al., 1993). The figures of Sjijrs (1980)
and Eswaran et al., (1993) are comparable with the 330 Pg of
C found in the current study. Estimates for the other depth
increments are 120 Pg of C for the first 30 cm and 679 Pg of C
for the upper 200 cm, respectively.

57

49
31
59
44
49
50
48
40
52
42
39
44

70
69
81
71
75
72
62
62
66
13
67
58
14

62
66
68
67
60
69
62
58
64

11

11
18
13
23
15
18
18
15
24
25
18
19
20
19
16
15

15
17
21

aA stands for the ratio of organic carbon of 0-30 cm divided by that in the
0-100 cm zone, and B for the ratio of the 0-50 cm divided by that in the
0- 100 cm zone. Both the mean and coefficient of variation (CV) are given
as percentages.

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal of

Soil Science, 47, 151-163

Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world

159

Table 4 Distribution of soil nitrogen content for three depth intervals by FAO-UNESCO soil unit (kg N m-)
0-30 cm

0-50 cm

0-100 cm

Soil unit

Mean

cv

Mean

cv

Mean

cv

Acrisols
Cambisols
Chernozems
Podzoluvisols
Rendzinas
Ferralsols
Gleysols
Phaeozems
Lithosols
Fluvisols
Kastanozems
Luvisols
Greyzems
Nitosols
Hisosols
Podzol
Arenosols
Regosols
Solonetz
Andosols
Rankers
Vertisols
Planosols
Xerosols
Yermosols
Solonchaks

0.48
0.58
0.88
0.54
1.05
0.46
0.75
0.71
0.42
0.50
0.68
0.45
0.96
0.49
1.61
0.8 1
0.22
0.45
0.45
0.91
2.18
0.50
0.41
0.33
0.15
0.27

82
84
41
44

237
353
32
5
16
198
141
157
4
I84
17
213
3
34
26
61
35
49
35
124
4
147
33
29
26
31

0.66
0.77
1.22
0.55
0.64
0.97
0.98
0.72
0.98
0.63
1.32
0.68
2.38
1.01
0.33
0.57
0.67
1.31
0.75
0.55
0.43
0.25
0.44

78
71
39
20
54
13
54
339
41
65
52
50
63
76
73
95
64
54
50
54
43
82
62

205
286
31
4
0
187
91
130
0
158
14
175
3
32
26
52
27
38
25

1.10
1.12
1.70
0.16
0.97
1.34
1.51
1.23
1.78
1.03
1.92

74
71
48
-

137
142
17

101

57
78
61
132
304
40
66
57
50
67
84
71
100

79
54
I22
58
57
45
88
68

111
0

118
28
21
16
25

1 .oo

4.01
1.39
0.52
0.70
1.11
1.99
1.23
1

.oo

0.58
0.37
0.75

48
102
53
399
28
60
40
51
55

76
67
72
51
57
42
47
54
103
58

0
126
51
68

0
83
2
83
3
26
19
29
20
19
7
66
0
55

12
6
3
15

CV is coefficient of variation (%); n is the number of observation per depth interval; depth interval for Lithosols is 0- 10 cm.

Various authors have estimated the amount of organic

carbon in the soil of the tropics. Estimates for the first 100 cm
depth are 496 Pg of C (Kimble et al., 1990) and 506 Pg of C
(Eswaran et al., 1993). Based on the current study, soil organic
carbon in the tropics is 201-213 Pg C for 0-30-cm,
384-403 Pg C for 0-100-cm, and 616-640 Pg of C for
the 0-200-cm depth range, respectively. The values for
0-30 cm illustrate again the large amount of C that might be
mobilized following deforestation and conversion to grasslands, as is currently the case in the Amazon Basin (Detwiler,
1986; Veldkamp, 1993). Fisher et al. (1994) drew attention to
the important role of deep tropical soils and tropical land use in
the global carbon cycle.

The mean carbonate-C content (assuming 12% C in CaC03)

of the individual soil subunits has been used to calculate the
worlds soil carbonate carbon stocks, thereby accounting for
observed differences in carbonate-C content between the
various subunits of a particular FAO-UNESCO soil unit
(e.g. calcic versus dystric Cambisols). The total carbonate-C
pool estimated with this approach is 222-245 Pg of C for the
upper 30 cm, and 695-748 Pg of C for the upper 100 cm. The
latter figure accords with earlier findings of 780-930 Pg
(Schlesinger, 1982) and 720 Pg of carbonate-C (Sombroek et
al., 1993). No attempt has been made to estimate the amount
of carbonate-C held in deeper soil layers (100-200 cm)
because of the limited data.

Carbonate carbon. Inorganic carbon in the soil occurs

largely in carbonate minerals, such as calcium carbonate
(CaC03) and dolomite (MgC03). Some types of soil, particularly the acid and strongly weathered ones, do not contain
appreciable amounts of inorganic carbon because the
carbonates originally present in the parent material have been
dissolved. Large carbonate concentrations are common in the
soil of dry areas, as well as in soil formed over calcareous
parent materials such as the Rendzinas and some Lithosols.

Total carbon. Total carbon in soil, defined as being the sum

of both the organic and carbonate carbon, is estimated to be
2 157-2293 Pg of C for the upper 100 cm. This is about 300 Pg
of C more than the amount estimated by Sombroek et al.
(1993), which is largely the result of Sombroek et al.s smaller
estimate of soil organic carbon.

0 1996 Blackwell

Soil nitrogen. The methodology used to estimate carbon

pools was also used for soil nitrogen, giving global estimates

Science Ltd, European Journal of Soil Science, 47, 151- 163

160 N.H.Batjes
Table 5 Distribution of C:N ratios as a function of depth by FAO-UNESCO soil units
0-30 cm

30-50 cm

50- 100 cm

Soil unit

Mean

cv

Mean

cv

Mean

cv

Acrisols
Cambisols
Chernozems
Podzoluvisols
Rendzinas
Ferralsols
Gleysols
Phaeozems
Lithosols
Fluvisols
Kastanozems
Luvisols
Greyzems
Nitosols
Histosols
Podzols

42
44
28
39
37
40
45
25
33
52
60
42
36
54
59
47
54

604
836
73

10.1
9.7
10.7
7.4
12.6
11.2
10.0
11.3
8.8
9.9
11.0
9.8
29.8
21.5
12.6
9.6
10.5
13.8

44
46
37
39

149
209
26
3
138
79
122
95
10
135

8.9
9.0
9.4
7.5

Yermosols
Solonchaks

11.7

52
62
49
30
58
65
44
67
17
52
35
69
42
52
69
75
51
63
42
40
31
60
46

205
230
29

Xerosols

13.2
11.5
10.8
13.6
11.2
14.3
12.6
11.4
11.1
11.2
10.6
11.6
8.9
12.6
25.8
23.8
14.2
13.5
12.2
13.3
17.1
13.3
11.5
9.9

Arenosols

Regosols
Solonetz
Andosols
Rankers
Vertisols
Planosols

11.1

51

45
48
42
34
44
30
39
54

15

48
48 1
364
347
6
39 1
46
537
17
84
57
198
97
141
96
274
11
34 1
99
90
84
77

12.5
10.3
9.2
10.5
9.2

of 63-67 Pg of N to a depth of 30 cm, and 133- 140 Pg of N to

a depth of 100 cm. The latter values are somewhat greater than
the 92- 117 Pg of N calculated using an ecosystems approach
(Zinke et al., 1984), possibly because most profile descriptions
in WISE originated from agricultural soils which may have
been amended with N fertilizers. By comparison, about 10 Pg
of N is held in the plant biomass and about 2 Pg N in the
microbial biomass (Davidson, 1994).

Discussion and conclusions

Revised estimates for the world soil carbon and nitrogen pools
are presented using the WISE database. The estimated soil
organic carbon content of 1462-1548 Pg of C in the upper
0-100 cm compares well with the findings of Eswaran et al.
(1993). Large amounts of organic carbon, which are not yet
considered in most global C-budgets (see IPCC, 1992), are
also stored between depths of 100 and 200 cm. Much of this
deeper carbon occurs in fairly stable forms, and therefore will
not contribute much to current gaseous emissions.
Various sources of uncertainty in making global calculations
of soil carbon and nitrogen pools, such as representativeness,
quality and reliability of the various data sources, have been

49
56
29
61
11

54
-

49
46
59
70
36
65
61
41
71
42
30
41

24
21
42
18
23
20
91
-

54
22
14
10

19

11.8
10.4
8.9
10.4

8.6
9.4
8.6
8.6
22.3
24.5
9.9
10.2
8.8
14.3
12.5
7.9
7.0
10.9
8.5

183

93
139
127

6
140
3
37
30

55
22
19
18
I I9
100
21
7
6
22

discussed. Enhanced statistical confidence in the results will

require more profiles per soil subunit, stratified per agroecological zone, and a probabilistic basis for sampling. The
information (FAO-UNESCO, 1971 - 1981) on the extent of
different soil types in the world also needs to be updated
(Sombroek, 1990; Oldeman & Van Engelen, 1993). This type
of information is becoming increasingly critical to enable
changes in soil properties induced by land use changes,
atmospheric pollution, and predicted climate change (Arnold
et al., 1990; Stigliani et al., 1991) to be determined.
Over long periods of time, carbon storage in the soil varies
mainly as a result of climatic, geological and soil-forming
factors (Adams et al., 1990), whilst over shorter periods of
time it is mainly vegetation disturbances or succession, and
changes in land use patterns that affect storage. Because the
carbon and nitrogen data in the WISE database were compiled
from field samples collected over the last 20-30 years, they do
not represent the C- and N-content of the world's soil at any
single point in time. Rather, they provide a global estimate of
C- and N-pools.
At present, changes from forest to grassland and agriculture
especially have a marked effect on the oxidation of superficial
soil carbon stocks, enhancing emissions of COz and other trace

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd. European Journal of Soil Science. 47,

151-163

Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils ofthe world

Table 6 World soil carbon and nitrogen pools (in Pg of C and N.
respectively)

N-mineralization, denitrification and cation leaching associated with eutrophication, acidification and toxification as well
as effects of depletion in the ozone layer and enhanced
ultraviolet-B radiation on flora and fauna are also important in
this context (Brookes & McGrath, 1984; Davidson, 1994;
Caldwell et al., 1995). In view of all these interrelations, which
are strongly influenced by changes in socio-economic, technological and environmental factors, the reliability of any model
prediction of the dynamics and evolution of soil organic matter
pools remains open to debate. Land-atmosphere models
(Mellilo, 1994; Goldewijk et al., 1994; Schimel, 1995), however, are critical to study the possible effects of different
scenarios of land use and climatic change on soil carbon and
nitrogen pools.

Depth range/cm
Region

0-30

0-100

0-200

201-213
72-79
273-292
20-22

384-403
203-218
587-621
42-44

616-640
-

483-51 1
150- 166
633-677
43-45

1078-1145
492 -530
1570- 1675
91-96

1760-1816

Tropical regionsa

Soil carbon
Organic-C
Carbonate-C
Total
Soil Nitrogen

Other regions

Soil carbon
Organic-C
Carbonate-C
Total
Soil Nitrogen

Acknowledgements
The WISE database has been developed at ISRIC in the
framework of the Dutch National Research Programme on
Global Air Pollution and Climate Change (Project 851039).
The assistance of staff members of the USDA Soil Conservation Service (NRCS), Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), ISRIC, and a wide range of national soil survey
organizations in providing descriptions of representatative soil
profiles for the WISE database is gratefully acknowledged.
The contributions of Dr E. M. Bridges in compiling the
profile database and of Dr F. 0. Nachtergaele (FAO) in
developing the gridding procedure for the spatial component of
the WISE database are specially acknowledged.

World

Soil carbon
Organic-C
Carbonate-C
Total
Soil Nitrogen

684-724
222-245
906-969
63-67

1462-1548
695-748
2 1 57 -2296
133-140

161

2376-2456
-

"The tropics have been defined as the region bounded by latitude 23.5"N
and 23.53. The first estimate for the mineral soils is 'without' stones.

gases to the atmosphere (IPCC, 1992). One effect of the

predicted global warming will be to accelerate the decomposition of soil organic matter at an overall rate of 1 1-34 Pg of
C per degree Celsius of warming (Schimel, 1995), thereby
releasing COz to the atmosphere which will further enhance
the warming trend. Studies on the C 0 2 'fertilization effect' and
the associated physiological decrease in the transpiration of
crops (Bazzaz & Fajer, 1992) suggest that net primary
production may increase. This would lead to more carbon
being returned to the soil and so thereby curb the increase in
atmospheric COz content caused by fossil fuel combustion and
biomass burning (Goudriaan & Unsworth, 1990; Sombroek et
al., 1993); a phenomenon for which experimental evidence
now exists (Francey et al., 1995).
An increased concentration of C in the soil will accelerate
microbial processes, as will warmer and moister soil
(Davidson, 1994). However, it appears that concentrations of
N and other major nutrients in woody and herbaceous species
might decrease as the concentration of atmospheric COz
increases (Overdieck, 1990; CoOteaux et al., 1995). This might
result in a gradual decrease in the degradability of plant
residues by microbes (Lekkerkerk et al., 1990) and possibly to
nutrient stress in natural ecosystems. Consequently, the overall
quality and degradability of plant organic matter might
decrease (Bradbury & Powlson, 1994; CoOteaux et al.,
1995), which would then lead to an accumulation of organic
matter in soil (Lekkerkerk et al., 1990). Changes in N-fixation,

0 1996 Blackwell Science Ltd, European Journal ofsoil Science, 47,

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