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Chapter 6 in Off-Road Vehicle Engineering Principles, 111-130. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers.
CHAPTER 6
ENGINE DESIGN
6.1 Introduction
A number of design problems must be solved to achieve a successful engine
design. Some general considerations include choice of the number of cylinders, bore
and stroke to achieve the desired power output. The load factor must be considered in
choosing the speed at which to rate the engine. Certain events must be timed to the
crankshaft rotation to achieve successful operation. Reciprocating and torsional
imbalances must be considered to avoid excessive vibration. A flywheel must be
designed to smooth the torque impulses generated via the pistons, connecting rods and
crankshaft. A harmonic balancer may be needed to protect the crankshaft from
premature failure. All of these issues are considered in Chapter 6.
(6.1)
Engines in tractors, heavy-duty trucks and other working vehicles have a much
higher load factor than automotive engines. An automotive engine typically uses only
a small fraction of its maximum available power while cruising at typical speeds on a
highway, but may need to accelerate the engine to very high speed and use maximum
power for brief periods. For example, an automobile engine might produce its
maximum power for a brief period while accelerating to 5000 rev/min when the
automobile is passing another vehicle on a two-lane road, but might have a normal
load factor of 0.3 while cruising at 2000 rev/min. Conversely, a tractor engine might
run at 2000 rev/min with a load factor close to one for long periods of time while
112
113
180 cy
n
(6.2)
where
AFI = average firing interval in crankshaft degrees
cy = 2 for two-cycle engines or 4 for four-cycle engines
n = number of cylinders in the engine
The firing order (FO) is simply the order in which the cylinders fire. In a twocylinder, four-cycle engine, the firing order is 1 - 2, and the average firing interval is
360. Because of the crankshaft arrangement, however, the firing intervals are not
uniform (Figure 6.1a). There are two power strokes in one crankshaft revolution,
followed by another revolution in which there are no power strokes. The student can
determine AFIs for engines with three or more cylinders, all of which have uniform
firing intervals. If the front half of the crankshaft in Figure 6.1c was used as the
crankshaft of a three-cylinder engine with a firing order of 1 - 2 - 3, the firing intervals
would be non-uniform. Instead, crank throws 2 and 3 are reversed from those shown
in Figure 6.1c, so that piston 3 reaches HDC before piston 2. The reader can verify
that the firing intervals of such a three-cylinder engine are uniform at 240.
More than one firing order is possible for some multi-cylinder engines. A firing
order tree is used to display all possible firing orders of an engine. The six-cylinder
engine will be used to illustrate the preparation of a firing order tree. The tree begins
with the firing of cylinder No. 1. The end view of the crankshaft in Figure 6.1c shows
that either cylinder 2 or 5 would be in position to fire next. Thus, two branches are
started on the tree. After either 2 or 5 fires, either 3 or 4 must fire, giving two choices
for each of the first two branches for a total of 4 branches. Next, either 1 or 6 is in
position to fire, but 1 has already fired. Thus, cylinder 6 is the only choice and the tree
branches cease multiplying. The rest of the tree is completed easily. Either 2 or 5 are
in position for fire next but, in the branch 1 - 2 - 3 - 6, for example, 2 has already fired
and the next element in the branch must be cylinder 5. By similar logic, the last
element in this branch must be cylinder 4. The full tree is shown below.
3-6-5-4
2
4-6-5-3
1
3-6-2-4
5
4-6-2-3
114
(A)
Cylinder No.
1
Power
Compression
Exhaust
Power
Intake
Exhaust
Compression
Intake
0
180
360
540
720
(B)
Crankshaft
Angle, deg.
0
Cylinder No.
1
Power
Compression
Intake
Exhaust
Exhaust
Power
Compression
Intake
Intake
Exhaust
Power
Compression
Compression
Intake
Exhaust
Power
180
360
540
720
(C)
Figure 6.1. Firing order sequences for several engines (continued on next page).
115
(D)
Crankshaft
Angle,
deg
0
90
630
720
Intake
Exhaust
Intake
Intake
540
Compression
Cylinder No.
4
5
Intake
Exhaust
360
450
Power
180
270
Compression
CompresPower
sion
Power
Exhaust
Compression
Compression
Power
Power
Power
Intake
Power
CompresExhaust
sion
Exhaust
Exhaust
Exhaust
Intake
Power
Intake
CompresExhaust
sion
Intake
Compression
Figure 6.1. Firing order sequences for several engines (continued from previous page).
116
The need to balance air delivery to the various cylinders influences the choice of
which firing order is actually used. A typical intake manifold for a six-cylinder sparkignition engine is shown in Figure 6.2. The design is often called the Siamese-twin
design because each branch serves two cylinders. Note that, if either of the FO
branches beginning 1 - 2 were selected, there would be two consecutive air surges to
the front branch of the manifold and then oscillation between the center and rear
branches for remaining air surges. For uniform air delivery, it is better to eliminate the
two consecutive surges in a single branch by selecting a FO beginning with 1 - 5. By
far the most common firing order used for six-cylinder engines is
1-5-3-6-2-4
With this introduction, the student can work out firing orders and firing order trees
for any engine.
117
piston begins moving toward HDC; thus, intake valve closure (ivc, when the valve
becomes fully closed) occurs well into the compression stroke. Due to diminishing gas
pressure and unfavorable crank geometry, there is little torque production during the
latter part of the power stroke. Thus, exhaust valve opening (evo, when the valve just
starts to open) occurs well before crank dead center (CDC). The exhaust valve is kept
open throughout the exhaust stroke, so exhaust valve closure (evc, when the valve is
fully closed) occurs after HDC. Note that there is valve overlap, i.e., the intake and
exhaust valves are open simultaneously for a small part of the cycle. Some of the
exhaust gas can move into the intake ports because of the overlap, resulting in dilution
of the incoming charge in a SI engine. A richer mixture is needed at low idle to
overcome this dilution.
The optimum valve timing is a function of engine speed. The valve events are
closest to the respective ends of the piston strokes at low engine speeds and move
VALVE OVERLAP
HDC
10 10
IVO
EVC
C
E
50 50
EVO
IVC
CDC
C = COMPRESSION
E = EXHAUST
P = POWER
I = INTAKE
IVO = INTAKE VALVE OPENS
IVC = INTAKE VALVE CLOSES
EVC = EXHAUST VALVE CLOSES
IVO = EXHAUST VALVE OPENS
Figure 6.3. Typical valve-timing spiral for an engine.
118
farther away from these dead centers as the engine speed increases. At present, it is
impractical to change the valve timing while the engine is running, so the timing is
compromised to provide maximum airflow over the normal range of engine speeds.
However, engine manufacturers are working on electro-hydraulically actuated valves
whose timing could be changed as a function of engine speed.
119
Through the binomial series expansion, Equation 6.3 can be simplified to the
following approximate equation:
S
R
= 1 cos +
sin 2
R
2L
(6.4)
R
sin 2]
2L
(6.5)
where
v = dS/dt = piston velocity, m/s
= d/dt = crankshaft speed, rad/s
Note that is used instead of N to avoid the need for conversion factors in the pistoncrank dynamics equations. However, = (2/60) N.
By setting the derivative of Equation 6.5 equal to zero, the maximum piston speed
can be shown to occur when the crankshaft is at
= arccos[
L
8R 2
(-1 + 1 + 2 )]
4R
L
(6.6)
Typically, the L/R ratio is close to three and, from Equation 6.6, the maximum
piston speed occurs when the crankshaft is 1.27 to 1.31 radians (73 to 75) from
120
HDC. Differentiating Equation 6.5 gives the following equation for piston
acceleration:
a = R2 [cos +
R
cos 2]
L
(6.7)
where a = piston acceleration, m/s2. Note that maximum acceleration occurs at HDC
and at CDC. From Equation 6.7, using Newton's second law, the piston inertia force is
given by
R
F = mR2 [cos + cos 2]
(6.8)
L
where
F = inertial force, N
m = translational mass, kg
The connecting rod is seldom analyzed separately. Instead, part of its mass is assigned
to the piston and part to the crankshaft pin (see Figure 6.5 for illustration of
connecting rod geometry) as
m c1 =
b
mc
L
(6.9)
and
m c2 =
Lb
mc
L
121
(6.10)
where
mc = mass of connecting rod, kg
mc1 = translational mass assigned to piston, kg
mc2 = rotational mass assigned to crankpin, kg
b = distance from crankpin center to center of gravity of connecting rod, m
The appropriate mass to use in Equation 6.8 is the mass of the piston and piston pin,
plus mass mc1.
R
cos 2) + ( m e + m c 2 ) R2 cos
L
(6.11)
where
mp = mass of piston and piston pin, kg
me = equivalent mass at the crankpin, kg
The equivalent mass at the crankpin includes the crankpin and counterweights, and
can be calculated using
me =
m cp R + 2m ca R a 2m cb R b
R
(6.12)
where
me = equivalent mass at crankpin, kg
mcp = mass of crankpin, kg
mca = material mass supporting crankpin, kg
mcb = counterweight mass opposite crankpin, kg
R = crankpin radius = half of piston stroke, m
Ra = radius to center of gravity of mca, m
Rb = radius to center of mass mcb, m
See Figure 6.5 for identification of the masses and radii in Equation 6.12. The first
term in Equation 6.11 arises from the reciprocating masses, while the second term is
the x-direction component of the rotating mass. In addition, the rotating mass produces
a force Fy perpendicular to the crankshaft centerline and to Fx, i.e.,
Fy = ( m e + m c 2 ) R2 sin
(6.13)
From Equation 6.11, note that the oscillating force, Fx has two frequency components,
one at crankshaft speed (called the primary shaking force) and one at twice crankshaft
122
speed (called the secondary shaking force). From Equation 6.12, by using large
counterweights, the equivalent mass, me, could be made sufficiently negative to
completely cancel out the primary shaking force, but at the cost of generating a large
lateral oscillating force, Fy. As a compromise in single-cylinder engines, the
crankshaft counterweights are made large enough to cancel out about half of the
primary shaking force, Fx.
Primary Force,
N
Secondary Force,
N
Primary Couple,
N.m
Secondary
Couple, N.m
1
2
K[a]
Zero
KR/L
2KR/L
Zero
Ka
Zero
Zero
Zero
Zero
4
Zero
4KR/L
6
Zero
Zero
[a]
Half of this force can be counterbalanced.
All forces and couples are in a vertical plane.
Standard crankshafts are assumed, as shown in Figure 6.1.
K = mR2
= crankshaft rotational speed, rad/sec
R = crank-throw radius, m
L = connecting rod length, m
a = spacing between cylinders, m
3 Ka
Zero
Zero
3 KaR/L
Zero
Zero
123
cos
2
L
sin 2
2
R
] sin
(6.14)
124
where
T = instantaneous torque, N.m
Fp = instantaneous force on piston, N
R = crank-throw radius, m
125
The force on the piston at any time is the piston top area multiplied by the
instantaneous cylinder pressure. The radial force, Qr, is also of interest, since it
provides loading on the main bearings. It is
R 2
sin
Qr
L
= cos
(6.15)
Fp
R2
2
1 2 sin
L
Neither the instantaneous torque nor the radial bearing loads can be calculated until
the cylinder pressure is known as a function of crank angle. Figure 6.7 shows
instantaneous torque for a specific CI engine. Inserting the engine L/R ratio into
Equation 6.14 produced the diagram T/FpR shown at the top of Figure 6.7. The middle
graph shows instantaneous cylinder pressures as measured with a transducer, and the
bottom graph shows instantaneous torques. The piston strokes and valve events are
also shown on the diagram. Note that the exhaust valve was opened well before CDC,
to permit the early start of the exhaust process with very little loss of instantaneous
torque.
126
Figure 6.8. Total instantaneous torque curves for four- and six-cylinder engines.
Engine Type
One-cylinder
Two-cylinder
Three-cylinder
Four-cylinder
Six-cylinder
2.40
1.50
0.70
0.30
0.10
60,000 Pb
N eem
(6.17)
where
Pb = brake power, kW
em = mechanical efficiency, decimal (estimated at 0.8 when Pb is full load)
The inertia calculated using Equation 6.16 is the total inertia required to control the
speed variation through each engine cycle. The clutch may contribute up to 40% of the
required inertia, leaving 60% to be provided by the flywheel itself.
127
128
two types of flexible connections. One is a spring-loaded friction disk between the
small flywheel and the pulley. The other consists of rubber bushings around the bolts
that hold the small flywheel to the pulley. Of course, only one type is used in each
installation. In attempting to transmit the oscillations from the pulley to the small
flywheel, the flexible connection tends to convert the vibrational energy to heat, which
is dissipated by convection and radiation. In absorbing the vibrational energy, the
vibration damper thus prevents crankshaft failure. The modification to the front pulley
is called either a vibration dampener or a harmonic balancer. Typically, a vibration
dampener is used on in-line, six-cylinder engines, but not on four-cylinder engines.
129
Homework Problems
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
(a) Prepare a firing order tree for a four-cylinder engine with a standard
crankshaft.
(b) Calculate the average firing interval for this engine if it is a four-stroke cycle
engine.
Rework Problem 6.1, except the engine is a three-cylinder engine.
Draw a complete valve timing spiral for an engine with the following valve
events: ivo, 12 bHDC; ivc, 48 aCDC; evo, 50 bCDC; evc, 10 aHDC. Label
all strokes and all valve events.
Draw a complete valve timing spiral for an engine with the following valve
events: ivo, 8 bHDC; ivc, 55 aCDC; evo, 47 bCDC; evc, 12 aHDC. Label all
strokes and all valve events.
(a) Assuming L/R = 3.0, plot S/R for one complete revolution of the crankshaft
using Equation 6.3.
(b) On the same graph, plot S/R using Equation 6.4.
(c) Comment on the extent to which the approximate equation (6.4) is accurate
in calculating piston movement.
Rework Problem 6.5, but use an L/R ratio of 3.2.
(a) Assuming L/R = 3.0 and using Equation 6.5, plot normalized piston velocity,
V/R, for one complete revolution of the crankshaft.
(b) On the same graph, mark the crank angle at which maximum piston velocity
occurs as indicated by Equation 6.6.
(c) Does the crank angle of (b) agree with the maximum velocity plot of (a)?
Rework Problem 6.7, but use L/R = 2.95.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the one-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the two-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the three-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the four-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Using Equation 6.14, plot T/FpR for one complete revolution of the crankshaft.
Plot three curves on the same graph, one each for L/R = 2.8, 3.0, and 3.2. How
much influence does the L/R ratio have on the curves?
Rework problem 6.13, but plot curves for L/R = 2.9, 3.1, and 3.3.
Using Equation 6.15, plot Q/Fp for one complete revolution of the crankshaft.
Plot three curves on the same graph, one each for L/R = 2.8, 3.0, and 3.2. How
much influence does the L/R ratio have on the curves? At what crank angle
130
would the absolute bearing load be greatest? (Note that the cylinder pressure at
HDC is not the same as at CDC).
6.16 Rework problem 6.15, except plot curves L/R = 2.9, 3.1, and 3.3.
6.17 Derive Equation 6.16. (Hint: Let E = the change in rotational kinetic energy
between the states of maximum and minimum cyclic speeds.)
6.18 You are to evaluate possible rated speeds for a four-cylinder, four-cycle engine
with displacement of 4.8 L.
(a) Assuming the brake mean effective pressure is 800 kPa, calculate and plot
the brake power output for speeds ranging from 2000 to 2400 rev/min.
(b) On another graph, plot the required inertia of the flywheel-clutch assembly if
the cyclic speed is to vary no more than 0.5% from the mean crankshaft speed.
6.19 Rework Problem 6.15, but use a six-cylinder engine with a displacement of
7.2 L.
6.20 Rework Problem 6.15, but use a two-cylinder engine with a displacement of
2.4 L.
6.21 Rework Problem 6.15, but use a three-cylinder engine with a displacement of
3.6 L.