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Review
Abstract
Chitin is the most abundant natural amino polysaccharide and is estimated to be produced annually almost as much as
cellulose. It has become of great interest not only as an underutilized resource, but also as a new functional material of high
potential in various fields, and recent progress in chitin chemistry is quite noteworthy. The purpose of this review is to take a
closer look at chitin and chitosan applications. Based on current research and existing products, some new and futuristic
approaches in this fascinating area are thoroughly discussed. 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Beads; Biotechnology; Chitin; Chitosan; Controlled drug delivery; Fibers; Nanoparticles; Hydrogels; Tablets; Transdermal
devices
1. Introduction
Chitin, a naturally abundant mucopolysaccharide, and the supporting material of crustaceans, insects, etc., is well known to consist of
2-acetamido-2-deoxy-b-D-glucose through a b
(1 4) linkage. Chitin can be degraded by
chitinase. Its immunogenicity is exceptionally
low, in spite of the presence of nitrogen. It is a
highly insoluble material resembling cellulose
in its solubility and low chemical reactivity. It
may be regarded as cellulose with hydroxyl at
q
This paper is dedicated to Professor M.N.V. Prasad, Ph.D.,
FNIE (New Delhi), DSc. (hc Colombo), School of Life Sciences,
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India, who inspired me with
his scientific approach, honesty and human warmth.
*Post Bag No. 29, Roorkee 247 667, India. Fax: 191-133273560.
E-mail address: mnvrkumar@mailcity.com (M.N.V. Ravi
Kumar).
1381-5148 / 00 / $ see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S1381-5148( 00 )00038-9
Scheme 1.
Table 1
Chitin derivatives and their proposed uses
Derivative
Examples
Potential uses
N-Acyl chitosans
Textiles, membranes
and medical aids
N-Carboxyalkyl
(aryl) chitosans
Chromatographic
media and metal
ion collection
N-Carboxyacyl
chitosans
From anhydrides such as maleic, itaconic, acetylthiosuccinic, glutaric, cyclohexane 1,2-dicarboxylic, phthalic, cis-tetrahydrophthalic, 5-norbornene-2,3-dicarboxylic, diphenic, salicylic, trimellitic, pyromellitic anhydride
o-Carboxyalkyl
chitosans
Molecular sieves,
viscosity builders,
and metal ion collection
Sugar derivatives
1-Deoxygalactic-1-yl-, 1-deoxyglucit-1-yl-,
1-deoxymelibiit-1-yl-, 1-deoxylactit-1-yl-,
1-deoxylactit-1-yl-4(2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl)-, 1-deoxy-69-aldehydolactit-1-yl-,
1-deoxy-69-aldehydomelibiit-1-yl-, cellobiit-1-ylchitosans, products obtained from ascorbic acid
Catalyst, photography,
health products, and
insecticides
Semisynthetic resins
of chitosan
Textiles
Flocculation and
metal ion chelation
Intermediate, serine
protease purification
Desalting filtration,
dialysis and insulating
papers
Enzymology, dialysis
and special papers
Enzyme
immobilization
Food additive and
anticholesterolemic
6. Applications
The interest in chitin originates from the
study of the behaviour and chemical characteristics of lysozyme, an enzyme present in human
body fluids [70]. A wide variety of medical
applications for chitin and chitin derivatives
have been reported over the last three decades
[7173]. It has been suggested that chitosan
may be used to inhibit fibroplasia in wound
healing and to promote tissue growth and
differentiation in tissue culture [74].
The poor solubility of chitin is the major
limiting factor in its utilization. Despite this
limitation, various applications of chitin and
modified chitins have been reported, e.g. as raw
material for man-made fibres [54]. Fibres made
of chitin and chitosan are useful as absorbable sutures and wound-dressing materials
[58,75,76]. Chitin sutures resist attack in bile,
urine and pancreatic juice, which are problem
areas with other absorbable sutures [58]. It has
been claimed that wound dressings made of
chitin and chitosan fibres have applications in
wastewater treatment. Here, the removal of
heavy metal ions by chitosan through chelation
has received much attention [70,77]. Their use
in the apparal industry, with a much larger
scope, could be a long-term possibility [78].
6.1. Photography
Chitosan has important applications in photography due to its resistance to abrasion, its
optical characteristics, and film forming ability.
Silver complexes are not appreciably retained
by chitosan and therefore can easily be penetrated from one layer to another of a film by
diffusion [70].
6.2. Cosmetics
For cosmetic applications, organic acids are
usually good solvents, chitin and chitosan have
fungicidal and fungistatic properties. Chitosan is
the only natural cationic gum that becomes
viscous on being neutralized with acid. These
materials are used in creams, lotions and permanent waving lotions and several derivatives have
also been reported as nail lacquers [78].
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for digestion of milk lactose. Cows milk contains only a limited amount of the NAG moiety,
hence some infants fed cows milk may have
indigestion. Many animals and some humans
(including the elderly) have similar lactose
intolerances [96,97].
Animal nutritional studies have shown that
the utilization of whey may be improved if the
diet contains small amounts of chitinous material. This improvement is attributed to the change
in the intestinal microflora brought about by the
chitinous supplement [98]. Chickens fed a commercial broiler diet containing 20% dried whey
and 2 or 0.5% chitin had significantly improved
weight again compared to controls [99,100].
The feed efficiency ratio shifted from 2.5 to
2.38 due to incorporation of chitin in the feed
[100].
6.5. Opthalmology
Chitosan possesses all the characteristics required for making an ideal contact lens: optical
clarity, mechanical stability, sufficient optical
correction, gas permeability, particularly towards oxygen, wettability and immunological
compatibility. Contact lenses are made from
partially depolymerized and purified squid pen
chitosan by spin casting technology and these
contact lenses are clear, tough and possess other
required physical properties such as modulus,
tensile strength, tear strength, elongation, water
content and oxygen permeability. The antimicrobial and wound healing properties of
chitosan along with an excellent film capability
make chitosan suitable for development of
ocular bandage lenses [101].
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release dosage forms enhance the safety, efficacy and reliability of drug therapy. They regulate
the drug release rate and reduce the frequency
of drug administration to encourage patients to
comply with dosing instructions. Conventional
dosage forms often lead to wide swings in
serum drug concentrations. Most of the drug
content is released soon after administration,
causing drug levels in the body to rise rapidly,
peak and then decline sharply. For drugs whose
actions correlate with their serum drug concentration, the sharp fluctuations often cause
unacceptable side-effects at the peaks, followed
by inadequate therapy at the troughs (Fig. 2)
[119].
A new dimension is the incorporation of
biodegradability into the system. A number of
degradable polymers are potentially useful for
this purpose, including synthetic as well as
natural substances [119132]. The release of
drugs, absorbed or encapsulated by polymers,
involves their slow and controllable diffusion
from / through polymeric materials. Production
of slow release (SR) drugs by the pharmaceutical industry is now a matter of routine.
Drugs covalently attached to biodegradable
polymers or dispersed in a polymeric matrix of
such macromolecules may be released by erosion / degradation of the polymer. Therapeutic
molecules, complexed by polymers, may also be
released from gels by diffusion.
Chitosan is non-toxic and easily bioabsorbable [74] with gel-forming ability at low pH.
Moreover, chitosan has antacid and antiulcer
activities which prevent or weaken drug irrita-
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