SUITABLE TREES FOR URBAN ECOSYSTEM WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON

ORNAMENTAL TREES

THE CASE OF BAHIR DAR TOWN, NORTH WEST ETHIOPIA

M.Sc. THESIS
ABRAHAM DEMEKRISTOS DIRRES

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN URBAN FORESTRY AND
GREENING
HAWASSA UNIVERSITY
WONDOGENET COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
WONDO GENET, ETHIOPIA
AUGUST, 2011

Thesis entitled

SUITABLE TREES FOR URBAN ECOSYTEM WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON

ORNAMENTA TREES
THE CASE OF BAHIR DAR TOWN, NORTH WEST ETHIOPIA

WAS SUBMITTED TO WONDO GENET COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
ON AUGUST 20, 2011

ii

Approval Sheet- 1
This is to certify that the thesis entitled Suitable Trees For Urban Ecosystem with Special
Focus on Ornamental Trees: In the Case of Bahir Dar Town, North West Ethiopia
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
with specialization in Urban Forestry and Greening of the Graduate Program of the
Department of Forestry, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, and is a
record of original research carried out by Abraham Demekristos Dirres, Id. No.
MSc/211/02, under my supervision, and no part of the thesis has been submitted for any
other degree or diploma.
The assistance and help received during the course of this investigation have been
duly acknowledged. Therefore, I recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the
thesis requirements.
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OR
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iii

Approval Sheet- 2
We, the undersigned, members of the Board of Examiners of the final open
defense by Abraham Demekristos Dirres have read and evaluated his thesis entitled
Suitable Trees for Urban Ecosystem with Special Focus on Ornamental Trees: In the Case
of Bahir Dar Town, North West Ethiopia and examined the candidate. This is,
therefore, to certify that the thesis has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Forestry.
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Signature

Date

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iv

Acknowledgement
At the outset I would like to thank my advisors for their guidance, kindness, encouragement and
support during the course of the study and thesis paper writings. This thesis is the result of a
great expenditure of time and effort of Dr. Gessesse Dessie, and Dr. Zerihun Mohammed. My
deepest gratitude extends to Mr. Bob Sturtevant and his wife Nancy, Peace Corps Volunteer and
Prof. Dr. Beate Birkigt-Quentin, Landscape Architect for their constructive comments of my
thesis. I owe my deepest gratitude to the Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute, and
Adet Agricultural Research Center, who introduced to my career, and gave me opportunity to
study and for logistic support during field data collection. I would also like to express my
appreciation to Bahir Dar City Service especially W/ro Tsehay Fentahun and in EPA Ato Admasu
Molla and in ARUPI Office, particularly to Ato Mulualem Azeze, who provided me unreserved
kind support during the early phase of the field work, with basic data in line with my inquiry.
My special thanks go to Ato Menale Wondie due to his academic excellence he provided me
guidance. It was privileged to have worked with him. He suggested and hosted the field and
office work at Bahir Dar. He provided me endless and energetic support. My thanks also extend
to Ato Akalu Teshome who assisted me in SPSS in ARARI, who were very friendly and open in
providing me the requested support. Last, but not least, I appreciate the support I received from
my friends; Fikremariam Asaregew, Tikabo Gebreyesus, Beyen Belay, Binyam Alemu, Dereje
Abebe, Nega Chalie, and others. My thanks also extend to all classmates and all of those who
supported me in any respect of my stay in the college for three and two years during my BSc and
MSc study, respectively.
Finally, I would also like to express great appreciation to my family especially my mother
Simegn Kassaw, my brothers Yitayal Demekristos, Eyayanew and Gizialhu Mele who have
always been there for me along the way.
i

Table of contents
Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................................i
Dedication......................................................................................................................................iv
Acronyms and abbreviations........................................................................................................v
List of tables..................................................................................................................................vi
List of figures...............................................................................................................................vii
1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background and justification....................................................................................................1
1.2.Statement of the problem...........................................................................................................2
1.3 Objectives..................................................................................................................................4
1.4 Significance of the study...........................................................................................................4
1.5 Scope and limitation of the study..............................................................................................5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................................6
2.1 Basic concepts...........................................................................................................................6
2.1.1 Urban agriculture....................................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Urban forestry.........................................................................................................................6
2.2 Importance of urban agriculture................................................................................................8
2.3 Benefits of urban forestry..........................................................................................................9
2.3.1 Aesthetic benefits..................................................................................................................10
2.3.2 Environmental benefits.........................................................................................................11
2.3.3 Food and income source.......................................................................................................12
2.3.4 Social benefits.......................................................................................................................13
2.4 Experiences of urban agriculture and forestry.........................................................................14
2.4.1 Urban agriculture/forestry abroad.........................................................................................14
2.4.2 Urban forestry in Ethiopia....................................................................................................16
2.5 Selection of species for urban areas.........................................................................................18
2.5.1 Growth habits of trees...........................................................................................................19
2.5.2 Peoples desire......................................................................................................................19
2.5.3 Environmental factors...........................................................................................................20
2.5.4 Tree management and maintenance requirements................................................................20
2.5.5 Aesthetic criteria...................................................................................................................21
2.5.6 Requirement of biodiversity.................................................................................................21
3. METHODS AND MATERIALS.............................................................................................21
3.1 Description of study area.........................................................................................................21
3.1.1 Location................................................................................................................................21
3.1.2 Climate..................................................................................................................................22
3.1.3 Topography, geology, and soil..............................................................................................23
ii

3.1.4 Population.............................................................................................................................23
3.1.5 Land use practices.................................................................................................................23
3.1.6 Brief history of land cover and nature conservation.............................................................24
3.2 Methods...................................................................................................................................24
3.2.1 Tree inventory and observations...........................................................................................24
3.2.1.1 Sampling procedures and species identification................................................................24
3.2.2 Data type...............................................................................................................................26
3.2.3 The social survey..................................................................................................................27
3.2.4 Sampling procedure for interviewee.....................................................................................28
3.2.5 Data collection......................................................................................................................28
3.2.6 Review of secondary sources................................................................................................29
3.3 Data analysis............................................................................................................................30
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS............................................................................................32
4.1 Results......................................................................................................................................32
4.1.1 Socioeconomic status of respondents...................................................................................32
4.1.2 Current status of vegetation cover........................................................................................33
4.1.3 Population structure of city trees..........................................................................................35
4.1.4 Tree resources in the study area............................................................................................36
4.1.5 Ornamental trees...................................................................................................................36
4.1.6 Tree value components.........................................................................................................38
4.1.7 Tree species preference.........................................................................................................42
4.1.8 Tree selection criteria............................................................................................................43
4.1.9 Major uses of selected trees..................................................................................................44
4.1.10 Major urban tree sites/niches..............................................................................................45
4.1.11 City forest/tree constraints..................................................................................................46
4.2 Discussion................................................................................................................................48
4.2.1 Tree resources of Bahir Dar..................................................................................................48
4.2.2 Tree population in different niches.......................................................................................50
4.2.3 Tree value evaluation factors................................................................................................52
4.2.4 Selection criteria...................................................................................................................53
4.2.5 Urban tree uses, niches and associated constraints...............................................................54
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................54
5.1 Conclusions..............................................................................................................................54
5.2 Recommendations....................................................................................................................56
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................58
ANNEXES...................................................................................................................................66
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.....................................................................................................79

iii

Dedication

This work is dedicated to WGCFNRs and to my beloved

meserete.

iv

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ANRS

Amhara National Regional State

ARARI

Amhara Regional Agricultural Institute

ARUPI

Amhara Regional Urban Planning Institute

BDCA

Bahir Dar City Administration

BOARD

Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development

CM

Centimeter

CSA

Central Statistics Authority

CTLA

Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers

DBH

Diameter at Breast Height

EFASA

Ethiopian Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Association

EPA

Environmental Protection Authority

EPLAUA

Environmental Protection, Land Administration and Use Authority

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

HA

Hectares

HT

Height

IADB

Inter- American Development Bank

ID

Identification

Meters

MM

Mili Meter

NGOs

Non-governmental Organizations

PSPC

Policy Study and Plan Commission

SAWE

Sanitation Waste and Energy Project

SPSS

Statistical Package for Social Studies

UF

Urban Forestry

USA

United States of America

GMP

Garden Master Plan

UFMP

Urban Forest Management Plan

UNEP

United Nations Environment Program

List of Tables
Table 1: Contribution of urban agriculture towards MDGs---------------------------------------------9
Table 2: Age, gender and societal groups of the respondents in the study area.....................32
Table 3: List of most commonly reported ornamental trees in the study area......................37
Table 4: Values of 11 trees, in Ethiopian Birr calculated using formula method...................40
Table 5: Priority ranking of those trees used for ornamental purposes.................................42
Table 6: Preference of ornamental trees in each use criteria based on respondents response
44
Table 7: Preferences of ornamental trees in each planting niche based on respondents' (110)
response.........................................................................................................................................46
Table 8: Urban tree problems and number of respondents cited............................................46
Table 9: Data collection sheet for frequency, abundance scores..............................................72
Table 10: Tree species rating in percent.....................................................................................73
Table 11: Relative lorcation values and those trees dominantly grown niches......................73
Table 12: Condition rating for most common trees in the study area....................................74
Table 13: List of tree species inventoried in the study area.....................................................74
Table 14: List of some reported urban trees in the study area................................................75
Table 15: Tree condition description..........................................................................................76
Table 16: Analyze tree number by site.......................................................................................77
Table 17: Labor requirements for work operations of Bahir Dar city..................................77

vi

List of figures
Figure 1: Factors important for selection of species for urban areas ....................................18
Figure 2: Location of the study area..........................................................................................22
Figure 3: Distribution of sample plots in the city.....................................................................26
Figure 4: Conceptual frameworks analyzing suitability of urban trees.................................31
Figure 5: Educational level of respondents...............................................................................33
Figure 6: Diameter distribution of the tree population............................................................35
Figure 7: Results for tree condition valuation of selected trees...............................................40
Figure 8: Photo representation of selected trees together........................................................75

vii

List of annexes
Annex I: Survey questionnaire for tree data collection............................................................77
Annex II: Glossary of terms........................................................................................................80
Annex III: List of tree species in the study area....................................................................... 83
Annex IV: Tree numbers in land use..........................................................................................87
Annex V: Labor Requirements...................................................................................................88

viii

Suitable Trees for Urban Ecosystem with Special Focus on Ornamental Trees: In the Case
of Bahir Dar Town, North West Ethiopia
Abraham Demekristos Dirres
(abrahamdemekristosd@gmail.com)
(Main Advisor: Gessesse Dessie (PhD); Co-advisor: Zerihun Mohammed (PhD))
Abstract
Today, the majority of Ethiopian towns depend on vegetation for a basic healthy, safe and
pleasant life. However, urban forests/trees are being replaced and challenged by roads,
buildings, and other structures (modernization) necessary to accommodate growing populations.
Little effort has been made to properly listing trees and documents the resources associated with
ornamental trees in the country. The ecological value of a town necessitates the need to
investigate the correct trees for the right site to meet the intended objectives. Selecting a tree for
a particular area in the landscape involves several considerations. First the objective for the
plant is determined, such as: shade to escape heat, to remove contaminants, attractive area for
rest, reduction of destructive sounds via hedges as well as foods for home and businesses. The
inventory and involvement of the public to ensure urban trees meets the criteria of function and
growing niches based on the existing experience of the residents and associated tree values for
correct selection and placement of tree species from diversified aspects. This study focused on
eleven trees among those inventoried, with their growing niches, namely; residence,
governmental institutions, recreation areas, streets, and industries. The thesis is based on
fieldwork in the city of Babir-Dar North Western Ethiopia. Various methods are used: stratified
random sampling, questionnaire survey, field observations, ranking, frequency and abundance
scores were used to evaluate data. Circular plot was chosen covering an area of 0.04 ha. A total
of 62 and 110 plots and respondents were used, respectively for data collection. GPS data were
collected to locate and indicate the spatial distribution of sample plots. Tree value, which is the
product of cross sectional area, current value, species, condition and location class, was
employed. The key informants and the selected residents were interviewed using a pre-tested
questionnaire. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS-version 16 and MS-excel. Direct
matrix and preference ranking were done as well in data analysis. A total of 336 trees under 31
families and 39 species were recorded. From the total, 20 of the species were exotic and 19 were
indigenous species. The major uses of the selected species were shade, ornament, fruit, fence and
environmental values. From the total 39 species, 13 (33%) were fruit bearing trees, 22 (56%)
were used as ornamental and medicinal values, and the remaining others 3 (11%) were used for
shade, fence, and environmental function. The top two species for their value were Phoenix
reclinata and Melia azedarach, whereas the least value was Callistemon citrinus. It is concluded
that species rating, condition and location class were the most dominant contributors for tree
value. Diameter or circumference has little influence on tree value components. The city
comprised of considerable diversity of tree species. Residential areas have better tree species
composition than the rest five growing niches.
Key words: Ornamental; Preference; Tree value; Urban forestry
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1Background and justification
Rapid urbanization and migration of people from rural to urban and peri-urban areas particularly
in developing countries, has increased over time due to economic and social reasons. This
movement may have implications on economic hardships and may have contributed to the
degradation of urban environments and aggravated food insecurity. It is estimated that about 800
million people worldwide have been involved in urban agriculture, including forestry and
agroforestry (Sebastian, 2004). The proportion of the worlds population living in urban areas is
increasing rapidly. It is estimated that by 2030 more than 60% of the worlds population will
inhabit cities and towns (Demese, 2005). With increasing urbanization in the 20th century, the
incorporation of trees into urban settlements has also increased - to the point that the
management of all trees within the urban area is considered a distinct forestry discipline (Miller,
1988). According to the estimation of CSA (2007) Ethiopias population is above 80 million.
World urbanization is growing fastest in Africa (including Ethiopia) with a growth rate of 4.3%
per annum. Ethiopia is the least urbanized country with only 17% of the population living in
urban areas. Despite Ethiopias overall low level of urbanization, the countrys most rapid
growth has significant impact on urban ecosystem (UNEP, 2003).
Additionally, the small pockets of urban forests such as lakeshores, protected compounds, park
areas and semi-natural remnants are being over taken by settlement, urbanization,
industrialization and for project schemes (Woldegabriel, 2002), which require urgent
conservation measures.
Much emphasis was given to certain thematic areas upon which the required ecological, and
policy framework information to bridge the gaps and which follow the philosophy of the
ecosystem approaches, to ensure long term sustainability of the city system for the need of
x

effective management and planning. Policy makers have often relied upon quantitative data that
more easily demonstrate the economic outcomes of urban farming, which makes it more
important and constrains the urban farmers (Hill et al., 2007). The demand of tree planting in the
cities and towns of Ethiopia is growing quickly; however, scanty information is available
concerning tree growing in the countrys urban areas. It is a challenge in all towns of Ethiopia,
especially in the focus city proposed for this study, because of different variables occurring dayto-day (Selome, 2006).
Today, global warming has become the major environmental problem in the world. Deforestation
has been identified as the major cause of global warming and as the problem become serious,
legally binding commitments, different protocols and agreements are signed all over the world.
Urban areas are a challenging environment for the growth of trees and shrubs. Environmental
stress, poor diversity, unsuitable tree species, construction damage, utility conflicts, and lack of
tree care create unhealthy conditions for trees in towns and cities (Costello, 1993; Bradshaw et
al., 1995; Harris, 1992). This negative impact on natural urban ecosystems is poorly understood
and often denied proper attention and management.
Hence, this study takes a look at urban forestry in general and urban trees in particular.
Urban forestry is new name for an old practice, used in small towns and cities in Ethiopia.
Although widely accepted in developed countries, urban forestry is still virtually unknown in
many developing countries. Ethiopia has a long history of growing trees and shrubs in urban
centers; with examples of Addis Ababa, Gondar, Bahir Dar and Hawassa. As reported by Horst
(2006) that even though urban tree planting has a long age in cities and towns of Ethiopia, there
is limited information. Best management practices are not well documented and little emphasis
has been given to urban forestry studies over the past decades.
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1.2 Statement of the problem

In developing world like Ethiopia, the knowledge and studies about urban forestry including
topics such as: species diversity/composition, street tree selection, urban greening and its
contribution to reduction of pollution are limited. Since, the establishment and management of
urban trees demands extensive experience and technical knowledge (Saebo et al., 2003). While
the number of tree species that can cope with the demanding urban environment may be limited,
it is still a top priority for municipalities to increase diversity, aesthetic value, and beautification
of the landscape. The investigation of this study will use science-based applications, experience,
and resident preferences on the species selection for sustainability of forestry and agro forestry
practices in urban areas.
Testing of existing preference of the residents on species appropriateness, as well as intensive
tree care during the establishment phase is particularly important for successful urban tree
planting. Although urbanization by itself is not necessarily a problem, there is a growing demand
with respect to growing trees in particular, in different niches of cities and towns such as along
side-walks, in residential areas, near overhead power lines, and in construction areas. There is a
knowledge gap about species selection and appropriate placement of trees for specified reasons.
This problem is observable in all Ethiopian towns and cities, including Bahir Dar. In big cities
and towns such as Bahir Dar, there is a need to investigate the preference of suitable species
selection for planting based on the interest of the people residing in the city, social and scientific
merits. Knowledge and documentation on the selection of trees by urban dwellers will enable
planners to make policy decisions and managers to supply urban forestry inputs for future
development before incorrect actions are taken.

xii

Three major reasons initiated the study of urban forestry in Bahir Dar. First, Bahir Dar, as the
metropolitan and growth center of the ANRS that requires trees for different reasons namely
street-side beautification, tourism enhancement and environmental maintenance. Second, urban
forestry gets due attention in the Bahir Dar city therefore contributing to the science of forest
management. Third, Bahir Dar is well known for its forest cover and composition since the
citys establishment and hence information on the current status of the forested area is important
for future urban management and development plan.

1.3 Objectives
To identify, evaluate and present the use/function of the most common tree species
growing in Bahir Dar
To document the experience and preference of the residents on species selection, criteria
and recommend best species based on their merits.
To understand potential problems of growing trees in Bahir Dar.

Research questions
What are the major niches where trees are grown in Bahir Dar?
For what reason and desirable attributes and major ornamental trees were planted and
maintained in the city?
What kind of future direction, and management should be practice and what were the
underlying constraints?

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1.4 Significance of the study

Despite the fact that Bahir Dar is one of the fastest growing towns in Ethiopia it has been little
research and analysis conducted in urban forestry. Most of the published literature obtained from
various government offices are dated, contain little information and are electronically
inaccessible.
Urban development plans with respect to the existing land use system should be addressed for
future intervention in Bahir Dar city. The final outputs of this study may provide information on
the preference of suitable species for the urban environment. It may also provide information to
development workers, researchers, learning institutions, landscape designers, architects, urban
planners, development agencies, producers, and consumers. It also suggests desired trees species
for appropriate planting locations. Development supportive results will be forwarded to be used
by policy makers, planners and experts.

1.5 Scope and limitation of the study

The scope of the study is restricted to Bahir Dar city. This entails due samplings focused only on
sample zones/niches found around and within the main part of the city, representative habitats,
and dominant species. The study looked at the suitable species grown in the area based on
preference of the selected respondents.
There was a lack of full cooperation of some city officials because of their limited knowledge
about urban forestry. Some respondents were unwilling and created difficulty to respond to all
questions designed. Finally, the study had a limitation to investigate specifically the legal
forestry institution, its capacity, and the respective contribution for urban forestry.

xiv

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Basic concepts
2.1.1 Urban agriculture
Komirenko and Hoermann (2008) defi ned urban agriculture as the growing of plants and the
raising of animals for food and other uses within urban areas (intra-urban agriculture) and in the
fringe or periphery of urban areas (peri-urban agriculture), and the processing and marketing of
products. The system includes root crops, vegetables, aromatic and medicinal herbs, fruit crops,
livestock, forestry and agro-forestry. This vegetation of urban areas has societal value in defining
nature for millions of people living in cities and sustaining public health and well-being (Kuo
and Sullivan 2001; Fuller et al. 2007), as well as often contributing to conservation by supporting
unique biodiversity (McDowell et al.1991; Schwartz et al. 2002; Lawson et al.2008). From
literature reviews and acquired knowledge of similar experiences elsewhere, European countries
viewed trees from architectural, beauty and cultural and historical significance. Thereby, they
introduced the ideas of ornamental value, tree with historical significance or distinctive tree
(Carreiro and Zipperer, 2008).
2.1.2 Urban forestry
Urban forestry is generally defined as the art, science and technology of managing trees and
forest resources in and around urban community ecosystems for the physiological, sociological,
economic, and aesthetic benets that trees provide for the society (Konijnendijk et al, 2006). The
word is first mentioned in the United States as early as in 1894; the concept underwent a revival
during the 1960s as a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach related to growing trees in
urban areas. Most of the definitions of urban forestry used in Europe stress its multifunctional
xv

character and tend to emphasize urban forest services rather than economic goods such as timber
but adhered to biodiversity and recreational values (Randrup et al., 2005).
Urban forests in regard to urban forestry are collective masses of trees found within cities, towns
or neighborhoods and promoting a green environment (Bassuk and Whitlow, 1983).
Various definitions for the term urban forestry have been given through the years since its advent
as a scientific approach to land-use problems in the early 1980s. The best is the one that is
defined by society of American Foresters: Urban

forestry

is

relatively

new,

multidisciplinary approach in international forest research. It has been defined as the art,
science, and technology of managing trees and forest resources in and around urban
community ecosystems for the physiological, sociological, economic and aesthetic benefits
trees provide society (Horst, 2006). Urban forestry is sometimes used synonymously with
urban greening. However, it has been argued that urban greening is a newer concept (field of
study) than urban forestry. It is defined as a multi managerial system that includes municipal
watersheds, wildlife habitats, outdoor recreation opportunities, and landscape design. This
activity encompasses other further activities such as Arboriculture, Arbor ecology, Arbor
economics, Arbor planning, and Arbor sociology (Costello, 1993).
The major activity in urban forestry involves the selection and establishment of trees and shrubs
(Konijnendijk and Raindrop, 2002). Urban forestry may include the development of
phytoremediation techniques involvement of plants in waste treatment (Center for Urban
Horticulture, 2000). Therefore, nowadays in the public policy of many countries, professionals,
indigenous people and other stakeholders develop rules, regulation and legislation to conserve,
protect, and manage urban trees (Ottitsch and Krott, 2005).

xvi

2.2 Importance of urban agriculture

Urban forestry will grow faster following and in alliance with agriculture. This points out that
securing and integrating urban agriculture and waste management means enhancing the
vegetation by controlling pollution, run-off, soil erosion, and maintaining the ecosystem and
biodiversity at large (PSPC, 2003). Smit et al. (1995) reported that:

there

are

80,000

community gardeners on municipal land in Berlin with a waiting list of 16,000. Bamako,
Mali, is self-sufficient in vegetables and produces half or more of the chickens it consumes. Dares-Salaam, one of the world's fastest growing large cities, now has 67% of families
engaged in farming compared with 18% in 1967 and urban agriculture is the second
largest urban employer accommodating 20% of the employed.
It makes the youngsters and youth productive by providing additional income, or empowers
women by providing the feeling of confidence to accomplish their aspirations in life, or
promotion of trust to supply profitability and productivity, or sense of tradition to offer products
to improve livelihood (Guzman, 2002).
From the gender point of view urban farming is usually carried out as part-time duty for women,
who can combine food production activity with childcare and other household responsibilities,
thereby improving household/family economies. It can be used as off-job employee for students
who can carry out urban agriculture activities during their off-work time, mainly during their
leisure (free) time. Urban people can tap benefits and resources from agriculture in general and
forestry or agro-forestry in particular, to contribute to food security and/or income generation.
The benefits of urban agriculture are important towards achieving the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). According to Hill et al. (2007) urban farming has been identified by the United
Nations as a key strategy towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals:
xvii

Table 1: Contribution of urban agriculture towards MDGs

MDGs
Eradicate extreme poverty

Urban agriculture contribution

Generation of income from the sale

and hunger

Employment

Cost minimization of food purchase

Promote gender equality

Increase food availability

Strengthening womens engagement in agriculture

(Empowering women)

Income generation

Flexible livelihood strategy, role of women in

subsistence,

production

and

environment

management
Ensure environmental

Social and financial independence

Absorption of air pollutants (from cars smoke)

sustainability

Recycling decomposable materials as organic

fertilizer through compost and etc

Reduction of erosion

2.3 Benefits of urban forestry

Urban greening areas become the lungs of the urban environment and contribute to its
sustainable development. Urban green is defined as the overall amount of planted outdoor spaces
including squares, parks, trees in rows, yards of public or private buildings with trees, bushes,
ornamental plants, or grass(Tsouhlaraki, 2006). Trees in urban environments provide a myriad of
biological, physical, economical and sociological benefits. They serve as: homes for a wide
range of life forms, including animals and birds; a cleansing mechanism of pollution, a source of
aesthetic values, a source of tree products and services (e.g. shade, runoff control, rainfall
mitigation etc.) and helps to connect human being with nature (Burger, 1998). The use of urban
xviii

trees is mentioned by various researchers (Harris, 1983; Dwyer et al., 1991). The preservation of
vegetation areas in urban settings are believed to improve the quality of life by providing people
with leisure, recreation, a pleasing work environment, relaxing atmosphere, and economic
benefits (Konijnendijk and Raindrop, 2002; IADB, 1997). The level of biodiversity in urban
green areas is often high, representing nature close to where people live (Erickson, 2004; cited in
Bista, 2009, Konijnendijk, et al., 2004). Some of the benefits of urban forestry are indicated as
follows:
2.3.1 Aesthetic benefits
Trees grown in cities and towns are very pleasing to the eye and improve the scenic view
(Wyman, 1990). Ornamental trees contribute to the beautification and, therefore, the pride people
have in their cities, towns or dwellings. When gardening is done on a collective basis, it
encourages community interaction, opens the doors of communication, and builds friendships
(Malakoff, 2007). The preservation of vegetated areas and creating and expanding green space in
and around cities can improve the quality of life by providing natural settings for leisure and
recreation and by safeguarding the quality of precious life-giving resources.
Parks provide opportunities for a variety of physical activities and different organized and
personal sports, as well as passive activities, such as bird watching and communing with nature
(Brownson et al., 2001).
2.3.2 Environmental benefits
Environmental concern is commonly practiced in developed countries rather than developing
countries. Increasing levels of CO2 is the major gas responsible factor for global warming. Trees
benefit the environment, directly by storing carbon and indirectly by reducing power plant
xix

emissions due to savings in the cooling and heating of buildings is one of the immediate
solutions focused on by developed countries (McPherson and Simpson, 1999). Air pollution is a
major environmental concern in most major cities across the world and therefore attracts
researchers to study the role of urban vegetation in the formation and degradation of air
pollutants in cities (Nowak et al., 2006). Trees replace carbon dioxide with oxygen and increase
the moisture content of the atmosphere. Study in Chinas capital, Beijing, showed that urban
forests play an important role in improving the quality of the urban environment through
ecological benefits, such as, removing air pollutants from the atmosphere, sequestratating CO 2,
reducing storm water runoff, and alleviating the intensity of heat islands (Yang et al., 2005).
Various studies have shown that urban trees, particularly low volatile organic compound emitting
species, can be a viable strategy to help reduce urban ozone levels. This occurs through tree
functions that reduce air temperatures (transpiration), remove air pollutants (dry deposition to
plant surfaces), and reduce building energy and consequent power plant emissions, (i.e.
temperature reductions from tree shade (Nowak et al., 2000). Capturing pollution coming from
exhaust gases by using different trees, grasses, and vegetables that grow near highways and
cities, was a common abatement method in the early 1960s (Aksoy and Demirezen, 2005).
Many environmental benefits are associated with urban trees, including CO 2 conversion, air
pollution removal, flood abatement, microclimate modification and reduction of the urban heat
island through shading and evaporative cooling (Semenzato et al., 2011). The study of Rahman
et al. (2011) indicated that urban forests are the best means of mitigating the urban heat islands
and adapting cities to climate change, as trees provide cooling by evapo-transpiration.
Urban trees and shrubs have the ability to remove air pollutants and accordingly improve
environmental quality and human health. Trees remove gaseous air pollution primarily by uptake
xx

via leaf stomata, some are intercepted and retained on the plant surface and diffuse into
intercellular spaces and may be absorbed by water films to form acids or react with inner-leaf
surfaces (Smith, 1990). Trees have been labeled as the lungs of cities (McPherson, 2005)
because they have the ability to remove contaminants from the air breathed. Acting as natural
filters and reducing air pollution, it has been shown that trees generate health benefits by
reducing the mortality rate and reducing visits to the hospital (Powe and Willis, 2004).
Silva et al. (2006) study in Berlin showed that plant-based surface systems and trees in urban
areas safely remove and retain rainwater, reduce rainwater runoff speed and/or volume, stabilize
eroded areas and reduce the fragility of the environment. Vegetation modifies exposure to sun
and wind and therefore serves as shade, reducing heating and air condition needs (Forrest, 2006).
2.3.3 Food and income source
In addition to the aesthetic and environmental significance of trees and shrubs are considered as
source of income for people in towns and cities. Growing fruit trees around their home generates
income as well as improves the nutritional intake of the household members. The indirect
economic benefits of trees can be even greater to a community and region. Studies in the U.S.
indicate that trees make business districts more pleasant places, which are attractive to shoppers
(Wolf, 2004). Trees enhance community economic stability by attracting businesses and tourists
who tend to shop longer along tree-lined streets. In cities and towns, home gardens are an
omnipresent feature that can play a vital role in feeding and maintaining the nutritional status of
urban dwellers. Examples of common urban trees that can provide nutrition or food grown in
home gardens include Carica papaya, Citrus species, Persea americana (Avocado), Psdium
guava (Zeitune), Annona senegalensis (Gishta), Syzygium spp and Terminalia spp (Thaman,
1987).
xxi

2.3.4 Social benefits

Urban trees are well known in social services as having positive impacts on physical and mental
health, by providing settings for physical exercise and cultural and spiritual interactions. Some
social beliefs and taboos for big trees, celebration of religious ceremonies and different social
agreements are carried out under different socially respected tree species. Parks and zoos covered
with the right tree species can act as educational and learning experiences for different social
groups (IADB, 1997; cited in Bista, 2009). Active involvement in tree-planting programs
enhances a communitys sense of social identity (Dwyer et al., 1992). Tree planting and
management in urban landscapes have cultural, religious, and social significances (Onganga,
1992).
Hospital patients are able to recover more quickly from surgery when their hospital room as well
as the surrounding offers a view of trees (Villere Town Planning Associates, 2006). Workers with
views of trees are generally less frustrated, have more patience, exhibit higher job satisfaction
and enthusiasm. Trees create more pleasant walking environments, bringing about increased
participation in walking and talking. These results in increased pride and care of place, where
people take ownership in their surroundings and are more aware of homes, blocks,
neighborhoods plazas, businesses and other civic spaces (Burden, 2006). Parks areas covered
with trees also provide educational and experiences (IADB, 1997). Active involvement in treeplanting programs enhances a communitys sense of social identity (Dwyer et al., 1992). Trees in
urban landscapes can also be of high cultural significance, and religious beliefs may strongly
influence their management (Onganga, 1992). Finally, trees in different institutions of the cities
and towns provide and addresses numerous, unquantifiable, practical and comprehensive societal
interests.
xxii

2.4 Experiences of urban agriculture and forestry

2.4.1 Urban agriculture/forestry abroad
Recent experience in several African cities (in particular, in East and Southern Africa) has shown
that urban farmers include a higher percentage of women than men, with most food being
produced for subsistence consumption. The Dar-es-Salaam case has shown that the
encouragement of urban agriculture has squeezed out the poor women subsistence farmers and
encouraged larger, commercial production on undeveloped urban land (Drescher et al., 2000).
However, other studies indicated that in Sub-Saharan Africa urban agriculture improves food
security and can contribute to the welfare of people in small cities, thereby reducing the mass
migration to larger cities. Historical experience from Europe showed that, institutionalization of
urban agriculture has created more land security, participation of farmers in policy decisions, and
involvement in the democratic process (Drescher et al., 2000).
Studies indicated that about half of the residents in Accra (Ghana), 80% in Libreville (Congo),
68% of the six Tanzanian cities, 45% in Lusaka (Zambia), 37% in Maputo (Mozambique), 36%
in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), 35% in Yaounde (Cameroon), 36 % in Kampala (Uganda) of
the urban people are engaged in urban agriculture (Villere Town Planning Associates, 2006).
Studies in Nordic countries such as Sweden, Finland, Norway and Iceland, show that urban
woodlands were typically designed for commercial forestry production. Picea abies (L.) Karst.
and Pinus sylvestris L., and to some extent Betula pendula Roth, are the main species on the
Scandinavian Peninsula, whereas Betula pubescens Ehrh., Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carrire,
Larix sibirica (Mnch) Ledeb. and Pinus contorta Dougl. Ex Loud dominates in Icelandic urban
woodlands. Denmark urban forests were established later and are dominated by broadleaved
xxiii

trees (Saebo et al., 2003). Species recommendation is based on an analysis of what species occur
in the neighboring natural areas and on soil conditions, temperature and precipitation.
In India, urban parks and gardens are valued for their wildlife habitat. For example, Shyam
(1985) mentioned Ficus species; in Bangalore parks provide food for birds. Studies conducted in
other countries showed three major categories of tree selection criteria: aesthetic, functional and
cultural.
Large differences exist even between European cities where woodland resources are concerned.
Based on the technical data and information collected from literature reviews, Freiburg city in
Germany average 327 m2 of woodlands within municipal boundaries, the Dutch city of
Amsterdam has an estimated 1.5 m2 of forest available per inhabitant (Konijnendijk, 2000). The
composition of forest tree species in Europe varies because of differences in latitude, climatic
conditions, topography and human impact. Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Larix species, Quercus
spp. and Fagus silvatica were found to be important elements of urban forest in Bergen boreal
zonesand Scandinavian forests (Saebo et al., 2003).
Urban wastes may be broadly categorized into wastewater and solid waste. Nutrient-rich
wastewater can be an important input for agriculture or forestry particularly in arid and semi-arid
areas. Since a possible hazard is the presence of pathogens and vectors, it can be argued that it is
more suitable to grow non-food forest crops than agricultural ones for human consumption. Smit
and Nasr (1992) also consider that the use of wastewater in urban areas of the Third World has
greater potential use than in industrialized countries. The raising of trees using wastewater
irrigation is already practiced in Lima, Peru; Cairo, Egypt and in Jordan among other places.

xxiv

The use of organic solid waste (as compost) is already quite widespread in urban agriculture. Of
particular note is its common use in the cultivation of fruit trees and tree seedlings. In China, the
utilization of solid wastes is particularly effective in closed system urban gardens (Honghai,
1992). Another use of organic wastes in cities is for maintenance of park and street trees. In a
number of towns and cities in the developed world, tree prunings are chipped and along with
grass clippings are used as mulch, composted or used as fuel or fodder. Similar systems may be
possible in cities such as Hong Kong and Singapore, but in many developing countries like
Ethiopia it is not practiced this kind of organized use.
2.4.2 Urban forestry in Ethiopia
The ever growing urban centers in Ethiopia require huge amount of energy and construction
demand that is being supplied from nearby forests and plantations. Addis Ababa is a typical
example where the construction development has caused an overexploitation of the surrounding
forestlands (within a 100 km radius of the city) (Fekerte, 1991). Much of this land has been
converted to grow eucalyptus and/or converted to other land use systems created by urban
development (Gete, Trutmann and Aster, 2006). In Ethiopia, several Eucalyptus plantation were
established in the 1980s to supply fuel wood for the towns such as Debre Birhan, Dessie,
Gondar, Bahir Dar, Nazreth, and Addis Ababa (Demel, 2000).
Studies

conducted

by

Kedir

(2003),

showed

the

following

agriculture

economic

representativeness among Ethiopian towns and cities: Hawassa was selected as a representative
of a large enset food producer, Jimma is the coffee grower of the country, and Bahir Dar is a
good example of a cereal producer. On the other hand, horticultural production system types of
vegetable production, fruits, herbs and spices, ornamental tree/shrub seedlings for landscape
gardening, medicinal and other aromatic plants have been practiced around Bahir Dar (Zenebe,
xxv

2010). Moreover, the different vegetation types that are found in the various agro-ecological
zones accommodate various types of ornamental plants.
Green areas are vital constituents of the urban environment because they are breathing,
recreation and interaction spaces for urban centers that are becoming overpopulated, congested
and polluted (Mengistu and Stoop, 2006). In Addis Ababa, open and green spaces are severely
inadequate and decreasing over time as they are being invaded by building construction.
Similarly, other towns such as Hawassa, Bahir Dar and Adama face the deterioration of forests
due to development activities (Gete, Trutmann, and Aster, 2007).
Urban forestry was once perceived as a residual science because of a lack of awareness by policy
makers, stakeholders, and communities. However, in recent years, mainly in the New Ethiopian
Millennium, urban forestry is becoming a common practice for the purpose of aesthetics,
products and environmental protection. The Ethiopian Federal as well as the regional
governments have given due attention and carried out planting by having the slogan of two
seedlings for the second Millennium. Establishment of millennium parks in cities and towns is
one of the indicators of attention to urban forestry. Since 2007, political leaders and resource
managers have become more comfortable with urban forestry, as well as targeting the issue of
global warming and climate change. Consequently, continuing the forest development process is
becoming one of the top priority issues.
Big cities are following as a fashion and are endowed with various trees species for different
functions. Hence, niches also differ based on the value and benefits. Major locations for planting
in cities and towns include road sides, residential areas, recreation areas, lake shores, hotels and
restaurants, shops, and animal zoos (typical example Sidist Kilo Lion Zoo). Fruit and shade trees
xxvi

are commonly grown by individual households as a custom and tradition (personal observation
and communication).

2.5 Selection of species for urban areas

Urban trees are exposed to multiple stresses especially trees in the road street by pollutants,
humans and domestic animals stresses (Saebo et al., 2003). Species were also selected based on
their occurrence in different growing niches as well as on the knowledge of local communities.
Management techniques may also be applied to reduce negative effects.
The major management activities related to trees in the urban environment are: (i) policy
making, planning and designing etc., (ii) technical focus, such as selection programs and
establishment techniques and (iii) management aspects (Konijnendijk and Randrup, 2002 cited in
Saebo et al, 2003).

Figure1: Factors important for selection of species for urban areas (Saebo et al., 2003).
In general, growth habits, site conditions, function and desirable characteristics of the trees are
the most influencing factors in species selection.

xxvii

2.5.1 Growth habits of trees

Construction development is a typical activity in urban areas. The compatibility of the tree
planting in or around construction areas is determined by growth habit of the tree and/or shrub
species. The final maturity size and form of the canopy and root system are important criteria
because they can have potentially interfered with utility lines, pavement, and other construction
(Coder, 1996). Rate of growth is a determining factor for shade and ground cover. Some fast
growing species are not preferable because they are prone to breakage, and storm damage.
Plants with a high branching pattern are one of the growth habits and desirable for road side
trees. Branchy trees are undesirable, requiring frequent pruning, and may interfere with sighting
distances for drivers. Slow growing, low litter fall, and straight growing tree species are less
costly for management. Species tolerant to wind and storm damage are desirable, having strong
branch attachment and wood strength (Gilman, 2007).
2.5.2 Peoples desire
People are the most constant factor in an urban area and a primary consideration when selecting
a tree. During the selection, planting, and caring for trees, the establishment of trees must be
based on the interest of the people to the health and survival of the urban forest. People should
perceive trees in their yards and neighborhoods as an important part of their lives (Ansari, 2008).
Most of the time, the opinions of the urban residents are important components for tree selection.
Therefore, active involvement of the community members from the tree species selection to the
actual planting and tending has been shown to enhance a communitys sense of social identity,
self-esteem, and territoriality (Dwyer et al., 1992). This participation increases the survival rate.

xxviii

However, without local involvement, the efforts may be viewed negatively by the residents
(Miller, 1997).
2.5.3 Environmental factors
Each tree species has different site requirement, are adapted to a certain range of soil conditions
(Craul, 1992), for example, some species can tolerate wet or compacted soils, while others are
drought tolerant and need different soil pH, amounts of nutrients, moisture level, and climatic
factors (Sadowski, 2007). For urban forestry, it is desirable to select species tolerant to pollution,
having a potential to sequester carbon dioxide, resistant to insects and diseases, less susceptible
to fire, and able to survive with the light conditions at the site (Gilman, 1997). These criteria are
most commonly practiced in developed countries, where serious pollution and emission of green
house gases (GHG) exist.
2.5.4 Tree management and maintenance requirements
Tree species that require low frequency of pruning, watering, fertilizing, mulching, and weeding,
are top priority for the urban environment. The lower the maintenance requirements for a tree the
lower the resources (time and money) allocation needed to care for the tree (Harris, 1992). In
addition, pruning ornamental trees controls insects and diseases. Improper pruning hides the
plants natural beauty, desired size and shapes. As a general rule, evergreen trees and shrubs
should be pruned in late winter or early spring, before new growth starts or immediately
following flowering (Klingeman, Maxey, and Fare, 2008).
2.5.5 Aesthetic criteria
Trees in cities and towns of Ethiopia are growing trees and shrubs for the purpose of aesthetic
and decoration values. Visual characteristics such as diversity of seasonal interest, form, color
xxix

and texture are the important factors for landscape beautification and scenic views (Bassuk,
2007). Aesthetic qualities, landscape architecture and environmental development are based on
the visual values.
2.5.6 Requirement of biodiversity
The selection and placement of trees in the urban environment is a complex task especially in
tourist attraction sites. Urban forestry is one strategy for the conservation of biodiversity. From
diversity point of view, different studies described that the cover should contain no more than
10% of any single tree species, no more than 20% of any tree genus, and no more than 30% of
any tree family (Smith, 1990). As a general rule, any given species should not exceed more than
eight percent of the Citys total tree population.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of study area
3.1.1Location
The study area, Bahir Dar city, is located in northwestern part of Ethiopia with latitude 11 o33'11o38N and longitude 37o20- 37 o25E. It is found at a distance of 565 Km north of the capital,
Addis Ababa. Bahir Dar is the capital of ANRS and a place where the largest lake of Ethiopia,
Tana, is located and bordering the northern edge of the city.

xxx

Figure 2: Location of the study area

3.1.2 Climate
The monthly mean maximum and minimum temperature of Bahir Dar recorded between 1961
and 2000 indicated an average range of 8oC - 29oC. The highest mean monthly maximum
temperature occurs in April (about 29.7oC), whereas the lowest mean maximum is in July and
August (about 23.3oC). The mean monthly minimum temperature 7.1o C in January and the
highest mean minimum is 14.2oC in the month of May (EPLUA, 2006). The area is experiencing
the highest temperature, around the hottest months (July and August) and the minimum 8 oC in
the vicinity of the Lake Tana and coldest month (January) of the year. The mean annual
precipitation recorded at Bahir Dar Station in 37 years period from 1962 to 1999 is 1437 mm.
The mean annual rainfall varies 1170-1600mm. High rainfall months of the season are between
June and September. There is a significant seasonal variation of rainfall. Almost 60.3percent of
xxxi

the annual rainfall occurs in July and August with a maximum mean value of 432mm (BDCA,
2011).
3.1.3 Topography, geology, and soil
The altitude of Bahir Dar city ranges from 1,786 to 1,886m above sea level (asl). The city is
characterized by little slope difference so that the town is frequently affected by flooding
(BMSA, 2001). The towns general slope orientation is towards Abay River, which crosses the
city from northwest to southeast. The outlet of surface runoff is to the southeast in the direction
of Abay River.
The rocks found in the city are mainly made up of basaltic lava flows (lava outpourings and
domes) and related spatter cones. The basaltic lava flows basically comprise periphrastic and
aphanites basalts. The soil is characterized by black cotton soils (silt and clay) in wetland areas
and red ash (sandy and clay) is found in the rest of the city (BDCA, 2010).
3.1.4 Population
The population of Bahir Dar city is estimated to be over 200,000 (Seleshi et al., 2009) with a
growth rate of 5.4% between1984-1994 and 5.3% between1994-2005. In 2004 Bahir Dar was
ranked third in size with a population of 170,000 (MDGs, 2004). Even though the number of
population residing in Bahir Dar is fairly large , it attracts tourists and was rated one of the safest
cities in Africa by UNESCO in 2000 (BDCA, 2010).
3.1.5 Land use practices
Different urban development activities have been carried out in the city and therefore different
land cover/use types were created. The dominant land use type is buildings (residential and
xxxii

commercial activity). Old woodlands are found in the older palace, lake shore and Abay River. In
addition, the recreational areas, green areas, open spaces, roads are also categorized as land use
practices (EPLUA, 2007).
3.1.6 Brief history of land cover and conservation of nature
The increase of human population in Bahir Dar has caused serious ecological degradation and
fragmentation (Woldegabriel and Solomon, 2006). The population of Bahir Dar is quickly
expanding in to the rural vicinity. The vegetation that once covered Lake Tana shoreline has
largely disappeared from the area and is replaced by exotic species. Currently, forestlands are
sparse in recreation areas, and hardly found in religious places within the city. The main
agricultural activities include farmland in southern part of Lake Tana, swampy wetlands used for
vegetable production; chicken production in the north part of the city, and the North West part of
the city is dominantly covered by Catha edulis and fruit farms. In line with urbanization and
encouraged by the federal investment policy, inward investment has increased and intensive land
use is occurring for agricultural, industrial and infrastructural purposes.

The few major

industries in Bahir Dar are Hotels, Edible oil-factories, a textile mill, and two tanneries, which
are poorly located on the shoreline of the lake and Blue Nile River (Berhanu et al., 2003).

3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Tree inventory and observations
3.2.1.1 Sampling procedures and species identification
A stratified random sampling method was employed to select field plots along gradients in
selected land uses and/or niches. The focus land use types/niches of plantation were residence,
governmental institutions, recreation areas, road/street, and industries. Along each niche, a
xxxiii

circular plot of 0.04ha having a radius of 11.3m was created at each stratum in consistent with
Flook (1996) and a total of 62 plots were sampled. Ground estimates of species cover were
made. Tree species were identified in the field wherever possible. Specimens were collected for
unidentified species for later identification (at Addis Ababa University Herbarium). The species
were also identified in the field with the help of key informants and their botanical names
following similar method as Fentahun and Hager (2008). Identification was also based on the
published flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (Edwards et al., 1995; Edwards et al., 1997; Hedberg and
Edwards, 1989 and 1995; Edwards et al., 2000; Hedberg et al., 2004; Hedberg et al., 2006), using
field guide books: useful trees and shrubs of Ethiopia (Azene et al., 1993), and honey bee flora
of Ethiopia (Fichtl and Admasu, 1994). The Ethno Botanical survey conducted around Bahir Dar
(Ragunathan and Solomon, 2009.) was also used for the identification. Once identified, the trees
were classified as either native or exotic, designated by niche, ecosystem function and
infrastructural integrity. Within each plot, all trees were recorded and marked. The major
parameters or data type measured were age, DBH, height, tree location, crown characteristics,
tree condition, and tree value. From the total plots, 18 were road or street, 15 residence, 10
institutions, 10 recreation/park, 5 lakeshore, and 4 industrial areas, respectively. Sampling plots
were located using GPS. Figure 2 below shows the distribution of plots in the study area.

xxxiv

Figure 3: Distribution of sample plots in the city

3.2.2 Data type
The most widely accepted tree evaluation method is tree value which is determined by: size
(cross sectional area), current value, species, and location class. Tree value is calculated as
follows:
Tree value = Cross Sectional Area Current Value per sq. meter Species Class Condition
Class Location Class -------------------------------------------Eq-1 Where,
Cross sectional area: is calculated by multiplying the diameter squared (m 2) by a constant
(0.7854).
Current value: This is the birr value per 6.5cm2 (the city work norm standards). That is 67
birr/m2 in 2003 E.C with 17 birr per dollar.
xxxv

Species class: is a measure of the relative value of tree species in that specified area, which is
expressed in %.
Condition class: Categorizing trees as an excellent, good, fair, poor, or dead (table 14 in
appendix iii).
Location class: determines the plants landscape or ornamental or environmental value.
The data recorded for individual tree were: tree species, diameter at breast height (DBH), type of
growing niche, canopy size, and damage (if exists). Height of all trees over 10 cm DBH was
measured and recorded. The DBH, height, crown height were recorded using a measuring tape.
The circumference was converted to a diameter measurement using the respective formula
(D=C/). Total height, and crown height were measured from the ground to the target branch
using a clinometers and crown width was determined by measuring the trees shade at mid-day.
Additional data on species, local names, and life form category of the woody plants (categorized
as tree, shrub) were noted.
3.2.3 The social survey
A close-ended questionnaire was developed to address the residents preference in reference to
tree function per growing sites/niches. Respondents were asked to indicate the kinds of trees they
would like to for the criteria being developed. The questionnaire included tree condition, and
related questions. A matrix was developed to state multiple choices for the species. Pre-test was
carried out with a few respondents to adjust and modify the questions so they would obtain the
required data for the study.

xxxvi

3.2.4 Sampling procedure for interviewee

A stratified random sampling method was employed to select the respondents for interviews. The
stratification, based on age and sex, was selected from six sub cities, with the goal of
interviewing 5% of the households among selected kebeles of the total residents.
A total of 110 respondents were selected because of limitation of time and budget. The age
ranges of respondents were 15 - 65 years old. From these, 8 key informants (5 males and 3
females) were deliberately selected from the respective municipality, EPA and BOA officials and
experts, and household heads in each sample site.
3.2.5 Data collection
a) Questionnaire survey
The general issues included in the questionnaire were the preferences of the urban community
concerning urban trees. The preferences included function and growing sites of trees and related
technical, maintenance, managerial and social conditions. Data on the respondents residence
area, sex, social group, and age were included.
b) Key informant interviews
Interviews with key informants were held using a checklist (using the local language, Amharic
and translated to English). The key informants were community leaders, church leaders and
elderly men. Other key informants included experts of the sub-city and Woreda EPA and
BPCDA, officials of the Woreda administration, and experts in urban tree management from
other institutions.

xxxvii

c) Field observation
Plots were located as it is shown on the Figure 3. Repeated field data were collected using
transect walk in areas where the urban trees are grown/cultivated. The aim of the observations
was to obtain firsthand impressions on abundance, growing niche and tree characteristics.
d) Direct matrix ranking
Direct matrix ranking was exercised for eleven selected woody plants following Martins (1995)
method. Based on their relative functions, respondents were asked to rate their level of
preference with listed uses for each plant to each planting niche. Those major tree criteria were
shade (buildings, parking lots and noise attenuation), ornamental (recreational enhancement,
aesthetic viewing and attract people), fruit (consumption or income generation), hedge (living
fences, protection, privacy) healthy environments (cleaning mechanism. habitat for wildlife)
Direct benefits such as economic benefit were also recorded.
e) Preference ranking
Preference ranking was exercised following Martins (1995) method for eleven commonly
reported woody tree species. Planting location and functional tree features were selected in the
ranking exercise. Sample groups from merchants, gardeners, traffic police, students, street
venders, road cleaners, drivers and bike riders were interviewed. The respondents were provided
with the forms to fill in their preference on the eleven woody plants.

xxxviii

3.2.7 Review of secondary sources

Review of secondary sources was conducted from various institutions especially city service,
EPLUA and city administration websites. These were the major secondary information sources
related to socio-economic, demographic, climatic, and vegetation characteristics of study area.

3.3 Data analysis

Survey data were organized and analyzed based on the stratified land use location. First, all
survey data were encoded into the computer. The means of the inventory tree value was
compared using t-test. This analysis divides the variance of tree value into the contributions
made towards it using different factors. Significance was set at t < 0.05. Qualitative and
quantitative data were interpreted using tables, charts, and graphs. The simple statistical analysis,
such as descriptive information, was carried out using MS-excel and SPSS version 16 software.
The Pearsons correlation test was also run in SPSS 16.0 software to find out the relationship
between the tree preference and respondents educational level, age or sex.
Species frequency: Frequency and relative frequency were calculated for the
most commonly reported species in the study area following Martins
(1995) method.
Absolute frequency (%) = Number of plots for individual species *100
Total number of plots studied
Relative frequency = frequency of any species

*100

Total frequency of any species

xxxix

Relative abundance = number of individuals of a species divided by the total number of

individuals of all species multiplied by 100
Diameter classes were set based on formulas:
Class width = maximum diameter minimum diameter
No of classes

xl

This research design provides a summary of how the main research methods were
achieved. It gives insights on the answers to the research core variables and statistical
tools were used to validate the field findings.

Suitable Trees
for urban uses
Social/respondents
Societal groups
Gender
Age
Tree function
Tree niches
Constraints
Technical
Maintenance
Managerial &
social

Tree Inventory
Parameters:
DBH
Height
Crown width &ht
Formula methods

Quantitative value
Basal area
Current value
Species class
Condition class
Location class
Tree values

Statistical
parameters:
Mean
frequency, percentage & t-test.
Use of SPSS software
Use of MS-Excel

Data Analysis
Qualitative
Quantitative

Figure 4: Conceptual frameworks analyzing suitability of urban trees

xli

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Results
This chapter describes the results and the discussions part of the study. The results include the
socio-economic status of the respondents, urban tree resources, criterias affecting tree selection
for urban areas and the use of trees in the context of urban environment.
4.1.1 Socioeconomic status of respondents
A total of 110 respondents grouped into 4 age classes 15 to 65) were involved in this study.
The following table shows the characteristics of the respondents of each category.
Table 2: Age, gender and occupation/societal groups of the respondents in the study area
Variable
Age
15-30
31-50
51-65
>65

M
N=19

P
N=10

S
N=23

D
N=9

Sv
N=6

R
N=20

G
N=16

Total

5
3
8
3

9
1
0
0

20
2
0
1

8
1
0
0

5
0
1
0

9
9
2
0

5
10
0
1

61
26
11
5

59
25
11
5

LEGEND: N = number of respondents M-Merchants, P-Police-Traffic, S-Students, D-Driver-Bickers, Sv-Street

Vendors, R-Road Cleaners, G-Gardeners

xlii

Figure 5: Educational level of respondents

Most of the respondents were at the age class of 15-30 years, 25% were 31-50 years, ages, 11%
of the total was 51-65 years age group, and 5% of the respondents were over 65 years old. From
the total respondents 56% were men, while 44% were women.
Regarding the education level as indicated on figure 5, 38% of the respondents are categorized
from Grade 1-8, and only about 9% had higher educated with BSc and above. The percentage of
illiterate and certificate/diploma is equal, which is 15% of the total respondents. Informants in
the study area confirmed that the settlement has become very dense; especially the residents who
are highly dependent on these plant resources to sustain their daily lives. There are also many
governmental and private institutions, industries/factories, hotels, restaurants, and other facilities,
which want the city maintained as a pleasant environment.
4.1.2 Current status of vegetation cover
Respondents in the study area stated that the current tree resources of the city of Bahir Dar are
both remnants of natural vegetation and man made plantations. Trees are found in small patches
and pocket niches particularly in residential zones, parks/recreational zones, institutional zones,
xliii

lakeshore and industrial zones. The result of the survey showed that native, old and large tree
species were found in old established institutions such as the palaces, lakeshore and
churches/mosques. On the other hand, most of the exotic species were established as ornamental
and edible fruit trees found in residential garden, streets and new established storage and
industrial areas.
The field inventory was conducted to determine the status of woody tree species in different
green areas. A total of 336 trees categorized under 31 families, were sampled. A total of 39
species were distributed over the study area. Of them, 20 of the species were exotic, while 19
were indigenous species. The most common and adapted tree species were from the families of
Myrtaceae (12.9%), Euphorbiaceae (9.68%), Palmaea (6.45%), Bignoniaceae (6.45),
Combretaceae (6.45), Moraceae (6.45%).
Out of these 39 species, 14, 3, 22 were categorized under the life form as large tree, medium and
small trees/shrubs, respectively. The 39 species, 12 of them (33%) were edible or fruit bearing
trees, 22 (56%) ornamental and medicinal values, and others. Those species having only
ornamental value were Araucaria excelsa, Terminalia catappa, Hibiscus rosa-sinesis, and
Callistemon citrinus. Average tree diversity per plot was 23 species ranging from 1 to 37 species
over all cities landscape. Palm tree (Phoenix spp) was a popular species grown dominantly at the
center of the two way roads, sidewalks, pedestrians and median roads.
4.1.3 Population structure of city trees
The comparative patterns of the population structure (stem diameter distribution) of the woody
species in the studied city are presented in Fig. 6. Inventory of the 62 study plots, covering an

xliv

area of 2.48 ha, include a total of 336 trees with a DBH greater than 10 cm and a height greater
than 1.37m was recorded.

Figure 6: Diameter distribution of the tree population

A relatively high proportion (highest frequency) of woody species in the samples were
represented by small diameter individuals, i.e. belonging to the DBH classes 10-24cm (66.4%)
and 25-39 cm (21.7%) (Fig.6). this implies from 10-39cm DBH classes is dominated by younger
plantings. This can be viewed as the positive attention given recently in the city for urban forest
development.
More than 67 % of woody species in the samples were represented by individuals with DBH
values of less than 24 cm. About 1 % of all woody species belonged to the class of the largest
trees with DBH values 70 cm. Most of these large trees are represented by the species
Jacaranda mimosifolia and Phoenix reclinata, with maximum DBH-value of 80 cm.

xlv

4.1.4 Tree resources in the study area

The woody species were not evenly distributed throughout the study quadrates. In general,
species abundance (number of each species per total number of species) of the site tree species
(N = 37) was calculated from the total of 336 and resulted in an average range of 13.57 7.89
tree species per niche/strata (the relative abundance of the species is indicated in table 2 annex
iii). The mean number of species per plot was 1.44. Comparison of niches was conducted and the
result indicated that residential landscape appeared to be the top in abundance, whereas the
industrial area comprised of the least number of species.
Species frequency: The analysis of species frequency showed that Mangifera indica 13 (21%)
and Psidium guajava 12 (19.4%) are the most common species each occurring in the quadrates
surveyed, followed by Melia azendarach 11 (17.7%) and Phoenix Reclinata 10 (16.1%).
Callistemon citrinus, and Terminalia catappa are the least frequent species each occurring only
in 1 (1.6%) of the quadrates sampled. Some ornamental species (E.g. Annona senegalensis) had
poor distribution overall, but could be found planted at homes of interested professionals.
Lowest frequent is observed in native trees because of poor-utilization and substitution by the
exotic species. The frequency of species (number of sites that a particular species found)
indicated in Table 9 (Annex iii).
4.1.5 Ornamental trees
A total of 22 ornamental tree species distributed among 19 families were identified in the
inventory. The ornamental value of the species is confirmed and consistent with the methodology
given by Azene (2007) and Tewoldeberhan (1991). The dominant family of trees with
ornamental value were Bignoniaceae, Cupressaceae and Moraceae, (with two species each), and
xlvi

the remaining were represented by one species for each family. The most preferred and
appropriately selected by the city dwellers were under the family of Bignoniaceae, dominated by
M. azedarach and S.nilotica as well as Phoenix species. Some of the species were not native to
Bahir Dar or Ethiopia in general.
One of the most wrong species to urban areas, but planted for its fuel wood and construction
material were the Eucalyptus species. Most of the respondents perceived Eucalyptus as having a
negative impact on roads, construction, and other buildings. However, it is planted in different
niches for its economical values. Experts also pointed out that chemicals emitted from the tree
inhibit the growth of any other vegetation under its canopy. Due to mismanagement and less
care taken, some of the useful ornamental plants such as Cupressus pyramidalis, Hibiscus
(Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), Callistemon citrinus, Araucaria excelsa and Oleander species, suffered
from shortage of water and less maintenance.
Based on distribution patterns and informants consensus, 11 of the most common ornamental
tree species with a diameter larger than14.5 cm, and distributed among 10 families, were
identified in the inventory for their ornamental values, consistent with Azene (2007) and
Tewoldeberhan (1991) as shown in Table 3 below.

xlvii

Table 3: List of most commonly reported ornamental trees in the study area
Scientific Name
Araucaria excelsa
Mangifera indica
Callistemon citrinus
Casuarina equisetifolia
Cupressus lusitanica

Local Name
Araucaria
Mango
Bottlebrush
Arzlibanos
Yefernji tsid

Family
Araucariaceae
Anacardiaceae
Myrtaceae
Casuarinaceae
Cupressaceae

Form
Lt
St
St
Mt
Lt

Hibiscus rosa-sinesis
Jacaranda mimosifolia
Spathodea nilotica

Hibiscus
Yetebenja zaf
Yechaka
nebelbal
Neem

Malvaceae
Bignoniaceae
Bignoniaceae

St
Lt
Mt

Meliaceae

Mt

Melia azedarach

Major Uses
Aesthetics, shade
Fruit, aesthetics,
Aesthetics,
Fence, aesthetics,
Fence/hedge,
aesthetics
Aesthetics,
Aesthetics,
Aesthetics, shade

Niches
Streets, park, garden
Home garden, park
Park, street, home
Administrative, home
Administrative, park
Park, garden
Industrial area, park
Street, park, office

Shade, aesthetics, Shopping, street,

fence
Phoenix reclinata
Zembaba/selen Arecaceae
Pt
Aesthetics, fence Street
Terminalia catappa
Terminalia
Combretaceae St
Aesthetics,
Street, park
Note: St= small tree (<6m), Mt=medium tree, Lt=larger tree at maturity (The definition of the
life form is sourced from Grifn and Davis (2005).
The sample inventory indicated that the eleven tree species listed in the table above account for
approximately 29% of the tree population in study area. Thus, the responsible sectors could
work with suburban gardens in the area in protecting these valuable plant species(Table 4).
4.1.6 Tree value components
It is necessary that ornamental tree size, cross-sectional area, current value, species, condition
and location classes should be adequate to the envisaged function of the tree at the given site
(object of greenery), which may either increase or decrease its tree value. Thus, calculations are
determined by these factors.
A) Species class: Species Class is expressed in percentage (%), preference of the relative value
of trees species in Bahir Dar, often varies geographically. There are eleven species represented in
all the different land use inventories. The data indicated that the species diversity of the city is
very limited. Of all the species identified in the city, three species were received as excellent
xlviii

rating (100%), two species were rated very good (80%), two others, good (70%), three were
stated in fair (60%), and finally one species lies in poor (40%) classes (see table 10 species rating
column in annex iii).
B) Location class (%): From the study, the average location values ratings indicated that the
street and park trees dominated the inventories with a total of 36.3% while industrial, institutions
and residential areas constitute 9.1% each (Table 6 in Annex iii). Average location ratings for all
trees were quite similar. The park trees were lower than industry, resident, administrative and
roads. Those trees location rating (45.5%) were scored for their aesthetic properties. M
.azedarach and S.nilotica provides only18.2% shade benefits on the road sides. C. equisetifolia
mainly in industrial and C.lusitanica in institution niches selected to protect from winds, keeping
privacy and architectural design purposes. M.indica contributes 9.1% of the respondents gain
fruit for household consumption besides its other functions.
C) Tree condition evaluation: The survey showed that an evaluation of the tree conditions, with
respect to the overall condition of structure and state of health. Privately owned trees in the
residential areas received better care and grew under better conditions. Street trees are highly
subjected to destruction and damage, particularly by different animals. The conditions of the top
eleven tree species in the City of Bahir Dar were indicated in (Figure 7). It shown the trees
conditions are converted into a percent, based on the approximate living or healthy biomass
(Table 12 in Annex III).

xlix

Figure7. Results for tree condition valuation of selected trees (11)

The tree inventory analysis of this study showed that, the condition of trees is not a serious
problem since about 55% of the trees are close to an excellent condition, as defined in Table 7
appendix iii. The fact that 19% of the trees are in good, 19% in fair and 22.92% in poor condition
means overall, the conditions indicates that the overall condition of the trees in the city is trees in
good(Table 15). This information will help us to make informed management decisions to
improve the overall condition of the urban forest. Therefore, the first step in ensuring good plant
health is choosing a recommended low maintenance plant and planting it in the correct location.
However, planting practices will also affect plant health.
Comparable values for each individual tree species by CSA, CV, SC, CC and LC derived from
actual formula method. CSA and CV derived from circumference/diameter (Table 4). High and
low values represent the mean one standard deviation. Values are expressed in Ethiopian birrs.

Table 4: Values of 11 trees, in Ethiopian Birr calculated using formula method

SN- Scientific Name, DBH- Diameter at Breast Height, CSA.-Cross Sectional Area, CV-Current Value, SC-Species
Class, CC-Condition Class, LC-Location Class, TV-Tree Value

Scientific Name
Phoenix reclinata
Melia azedarach
Spathodea nilotica
Hibiscus rosa-sinesis
Terminalia catappa
Jacaranda mimosifolia
Casuarina equisetifolia
Araucaria excelsa
Cupressus lusitanica
Mangifera indica
Callistemon citrinus

Circumfer
ence(m)
0.925
0.934
1.004
0.775
0.593
0.943
0.629
0.455
0.493
0.457
0.200

DBH
(m)
0.294
0.298
0.320
0.250
0.190
0.301
0.202
0.145
0.159
0.147
0.160

CSA
(m2)
0.068
0.070
0.080
0.049
0.028
0.071
0.032
0.017
0.020
0.017
0.020

CV
(birr)
4.563
4.677
5.380
3.290
1.903
4.777
2.144
1.106
1.327
1.139
1.347

SC
(%)
1
1
1
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4

CC
(%)
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.6

LC
(%)
1
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.2
0.4
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.6

TV
(birr)
0.248
0.210
0.207
0.046
0.024
0.024
0.015
0.012
0.010
0.005
0.004

Results for the selected 11 species indicated measurable differences on tree value of the species
due to variation among multiplied factors (Table 4). The differences among the eleven species
depended on species rating, location and condition used in the tests. The valuation method
indicated that the value of trees increases significantly with the increase size
(diameter). However, size has relatively little influence on total tree value.
Rather, species rating contributes the largest difference on value. The way current values
are determined also contributes to the variation, because current values were increased by
increments that represented consistent increases in cross-sectional area.
From Table 6, at 100% species rating and 80% condition, the tree value for the P.reclinata, is
significantly greater than that for the M.azedarach, S.nilotica or the others. Location class and
current value helped the trees score the highest tree value. According to respondents ranking list:
M.azedarach, P.reclinata and S.nilotica stood first, second and third on tree preferences,
respectively (Table 5).
li

According to the respondents rating list, S.nilotica and Callistimon citrinus were
considered highest (100%) and lowest (40%) rating, respectively. These
species were of similar size. The tree values (0.207 and 0.004) reflected this
difference. Trees in roads, institutional /administrative areas (offices) and
residential landscapes received higher location ratings than trees on
lakeshore, and industrial areas. For example,

Phoenix reclinata and

Jacaranda mimosifolia have closer equal diameter/size; however, Jacaranda

mimosifolia was inappropriate location so that it influenced the tree value.
Phoenix reclinata had highest tree value (0.248) due to its location.
The current values also determined and contributed to the variation of tree value. This is mainly
due to current values increases with increase of cross-sectional area. Overall, the value of trees
ranged from 0.004 to 0.248 for Callistemon citrinus and Phoenix reclinata, respectively. Some
ornamental plants are more familiar to informants and hence more widely recognized. The
Araucaria excelsa and Terminalia catappa have species class of 80% ratings. However, the
condition class was 90 and 80%, respectively. The location class of these trees planted in streets
and parks provided aesthetical value, therefore, the location class scored for A.excelsa and T.
catappa was 90 and 70%, respectively. Finally, the tree values produced were 0.012 and 0.024.
In this specific study, C. citrinus has lower value with the CTLA method than with the other
species since the species rating (40%), located at the park area (60%) as well as 60% poor state
of health took into account the trees lower landscape tree value (0.004).
The highest tree value was recorded for Phoenix reclinata (0.248) followed
by by Melia azedarach (0.21), and the lowest value was by Callistemon citrinus (0.004) and by

lii

Mangifera indica (0.005) at the standard deviation of 0.125 above and below the
mean value (Table 9).
All multiple factor values of inventory trees were significantly higher (t < 0.05) at alpha = 0.05
and the different multiplied factors influenced affects the existence of the tree species in the city
landscape. To sum up, high value selection, through formula method as is often standard over a
wide variety of circumstances and it is consistent with the study of Flook (1996) and Clark and
Swanson, 1990).
4.1.7 Tree species preference
The interview of the eight selected key informants from different disciplines is presented in
Table 8 below, based on the informants consensus score. The result obtained was to rank species
widely planted for various purposes in the study area.
Preference ranking was used to assess the relative importance of the top eleven ornamental trees
which were reported to be very familiar for their aesthetical values in Bahir Dar.
Table 5: Priority ranking of those trees used for ornamental purposes
Species
Melia azedarach
Phoenix reclinata
Spathodea nilotica
Araucaria excelsa
Terminalia catappa
Cupressus lusitanica
Casuarina equisetifolia
Hibiscus rosa-sinesis
Jacaranda memisifolia
Mangifera indica
Callistimon citrinus

Respondents (R1-R8)
R1
R2 R3 R4
8
7
7
7
8
8
7
7
6
7
7
7
5
6
7
5
6
5
7
6
6
5
4
6
5
4
5
5
4
5
2
4
2
3
3
3
2
3
1
4
1
3
3
3

R5
8
6
8
3
5
4
4
5
4
3
2

R6
8
8
8
2
6
5
5
5
5
3
3

R7
8
8
7
7
6
5
5
4
5
4
3

R8
8
7
8
3
5
5
4
5
4
5
3

Total

Rank

61
59
58
48
46
40
37
34
29
25
21

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
11th
10th

liii

Species
Total point rating
61-53
53-45
45-38
38-30
30-22

Respondents (R1-R8)
R1
R2 R3 R4
R5
Percentage to use in formula
80-100
60-80
40-60
20-40
<20

Total
R6

R7

Rank

R8

Accordingly, it was found that some urban trees are more popular than others in their use for
various purposes. Melia azedarach stood first selected by 61 of the 110 respondents (96%) for its
use. Phoenix reclinata had the second highest value, with 59 of the informants (93%), followed
by Spathodea nilotica, (58%). This ranking resulted from the appreciation of one species over
the other for its form/structures and aesthetical value. Most of the respondents reported that
ornamental trees are mainly used for esthetic enjoyment or recreation; while some also reported
that edible fruits are often a benefit (P.reclinata).
4.1.8 Tree selection criteria
Pair wise ranking was exercised for eleven ornamental trees using five major use criteria:
shade, ornament, fruit, fence, and pollutant reduction. These criteria were matrices with their
corresponding niche categories, namely: resident, institution/administrative, street/road, park,
industry and lakeshores (Table 7). These selection criteria were agreed on by each selected
participating informant. All have expressed their individual beliefs and feelings to meet their
multi-purpose tree demands.
4.1.9 Major uses of selected trees
Most of the dwellers felt that, beyond the ecological value of trees, they contributed to the
aesthetic values, shelter for different wildlife, created hedges and contributed to the daily food
liv

requirements, (i.e. fruit for household consumption). Individual urban dwellers, particularly in
the case of private owned house owners, selected trees for ornament, shade, and fruit production.
The results of this study revealed that there is a profound emotional feeling is involved in the
selection of trees in the urban forest. Important values that play a powerful force in tree selection
were: shade (trees with fuller canopies), ornament, fruit, fence and tolerance to environmental
extremes (increasing phytoremediation efficiency). The majority of the respondents, (82.5%)
indicated aesthetics, followed by shade service (81.5%), fencing for privacy (71.8%), fruit
provision (64.5%), and to hedge at industrial sites (36.4 %) as the top scoring uses.
Table 6: Preference of ornamental trees in each use criteria based on respondents (110)
response
Criteria/
uses

Mango
N=110

Cupr
N=110

Jaca
N=110

Melia
N=108

Hibis
N=108

Casua
N=110

Pho
N=107

Spath
N=108

Arau
N=110

Term
N=103

Calis
N=107

Shade
%
Ornament
%
Fruit
%
Fence
%
Environmental
%

25
22.7
8
7.3
71
64.5
2
1.8
4
3.6

3
2.7
7
6.4
0
0
79
71.8
21
19.1

25
22.7
30
27.3
0
0
15
13.6
40
36.4

88
81.5
13
12
1
0.9
3
2.7
3
2.7

2
1.8
82
75.9
0
0
18
16.7
6
5.5

7
6.4
10
9.1
0
0
74
67.3
19
17.3

18
16.8
64
59.8
10
9.3
13
12.1
2
1.9

44
40.7
36
33.3
0
0
8
7.4
20
18.5

8
7.3
88
80
1
.9
6
5.5
7
6.4

3
2.9
85
82.5
0
0
8
7.8
7
6.8

8
7.5
73
68.2
0
0
24
22.4
2
1.9

In order to understand the respondents perception their answers were analyzed. All individuals
have their own criteria for planting trees around their own vicinity. The majority (81.5 %) of the
respondents valued Melia azedarach for its provision of shade, followed by Araucaria species
(80%) for its aesthetical/ornamental values; Cupressus lusitanica (71.8%) for its fence/hedge
use:

Mangifera indica (64.5%) for fruit production and Jacaranda mimosifolia (36.4%) for
lv

environmental values. All respondents replied and the results are listed in table 5. Some of the
species were not valued by the respondents because of unfamiliarity.
Overall result of their preference gives high priority to aesthetic and ornamental characteristics
A.excelsa (80%), P.reclinata (59.8%) on streets and T.catappa (82.5%), H.rosasinesis (75.9%),
and C.citrinus (68.2%) mainly on parks, were respected for their values.
4.1.10 Major urban tree sites/niches
Species preferences were given based on summaries of informants agreement. Respondents tree
choice, with their respective planting niches is shown in table 7. The summary shows that
Phoenix reclinata, Melia azedarach, Spathodea nilotica, and Araucaria excelsa are mainly
suitable species for road streets, while Terminalia catappa, Callistemon citrinus, and Jacaranda
mimosifolia are the next preferred species in park areas. Mangifera indica is the most preferred
species for fruit production thereby contributing to food security. Casuarina equisetifolia,and
Cupressus

lusitanica

are

among

the

most

preferred

species

in

different

institutional/administrative areas for fence or hedge purposes and to redirect the prevailing wind.
There are a number of parks or recreation areas that used trees for aesthetic values in the city. To
mention some of them "Hidar 11" with 4,5500 m2, "Shum Abo" with 16,250 m2, "Meskel
Adebabay" with 48,720 m2, and "Koteta Terara" with 15,1600 m2 are the most notable areas
covered by trees for aesthetic reason. "Mango and Bingo" parks are the other most two important
areas situated close to the lakeshore, which are administered under Lake Tana Transport
Enterprise (LTTE) (BCA, 2011). These niches are the best recreational areas of the city with
considerable green/forest covers.

lvi

Table 7: Preferences of ornamental trees in each planting niche based on respondents'(110)

response
NICHES

PHOE
N=110

MELI
N=110

SPATH
N=110

ARAU
N=110

TERM
N=103

CALIST
N=106

CASUA
N=110

CUPR
N=110

MANG
N=110

HIBIS
N=110

JACA
N=110

Resident 194
% 189.4
Administrative219
% 200.8
Park 259
% 242.1
Road 315
% 288.9
Industry183
%168
Lakeshore64
%58.6

2
2.8
4
3.6
7
6.4
89
80.9
5
4.5
5
4.5

39
35.5
25
22.7
7
6.4
47
42.7
27
24.5
4
3.6

9
8.2
16
14.5
7
6.4
47
42.7
27
24.5
4
3.6

17
15.5
4
3.6
28
25.5
56
50.9
5
4.5
0
0

22
21.4
9
8.7
45
43.7
14
13.6
13
12.6
0
0

6
5.7
8
7.5
48
45.3
37
34.9
7
6.6
0
0

25
22.7
38
34.5
5
4.5
3
2.7
35
31.8
4
3.6

3
2.7
68
61.8
6
5.5
0
0
30
27.3
3
2.7

55
50
6
5.5
30
27.3
1
0.9
2
1.8
16
14.5

15
24
25
23.4
45
42.1
18
16.8
3
2.8
1
0.9

1
0.9
16
15
31
29
3
2.8
29
27.1
27
25.2

Keys: N= Total number of respondents. PHOE-Phoenix reclinata, MELI-Melia azedarach, SPATH-Spathodea

nilotica, ARAU-

Araucaria excelsa, TERM-Terminalia catappa, CALISTt-Callistimon citrinus, CASUA-

Casuarina equisetifolia, CUPR-Cupressus lusitanica, MANG-Mangifera indica, JACA-Jacaranda

mimosifolia

4.1.11 City forest/tree constraints

The respondents representing the city mentioned various constraints facing urban tree
development. These constraints, reflected by the respondents have been analyzed and listed in
the order of their rank in Table 8.

lvii

Table 8: Urban tree problems and number of respondents cited

Major Problems
Lack of awareness
Lack of space
Poor silviculture management
Shortage of seed/seedlings
Lack of skilled manpower
Conflict with infrastructure
Free grazing
Uniformity of the species
Wrong tree selection
Policy issue
Lack of budget
Lack of responsible person /organization
Maximum size at maturity
Tree diseases or pests

Total no of respondents
76
67
57
35
35
34
33
21
18
16
14
13
10
6

% of total problems mentioned

by respondents
69.7
60.9
53.3
32.1
32.1
31.8
30.3
19.3
16.5
14.5
12.7
11.8
9.3
5.6

As mentioned above, most of problems reported (69.7%) were lack of public awareness and poor
participation of the public sector, limited attention of the municipality on tree suitability, lack of
initiatives, and limited involvement of NGO's were amongst the major constraints of the urban
trees issues.
The major policy and technical issue for growing trees in the city was finding suitable land.
Some residents maintain native species in their homes, on the other hand some of the people
desired to get budded/grafted exotics trees to best suit for small land. However, one can hardly
find grafted seedlings and stunted but with desirable criteria.

lviii

The municipality conducts regular cutting, lopping, pruning and disbranching trees located closer
to power lines and road sides. Trees grown for aesthetic value in the streets and different
institution have got limited management intervention. The very use of a tree for one purpose by a
certain individual may be seen as a problem by another; the lopping of a tree for fodder will alter
its shape and render it, in the eyes of some, far less attractive in ornamental terms. Trees with big
crown found in the resident areas were also removed to minimize neighbor conflict.
Furthermore, lack of skilled manpower (professionals) is the most top priority mismanagement
and mis-location of urban forest species at various niches. Individuals/private or public sectors
also particular problem on tree control because required high budgets mainly to protect from
animal damage particularly on open public land such as roadsides and derelict plots.

4.2 Discussion
The survey included various societal groups sampled and inventories on six different niches.
Various niches encompassed different species compositions based on the preference of the
residents in the respective landscape. From the study residents tree preference is based on their
past experience and opinion.
4.2.1 Tree resources of Bahir Dar
EFASA (2010) reported that about 50 major plant species were identified, including herbaceous
plants, at the interface between the swamp and open water within Bahir Dar city. Likewise, close
to the lake shore there are rich plant resources like extensive growth of papyrus (Cyprus
papyrus) (IWMI, 2009). It was reported that both what is today the urban center of Bahir Dar as
well as the rural area surrounding there were once covered with rich indigenous trees such as:
Syzgium guineense ,Juniperus procera, Ricinus communis, Murus mesozyoia, and Olea forests
lix

(Personal communication). Currently, remnant forests are found on the shore of Lake Tana and
around old churches surrounding Bahir Dar (Personal observation).
Apart from indigenous tree species, exotic species are grown for different purposes. Among
them, Eucalyptus spp. is one of the leading economically and socially important trees in Bahir
Dar. Its fast growing nature has made it more competitive than other trees; however, its
ecological consequence is often put it under a paradox (Solomon, 2005).
Woody species in the study area have a wide range of uses, including ornamental, to satisfy
aesthetical values, fruit trees for food consumption, protection as well as conservation roles.
Mangifera indica and Psidium guajava are commonly found in the study plots because they are
grown for fruit production. Melia azendarach and Phoenix reclinata were grown as ornamental
species and for their shade during winter season. Annona senegalensis, Callistemon citrinus, and
Terminalia catappa were found in very limited areas, because these species are introduced by
some interested groups who collected them somewhere else. These species are not raised by
either of the private and government nurseries. The respondents stated that Callistimone citrinus
and Terminalia catappa were currently poorly distributed; however, they would likely expand for
their ornamental qualities.
Data on tree cover, the number of trees, etc. were analyzed from a sample of inventory plots. Not
the entire city was included and the tree value was done in a limited survey and group of selected
people. The survey revealed that the socio-economic conditions were the most influencing
factors for urban trees selection in the study area. The age, sex and educational level affected
people tree preference in urban areas was done using the Pearson correlation test. There is a
relationship, the relationship between different societal groups conditions (for example, age, sex
lx

and educational level) were influencing the preference of urban trees. The results of Pearson
correlation test revealed a positive and significant correlation between age and the number
of species reported (r =-0.220, p = 0.026, = 0.05). This implies that a higher number of
ornamental trees were preferred by the youngest age class (below 30 years). This could mean
that the aesthetical values of trees in the study area were perceived, enjoyed and interested by
youths/adults. On the other hand, the correlation between men/women to the number of species
reported was not significant (Pearson correlation coefficient, r =-0.076, p = 0.444, = 0.05). This
implies that being man or women has no effect on the preference of the suitable urban trees. This
implies that the preference base concerning ornamental trees was more or less similar between
men and women. However, educational level of the respondents has positive relationship but not
strong and it was significant (Pearson correlation coefficient, r =0.236, p = 0.015, = 0.05). The
results showed that the relationship between the level of education and the preference of trees for
aesthetic values was particularly higher in highly educated gardeners, students and experts. Such
implication is important for conservation strategies.
4.2.2 Tree population in different niches
This result would likely indicate that urban tree selection is limited due to a number of factors.
Some of the factors include a limited supply of available species, land for expansion for tree
planting is limited in the city, and urban forestry sites are already occupied and absence of
further modification or maintenance of trees.
Although these species had been proven to be tolerant to growing conditions, future threats are
expected from pests and diseases in the future. Proper management of these trees is critical to
sustain a high level of benefits. Recent efforts had been carried out to increase species diversity
in different niches of the city; however the seedling requirement and other managerial, technical
lxi

and policy issues are not properly addressed to keep it sustainable. Some fruit trees are growing
in streets and sidewalks apart from home gardens. These trees are improperly placed as the
dropping fruit can cause problems. Placement of trees related to food value for wildlife should be
given special care in agreement with Burns (2005) to reduce risk of death or killing by
pedestrians and vehicles.
Recent planting of introduced species, namely; A.excelsa, and T. catappa (bothattractive,longlivedtreeswellsuitedforornamentalandamenityplantings,wherespacepermits).
Resulted to the ignorance of native species and began to evoke a negative response in people. All
of the nursery men and tree vendors interviewed described the sale of ornamental and
medicinal plant products as their main source of livelihood. In addition, all indicated that
they had no prior specific training, but that they entered the occupation somewhat
fortuitously and 'learned the trade' through years of practical involvement.
In summary: A number of studies from abroad have shown that real estate agents and home
buyers assign between 10 and 23 percent of the value of a residence to the trees on the property
(Gilman, 2007); however, the study showed that no limited space for urban tree development.
The tree allocation is based on the preference of the residents in different niches of the study
area. It is also true that specific plant properties affect the spatial perception of green areas in the
city and the result is consistent with the study of Serpa and Muhar (1996).
The study also indicated that various niches of trees' distribution are based on the peoples social,
economical, psychological and mental willingness to domesticate and cultivate. Edible fruit trees
such as M.indica, P.gujava, C.papaya are dominantly found in resident areas which have a

lxii

connection to food security/balance diet perception. Restaurants and/or hotels have also an
experience of growing fruit trees.
The second preference by the residence niches was exotic ornamental trees which are, more
attractive to consumers and a premium price attracts nursery growers on major road sides in
Ethiopian cities and towns in general, and also in Bahir Dar. Negative connotations attached to
indigenous tree species have been reflected in the different selection criteria. The top reasons are
the slow growing nature of the species and shortage of seedlings to grow indigenous tree species.
Tree selection for parking lots include deciduous trees that provide shade, fencing and pollution
control. Pedestrian areas and sidewalks were edged with M.azedarach and S.nilotica trees proven
for their shade value by Burns (2005). Ornamental species such as Phoneix reclinata have long
occupied a dominant position and continue to be planted in large numbers because of their ability
to adapt local conditions. This is in agreement with Breitenbarch (1963) and Azene (2007)
growing these species in water-logged soils and/or humid areas range at altitude of 700 to 2600m
above sea level. They also acknowledged that many such trees are widely known and used
among the general public.
4.2.3 Tree value evaluation factors
CTLA is a methodology to evaluate urban trees developed by International Society for
Arboriculture and approved by the Council of Tree and Landscape appraisers (Hoeven, 1998).
As similar to Flook (1996) the most common and widely used method of establishing the value
of trees worldwide is through the use tree value formula. The previous methods consider
value of wood, but in recent years their value has also been estimated in
terms of energy savings, pollution control and other environmental utilities.
lxiii

This method gave rise to the idea of a current value as an expression of

the unit price of a cross section of trunk. Including three factors each rated
from 0 to 100 percent affect tree value (species, condition and location)
maintain or reduce this value, but never increase tree value.
On a per tree basis, tree value of costs exceeds the other trees except Phoenix reclinata was
0.248birr and Spathodea nilotica was 0.207birr. These species provided the best t to the
street. Tree management costs indicating importance of tree characteristics that are thought to be
associated with suitable tree species for urban management. The right niches were also
determined by their fitness, health condition, tree characteristics, and longevity. Considering this
approaches, urban trees have different perspectives to be selected and preference for urban forest
development.
The value of the trees was rated in line with reports judged by Griffin and Davis (2005) from the
experiences of western countries. Similarly, physical condition of the trees was also considered
as a factor regardless of the kind or size of the plant. Parts deformed by crowding, storm damage,
fire, insect damage, disease or other damages were the difficult decisions made during condition
judgment. Tree location also affects their value, especially when it is near buildings, utility lines
or other infrastructures to finally have an implication for tree value.
4.2.4 Selection criteria
Based on Bahir Dar context, the tree selection criteria (attributes) were shade, fruit, ornament,
fence and environment. As indicated in Table 14, mature height and spread must be considered as
well as the conditions and limitations of the planting site. Growing niches is in agreement with
Clark and Swanson (1990) with axioms right plant for right place is particularly true for
lxiv

woody ornamentals. Woody ornamentals planted in the wrong location may fail to thrive, need
increased maintenance, or become an out-of-scale landscape feature, thus losing its value to the
property. All the criteria were tested based on the experience of the respondents. Trees in urban
environment are known for the benefits of pollution reduction; however it was not addressed in
the study. Respondents explained that trees transpired and cooled the microclimate and shaded
surfaces. To selection criteria (shade, aesthetics, fruit, fence and filtering pollutants) were ranked
based on the importance of respondents consensus. Species selection for urban areas was
summarized as aesthetic, ecological, and functional (Flook, 1996).
4.2.5 Urban tree uses, niches and associated constraints
The habitats and ecological niches of the species are rather diverse. It stretches from the home
gardens to lakeshores. The major constraint was incompatibility of species selection, and its
niches. Hence, a number of species should be avoided which are currently planted on street. The
primary reasons for avoiding these species are that they have a high maintenance cost, and a high
hazard potential to cities, so that they should not be encouraged. Species to avoid include:
Mangifera indica, Jacaranda mimosifolia, Cordia africana, and Gravilia robusta. The City
should emphasize trees listed in the annex section of this document for future plantings.
There are also several niches which trees are suitable to integrate; however the competitive
condition as assigned for conservation and production services is not well understood by
different respondents. The major constraints mentioned by the informants of different groups
include lack of awareness (69.7%), lack of proper tree management (53.3%), shortage of skilled
manpower (32.1%) and lack of financial resources (12.7%) for urban forest/trees.

lxv

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
The results show that the inventory and assessment of suitable trees for urban areas is a valuable
planning tool. Further analysis, show the value urban trees provide and how a city can maximize
the trees benefits while reducing costs. It is shown that if an urban forest is properly managed,
the trees will provide important benefits for city residents.
From information gathered during the interviews it is evident that native trees are being depleted
and/or substituted by exotics in different parts of niches. This is due to the fact that they are over
utilized for multipurpose uses and the exotic species were preferred due to their fast growth,
ornament and fruit production potential.
In a 2.48 ha of study plots the study area, a total of 39 species were recorded. This indicated that
there is a considerable diversity of tree species in the area.

lxvi

Due to, mismanagement and poor maintenance problems, the ornamental trees were not healthy.
Thus, the responsible sectors should work with the communities in protecting these valuable
plant species by providing a more livable and comfortable urban environment.
Species rating, condition and location class were the most dominant contributors for tree value in
urban landscape. Diameter and circumference have little influence on tree value components.
Phoenix reclinata was the most familiar, widely planted and easily accessed species to
informants and hence showed the highest value.
Residential areas have better species composition as compared to the rest five growing niches.
From the 39 species, 29% were found in the residential as ornament and fruit sources. The
selection criterion can be broadly summarized as environmental, functional, aesthetic and social
values. The dominant selection criterion was shade, aesthetics, and desirable structure, no matter
what origin or type of species was found in the different niches. Shade service and aesthetics
were the most considered and appreciable criteria for the respondents' selection.
Information on land use and particularly urban tree resources was highly limited. Lack of urban
forest policy and municipal budgetary constraints need to be resolved. In order to mitigate these
constraints, skilled man power (arborist) as well as responsible institutions is needed to
understand and educate the public about urban forestry.
Areas used for parks or recreation need advice on planting aesthetically attractive and hardy
species for a better inhabitable future Bahir Dar city.

The suggestions provided by the

respondents indicated that sound and practical judgment regarding trees suitability for future
development of the urban forest is needed.

lxvii

5.2 Recommendation
In order to maximize the benefits of forestry, it is important to identify suitable planting locations
to seek the right trees for right place, to sustain opportunities for planting and protecting species
on public and/or private land. Public awareness needs to be enhanced at all levels.
Arborists should be aware the latest favorite species and proper sitting and Management.
Collaborative forestry and agroforestry training and development activities are needed that
strengthen the capabilities of Bahir Dar as well as peri-urban people. Forestry professionals
should be able to suggest appropriate plant species, plan and administer proper natural resource
management, assist in the diversification of products and income, and finally support food
security.
Forests can play a great role in mitigating climate change by reducing atmospheric CO 2. Urban
forests can make a large contribution in pollution reduction in cities and towns. Therefore,
carbon storage capabilities can be marketed and as a result urban forest development enhanced.
The results of this study suggest the need for increasing species diversity, to minimize risk of
pest or disease demolishing the limited species existing in Bahir Dar. Improving the quality and
size of urban forest needs to be an important priority. Additional inventory and analysis should
be carried out, to learn more about current conditions, proper planting sites and suitable species.
Organize, train and provide the necessary inputs to urban nurseries to raise and grow compatible
species for streets, residential areas and new construction areas, and establish regular inventory
to maintain the urban forest.
Create an alliance between the city administration and other different stakeholders, organization,
schools, and NGOs to maximize the urban forestry effort and engage in correct species selection,
lxviii

landscape design and enhancements. These groups should be encouraged to plant longer term
crops, including food trees. Homeowners should be encouraged to enhance their home plots by
planting trees for shade and ornament.
In areas such as universities, industrial parks and open environments, planting larger and faster
growing trees is recommended in order to build the global availability of carbon sinks
(McPherson, 2005).

In urban environments where space is limited, flower gardens, indoor

plants and window boxes are recommended.

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ANNEXES
Annex I: Survey questionnaire for tree data collection
1. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Sub-city:________, Age:15-30 31-50 51-65 >65 level of education: a) illiterate b)
grade 1-9 c) grade 9-12 d) 12+3 e) 12+5 Sex:Male Female, Residents: A) Policetraffic b)students C) vendors D) cleaners E) drivers f) merchants g)gardeners
Choose one of tree species listed either in rows and columns using criteria listed in horizontal
rows and growing niches on vertical column respective to all 11 trees depending on your
preference. Write x you preferred for trees listed in horizontal and write y you preferred for
trees listed in vertical column (choose one of major functions).
lxxvii

x
y
Phoe
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake
Neem
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake
Aroc
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake
Term
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake
Brus
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake
Casu
a
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake
Cupr
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake

Pho

Melia
sh
orn

Casuarina
sh
orn

frt

frt

fen

fen

wt

wt

Spathodia
sh orn frt

Cupressus
sh
orn

frt

fen

fen

wt

wt

Araucaria
sh orn frt

Mangifera
sh
orn

frt

fen

fen

wt

wt

Terminalia
sh orn frt

Hibiscus
sh orn

frt

fen

fen

Callistimon
sh
orn
frt

wt

wt

Jacaranda
sh orn

Gravi
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake
Hibis
Resi
Offi
Park
Road

lxxviii

frt

fen

fen

wt

wt

Indu
lake
Jacar
Resi
Offi
Park
Road
Indu
lake

Key: 1) Res-residential, off-offices, park-recreation, road-road, ind-industrial, lak-lakeshore areas

2) sh-shade, orn-ornamental, frt-fruit, fen-fence, wt-waste treatment

1. What are the major problems for urban tree resources you observed in the city?
I) Technical: a) lack of skilled manpower, b) wrong tree selection, c) uniformity of species, d)
lack of seed/seedlings
II) Managerial: a) policy, b) budget lack, c) no committed person/office. d) Lack of space
III) Maintenance: a) poor silviculture, b) conflict with infrastructure, c) large size at maturity, d)
tree diseases, e) water lack
IV) Social: a) lack of awareness, b) free grazing
Inventory field data sheet
Strata Plot
id
no

Species DBH

HT Crown
base width

Age Condition
A B
C D

%
E F Total

Key: A = stem, B = growth, C = structure, D = insect, E = crown, F = longevity (see table 3

detail)
As a guide, the following system can help a trained arborist. There are six condition factors, A through F. each
rating from one to five. The sum of the rating for each of the six factors is the tree's condition rating. The percent
based on this rating is used in the formula. Table 15: condition rating check list

Strata name:
A. Trunk/Stem condition
Sound & solid
Missing bark
Extensive decay
B. Growth(varies with species)
Vigorous
Moderate
Poor
C. Structure

Rating

lxxix

sound
One or more minor branch dead, broken/missing
Two or more major limbs dead, broken/missing
D. Insect and Disease
No pests
One pest
Two or more pests
E. Crown Development
Full and balanced
Full but unbalanced
Unbalanced and lacking a full crown
F. Life Expectancy (at time of evaluation)
More than 30 years
15 to 20 years
Less than 5 years
Total point rating
(A+B+C+D+E+F)

Percentage to use in formula

Identification: Survey city: Bahir Dar

Sub city: __________________________________
Interviewer/Facilitator: _______________________
Date/Month/Year: ___________________________
Annex II: Glossary of terms
Arboriculture is defined as the growing and tending of trees and shrubs, individually or in small
groups, generally for ornament and instruction rather than use or profit.
Basal area: The cross-sectional area of a tree trunk at 1.37m above ground.
City - whose population is more than 100,000 inhabitants.
City recreational park land: the vast majority of green space in the city is associated with
recreational park land. This includes areas developed and maintained for active and passive
recreational use, such as public parks, athletic fields, play grounds, gardens and natural areas.
Clinometers: An instrument used to estimate the height of a tree using a vertical angle and a
distance determined by taping or pacing.
lxxx

Common Name: The common names of trees often reflect their major characteristics. Names,
however, may originate from other sources, such as the location where the trees grow naturally.
Some of the sources of common tree names are: habitat, distinctive feature, locality or region,
use, in commemoration, and adaptations from other languages.
Consulting forester: A self-employed professional forester.
Crown height: vertical height measured from the ground to the first (lowest) branch of the tree.
Diameter: breast height (DBH): The diameter of a tree at 1.37m above ground level.
Evergreen: A plant which retains living leaves or needles throughout the year or longer or until
new ones appear.
Green space: Any vegetated land or water within an urban area that serves as recreation or open
space. This includes neighborhood and regional parks, gardens, cemeteries, playing fields, bike
and walking paths, and urban landscaping.
Greenway: Corridor composed of natural vegetation. Greenways can be used to create
connected networks of open space that include traditional parks and natural areas.
Hazard tree: Any tree or tree part that poses a high risk to property, power lines, or people.
Inventory, Tree: Gathering of accurate information on the health and diversity of the community
forest which can include: listing and description of trees and planting sites. Used for planning.
Landscape architecture: Profession that combines art and science to research, plan, design, and
manage the natural and built environment. Landscape architects often create parks, gardens,
plazas, and streetscapes.
Native: A species that naturally occurs in a particular region, ecosystem and habitat.
Nomenclature: The naming and qualifying of plants. Most trees have two names, a scientific
and common name.

lxxxi

Non-native: A species that due to direct or indirect human activity occurs in locations beyond its
known historical or potential natural range.
Ornamental tree: A tree that is used for its ornamental qualities, such as: flowers, leaves, scent,
fruit, stem, bark or other attractive characteristics.
Scientific Name: A system of standardized Latin names for plants used throughout the world as
a universal system for naming trees. The complete scientific name for a tree consists of three
parts: Genus, Species, abbreviated name of the person or persons who originally described the
species.
Shade tree: Any tree grown specifically for the benefit of its shade. This term usually applies to
large trees with spreading canopies.
Small town - whose population is less than10, 000
Urban center - whose population is 2000 or more inhabitants.
Urban forest: An urban forest includes all of the natural resources in an urban area: plants, soil,
water, and animals.
Urban forestry: The management of the urban forest to maximize benefits to people without
compromising the health and condition of the forest
Town - whose population is less than 100,000 inhabitants.
Tree: A tree is a woody plant with several distinguishing characteristics: 5m or more in height at
maturity, has a single trunk or dominant multiple trunks, no normal branches on the lower trunk
and at least a partially defined crown
The growth form or shape, rather than size, is the feature that distinguishes a tree from other
plants such as shrubs (Harris, 1992). A shrub is a woody plant with multiple stems that is capable
of growing to a height of 5m.

lxxxii

Annex III: List of tree species in the study area

Table 9: Data collection sheet for frequency, abundance scores
Species Name

No of plots in which
Frequency Relative
Relative
species were found
(%)
frequency
abundance (Ra)
Mangifera indica*
13
20.97
7.26
7.7
Psidium guajava*
12
19.35
6.70
6
Melia azedarach
11
17.74
6.15
8.6
Phoenix reclinata*
10
16.13
5.59
4.8
Spathodea nilotica
9
14.52
5.03
8.9
Cordia Africana
9
14.52
5.03
6.2
Jacaranda mimosifolia
8
12.90
4.47
7.1
Citrus aurantifolia*
7
11.29
3.91
3.9
Gravilia robusta
8
12.90
4.47
4.2
Carica papaya*
7
11.29
3.91
4.2
Araucaria excelsa
6
9.67
3.35
3.6
Sesbania sesban
5
8.06
2.79
2.7
Persea Americana*
5
8.06
2.79
2.7
Ziziphus mucronata*
5
0.06
2.79
0.9
Casuarina equisetifolia
5
8.06
2.79
3
Coffee Arabica
5
8.06
2.79
1.8
Dracaena stadnaeri
4
6.45
2.23
1.2
Vernonia amygdalina
4
6.45
2.23
3
Eucalyptus grandis
4
6.45
2.23
3
Rhamnus prinoides
4
6.45
2.23
1.8
Croton macrostachyus
3
4.84
1.68
1.5
Cupressus lusitanica
3
4.84
1.68
2.7
Ficus sure
3
4.84
1.68
1.2
Mimisops kummel
3
4.84
1.68
1.2
Acacia polyacantha
3
4.84
1.68
1.5
Olea Africana
3
4.84
1.68
0.9
Cupressus pyramidalis
2
3.23
1.12
0.6
Delonix regia
2
3.23
1.12
0.6
Hebiscus rosa-sinesis
2
3.23
1.12
0.6
Celtis africana
2
3.23
1.12
0.6
Ficus cycomorus
2
3.23
1.12
0.6
Morus alba*
2
3.23
1.12
0.6
Nerium oleander
2
3.23
1.12
0.6
Callistemon citrinus
1
1.61
0.56
0.3
Syzygium guineense
1
1.61
0.56
0.3
Annona senegalensis*
1
1.61
0.56
0.3
Ricinus cummunis
1
1.61
0.56
0.3
Euphorbia tiruticalli
1
1.61
0.56
0.3
Terminalia catappa
1
1.61
0.56
0.3
Note: All plant species in bold face are ornamental and the species with * are edible fruits
lxxxiii

Table 10 Tree species rating in percent in this study

Class
Class 1
Phoenix reclinata
Melia azedarach
Spathodea nilotica
Class 2
Araucaria excelsa
Terminalia catappa
Class 3
Cupressus lusitanica

Response percent

Casuarina equisetifolia
Class 4
Hibiscus rosa-sinesis
Jacaranda mimosifolia
Mangifera indica
Class 5
Callistimon citrinus

58

Rating
100%

93
96
91
80%
75
72
70%
63
60%
54
46
40
40%
33

Table 11: Relative location values and those trees dominantly grown niches
Species
Phoenix reclinata
Melia azedarach
Spathodea nilotica
Araucaria excelsa
Terminalia catappa
Callistimon citrinus
Hibiscus rosa-sinesis
Casuarina equisetifolia
Cupressus lusitanica
Mangifera indica
Jacaranda mimosifolia
Total point score
61-55
55-49
49-43
43-37
37-31

Site

Score
contribution

Road = 89
Aesthetic = 64
Road =47
Shade =88
Road =47
Shade=44
Road =56
aesthetic=88
Park =45
aesthetics=85
Park =48
Aesthetics=73
Park=45
Aesthetics=82
Industry =38
windbreak=74
Admini.=68
windbreak=79
Resident =55
fruit=71
park=31
wastetrt=40
Percentage to use in formula
100-80
80-60
60-40
40-20
20-10

Relative
placement
29
29
29
29
24
24
24
17
20
18
24

Location
Sum/3 percentage
61
55
40
58
52
49
51
43
56
48
32

100
80
60
90
70
60
60
40
80
60
20

lxxxiv

Table 12: Condition rating for most common trees in the study area
Species

Condition
A
B
C
D
E
F
Total
Araucaria excelsa
5
5
5
5
4
3
27
Melia azedarach
4
4
5
3
5
3
22
Callistemon citrinus
4
3
3
2
4
1
17
Casuarina equisetifolia
5
4
4
3
5
3
24
Cupressus lusitanica
3
4
3
3
3
3
19
Hibiscus rosa-sinesis
4
4
4
4
3
3
22
Jacaranda mimosifolia
2
2
3
2
3
4
16
Spathodea nilotica
5
3
4
2
5
3
22
Mangifera indica
4
4
4
4
4
3
21
Phoenix reclinata
4
4
4
4
3
3
22
Terminalia catappa
4
5
5
5
4
2
25
Key: A = stem, B = growth, C = structure, D = insect, E = crown, F = longevity

%
90
80
60
80
70
80
60
80
70
80
80

Table 13: List of tree species inventoried in the study area

NO

FAMILY

BOTANICAL NAME

LOCAL NAME

FORM

REMARK

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Fabaceaa
Annonaceae
Anacardiaceae
Asteraceae
Araucariaceae
Apocynaceae
Lauraceae
Myrtaceae
Rhamnaceae
Casuarinaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Rubiaceae
Boraginceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Cupressaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Dracaenaceae
Moraceae

Acacia polyacantha
Annona Senegalensis
Mangifera indica
Vernonia amygdalina
Araucaria cunninghamii
Nerium oleander
Persea americana
Callistemon citrinus
Ziziphus mucronata*
Casuarina equisetifolia
Ficus sycomorus
Morus alba
Coffee arabica
Cordia africana
Croton macrostachyus
Ricinus communis
Euphorbia tirucalli
Cupressus lusitanica
Syzygium guineense
Eucalyptus grandis
Psidium guajava
Dracaena steudneri
Ficus sure

Girar
Gishita
Mango
Grawa
Araucaria
Oleander
Avocado
Bottlebrush
Geba
Shiwshiwi
Chibh/shola
Injury
Buna
Wanza
Bisana
Gullo/kachima
Qinchib
Yefereni tid
Dokma
Qey bahir zaf
Zeituni
Estpatos
sholla

Lt
St
St
Sh
Lt
St
St
St
St
Mt
Lt
St
Sh
Lt
Lt
Sh
St
Lt
Lt
Lt
St
St
Lt

Flat topped, spreading roots

Shrub like tree fruit for
Evergreen dense
Strong resist termite,
Up to 36m height, fast
Densely evergreen
In homestead, street, park
In river sides, park, deciduous
Branches down, fast, fuel
Semi-deciduous
Round shape
Deciduous, rounded crown
Deciduous, crown, rounded
Evergreen
Dense stemmed, green
Evergreen conifer,
Densely leafy ,round
evergreen
Ever green
Evergreen, for garden
Buttressed, oval, for shade
lxxxv

NO

FAMILY

BOTANICAL NAME

LOCAL NAME

FORM

REMARK

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Sapotaceae
Rhamnaceae
Proteaceae
Malvaceae
Bignoniaceae
Bignoniaceae
Ulmaceae
Rutaceae
Meliaceae
Oleaceae
Caricaceae
Arecaceae
Papilionnoideae
Combretaceae
Cupressaceae
Fabaceae

Mimusops kummel
Rhamnus prinoides
Gravillea robusta
Hibiscus rosa-sinesis
Jacaranda mimosifolia
Spathodea nilotica
Celtis africana
Citrus aurantifolia
Melia azedarach
Olea africana
Carica papaya
Phoenix reclinata
Sesbania sesban
Terminalia catappa
Cupressus pyramidalis
Delonix regia

Eshi
Gesho
Gravilia
Hibiscus
Yetebenja zaf
Yechaka nebelbal
Qewut
Lomi
Neem
Weira
Papaya
Zembeba /selen
Sesbania girar
Terminalia
Yefereni tid
Diredawa zaf

Lt
St
Lt
St
Lt
Mt
Lt
St/sh
Mt
St
St
Lt
S t/sh
St
Lt
St

Evergreen, oval
Evergreen
Semi-deciduous, angular branch
Deciduous, spread
Deciduous, spread branch
Deciduous, fairly fast
Deciduous, monkey food
Evergreen, much-branched
Fast grow, evergreen, oval
Handsome evergreen
Slender, bent over, palm
Deciduous ,fast growth
Very popular evergreen
Evergreen conifer
Deciduous, umbrella, fast

Note: Form: Lt; larger tree, Mt; medium tree, St; Small Tree, Sh; Shrub (large 15.24-21.34m tall with2.44-3.66m
planting strip, medium 7.62-15.24m tall with 1.52-2.44m planting strip, small <7.62m tall with 0.91-1.52m
planting strip(URBAN FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN, 1999). Evergreen trees reduce the impact of
cooling wind in winter and deciduous trees provide shade in the summer.

Figure 8: Photo representation of selected trees together (see their number name in table 14)

lxxxvi

Table 14- List of selected and possible trees for urban planting in the study area
N
O

SCIENTIFIC NAME

COMMON NAME

HT/C
S(M)

GROWTH
RATE/NATIVE

EA

DECIDUOUS/E
VERGREEN

NICHES

Araucaria excelsa

2
3
4
5

Callistemon citrinus
Casuarina equisetifolia
Cupressus lusitanica
Hibiscus rosa-sinesis

Araucaria
Bottle Brush
Shiwshwi
Yeferenji Tid
Hibiscus

36,2
4,3
18,6
8,5
4,3

fast, ex
fast, ex
fast, ex
fast, ex
-

3
3
15
20
10

evergreen
evergreen
evergreen
evergreen
-

garden, home, street

Park, street
institution, park, home
institution, park, home
Park, home

Jacaranda mimosifolia

Ytebenja Zaf

22,12

fast, ex

30

deciduous

institution, park, lake

Mangifera indica

Mango

6,6

fast, ex

10

evergreen

Home, park,

Melia azedarach

Neem

11,9

fast, ex

20

evergreen

Shop, street, park,

Phoenix reclinata

Selen/Zembaba

9,6

slow, ind

20

Street, park

1
0
11

Spathodea nilotica

Yechika Nebelbal

25,16

Fast, ex

15

deciduous

Street, park,

Terminalia catappa

Terminalia

4,2

fast, ex

evergreen

Park, street, home

Dracaena steudneri
Annona senegalensis
Vernonia amygdalina
Jatropha curcas

Dracaena
Gishita
Grawa
Ayderki

15,
10m,
3,
4m,-

fast, ex
,ind
fast, ind
fast, ind

30

evergreen
-

garden, park, factory

home,
industry, boundary
home, boundary

Note: Ht = Maximum height, Cs = Maximum crown spread, Ea = Estimated age, Ex = exotics, Ind = indigenous

Table 15: Tree condition description

Condition
Excellent

Percent
100

Good

80

Fair

40-60

Poor
Dead

20
0

Description
Sound trunk with no rot, healthy bark, good branch structure and balance, no corrective
pruning or maintenance needed, good foliage color, no insects or diseases, twigs showing
excellent growth
Similar to above except tree may have minor insect or disease problems and/or need
minor corrective maintenance.
Sound trunk and healthy bark, fair limb structure with broken branch stubs, moderate
maintenance needed, insect or disease problem present, fair twig growth and leaf color.
Similar to above plus evidence of trunk scars and early stages of decay present.
Advanced stage of decline with major problems in roots, trunk, branches and foliage.
-

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Annex IV: Tree number in land use

Table 16: Analyzed tree number by site
Site/niche
Road
Residential
Park
Administrative
lakeshore
Industry
Total

Sample plot
18
15
10
10
5
4
62

Species in number
9
26
23
14
9
8
89

Tree count
47
140
52
54
22
21
336

Annex V: Labor Requirements

The number of person days/ha required to undertake different operations depend on the
sloppiness of the sites, the density, species type and age of stand etc. as reviewed outside
Ethiopia, we can compute through formula reported by Jossef et al, (1979) as follows:
L = 8+0.0942N and LC = WL = 8W+0.0942WN Where, L = labor in person-hours
N= population of tree being inventoried, W = hourly wage rate, Lc = labor cost in birrs
The Labor required (Work norm) for management operation to activities estimated through city
cost (B/Dar) standards have been prepared in the following table.

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Table 17: Labor requirements for work operation of Bahir Dar city
Operation
Person days/ha Days/ha/yr
Planting
53
53
Beating Up
27
41
Spot Weeding
27
180
Pruning
27
90
Climber cutting
10
90
Mulching
27
180
Watering
27
240
Stump removal
15
3
Tree removal
53
27
pit preparation
27
90
Training
30
60
inspection
3
4
Spray/chemical
5
60
Cleaning
20
365
Sub-Total
According to this 67birr per square meter

Cost per day

18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
70
18
18

Total cost
50562
19926
87480
43740
16200
87480
116640
810
25758
43740
32400
840
5400
131400
662376

lxxxix

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Abraham Demekristos was born in 1975 in South Gonder, Simada Woreda, Wogeda town. He
attended grades one to six in Bazra Meda Elementary School; grades seven up to grade twelve in
Tagel Senior Secondary School and completed from there in 1994.
After that, he joined Hawassa University and after one year stay, he was transferred to Wondo
Genet College of Forestry and received his BSc degree in 1998. After graduation, he served as
researcher under Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) in Adet Agricultural
Research Center. Soon after, he returned to Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of
Forestry and Natural Resources for his M.Sc. study under the program of Urban Forestry and
Greening.

xc