Professional Documents
Culture Documents
10sTaylorPolySeries PDF
10sTaylorPolySeries PDF
series
1
1x
=
=
when is valid/true
1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + . . .
xn
x (1, 1)
n=0
ex
1 + x +
so:
1
1
1
e = 1 + 1 + 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ ...
X
P (17x)n
17n xn
(17x)
e
= n=0 n! =
n!
x
x
x
+
+
+ ...
2!
3!
4!
n=0
cos x
xn
n!
n=0
x4
x6
x8
x2
+
+
...
1
2!
4!
6!
8!
(1)n
n=0
sin x
xR
x2n
(2n)!
(1)(n1)
n=1
ln (1 + x)
=
=
(1)(n1)
xn or X
xn
=
(1)n+1
n
n
n=1
x3
x5
x7
x9
+
+
...
3
5
7
9
(1)(n1)
n=1
x2n1 or X
x2n+1
=
(1)n
(2n 1)!
(2n + 1)!
n=0
x2
x3
x4
x5
+
+
...
2
3
4
5
n=1
tan1 x
xR
x5
x7
x9
x3
+
+
...
x
3!
5!
7!
9!
x2n1 or X
x2n+1
=
(1)n
2n 1
2n + 1
n=0
xR
x (1, 1]
x [1, 1]
Math 142
Prof. Girardi
Fix an interval I in the real line (e.g., I might be (17, 19)) and let x0 be a point in I, i.e.,
x0 I .
Next consider a function, whose domain is I,
f: I R
and whose derivatives f (n) : I R exist on the interval I for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , N .
Definition 1. The N th -order Taylor polynomial for y = f (x) at x0 is:
f (N ) (x0 )
f 00 (x0 )
(x x0 )2 + +
(x x0 )N ,
2!
N!
which can also be written as (recall that 0! = 1)
pN (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ) +
(open form)
pN (x) =
pN (x) =
N
X
f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 )n .
n!
n=0
(closed form)
N
X
cn (x x0 )n
n=0
cn =
f (n) (x0 )
n!
are specially chosen so that derivatives match up at x0 , i.e. the constants cn s are chosen so that:
pN (x0 ) = f (x0 )
(1)
pN (x0 ) = f (N ) (x0 ) .
The constant cn is the nth Taylor coefficient of y = f (x) about x0 . The N th -order Maclaurin polynomial for y = f (x)
is just the N th -order Taylor polynomial for y = f (x) at x0 = 0 and so it is
pN (x) =
Definition 2.
N
X
f (n) (0) n
x .
n!
n=0
f (n) (x0 )
f 00 (x0 )
(x x0 )2 + +
(x x0 )n + . . .
2!
n!
X
f (n) (x0 )
P (x) =
(x x0 )n .
n!
n=0
(open form)
(closed form)
The Maclaurin series for y = f (x) is just the Taylor series for y = f (x) at x0 = 0.
1Here we are assuming that the derivatives y = f (n) (x) exist for each x in the interval I and for each n N {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . } .
Big Questions 3. For what values of x does the power (a.k.a. Taylor) series
X
f (n) (x0 )
P (x) =
(x x0 )n
n!
n=0
(1)
converge (usually the Root or Ratio test helps us out with this question). If the power/Taylor series in formula (1)
does indeed converge at a point x, does the series converge to what we would want it to converge to, i.e., does
f (x) = P (x) ?
(2)
(3)
that is
f (x) PN (x)
We often think of all this as:
N
X
f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 )n
f (x)
n!
n=0
X
f (n) (x0 )
??
f (x) =
(x x0 )n
n!
n=0
In other notation:
f (x) PN (x)
and the question is
where y = P (x) is the Taylor series of y = f (x) at x0 .
??
f (x) = P (x)
??
Well, lets think about what needs to be for f (x) = P (x), i.e., for f to equal to its Taylor series.
Notice 5. Taking the limN of both sides in equation (3), we see that
X
f (n) (x0 )
f (x) =
(x x0 )n
- the sum keeps on going and going .
n!
n=0
if and only if
lim RN (x) = 0 .
(4)
then
f (x) =
X
f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 )n .
n!
n=0
How to do this? Well, this is where Mr. Taylor comes to the rescue!
2According to Mr. Taylor, his Remainder Theorem (see next page) was motivated by coffeehouse conversations about works of Newton
on planetary motion and works of Halley (of Halleys comet) on roots of polynomials.
f (N +1) (c)
(x x0 )(N +1) .
(5)
(N + 1)!
So either x c x0 or x0 c x. So we do not know exactly what c is but atleast we know that c is between x and x0
and so c I.
Remark: This is a Big Theorem by Taylor. See the book for the proof. The proof uses the Mean Value Theorem.
RN (x)
def
theorem
f (x) PN (x)
(N +1)
f
(c)
(N + 1)!
|x x0 |
(N +1)
(6)
M ,
i.e.,
max f (N +1) (c) M .
cI
Then
|RN (x)|
M
N +1
|x x0 |
(N + 1)!
for each x I.
Remark: This follows from formula (6).
Version 3: for the whole interval I and all N N. 4
Now assume that we can find a sequence {MN }
N =1 so that
max f (N +1) (c) MN
cI
MN
N +1
|x x0 |
= 0
N (N + 1)!
for each x I. Then, by formula (7) and the Squeeze Theorem,
lim
X
f (n) (x0 )
(x x0 )n
n!
n=0
for each x I.
3Here we assume that the (N + 1)-derivative of y = f (x), i.e. y = f (N +1) (x), exists for each x I.
4Here we assume that y = f (N ) (x), exists for each x I and each N N.
(7)