1

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Strengthofmaterials
Lab.Manual
______________________________________________________________________________________________

ProductionEngineering

Strengthofmaterialslab.manual
_________________________________________________________________

Contents
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S.No.Title

Pg.no

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1.RockwellHardnesstest3
2.Brinellhardnesstest.5
3.Impacttest

4.Tensiontest14
5.Torsiontest19
6.Bendingtest

21

7.Sheartest24
8.Compressiontest26
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Instructions.1.Write observations, tables, diagrams, Specimen calculations

intheblankleftsideofthejournalandotherstotheright.

ExperimentNo.1
_________________________________________________________________
Title

RockwellHardnesstest

Objective

TodeterminethehardnesstheHardnessofthegiven
SpecimenusingRockwellhardnesstest.

Materialsandequipmentsrequired
Rockwellhardnesstestingmachine.
Blackdiamondconeindenter,
Hardsteelspecimen.
Theory
RockwelltestisdevelopedbytheWilsoninstrumentcoU.S.Ain1920.
This test is an indentationtest usedforsmallerspecimens and harder materials.
Thetest issubjectof IS: 1586.In this test indenter is forcedintothesurface of a
test piece in two operations, measuring the permanent increase in depth of an
indentationfromthedepthincreasedfromthedepthreachedunderadatumload
duetoanadditionalload.
Measurement ofindentation is made afterremoving the additional load. Indenter
usedistheconehavinganangleof120degreesmadeofblackdiamond.
Precautions
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of
indentationtoavoidthedeformationtobeextendedtotheoppositesurfaceofa
specimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid
unnecessaryconcentrationofstresses.Insuchcasedistancefromtheedgeto
the center of indentation should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of
indentation.
3. Rapidrateofapplyingloadshouldbeavoided.Loadappliedontheballmayrise
alittlebecauseofitssuddenaction.Alsorapidlyappliedloadwillrestrictplastic
flowofamaterial,whichproduceseffectonsizeofindentation.
Procedure
1. Examinehardnesstestingmachine(fig.1).
2. Placethespecimenonplatformofamachine.Usingtheelevatingscrewraise
theplatformandbringthespecimenjustincontactwiththeball.applyaninitial
loaduntilthesmallpointershowsredmark.
3. Release the operating valve to apply additional load. Immediately after the
additionalloadapplied,bringbackoperatingvalvetoitsposition.
4. Read the position of the pointer on the C scale, which gives the hardness
number.

5. Repeattheprocedurefivetimesonthespecimenselectingdifferentpointsfor
indentation.
Observation
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the
hardnessnumberfromthedialofamachine.
2. CompareBrinellandRockwellhardnesstestsobtained.
Figure.1

Rockwellhardnesstestequipment
Result
Rockwellhardnessofgivenspecimenis

ExperimentNo.2
________________________________________________________________
Title

Brinellhardnesstest.

Aim

TodeterminethehardnessofthegivenspecimenusingBrinellhardness
test.

Specimenandspecimen
Brinellhardnesstester(fig.2)
Aluminumspecimen
Ballindenter.
Precautions
1. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of
indentationtoavoidthedeformationtobeextendedtotheoppositesurfaceof
aspecimen.
2. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid
unnecessaryconcentrationofstresses.Insuchcasedistancefromtheedgeto
the center of indentation should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of
indentation.
3. Rapid rate of applying load should beavoided. Loadappliedon theball may
rise a little becauseof itssudden action. Also rapidly applied loadwill restrict
plasticflowofamaterial,whichproduceseffectonsizeofindentation.
4. Surfaceofthespecimeniswellpolished,freefromoxidescaleandanyforeign
material.
Theory
Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent
indentation under static and dynamic load. When a material is required to use
underdirectstaticordynamicloads,onlyindentationhardnesstestwillbeuseful
tofindoutresistancetoindentation.
InBrinellhardnesstest,asteelballofdiameter(D)isforcedunderaload(F)onto
asurfaceoftestspecimen.Meandiameter(d)ofindentationismeasuredafterthe
removaloftheload(F).

Observation
1. Take average of five values of indentation of each specimen. Obtain the
hardnessnumberfromequation(!).
2. CompareBrinellandRockwellhardnesstestsobtained.

Procedure

1.Load to be applied for hardness test should be selected according to the

expected hardness of the material. However test load shall bekept equal to 30
timesthesquareofthediameteroftheball(diameterinmm)
F=30.D2
Whereballdiameter,generallytakenas10mm.
Forguidelineshardnessrangeforstandardloadsgivenbelow
Balldiameter
10

Load(kg)
3000

RangeofBrinellhardness
96to600

1500

48to300

500

16to100

2.Apply the load for a minimum of 15 seconds to 30 seconds. [if ferrous

metals are to be tested time applied will be 15 seconds and for softer metal 30
seconds]
3.Removetheloadandmeasurethediameterofindentationnearestto0.02mm
usingmicroscope(projectedimage)
4.CalculateBrinellhardnessnumber(HB).AsperIS:1500.
5.Brinellhardnessnumber

p D D -

2 F
D

- d

(1)

whereDisthediameterofballindenteranddisthediameterofindentation.
Hardness numbers normally obtained for different materials are given below
(under3000kgand10mmdiameterballused)
Ordinary
carbon

steels

medium 100to500
130to160

Structuralsteel
800to900
Veryhardsteel

Note:BrinelltestisnotrecommendedforthenmaterialshavingHBover630.
Itisnecessarytomentionballsizeandloadwiththehardnesstestwhenstandard
size ofballand load are not used. Becauseindentation done by differentsizeof
ball and load on different materials are not geometrically similar. Ball also

undergoesdeformationwhenloadisapplied.Materialresponsetotheloadisnot
sameallthetime.
6.Brinellhardnessnumberscanbeobtainedfromtables1to5giveninIS:1500,
knowingdiameterofindentation,diameteroftheballandloadapplied.

Figure2

Brinellhardnesstester
Result
TheBrinellhardnessnumberofthespecimenis

ExperimentNo.3
_______________________________________________________________________
TitleImpacttest
Aim

TodeterminetheImpacttoughness(strainenergy)through
IzodtestandCharpytest

Theory
In a impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single
blowfromaheavyhammerandenergyrequiredbeingameasureofresistanceto
impact.
Impact load is produced by a swinging of an impact weight W (hammer) from a
heighth.Releaseoftheweightfromtheheighthswingstheweightthroughthearc
ofacircle,whichstrikesthespecimentofractureatthenotch(fig..
Kineticenergyofthehammeratthetimeofimpactismv2/2,whichisequaltothe
relative potential energy of the hammer before its release. (mgh),where m is the
mass of the hammer and v = 2 gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is
gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s2) and h is the height through which hammer
falls.Impactvelocitywillbe5.126m/sorslightlyless.
Here it is interesting to note that height through which hammer drops determines
thevelocityandheightandmassofahammercombineddeterminetheenergy.
Energy used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between
potential energies is the fractureenergy. In test machine this value indicated by
the pointer on the scale. If the scale is calibrated in energy units, marks on the
scaleshouldbedrawnkeepinginviewangleoffall()andangleofrise(.Heighth1
andh2 equals,
h1=R(1cos q)andh2=(1cos q).
With the increase or decrease in values, gap between marks on scale showing
energyalso increaseordecrease. Thiscanbeseenfromtheattachedscale with
anyimpactmachine.
Energyusedinfracturingthespecimencanbeobtainedapproximatelyas
Wh1Wh2
This energy value called impact toughness or impact value, which will be
measured,perunitareaatthenotch.
IzodintroducedIzodtestin1903.TestisaspertheIS:1598
CharpyintroducedCharpytestin1909.TestisaspertheIS:1499.

a.Izodtest
Specimenandequipment
1. Impacttestingmachine.(fig.3)
2. Specimenandvnotchisshowninthefig.4.Sizeofthespecimenis10mm
X10mmX75mm
Mountingofthespecimen:
Specimen is clamped to act as vertical cantilever with the notch on tensionside.
Directionofblowofhammerisshowninfig.().Directionofblowisshowninfig
Figure.3.a

IzodImpacttestingequipment

10

Figure3.b

Schematicimpacttesting

Figure4

PositionofspecimenforIzodtest

11

Procedure
1.

Measurethedimensionsofaspecimen.Also,measurethedimensionsof
Thenotch.

2.

Raisethehammerandnotedowninitialreadingfromthedial,whichwillbe
energytobeusedtofracturethespecimen.

3.

Placethespecimenfortestandseethatitisplacedcenterwithrespectto
hammer.Checkthepositionofnotch.

4.

Releasethehammerandnotethefinalreading.Differencebetweenthe
initialandfinalreadingwillgivetheactualenergyrequiredtofracturethe
Specimen.

5.

Repeatthetestforspecimensofothermaterials.

6.

Computetheenergyofruptureofeachspecimen.

Observation
Initialandfinalreadingofthedial.
Result Strainenergyofgivenspecimenis

b. Charpytest
Specimenandequipment:
1. Impacttestingmachine.(Fig.6)
2. Unotchiscutacrossthemiddleofonefaceasshownin(fig.5).
Figure5

SpecimenforCharpytest

12

Figure6

Charpyimpacttestingequipment

Mountingofspecimen
Specimenistestedasabeamsupportedateachend(fig.7).Hammerisallowedto
hitthenspecimenattheoppositefacebehindthenotch.
Figure.7

Mountingofspecimen

13

Procedure
1. Measurethedimensionsofaspecimen.Also,measurethedimensionsof
Thenotch.
2. Raisethehammerandnotedowninitialreadingfromthedial,whichwillbe
energytobeusedtofracturethespecimen.
3. Placethespecimenfortestandseethatitisplacedcenterwithrespectto
hammer.Checkthepositionofnotch.
4. Releasethehammerandnotethefinalreading.Differencebetweenthe
initialandfinalreadingwillgivetheactualenergyrequiredtofracturethe
Specimen.
5. Repeatthetestforspecimensofothermaterials.
6. Computetheenergyofruptureofeachspecimen.
Observation
Initialandfinalreadingofthedial.
Result Strainenergyofgivenspecimenis

14

ExperimentNo.4
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Title:

Tensiontest

Aim:Todeterminethetensilestrengthofspecimen

Specimenandequipments
Universaltestingmachine(fig7.a)
Specimenasshowninthe(fig7.b)
Ofdifferentferrousandnonferrousmaterials
Figure7.a

15

Figure.7b

Theory
Thetensiletestismostappliedone,ofallmechanicaltests.Inthistestendsofa
test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load
measuringdevice.Iftheappliedloadissmallenough,thedeformationofanysolid
body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid will return to its original
positionassoonasloadisremoved.However,iftheloadistoolarge,thematerial
canbedeformedpermanently.Theinitialpartofthetensioncurve(fig.8),whichis
recoverableimmediatelyafterunloading,istermedaselasticandrestofthecurve,
which represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is
termedplastic.thestressbelowwhichthedeformationisessentiallyentirelyelastic
is known as the yield strength of material. In some materials (like mild steel) the
onsetofplasticdeformationisdenotedbyasuddendropinloadindicatingbothan
upperandloweryieldpoint.However,somematerialsdonotexhibitasharpyield
point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot
compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes trough a
maximumandthenbeginstodecrease.AsthisstagetheUltimatestrength,which
isdefinedastheratioofthespecimentooriginalcrosssectionalarea,reachesa
maximumvalue.Furtherloadingwilleventuallycauseneckformationandrupture.
Usually a tension test is conducted at room temperature and the tensile
loadisappliedslowly.Duringthistesteitherroundorflatspecimens(fig.7)maybe
used.Theroundspecimensmayhavesmooth,shoulderedorthreadedends.The
load on the specimen is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the
typeoftestingmachine.
Figure.8

16

Stressstraindiagram
Procedure
1.
Measurethedimensionsofaspecimen
Diameter=d=,
Totallengthofaspecimen,
Crosssectionalarea=Ao=,
Markgagelength(Lo)atthreedifferentportionsonthespecimen,
coveringeffectivelengthofaspecimen.(thisisrequiredsothat
neckedportionwillremainbetweenanytwopointsofgagelength
onthespecimen.)
2.

Gripthespecimeninthefixedheadofamachine.(Portionofthespecimen
hastobegrippedasshowninthefig.7.

3.

Fixtheextensometerwithinthegaugelengthmarkedonthespecimen.
Adjustthedialofextensometeratzero.

4.

Adjustthedialofamachinetozero,toreadloadapplied.

5.

Selectsuitableincrementsofloadstobeappliedsothatcorresponding
elongationcanbemeasuredfromdialgauge.

6.

Keepspeedofmachineuniform.Recordyieldpoint,maximumloadpoint,
pointofbreakingofspecimen.

7.

Removethespecimenfrommachineandstudythefractureobservestype
offracture.

8.

Measuredimensionsoftestedspecimen.Fitthebrokenpartstogetherand
measurereduceddiameterandfinalgagelength.

Observations
SpecimenpreparedfromM.Sbar/CI/Al
1.

Diameter=d=mm

17

2.

Gagelength(lo)=5Xd=mm

3.

Originalcrosssectionalareaofthespecimen
=Ao =mm2

4.

Finalgagelengthobtained=Lo=

5.

Finaldiameterobtained=mm

Sr.
No

Loadapplied(N)
(p)

Observationtable1
Areaofa
Stress
specimen
N/mm2
(Ao)

Modulusof
elasticity(E)
N/mm2

Observationtable2.
Sr.
No

Contractionin
diameter(dd)
(mm)

Deformation Lateral
inlength
strain
(mm)

Linear
strain

Poisson
ratio

Note
1.
2.

Useverniercalipertomeasurediameter,gagelengthetc.forthespecimen.
IfC.I.specimenistobetestedonlyoneobservationwillbetakenatfailure.

Results
1.

Calculatestressandstrainforeveryintervalofappliedload.
DrawstressstraincurveasshownintheFig.()

2.

Computethefollowing

a.

Modulusofelasticity
Hookslawstatesthatstressisalwaysproportionaltostrainwithinelastic
limit.Theratioofstressandstrainisconstant,calledmodulusofelasticity
oryoungsmodulus(E)
E=Stress/strain=Constant=E=,

b.

Yieldstress(fy)
Thepoint,atwhichstrainincreaseswithoutincreaseinstress,isknownas
Yieldpoint.Stressmeasuredatyieldpointiscalledyieldstress.

c.

Tensilestrength:
Maximumcarryingcapacityofamaterialintensioniscalledtensile

18

strength

d.

Tensilestrength=maximumtensileload/originalcrosssectional
Area.
Percentageelongation:
Theextensionproducedinagagelength,expressedasapercentage
ofitsoriginalvalue(LO)
%Elongation=[(LOLo)/Lo]X100
whereLoisfinalgagelengthafterfracture.

e.

Percentagereductioninarea:
=[(AoAo)/Ao ]X100
whereAoisfinalreducedcrosssectionalareaafterfracture.

19

ExperimentNo.5
Title

Torsiontest

Aim:Tofindthemodulusofrigidity.
Specimenandequipments
1.
2.
3.
4.

Atorsiontestingapparatus,
Standardspecimenofmildsteelorcastiron.
Twistmeterformeasuringanglesoftwist
Asteelruleandcalipersandmicrometer.

Figure.9.

Torsionequipment
Theory
Atorsiontestisquiteinstrumentalindeterminingthevalueofrigidity(ratioofshear
stresstoshearstrain)ofametallicspecimen.Thevalueofmodulusofrigiditycan
befoundoutthroughobservationsmadeduringtheexperimentbyusingthetorsion
equation:
T Cq
Tl
or C =
=
Ip
l
I q
WhereT=torqueapplied,
Ip=polarmomentofinertia,
C=modulusofrigidity,
=Angleoftwist(radians),and
l=gaugelength.

20

In the torque equipment refer fig. One end of the specimen is held by a fixed
supportandtheotherendtoapulley.Thepulleyprovidesthenecessarytorqueto
twisttherodbyadditionofweights(w).Thetwistmeterattachedtotherodgivesthe
angleoftwist.
Procedure
1.

Preparethetestingmachinebyfixingthetwotwistmetersatsomeconstant
lengthsfromfixedsupport.

2.

Measurethediameterofthepulleyandthediameteroftherod.

3.

AddweightsinthehangerstepwisetogetanotableangleoftwistforT1
andT2
UsingtheaboveformulacalculateC

4.

Conclusion:
Result
Modulusofrigidityoftheshaft

21

ExperimentNo.6
______________________________________________________________________
Title

Bendingtest

Aim

Tofindthevaluesofbendingstressesandyoungsmodulusofthe
materialofabeam(sayawoodenorsteel)simplysupportedatthe
endsandcarryingaconcentratedloadatthecenter.

Materialandequipment
1.
2.

Universaltestingmachine
Beamofdifferentcrosssectionsandmaterials(saywoodorsteel)

Figure.10

Specimendetailsandmounting
Theory
If a beam is simplysupportedat the ends and carries aconcentrated load at the
center, the beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original
positionofthebeamanditspositionafterbendingisdifferentatdifferentpoints(fig)
along the length if the beam, being maximum at the center in this case. This
differenceiscalleddeflection.
Inthistypeofloadingthemaximumamountofdeflection()isgivenbytherelation,

d =

Wl3
48Ei

22

or
E =

Wl3
48EI

WhereW=loadactingatthecenter,N
l=lengthofthebeambetweenthesupports,mm
E=youngsmodulusofmaterialofthebeam,N/mm2
I=secondmomentofareaofthecrosssection(momentofinertia)ofthebeam,
abouttheneutralaxis,mm4
Bendingstress:
Asperbendingequation,
M s b
=
I
y

WhereM=bendingmoment,Nmm
I=momentofinertia,mm4
s b =Bendingstress,N/mm2
y=distanceofthefiberofthebeamfromtheneutralaxis.
Observation
ReferFig.
Widthofthebeam=mm(forrectangularcrosssection)
DepthofthebeamD=mm(forcircularcrosssection)
Momentofinertiaofrectangularsection=bd3/12=mm4
Momentofinertiaofcircularsection=mm4
Initialreadingofthevernier=.mm
(Itshouldbesubtractedfromthereadingtakenafterputtingtheload)
S. Load Bending
No W(N) moment
M =

Wl
(N - mm3)
4

Bendingstress Deflection Youngsmodulus

d (mm)
ofelasticity
My
sb =
(N/mm2)
I

Wl3
E=
(N/mm2)
48dI

Precautions
1.
2.
3.

Makesurethatthebeamandloadisplacedattheproperposition.
Crosssectionofthebeamshouldbelarge
Notedownthereadingsofthevernierscalecarefully.

23

Procedure
1.

AdjustthesupportsalonetheUTMbedsothattheyaresymmetricallywith
respecttothelengthofthebed

2.

Placethebeamontheknifeedgesontheblockssoastoprojectequally
beyondeachknifeedge.Seethattheloadisappliedatthecenterofthe
beam.

3.

Notetheinitialreadingofvernierscale.

4.

Applyaloadandagainnotethereadingofthevernierscale.

5.

Goontakingreadingapplyingloadinstepseachtimetillyouhave
minimum6readings.

6.

Findthedeflection(d)ineachtimebysubtractingtheinitialreadingof
vernierscale.

7.

Drawagraphbetweenload(W)anddeflection(d).Onthegraphchoose
anytwoconvenientpointsandbetweenthesepointsfindthecorresponding

Wl3
valuesofWand d.Puttingthesevaluesintherelation E =
48dI
CalculatethevalueofE.
8.

Calculatethebendingstressesfordifferentloadsusingrelations b =
givenintheobservationtable.

9.

Repeattheexperimentfordifferentbeams.

Result
a. Bendingstress..units
b. Youngsmodulusunits

My
as
I

24

ExperimentNo.7
_______________________________________________________________________
Title

Sheartest

Aim

Tofindtheshearstrengthofgivenspecimen

MaterialandEquipment
1.
2.
3.

Universaltestingmachine
Sheartestattachment
Givenspecimen

Figure

Shearingfixture
Observation
Diameterofthepind=.mm
Crosssectionalareaofthepin(indoubleshear)
=2X p/4Xd2=.mm2
Loadtakenbythespecimenatthetimeoffailure,W=.(N)
Strengthofthepinagainstshearing(t)

t=

4W
=N/mm2
2pd2

25

Procedure
1.

Insertthespecimeninpositionandgriponeendoftheattachmentinthe
upperportionandoneendinthelowerposition

2.

SwitchontheUTM

3.

Bringthedragindicatorincontactwiththemainindicator.

4.

Selectthesuitablerangeofloadsandspacethecorrespondingweightin
thependulumandbalanceitifnecessarywiththehelpofsmallbalancing
weights

5.

Operate(push)thebuttonfordrivingthemotortodrivethepump.

6.

Graduallymovetheheadcontroleverinlefthanddirectiontillthespecimen
shears.

7.

Notedowntheloadatwhichthespecimenshears.

8.

Stopthemachineandremovethespecimen.

Repeattheexperimentwithotherspecimens.
Precautions
1.

Themeasuringrangeshouldnotbechangedatanystageduringthetest.

2.

Theinnerdiameteroftheholeintheshearstressattachmentshouldbe
slightlygraterthanthespecimen.

3.

Measurethediameterofthespecimenaccurately.

Result.
ShearstrengthofthespecimenN/mm2

26

ExperimentNo.8
_______________________________________________________________________
Title

Compressiontest

Aim

Tofindthecompressivestrengthofgivenspecimen.

MaterialandEquipment
Universaltestingmachine,
Compressionpads,
Givenspecimen,
Theory

This is the test to know strength of a material under compression. Generally

compressiontestiscarriedouttoknoweithersimplecompressioncharacteristics
ofmaterialorcolumnactionofstructuralmembers.
It has been observedthat forvarying heightof member, keepingcrosssectional
andtheloadappliedconstant,thereisanincreasedtendencytowardsbendingof
amember.
Memberundercompressionusuallybendsalongminoraxis,i.e,alongleastlateral
dimension. According to column theory slenderness ratio has more functional
value. If this ratio goes on increasing, axial compressive stress goes on
decreasing and member buckles more and more. End conditions at the time of
test have a pronounced effect on compressive strength of materials. Effective
lengthmustbetakenaccordingtoendconditionsassumed,atthetimeofthetest.
Astheendsofthememberismadeplainandfitbetweentwojawsofthemachine,
fixedendisassumedforcalculationofeffectivelength.Effectivelengthistakenas
0.5LwhereLisactuallengthofaspecimen
Figure

27

Observation
Crosssectionalareaofthespecimenperpendiculartotheload=A=mm2
Loadtakenbythespecimenatthetimeoffailure,W=.(N)
Strengthofthepinagainstshearing(s)=[W/A]N/mm2
Procedure
1.

Placethespecimeninpositionbetweenthecompressionpads.

2.

SwitchontheUTM

3.

Bringthedragindicatorincontactwiththemainindicator.

4.

Selectthesuitablerangeofloadsandspacethecorrespondingweightin
thependulumandbalanceitifnecessarywiththehelpofsmallbalancing
weights

5.

Operate(push)thebuttonfordrivingthemotortodrivethepump.

6.

Graduallymovetheheadcontroleverinlefthanddirectiontillthespecimen
fails.

7.

Notedowntheloadatwhichthespecimenshears

8.

Stopthemachineandremovethespecimen.

9.

Repeattheexperimentwithotherspecimens.

Precautions
1.
2.
3.

Placethespecimenatcenterofcompressionpads,
StoptheUTMassoonasthespecimenfails.
Crosssectionalareaofspecimenforcompressiontestshouldbekeptlarge
ascomparedtothespecimenfortensiontest:toobtaintheproperdegree
ofstability.

Result
CompressivestrengthofthespecimenN/mm2

28