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Design of Pressure Pipes
Design of Pressure Pipes
4
Design of Pressure Pipes
The design methods for buried pressure pipe installations are somewhat similar to the design methods for gravity pipe installations
which were discussed in Chap. 3. There are two major differences:
1. Design for internal pressure must be included.
2. Pressure pipes are normally buried with less soil cover so the soil
loads are usually less.
Included in this chapter are specific design techniques for various
pressure piping products. Methods for determining internal loads,
external loads, and combined loads are given along with design bases.
Pipe Wall Stresses and Strains
The stresses and resulting strains arise from various loadings. For
buried pipes under pressure, these loadings are usually placed in two
broad categories: internal pressure and external loads. The internal
pressure is made up of the hydrostatic pressure and the surge pressure. The external loads are usually considered to be those caused by
external soil pressure and/or surface (live) loads. Loads due to differential settlement, longitudinal bending, and shear loadings are also
considered to be external loadings. Temperature-induced stresses may
be considered to be caused by either internal or external effects.
Hydrostatic pressure
184
Chapter Four
Tangential stress:
_ ffa2 (62/r2 + 1)
vt =
_
62 2 - a 22
Radial stress:
oy =
where /?
a
b
r
(62/r2 - 1)
62-a2
= internal pressure
= inside radius
= outside radius
= radius to point in question
or
\UfJ
r=a
A2
Pi (b2 + a2)
(4.1)
a2+b2
185
(4.16)
Thus Eq. (4.2) can be rewritten using Eqs. (4. 1a) and (4.1b) as follows:
Pi(D2/2)
PiD
Dt
2t
(4.2)
Equation (4.2) is recognized as the equation for stress in a thinwalled cylinder (Fig. 4.2). This equation is sometimes called the
Barlow formula, but is just a reduction from Lame's solution. This
equation is the form most often recognized for calculating stresses due
to internal pressure Pi
If the outside diameter D0 is the reference dimension, Eq. (4.2) can
be put into another form by introducing
D = D0-t
- 2ab ~D2-
b2
That is, the average diameter is equal to the outside diameter minus
thickness. Equation (4.2) becomes
Pi(D-t)
0"max -
(4.3)
2t
Rupturing force
D
2t
186
Chapter Four
or
SDR =
t
Both DR and SDR are defined the same. However, SDR often refers to
a preferred series of numbers that represents DJt for standard products. By introducing DJt = SDR into Eq. (4.3), it can be rewritten as
follows:
dmax - % (SDR - 1)
(4.4)
(4.5)
Pressure surges are often divided into two categories: transient surges
and cyclic surges. Cyclic surging is a regularly occurring pressure fluctuation produced by action of such equipment as reciprocating pumps,
undamped pressure control valves or interacting pressure regulating
valves, oscillating demand, or other cyclic effects. Cyclic surges may
cause fatigue damage and should be designed out of the system.
Transient surges are just thattransient in nature, occurring over
a relatively short time and between one steady state and another. A
transition surge may occur, and the system then returns to the same
steady state as before the surge. Transient surges are usually not
cyclic in nature although they may be repetitive. A transient surge is
often referred to as water hammer.
Any action in a piping system that results in a change in velocity of
the water in the system is a potential cause of a water hammer surge.
187
(4.6)
12
Vl + (K/E) (D/t)
(4.7)
188
Chapter Four
D
t
E
Ci
a=
Vl + (K/E) (Dlt) Ci
(4 9)
Equations (4.6), (4.7), and (4.8) can be used to determine the magnitude of surge pressure that may be generated in any pipeline. The validity of the equations has been shown through numerous experiments.
Figure 4.3 is a plot of the pressure rise in pounds per square inch as
a function of velocity change for various values of wave speed. Tables 4.1
and 4.2 give the calculated wave speed according to Eq. (4.8) for ductile
iron and PVC pipe, respectively. In general, wave speeds vary from 3000
to 5000 ft/s for ductile iron and from 1200 to 1500 for PVC pipes.
Example Problem 4.1 Determine the magnitude of a water hammer pressure
wave induced in a 12-in class 52 ductile iron pipe and in a class 150 PVC
pipe if the change in velocity is 2 ft/s.
solution From Tables 4.1 and 4.2 and Fig. 4.3:
Pipe
Class 52 DI
Class 150 PVC
Some appropriate rules of thumb for determining maximum pressure surges are listed below in pounds per square inch of surge per 1
ft/s change in velocity.
Surge pressure rise, lb/in2, per
Pipe
1 ft/s velocity change
Steel pipe
45
DI
(AWWAC150)
50
PVC(AWWAC900)
20
PVC (pressure-rated)
16
189
q 1600
700
Since velocity changes are the cause of water hammer surge, proper control of valving may eliminate or minimize water hammer. If
fluid approaching a closing valve is able to sense the valve closing
and adjust its flow path accordingly, then the maximum surge pressure as calculated from Eq. (4.6) may be avoided. To accomplish this,
the flow must not be shut off any faster than it would take a pressure wave to be initiated at the beginning of valve closing and
returning again to the valve. This is called the critical time and is
defined as the longest elapsed time before final flow stoppage that
will still permit this maximum pressure to occur. This is expressed
mathematically as
T
lcr =
190
Chapter Four
TABLE 4.1
Size
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
30
36
42
48
54
4206
4085
3996
3919
3859
3783
3716
3655
3550
3387
3311
3255
3207
3201
4409
4265
4148
4059
3982
3921
3846
3779
3718
3614
3472
3409
3362
3323
3320
4452
5315
4202
4114
4038
3976
3902
3853
3776
3671
3547
3495
3456
3424
3423
4488
4358
4248
4162
4087
4024
3952
3887
3827
3723
3615
3571
3539
3512
3512
4518
4394
4289
4205
4130
4069
3998
3933
3874
3771
3676
3638
3612
3590
3591
4544
4426
4324
4242
4169
4108
4039
4038
3917
3815
3731
3700
3678
3659
3599
4567
4454
4356
4276
4205
4144
4076
4014
3957
3855
3782
3755
3737
3721
3724
Size
100
150
200
21
4
6
8
10
12
1106
1106
1106
1106
1106
1311
1311
1311
1311
1311
1496
1496
1496
1496
1496
1210
1210
1210
1210
1210
(AWWAC900) Class
32.5
41
967
967
967
967
967
859
859
859
859
859
2 (3000) ft
1500 ft/s
100%
99%
90%
191
62.7%
0%
^r
Figure 4.4 Valve stem travel versus flow stoppage for a gate valve.
192
Chapter Four
excess liquid that has been diverted from the main flow to prevent
overpressures, or as supplies of fluid to be added in the case of negative pressures.
External loads
External earth loads and live loads induce stresses in pipe walls.
Methods for calculating these loads were discussed in Chap. 2, and
design procedures for external loads were discussed in Chap. 3.
These loads and their effects should be considered in pressure pipe
installation design. Often stresses due to external loads are secondary in nature, but can be the primary controlling factor in
design.
Rigid pipes. Stresses due to external loads on rigid pipes are usually
not directly considered. Strength for rigid pipe is determined in terms
of a three-edge test load (see Chap. 3).
Flexible pipes. Stresses in the wall of a flexible pipe produced by
external loads can be easily calculated if the vertical load and resulting deflection are known. Methods for calculating the deflection are
given in Chap. 3. These stresses can be considered to be made up of the
following components:
Ring compression stress:
PD
ac = -^
(4.10)
"* = D?E f
(4 n)
5
10
20
100
200
193
Pipe Stiffness
Df
15
8
6
4
3.5
where aT
<TP
ac
a&
= total stress
= stress due to internal pressure (static and surge)
= ring compression stress
= stress due to ring deflection (bending)
This total stress may or may not be necessary to consider in the design
(see the next subsection on combined loading).
Combined loading
194
Chapter Four
Internal pressure
Ring deflection
Longitudinal bending
Thermal expansion/contraction
195
1,000
900
800
700
600
500
1
Q.
I
45
60
400
350
50
CL
45
300
40
35 ^
200
-30
100
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
Safety Factor
Bedding Factor
Figure 4.5 Combined loading curves for 24-in asbestos-cement pressure pipe. (Reprinted
from ANSI/AWWA C403-98,2 by permission. Copyright 1998, American Water Works
Association.)
5. Shear loadings
6. Poisson's effects
Longitudinal stresses
Pressure pipes, as well as gravity flow pipes, are subject to various soil
loadings and nonuniform bedding conditions that result in longitudinal bending or beam action. This subject was discussed in Chap. 2.
196
Chapter Four
Pressure pipes may also have longitudinal stresses induced by pressure and temperature which should be given proper consideration by
the engineer responsible for installation design.
Poisson's effect. Engineers who deal with the mechanics of materials
know that applied stresses in one direction produce stress and/or
strains in a perpendicular direction. This is sometimes called the
Poisson effect. A pipe with internal pressure p has a circumferential
stress <TP. The associated longitudinal stress aw is given by the following equation:
TABLE 4.4
Material Properties
Material
Steel
Ductile iron
Copper
Aluminum
PVC
Asbestos-cement
Concrete
Modulus, lb/in2
30 X 106
24 X 106
16 X 106
10.5 X 106
4X 10 6
3.4 X 106
57,000 (/c')1/2t
Poisson's ratio
0.30
0.28
0.30
0.33
0.45
0.30
0.30
197
PA
2irr*
Pvr2
2irr*
=JV.
2t
198
Chapter Four
(4.12)
or
p = P 1- -
(4.13)
199
are the thick-walled formula and the thin-walled formula for hoop
stress ov Parameters W and P are determined experimentally. With
these values, one can determine combinations of internal pressures p
and external crush loads w that are necessary to cause failure. In
addition, the design pressure will require an appropriate safety factor. Normally, if surges are present, the maximum design (operating)
pressure is one-fourth of the pressure to cause failure. If surges are
not present, the operating design pressure is four-tenths the failure
pressure.
The design crush load is equal to the expected earth load plus live
load times the safety factor (usually 2.5) and divided by a bedding factor (see Chap. 3 for bedding factors).
_ (earth load + live load) (safety factor)
bedding factor
Design curves are given in AWWA C401 and AWWA C403 (see Fig. 4.5
for an example). The designer enters the graph by locating the appropriate design pressure on the vertical axis and the appropriate external crush load on the horizontal axis. The intersection of these grid
lines locates the appropriate pipe curve. If the intersection is
between curves, choose the next-higher curve and the associated
strength pipe.
Reinforced concrete. Reinforced-concrete pressure pipe is of four basic
types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
200
Chapter Four
(4.14)
where P0 = internal pressure which overcomes all compression in
concrete core, when no external load is acting, lb/in2
W0 = 90 percent of three-edge bearing load which causes incipient cracking in core when no internal pressure is acting,
Ib/ft
p = maximum design pressure in combination with external
loads (not to exceed 0.8P0 for lined cylinder pipe)
w = maximum external load in combination with design pressure
The value of W0 can be determined by test, and the value of P0 can be
either determined by test or calculated. With these parameters
known, w andp can be calculated using Eq. (4.14) in a manner that
is similar to the use of the Schlick formula for asbestos-cement pipe.
Further information concerning the combined loading analysis
using the cubic parabola Eq. (4.14) is available in these previous
standards.
Pretensioned concrete cylinder pipe is considered by many to be a
rigid pipe. Truly, it does not meet the definition of a flexible pipe (must
be able to deflect 2 percent without structural distress). The limiting
design deflection for pretensioned concrete cylinder pipe ranges from
0.25 to 1.0 percent. AWWA Manual M9 indicates that this type of pipe
is semirigid. However, the recommended design procedure found in
AWWA C303 and AWWA C304 is based on flexible pipe criteria. The
recommended procedure is to limit stresses in steel reinforcement and
the steel cylinder to 18,000 lb/in2 or 50 percent of the minimum yield,
whichever is less. The stiffness of the pipe must be sufficient to limit
the ring deflection to not more than Z)2/4000, where D is the nominal
inside diameter of the pipe in inches.
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