RRB MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ) 30 40 4 54 3s 60 6 62 Latent Heat: Tre amount of | Latent heat of fusion of ice : The latent heat of fusion oF ie is the amout of heat required to convert unit mass of ice at °C int the water at OPC. Value of latent heat of fusion of ie (L) absorbed daring a change of state without rise in temperature is called Latent Heat C.GS.systen 340 x 10° kg Latent heat of Steam (or) Vaporisation of water: "The latent heat of steam isthe amount of heat required t9 conver unit mass of water at 100° C into steam at 100° Latent beat of steam in C.GS system = $40 cal Thermodynamic Systems + 0 calm S Lays mi Sil system =2.26x 10¢/ke System is defind as 2 quantity of matter or region under study. Surroundings: Every thing external tothe system is called surroundings. Boundary ‘The system is separated from the surroundings is boundary OpenSystem — ; Both mass and energy wansfer take place across the system. {Closed System: Ts constant mass system, across the boundary of which only energy transfer take place. Isolated System Isa one in which there i no interaction sther of energy or mass with the surroundings. Thermodynamie Properties Intensive properties : There are independent of the mass in the system. Examples = Pressure, temperature, density ete, Extensive properties: These properties are related fo mass. If mass is increased, the value of the extensive properties also increase. Examples : Volume, weight, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy Laws of Thermodynanies evoth law of Thermodynamics : When wo hoes ae i thermal equilibrium sepa thermal equilibrium with each other. Ti che bass of tempesature measurement. tly with a thal body then they ae also in First law ofthermodynammies : When asystem executes acyclie process, icalgcbraic sum of work transfers ejual to algebrie su ‘of heat transfer (oF) the heat and Mechanical work are mutually conver. ‘Second law of Thermodynamics : Kelvin plank statement "Tes impossible t0 ‘whose sole purpose is to conver ll the heat supplied to it into equivalent work struct an engine working on a eyclic process, (Clauss statement" Heat doesnot flow froma body at lower tempersnure toa body ahigher temperature withoutany extemal agency" ‘Thermodynamic processes Heat transferred daring a constant volume process is equal 1 change in intemal energy and work done is zer0 * Internal energy and temperature ofa substance is constant ian Isothermal process: © In adiabatie process the system will not have any heat exchange: with the surrounding, * Work done by the throting or free expansion process is always zero. ‘Where, Q, s the heat absorbed by engine from souree, _Q, is the quantity of hea rejected to the sink. * For canaot engine working between temperature T, and T, the efficiency is given by Fuels and Combustion Fuel + A fuel may be defind as substance (containing mostly carbon and hydrogen) which on burning with oxy atmospheric air, produces a large amount of heat in the| © Wood, pea, lige, bituminous apd anharacite coals are natura, slid fuels coke, chrcoal and palverised coal ae anil solid fuels, Crude Oils a natural liquid fuel, where as gasolene, Kerosene, paraffin and heavy oils are artificial liquid fuels. * Natural gas isa natural gaseous fuel, coal gas; producer gus and mond gases are artificial gaseous fuels Higher (or) Gross Calorifie Value: Heat berated by unit mass or unit volume of fuel when burend completely and products are cooled down to atmospheric temperatue is called higher calorific valve. * Higher calorific value of solid of Hiquid fuel can be determined by Bomb Calorimetcr. ‘The Combittion of ful takes place at constant volume i i + Junkers as calorimeter is used to deiermine higher calorific value of gascous fulos 72 RRB MECHANICAL AND ELECTAIGAL CRE STUDY CERES RETEST) Lower Calerifie Vatue : When the heat absorbed orcaried assay by the products of combustion fs aot recovered and steam formed} uring combustion is not considered, then the amount of heat obtained per hy ofthe fuel i known as tower or net calorie vale, Combustion of fuels * One kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of Oxygen for complete combustion and produces 11/3 kg of eabonionde * One kg of Carbon requires 4/3 ky of Oxygen and to produces 7/3 kg of earbon monoxide. * One kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of Oxygen and produces 9 ke of water or steam. “1 kg of methane requites 4 kg of Oxygen and produces 1/4 kg of earbondixide and 914 kg of w * 11 of Carbon requires 1mm’ of Oxygen and produces Fm’ of carbondioxide. * The Volumetric analysis of dry fuel yases may experimentally be obtained by Orsat apparatus " Atmospheric ar consists of 23% Oxygen and 77% Nitrogen hy weight and 21% Oxygen and 79%. Nitrogen by volume. * Petrol is distilled ata temperature 65° to 220° C and Kerosene is distilled at 220° c wo 345° c. % Anthracite coal has the highest calorific value. Transmission of Heat Heat: Heats defind a the form of energy thats tansfered by virtue of temperature dference. Heat always flow from s body a bigher temperature to a body at lower temperataue, This transmission of heat follows three methods. ‘They are. Conduction: The wansmission of heat ina body without movement of ts particles, Es. In solids Conveetion : The transmission of heat from one part to another iBadY bythe acteal movement fits particles is called Convection. Example : In liquids and gases heat flow by the method. Radiation: The transmission of heat from one place to another without any material or medium in between is called Radiation Example Earth receives heat from the Sun. (ot) team, Thermal Conductivity : The amount of heat’ transmitted by conduction in a body is Q= “A (T)=Ta) xt ‘Where'A'is the cross sectional arc (1,7) the temperature difeonee ewoen the two faces. ‘isthe length of herod, time off of heat. 'K'is the coeffi of thermal conductivity (1) Thermal conductivity of th materia Unk + C.GS.:Calsom/*K SI :amik(op win? a Absorption of Heat: Wheo radiant heats incident onthe sified par of its absorbed and the remaining pan is sflected. The proces in which heat ic absorbed by a body is aled Asorpdon of hese Absorptve Power + ‘The absorptive power ofa surface isthe ato ofthe anoumtof heat absorbed by a surface tthe amount o heat inideat ont. Reflecting Power _ : Iti he rato ofthe amount of het reflected by a sueies to ihe amount ofthe heat incident on it Emissve Power: _:_ The cmisive power ofa surtace is the mount of heat aditon emed per second pe uit aa of hel surface per SC excess of temperanurc over the surroundings. Transmiting Power: iste tao ofthe amount of radiation passing through ito the ttl emu of raliaton incident oni. Blak Body : A pereetblack bay i one which absorbs all rdiavions incident on it A perfet lack body iva poo aorta vellas emiter of heat : * Planum black absorbs 98% and lamp Black about 96% ofthe incident adation, ‘Stefan Botonann Law The a of of est cst by radiation rant ata ie surface ofa perfectly back bodys det Proportional tothe for power ofits abaoite temperate B= ¢ AT“, ois called Stefan's constant 3=5.675 x 16° wim? *K* Kirchorf’s aw of radiation Tat of he emissivg power oe absorptive power of all bodies i the sme and is equal the enissive power of peretly Black iy. ‘Wien’ Displacement Lave; The radiation energy consists of diffeeat wavelengths, According to this, the maximum wave. Jength| cuesy is inveraly proportional the absolut temperstté of the radiation. hy, T= Constant, Newton's tw of Cooling : Th rate of cooling fd body is directly propaonal sth inean exces of is emperatureoverthel serroundings Kinetic Theory of gases a oe “* The pressure exertéd by as. ga is given by P= 37° ‘Where, ns the ita of molecules ofthe gas per unit volume. ‘nis the mass of each molecule is the mean square velocity of the gas molecules“ (CRSSMEGHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL TK STUDY CENTRE, RIV. ©) 2878006, 2641651 9.0 Properties of Steam : Steam is vapour of water, and is invisible when pure and dry, Its approximately ats lke a gas. 100 10.1 102 + Steam does not obey laws of perfect gases, uatili is peefectly dr Sensible heat: Heat required to raise temperature ofone ky of water, of formation of steam, Heat absorbed (or) sensible heat (b) Latent heat of steam (or) Latent heat of Vaporisation : tis the amount of heat required to evaporate I kg of water at its point with out change of temperature, Its denoted by ‘Li ‘Total heat of steam: nen heated at constant pressure from0*C tothe temperature 1, Keal in| 4+xL for wet steam, +L for dry steam, where’ js the dryness fraction, ‘Super heated Steam : When the dry steam is further heated ata constant pressure, thus raising its temperature, it is said 0 be| superheated steam. * The total heat required for the steam to be superheated is total heat of dry steam and heat of super heat. H,=n+L+CpC1,,-T,,) -Thediference (T,,~ T,,) i kilown s degre of Supebeat Dryness fraction or quality of wet steam ; Its the ratio of the weight of actual dry steam, tothe weight of same quantity of wet w, Wigs W Mere W = Acta weight fry steam. W = Weight of waterin suspension steam and is generally denoted by "Feiple Point: This the point where three states of mater, Le, Solid, liguid and vapour coeaist in equilibrium. The triple point of water is 273.16 K at pressure of 610.2 pascals. Critical Point: When the pressure and saturation temperature incFeases, the latent heat of steam is decreases. Tt becomes zero ata point, where liquid and dry steam lines meet is known as the ritieal point. The temperature corresponding to critical point i knowin a eritical temperature and the pressure is known as critical pressure, + For water, the critical temperature is 374" C and crtieal pressure is 225 kg/em” (or) 22 I bar. Steam Boilers [A steam generator or boiler is, usually, a closed vessel made of steel. Is funetion i to transfer the heat produced by the combustion of fuel to water, and ulimately o generate team. * Boilers are mainly clasified as fire tube and wate tbe boilers: + In fire tube or smoke tube boilers, the flames and hot gases, produced by combustion of fucl, passthrough the tubes which are surrounded by water ‘Examples of fire tube boiler are, simple vertical boi and locomotive boiler, + In water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes whic are surrounded by flames and hol gases from out sie. + Examples of Water tube boilers are, Bubeock and ileox boiler, Stsing boiler, Lamount boiler, Berson boiler and Loeffler bolle. 2, coca boiler, lancashire oiler, comish boiler, scotch marine boiler * Comish boiler has one large flue tube and Lancashire boiler has two large diameter flue tubes, + Locomotive boiler is a maltitubular horizontal internally fred and mobile boiler. ‘There are about 157 thin fire tubes and 24 thick or superheated tubes. ‘The draught is produced by the exhaust steam from the engine which is discharged through the blast pipe tothe stack or chimney, Boller Mountings : Boilers ate provided with ceiain mouitings which ate essential for their safe operation. (a) Water level indicators Its the important fing, which indicates the water level inside the boiler to an observer (b) Pressure gauge: A presence gauge is used to measure the presse ofthe steam inside the boiler, The pressure gauge is generally used is of Bourden type. (© Safty Valves: This ia deviee attached tothe steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive intemal pressure of stean “The Function of asafty valve iso blow off the steam when the pressure of steam inside the boiler exccods the working pressure. They ae four types: (Level saey vale G@) Dead weigh safety valve i) highsteam and low water sty lye Gy) Sprig lade sat valve + Spring loaded sfty valves are witaly used for Locos (@) Steam Stop Valve: Isite largest valve on the steam boiler. The main functions of astop Va from the boiler to the min steam pipe and to shunt off the steam completely when required. —_—- tive and marine boilers. eeRRS MECHANI 103 AL ANDELECTRIGAL TEX STUDY CENTRE, RIC) _FATENOD Beat (©) Blow off coek : itis fed 0 the bottom ofa boiler dru whenever requ The principal functions of blow off cock a red and 1o discharge the mud, seale or sediments which o empty the bois nulated at the bortom of the bole, (Feed cheek, valve: isa non-return vale, its function is to regulate the supply of water, which is pumped int the boiler, by the feed pam (g) Fusible Plrg : Is fited tothe crown plate ofthe fumaceor the ire its objects wo pur of the fire in fumeace ofthe boiler when the level of water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit. Boiler Accessories: These ate the devices which are used as integral parts ofa boiler, and help in eunning efficiently (a) Feed pumpp = A feed pump is used to deliver water to the baller a high pressure, (b) Superheater : Supetheaters are used toi crease the lemperaturéof saturated steam without raising its pressure. (@) Economisex : An economiser is a device used to heat feed water by uilising the heat in the exhaust flue gases before leaving through the chistney. Its use results in saving of coal, and increase in evaporating capacity. Draught : A senll pressure difference is required to eause the sr required for combustion t Flow through the fumace and remove the flue gases, This pressure difference is called drought. Draught is ether natural or artificial ° Natural drauazhtis provided by a chimney or stack and the draught produced by a chimney de tothe difference of densities between the hot gases inside the chimney-and cold atmospheric air outside it Mechanical oF artificial draught is the draught produced by a fan, blower or steam jet. "If fan is lncated before the furnace is forced draught. It forces fiesh into the combustion chamber. * Tf fan is lacated near the chimney is induced draught. It sucks hot gases from the combustion chamber, and forees them into the chimney. + Balanced draught isa vombination of induced and forced draught. It is produced by running both induced and forced draught ans simultaneously. Compressors * Five aici the air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location: * Standard ai isthe air at 20° C and 1 kgfem* and relative humidity 36%, : * La of air at atmospheric condi us approximately 1.3 ke + The most efficient method of compressing ai is to compress it soypermally * The compressor capccity with decrease in suction temperature ineresse. * Aeroplanes employ the axial flow typeof compressor * Inc Soong ii Compressors results in saving of power compressing a given volume to given pressure * Cylinder clearance ina compressor should be as small as possible © Optima’ intermediate pressure in two stage compressor is geometric mean of WO, he Py = P,P, + Mining industries usuallfemployees compressed ir motive power « Reciprocating type air compressor is best sited for small quantity af a thigh presse. * Rotary compeesor is best sulted for large quantity of aia low pressure * The capacity of compressor willbe highest when its intake temperature is lowest + Gas turbine works on Brayton oF Atkinson cyte * Gas turbine ses Axial floss rype ofr compressor, * Kerosene iced as foe in minjet engines. Arocket engine for the combustion of its fcl cartes its own oxygen. + In Jetengines the products of combustion after passing though the gas asbine are di * Aircraft units employ ope typeof gs bine. * Fighter bombers usé turbo jet typeof engine. * ie fuel ratio in Jet engine wl be of the order of 60: | —12 13 ivy HANIGAL AND ELECTRICAL ~ “Ciik STUDY CENTRE, RIV _aaTeuns, estes) 15, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Refrigeration: this the process of removing heat From a body and maint sutroundings Heat Pump. tis a machive, which extracts heat from a cold boy id delivers two a hot body Ref Refrigerant: Wis a substance which works ina heat pump 0 extract heat from a cold body and tp detiver tw a hot body ator + It is. storage chamber, in which heat pump works and Keeps it cool Capacity of refrigerator : isthe ate at which beat can exacted from the cold body. This rates expressed in tonne of refrigeration. Units of Refrigeration : A tonne of refrigeration is equal to the ampount of refrigeration produced by the melting of! tonne of ie in 24 hours, = When one tonne, Le 1000 ke nelts in 24 hs, it produces a cooling effect at the rate of 210 KU/min (of) 50 K cali. Coefficient of performance : The Coetficient of performance (C.OLP) is the ratio of heat extracted in the refigeratr to the work] done on the reigerent Heat extracted Actual COP, COP. = “Workdone * Relsive COP. ~ Theoriticd COP » The coefficient of performance isthe reciprocal of the effcieney ofa heat engine * The value of C.O.Pis always greater than unity. Methods of Refrigeration ‘Dry Ice Refrigeration : Solid Carbondioxide is known as dry ie. Ieean be pressed into thin slabs or flakes. Dry ice absorbs heat if flakes are placed in a container during transportation overlong period. ‘Air Refrigeration = This method involves compression and subsequent expansion of alf- If high pressure is allowed to expand] ‘uiabatically its temperature falls. The cool air is circulated in a cold chamber to remove the heat of produets placed init + Air refigeraion system is largely used in airconditioning system of sir eafts. «© Air eftgeration system works on reverted Joules eyete or Bel coleman eyete. © Air refrigeration has limited used because of low C.O.P and bulky equipment Vapour Compression Refrigeration System : Its «type of a mechanical reffigeration system in which a suitable working. sub stance, termed as refrigerent is used. The efrigerent used, does not leave the system, buts circulated throughout the system alternately condensing and evaporating, « Vapour Compression refrigeration system consists of four basi components namely Compressor, Condenser, Expansion valve and evaporator. Operation of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System ‘Compression process : The dry state Vapour ata Tow pressure is sucked from the evaporator during the suction stroke of the ‘compressor than the vapour is compressed 0 higher pressure and temperature, ‘Condensation process : The vapour under high pressure is delivered tothe condenser. The vapour fs condensed into liquid form] in the condenser using cooling medium such as water. “Throtting Process: High pressure liquid is expanded to evaporator pressure through a throttle valve, Evaporation Process : The wet vapour of throttling passes through evaporator coils and absorbs heat from products and get evaporated. ‘The condition of rerigerent in a cycle: ‘pefore Compressor -» low pressure dry saturated vapour afterCompressor high pressure & high temperature vapour after Condenser high pressure liquid after Expansion valve + ow pressure wet vapour The highest temperature oscurs at compressor discharge: “The lovest temperature occurs after Expansion Valve. = In Vapour compression cefigeration system, the refrigerent rejects heat in condenser, » Accumulator is placed in vapour compression refrigeration system betsween Evaporator and Compressor. * Accumulator is. a device that doops liquid particles if present in vapour refiigerant leaving the evaporator. “The moisture in a refigerent i removed by driers * Driers i installed hetween condenser and Expansion value. Driers are also called Dehycirates. +A flash chambers sed in between the expansion valve and evaporator to remove the flashed reffigefen. + Strainers ave used to remove any foreign mater from the refrigerent. a