LINEAR ALGEBRA PROBLEM BOOK Paul R. HalmosDOLCIANI MATHEMATICAL EXPOSITIONS Putte by “THE MATHEMATICAT ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA Commits abesions AMES W DANIEL, Coma olin’ Matera! apostions Edi Boon "DRUCE ALIA Er IRLC BIVENS The Doan’ Matematica Expstons LINEAR ALGEBRA PROBLEM BOOK PAUL R. HALMOSEats Aaa we ssid we pro ‘Sno New asain i Pfr Dean, bere an expo) (Stud and seco spn of mec de poe rng Sato excels n matt ex, “he Aca ea rc th ra aie ‘Sutcin Sow none fhe Co ts ro ‘te Pow Gone wu ih aie ere Se Ber ose 1 wih ar yesh ye oe oa ‘si nb hgh rend 2 Maske Gow I Ross Hosbeps Maem! Merc Reo Heese Marat! Pam os Hoste) ‘her ma thre (Boe 13, How Ee sina a iin wh Cua a Niven ‘Get ann thomas er 1), How Ee op Cary, Pde a ne Four Calor Prem Desi Bone Mathemal Gone Hi Rowe Hobe Hove Maton Moy Ree Hester end Sn Wag 12, Pron for Matenaclan Yung od OM Pat Has 1, Brows Cals rp of te Conti ad ice Reber 16 The Mca Coy Praon Bok Gage: Get, Mi. iw 1S, Li nigel Or Maem Para A Calecsion of Mathis, ome Tire and Sore y Rh Rowse Gendt Alene nd Dae on Mapes) yf tes ae Co ht et 46 tana Alar Pol Bak Pa alm 11 Pm Es Kes Prats of Opa Clie Ros Hobe 1B bch hy Duh nce Coto Der amin hosed Mtr, ‘cc eaves) Seng Dt Kats, an an an Sn Wan. et ing Gt: wehingee BE 2000 112 wrest b PE opiePREFACE Isitfun tosohe problems sos song problens about something» good vey tear something? The answers seem 0 be yes, provided the prob- Jems are neither oo hard no to "Tha book sadresedto students (and teachers) of undergraduate ln: a algerie might supplement bu ot (hoe) replace my old Fine Dimensional Yor Space It rel fllows that oi book i organization and level and order—ut only “lrgl/"—the principe ite violate, “This isnot a lepy-tep tertbook—the problems vay back and forthe ‘woe sbjos the ary back ad forth rom cay to ard apd bck gin ‘The locaton of «problem is ot always a itt what methods might be sppropite wo soe toe how hard ts. ‘Word ike “hard” and easy” are subjective ofcourse. treo make some ofthe problems acessble fo any interested rade school student, land at the same time wo inser some that might stump even a professional ‘enert (at least for minute or two). Cortespondingy, the stements of the problems and the ioductions that precede and he Slutins that fallow them sometimes absioay explain elementary copepod, at ‘other times assume that you are at home wth he language and atid of mathemati atthe research evel. Example: sometimes Issue that you ‘now nothing an earful epi the associative law but tothe tines "assume that tbe word "topology wll stay 24 referto someting that _youare an eet in refers to someting that you ve esr abou ‘The solutions are intrinsic parts ofthe exposition. You are urged © eokatte olution of ech problem even fyoucan soe the problem wth ‘ut dong so—the solution sometines coatains comments ha colds be ‘ade inthe statement a the problem, o even the hit, without ing {oo much ofthe show avay"hope you willenoy ying to ste the problems Thpe you wiles CONTENTS something by doing, and Tope yoa wil have fas Pretace wi (Caper. Sears 1, Double sion 2 Hin dbl aon 3. Exponentation 44 Complex numbers '. Afin transformations 6 Mats mlipeason 4. Modula uipeation Small operations 9. Ident elements 10, Complex inveres 11, Afiae verses 12. Matric ineres (3 Alin groups 14 Groupe 15, Independent group asoms 16 Fede 1, Addition nd mutpication in kts 18 Distbaie ure 19, nt els (Chapter 2. Vectors ” 20, Vector paces 21, Examples 22 Linear combinations 23 Subspces| i 24 Unions of subspaces25 Spans 2h. goalies of pans 17, Some special pans 2K, Sums of sbspaces 2B, Disritve sabypaces 0 Toasts 31 Dependence 52 Independence Cooper 3. Bases 2° 38 Exchanging bases $4, Simultaneous complements 5S. Examples of independence 536 Independence ove and Q ST Independeace in 5X Yeson common o diferent bases 38. Basesin > 4. Maximal independent es 41, Compleras real {2 Subspace offal dimension 4, Bonded bases ‘4. Finite dimensional sbypaces 46 Exsteace of mininal ttl es 47 nately oases 48, Relatively independent sets {8. Number of bases is Baie vetor space St. Diretsune 51, Quotient paces 52. Dimension of quotient space 53. Ady of dimension (Chaper 4 Tansformations st ‘St. Lins ransformations| 58. Domain sod ange 56. Kernel, St. Compeston 'S8. Range nelson and factorization 58. Transformations ws vectors timer GL Inver examples (62. Determinants: 2» 2 (6, Determinanten xn (4, Zer-oe mates (5. Inertbe marc bases (66, Fiitedmensionalivetbility 7, Mates ‘8, Dagon matrices 6. Universal commatattiy 7, evince 7 variant complements 72 Projections 73, Sums of projections 74 not quite dempotence (Chapter. Duaiy 17S. Lia functionals 16, Dl spaces 71 Solution of equations 7h Refesty 2. Annis 80. Double anno 81 Adjoins £2, Adjoints of proesons 3, Matrices of eins ‘Chaper 6, isiarity Change of basis vectors Change ofbasis coordinates ‘Simlngytreforntions ‘Siri matrices Inherited sia Sinai: real and complex Rankand nality Simi an rank Simin of transpose Ranks of sms Ranks of products Nalies of sums and products Some siniaites Equralence Rank and equivalence RSRRSSRERSRARAEa (Chapter 7. Canonical Forms 107 98, Eigenvales| 100, Some and pdacs of eigenvalues 101, Egemalusof produc 102. Plyaomil in eigenvalues 103, Diagonalizing permutations 104, Polynomials in eigeaues, convene 105, Mattlsies 106, Distinct eigeralues 107, Comparison of mutiplicies 108, Tangularization 19, Complesication 10, Unipsent wantormation 1. Nipoteace 12. Nilpotent products 13. Nipotet ret sms 14, Jord form 15, Minimal polynomials 16, Noncommutative Lagrange interpolation ‘Chapter Inner Product Spaces 19 17, Inne products 18, Polarization 119, The Pythagorean theorem 120, The pallogiam aw 121, Complete orthonormal ses 122 Semarzineguality 125, Orthogonal sormplemenss 124 More linear functionals 125, Adjints on nner product spaces 126, Quadra forms 127, Vanishing quaratie forms 128 Hermitian transormations 129, Skew transformations 130, Real Hermitian forms 151, Poste transformations 132. poste iveses 133, Pependiair projections 134, Prjeionsan Cx © 135, Projection order 136, Orthogonal projections covrnnts a7 137, Hermitian eigenraaes 138, Distinct elgeraues (Chapter, Normaiy wo 159, Unitary transformations 140. Unitary masces 14, Unitary imvoations 12. Unitary angles 148, Hermitian disgonataion 14, Square rots 145, Polar decomposition 146, Normal transformations 147. Normal diagonally 148, Normal commutativity 19, Adjintcommatatvty 150, Adjoiat intertwining 151, Nomalproduess 152, Punetion of transformations 193, Gramiane 154, Monotone uoctions 15, Reducing ranges a Keres 186. Tunented ste 157, Non postive quae oot 158, Similar nema transformations 159, Unitary egutlence of wanspeses 160, Unitary an orhogonalequnlence 11, Nall convergent powers 112. Power boundedness 119, Rediction and index? 164, Nilptence and eduction ints 1 Soins Chapter 1 185 Chapter 2 20 Caper 3 216 Chapter ¢ 28 chaper 5 on Caper 6 2 Chapter 7 m Chapes 8 26 Chapter 9 30‘curren 1 SCALARS 1. Double addition Ist obvious that ew tis true and thoroughly unatersting mathematical statement that an beer ina few second—ut obvious? I alg i obvious means ‘hat the reason for tat is early understood, without even a sage Second’ verfeation, then most people would probably sy 90. “What about (21+ 96) + 48 = 27 + (30448) tha obvious? Yess, for most people the instinct (and cores) ‘eaction thatthe way the term of sum are bunched together cannot sifect th anor. The approved techn term it “bunch together” but “sori: the instinctive reaction Ia eadines accept what sealed the ssciatve ln of dito for real numbers. (Surely every reader has odced by bow thatthe noe-obioussement andthe obvi one ae Some sens these 6b=27496 and at=36448) Linear alga concerned with several iflerent kinds of operations (och sadn) on several diferent kind of objets oot nce real ‘number To prepare the ground forthe ted ofatrange operations nd 19 [eeptbeasocaelaw frombeing unjustly mised trait ile ‘lor to consider some god expen and some bad one worthSome ofthe examples willbe useful in he segue, and some won —some sachet to show hat ascii can a and others are ceo show hat ‘renwhenithalsitmaybe far from obvious Inthe workdflinea algebra ‘on agociatve operations are rare, but associate operations whos good ‘ehanor snot obvious ae more requeaty met. anew addition fr real mumbers denoted the em 20+, Comment. The pls sig onthe righthand side of the equation denotes rcinayadiion "Note: snc ordinary addon i commutative, s that 20+ 29~ 28+ 20, ‘follows that (Conclusion: the new addon ie alo commute. 2. Half double addition Comment. Sige a+ sus diferent rom 29+ 0 his 3. Exponentiation Problem. fan operation for postive ineper enced by he tm ora symbol ide by ardao, lei commucaive? fit asocitive? seats 3 4. Complex numbers Seppe ta gern [] defined fo rer pis of el mes, ‘hat for cjot uk ike (oh ba and el foWs (0.9) B= (a n8 48, Isitcommutative? Sas obviously colt is A it dose perform the known comnuntve operation of itn of eal urs wie ee for ‘ch ofthe two sora et soca? Sur, obvi, fr he Same "The double ation operations in lens 1 and 2 are afin thy sere cake up to make a point The operation of exponen in Probir $3 tara enuph and ta ts poi natura™ operat ca flo be seociave, The content ation here defied for ode pi ‘tual one alo, ut a forte only one ha wel Problem 4. a operation for ander pir of real mambers lensed by the temponory smb (fined by (0.0) 0.8) = (ar 88,0859) 1s commatve? ts asocltve? Comment. The reason fer thease of he smb] Ginsead of ‘wf is onsen of multipin (tend fan) ad ae enfuson whe te two operations ae dss stanly (a many omens they must be, 5. Affine transformations ‘ooking stang isnot necessarily ig fein aii or wes Prublem S._ an operation for onl prs of real mumbers dented by ain is defined by (B08) = (or.08+9), 12 commas? te asia? 6. Matrix multiplication ‘The stange mutica of Probl Si psa ese of ne tha me compete bat ls ang,Problem 61/1 operation for onfered guadrapies of el ma ber dented by 1s dened by (9,908) ato. = loa! + Psat +830! + 69488, isi commie? Ie asia? CConment, ow ithe mtpicaton of Problem 5 for oeed pls sp nl cae” of hs ne? Kaye resi ate wo en dake guadupes {e.din) he which y =O ant 6 — 1. The [.prodact of two mich spel ua iv agsin sch «spec one indo ify = 9f = 0 and Bey an ay =O 0d 3-48" ~ 1. The it tno cordate te rat an i 3, ad hats harmony wi ble 5. ‘Aut commo may come at stains ples suis: the ml Upton of complex munber scsi in Pole 45 also a pci ae of he gundriple ition discussed re, Inee vestict atenton to ony tone uses at ofthe fe (0.8.8) ae hat {ay 8.—2.0) BE) 0.8.—18) = (09 = Blab +. y 8-6 + 9) 7. Modular multiplication Define an opersin, dened by fhe oumbes 0, 1.2 3.4, 8 Faw: mati ual and he how oaymeliplesof,The ehnis ‘xpeson "ely malo 6") Example 47) = 2 and 2E}~ 0. Problem 7. 1s muiptetion mado 6 commutative? te a0 have? What placed by do the concasion for 6 roman tne or do hey change? 8, Small operations Problem 7 shows tht interesting operations can exist sal es. Soul st ne the alle avantage ha sometines they can oer ws abut Some dangers that become more complied, a therefore hare ¥ ac, seatans 5 when the set get lager. Another reason smal sets are god that op- ‘raion om them cin be defined in tabula manner tat i essing explicit (Const for intanee the table ‘which defines multiplaton modulo 3 fo the numbers, 12. The infor ‘ation such ables ar inlended to communicates that the product ofthe ‘lement at the let fa row the element atthe top of column in hat fozder. isthe elemeat placed where tht rw and that eokimn meet Exam- ple:22=1 modulo 3. -Itmight be worth remarking that heres oa useful concept of ad- ton modulo itis ined bythe table remarkable fact that ation and muliplistion moda 3 poses lth wal taht properties ofthe aithmete operations beating the fame names. They are for instance, both commutative and ascii, they conspire to sty te isributine aw ax4n) (ax p)+(ax they permit worsted subtraction (so tht, fr example, 1-2 = 2) and they permit vio retried ony by the exlson ofthe denominator 0 (Go that, for example, } = 2} Ina word (oficially wo be intoduced and ‘Studied ltr the integers medal form a eld. Problem 1 abou an pertion tat commutative but not soca tive, Can that phenomenon occur insal ts? Problem Bi thee an operation in a set ofthe lemons hat ‘commatatve bu no aceite?9. Identity elements “The commonly accepedatides toward the commutative law and the ‘ssocate lw ae diferent Many real fe operations fail to commute ‘he mathematical comunity has earned oie with that fact and even 0 enjoy it Vlatone of the ascii lav, 0 the other bad ae usally ‘onside by specials ny. Having made the point that the asoitve Taw deserves respect hin book wil concentrate inthe sequelon asoiatve ‘operations ony. The neo See what other nodal properties uch ‘operations cn and should posses. "The sum of and any ral mamber a agi the product of 1 and sy eal number isa gun, The phenomenon described saying hat and aeldenity cements (or2eoelemets, ouitelements of nuts ‘ements for addon and multiplication respectively, An operation that fsa ent element isbetteroworkwith than on hat doesn't. Which mes do? Problem 9. Which ofthe operations (Gdn adion (2) half dou aon, Ghaponeniaton, (@)complermalipletion, (6) mulipletion of fine ransormations, (yma malipleaton, and (@) modular ation and matipication ‘hve an dey eement? Inthe dacosion of operations, in Problems 1-8, the notation nd the lnguoge were both ave (+, sum) and maliptiatve (prod ‘Techni there en dflerence between the tw, but wadtonlly Imvkipcation the more general concept Inthe defiition of Ups fF Instance (tobe given soon) the notation andthe language are silly > plies te additive theory iocluded as a special eas. A caroos but firmly etablished pat ofthe tation s that mulation may or may ot be commutative, bt ation aways i The train willbe followed ‘this boo with no exceptions. “Animportant min-theorem assert thar an operation ca hve ast cone identity elements That ef fan operation and Both © and are ‘entity element frit s0 that eee foralla, hen ‘Proof Use tel fora inthe equation ivosing sand use efor ain the equation ivong The conten i that = = sequal 0 bth ade and hence hat and ae equal eachother, Comment ‘The protjust given intended to emphasize that an idetity ‘sa two-sided concep: itworks from both ight and lt 10. Complex inverses [ster a postive iteger that canbe added toto yield? Yes. Isthete a postive integer that an beaded toto il 3? No. Inthe wellknown language of elementary arithmetic: subtraction within the domain of pose integers is sometimes possible and some- Tether rel number that canbe added oto yield 0? Yes, namely 5, Every real umber has a neptv, sth fat prance that witha ‘he domain ofreal nmber subtraction lv possible (To find a num bertatcan be added'o 810 yield 3, rt nda numer that can beaded 10300 ield and then form ts negative) ‘The thd base propery af operations tht wl be needed in what fo ows (in adition wo associativity andthe exitence of neural elements) {isthe posit of inversion, Suppose tht +s an operation (temporary impartial symbol whos rl in appliatonscouldbe plied ithe ad tion ormulipstion,andsppose tha the domain» contains neta clement 0 the» ee = forall 2. Under these circumstances ‘an clement 9 sella ivere of (= nese) if fea: COtwious example: every real mumber cha + avers, namely -a. Wor: ‘ome example ot eer el number has a vere. The exception is Or there isn el umber such that Ox 3 ~ 1. Thats the nly exception: fa 0, then the reciprocal a-* (= 2) sa inverse These examples are ‘ypca The we of adv notation i ual tended a suggest te ex tence of ies (+ verses, epativs) for evry element, Wheres for ‘ulpcatvely writen operation se elements cn falto be invertible, that can fll to ponies nveres( vere reciprocals). 10“The daiton of «iver makes Sese incomplete generality, but ‘its wef ony i ease +f asaitve, The point is that for asociative ‘operations aaimportant min theorem bold element an hve at most pe iverae That both 3 and are «eres, 0 that aes 8e yee then = > Proot combine al tree, anda, and fin hat exer, the the associate nw, Looked at ne way the avers 6 and ae 6 yelossareean, ‘wheres he oer way its (rraypmeraws. “The conclusion i thatthe tiple combination 7+» is equal to both and, and hence that and Jar equal to each ther Problem 10. For comple mulation (defined in Problem #), hick ordre pas a, 5) ae verbl? Is thr anexpi oral [forthe terse of te ones tha ore? 1111. Aftine inverses Problem 11. Forth mulipleaton of fine vnfomatins (e- {fined in Problem 3). whichordered pats (a) arene sare ‘a exp formula forthe inves of th ones tha are? 122 Matinee Pron, che Pare ae 7) (ero main na it Pn ee? ‘sce omen a 13 13,Abetian groups: [Numbers be added, trate, multi nd (wth one infamous t+ Cepton) divided. Linear algebras about concept called salar nd ee- ‘or. Sela are usualy numbers: to understand lina algebra it is nce ‘ary sof alto understand numbers, anda partly, ts aces) to understand what it means to adel and subtract them. The general concept that ies atthe heart f sich an understandings that of abelian rou. ‘Consider tan example, he et Z of linge (poste, eae, ‘210 together wt he operation of adtion, The sm of wo neers ‘san integer such that dain s commutative, meaning thatthe sum oft integes in dependent ofthe onder in which they ae aed, aon is assecative, meaning thatthe sum of thee integers, pee sented ina ned order, isindependent ofthe order in which he wo a ‘ons between them ar peefommed, fets)t= +42 ‘he imeger 9 plays special olin that it does not change any integer thatitisadded 6, and every ato canbe “undone” by another ne, namely the ad ‘ion othe mgaive of what was just aed, ates) “This example pel, The statements ust made sbout Zand + are Inet the definition ofthe concept of abelian group. Almost exact the same statements ean be made about every abelian group; the ony ier- ‘ences are terminological (the words integer” and “adion” may be > placed others) and notational (he symbols aed + may be epaced by othe) “Another example i the set Zs consisting ofthe integers beeen 0 ‘nd 1 ints, with an operation of aon (temporary denoted) ‘etn this way ifthe sum oftwoelementsof 2 (ithe ordinary meaning ‘of sum) en than 12, then the new nim ego hat ondary sem, s)te but thei orinay sum is 12 or more, then the new sum she ordinary som ith 2 subuate, seyersy- 12“The operation + is led ston modelo 12, andi usualy denoted by jj plein + 0 desied hy + flowed soon by an explanatory “mod {The veieston that the four pia seatenes stated above for Z are tru for 2 ina smal asance, at's painless and lends to 9 suprises. (Te choses comes fo a surpie fe that he role ofthe negate a is payed by 12— 3.) "eres another example fan abelian group the set R of posite real aumers wth an operation, temporarily denoted by», defined as or ‘ary numeral malpition: seyemy Everybody tives commutatity and associative role of 210 is Played this ime by he real number 1, seleter=s, andthe oe of the npativeof x played by the epoca of = #@)-()- “The genera definition of nahin group should be obvious by now itis a get G with an operation of “additon” defined in (0 that when- fever and yar in G then +s again an element of G)sating the four conditions dactued above, (They ne: commutstiy asic: the exstence of ero; and, orespoding each element, te existence of negative of that element) ‘The word “abelian” meats ext the same as “ommutatve™ I an ‘operation ina st satis the lst thre conditions but nat necessary the fit then tical group. Non commutative groupe aio enterthe say ‘ol liner algebra, bat ot ater, and ot as basically asthe commutative Problem 13. (2) If new operation «defined nthe set, of postin eal mumbersby ayo info), does Ry become an abelan oup? (@)ifan operation» iene nthe st), 2 3,45) of postive gery sass) docs that vet become an abelon group? (tf zandyarecoments ofan abelian gop such that = +9 = sx doef thet = = 0 ‘Comment. Te abbreviation “min” so wax” ae for minum and rami: min(2,3) 2, an(—2~3) —~2 and minl, 5) Pa (a) and (6) ofthe problem tes the understanding ofthe dei tion ofabetin group. The beginning oa tematic development of grou? theory (abelian ort is usally a sequence of axiom spliting delicacies, which are tus bat abe fan. A sample isthe mi theorem discased in Problem 9, the one tht sy that thee can never be more than one el ‘ment that cts the way 0 dos Part () of this problem another sample ofthe same kind of thing. It easy, bul hee because fis afl nd, incidental, because it shows bow the defining ams of groups can be ‘fal, What was proved in Problem 9 that i an element este ay 0 oes forever lement then its be 0; par (2) here ak bout elements that at he way 0 does fr only one clement. 14. Groups -Accouding othe definition in Problem 13a et endowed with an operation ‘hat has all te defining properties of an bein group excep posi the fist namely commutatiy,s calle just spy group. (Recal hat the \word"abelian” se ynony for commutathe”) Emphasis the operation ‘sanesentia part ofthe defini two diferent operations onthe same set both sty the efnng conditions, the results are regarded as wo ditren sroups. ‘Probably the most falar example of a abelian group isthe st Z ofall imtges(pstive, negative, and 2%), o, beter said the OOD it the pir (2, +) the set Z together with, endowed with, the operation of ution. Wis sometimes possible otrow aay some ofthe integer td sil havea group left thos, fr istance, the se ofall ven integers 2 up. Throwing things say can, however, be dangerous: the set of os te integers is not an ative group (here is no idea element: 0 is ‘ming and elthr the set of on negative integer (one Ois pat back lnimakessease to demand inverse, bt the demand cane ule only ty pring al he nt integers ack 10), ‘The et of real numbers with ado, i symbol (+), 8 8 eroup, but (Rx), these fel numbers with mliplstion is mit—the number Das no imvese. The set of mon-ser el numbers the othe ads AAmulipeatve group. The same comments appt to the st Co complex ‘numbers. The st of positive eal numbers ia group with respect to mul 1“5 a LUNA ALGEREA PROBLEM BOOK. sipicatio, but the st of neat real aumbers is not—the product of HO of them not sete "Group theory deep and pervasive: par of mathematics free of intuonce At the begining of nea algebra not much oft need ‘ut cten hee ie aig elp to beable fo recognize a group when one tere room, Problem 14 the st ofl affine wnsormaton € a+ {withthe operation of irtonl compastionaroup? What abot hese ofa’? «2 maces os (4) (ot mat map et en ag ma Sten 8 i sgoperopti ma ‘plain modal 6? What f 8 rplaced by des the conclusion romain rc dost change? Comment ‘Tuesymbol led the barred arr, iscommeonty wed for fanctnsitserves the prjon of indicating the "variable" that funtion ‘depends on. To spe ofthe fonction 2+ 3 is bad form; what the ex- preson 2+ 8 denotes not function but the vale of funtion athe umber Correct Ianguage speaks ofthe fenton pete, hich san abbreviation forthe funetion whose valu at ech 15 2-43" 15. Independent group axioms ‘A rope with an operation tt hase gb properties, mamly Ect, exec taney element and the otenc of {nce Aves propertly nepenent foe mote. othe {oe hase offen inpy come fhe oer? oor example, mst an ‘Secatheoprton aves hve ety cement The awe 0, fd nt esi ane Woe he a hin hat mos chen ear Boot thet Wea ear ey ne ht we can i to pose Imeen an get rd oe and we uy cope ht hat hed one indent sera om both of te nubs at we Sate withthe Ghnnery oreo came fo hamaniy lng afer the dcovey of son, Souiteomessmbary te focachone of Very wel hen fe haven ‘ZitSisove operation that docs poses an iemiyclement docs i follow seatans a that eer element has an inverse? The negative ane to tht question reaches most of us ot log afte ou fst arithmetic appointment (ee Problem 13):intheset {0 12,..) ca adjust ae and Osan en tity element for ado, but > inverses ate hard to ome by—sbtaction ‘anno alvays be done. Afr these sper comments there i aly ‘only one sensible question let oak, Problem 15. Cam shee exist non anociatie open wih enti element, sch tha ee element hasan verte? 16. Fields 1 temporary, “umber” sintered to mean “integer then numbers «an be added and subtracted and mulpiod but, exept aint as it mere they cannot be dvided Ife asst ding them ayy, we eae the domain of nteprs and ge the set Qo al quaiet of integers ‘nother words the st Qof ational numbers, which a "el (Doeseveryone knw about ational numbers? Areal merical ational ii ithe ratio of wo integers. In ther wordy i ational just incase there exist intgers m and sich that = — =. Expl, 3, 01, 10, ~10, 5. Note: and =H ae addtional representations of te rational number} already mentioned, tere are may others Celebrated ‘counterexamples: Vand A proof that Vis notational was known 0 Fhmanty wel ve 200 years go: the news about + iol ile more ‘han 200 years old. That (Q,+) group needs oe checked of ue, but the checks easy, and the same sue fr (Q — {0}, »)) Probyte bet known example of eld is the set Rf sl mun bers endowed wih the operation of adtion and mulation, Ae far 1 addon goes, is an abelian group, and sof Q. The coresonding ‘Salement for multiplication i nt true! zero cases wouble Sine = 0 forever tel number it follows hat there so = such that == 1 he umber 0 doesnot have a multiplicative inerse Hf, bower seplaced bythe set Ro el numbers ferent rom 0 (end snilry Qi replaced bythe set Qo atonal numbers ferent rom 0), then evrything a "ht again: R* wih mutipeation tn abelian grovp, ands is surely doesnot come as. supeie that the ume statements arte about the set € fal eomplex numbers wit sion and malian, {nd indeed Cis another example of Held. The properties of Q and ‘and Chat have been mentioned fa, are, however, ot ate enough _nesthe definitional rm, Wht the examples suggest thata eld ‘has two operations; what they leave out isa connection between them. tis 16“ aveaR ALGEBRA PRORLES OOK ‘mathematical malpractice to endow ase wih to diferent structures that fv nothing fo do with each ctr Inthe examples already mentioned ‘sion and multiplication gether form apleatnt and wea consacy {Gl fact two conspiracies, called the aaebatve tw or a ele+s)=or+ay and (a4 She~a2+ 8, snd one that i observed the comect efiition of ids becomes gues She, Ail is set with to operations + and x such hat wath the Chie st Fis an abelian group with the dined set ¥” (omit 0) s ‘abelian group and such that he dsibutv i ae ruc (Us tclear what 0" means here? It's atended to mean the Weniy clement ofthe adv proupF The otatonl convention fr eal um- beware aceped forall ei Oi lays the ative neta element, 1 ithe malpiatse one, and, excep at are times of emphasis mtpia- ‘ion isindated simpy by tapostion) ‘Some example ffs, less vious than RQ, and C, deserve men- tion One good example is calle (2): it consists ofa umber ofthe forma Sy whore aand Sar rasona the operationsarethe wal adie ‘on and malipliation of real numbers. Al parts ofthe defo, except pethaps one ar obvious What my not be obvious tha every 0027 ‘ement of (V2) ha a reciprocal The prot that itis rue anyway b= ‘oF, the proce of atanalzng the denominatr (asd before in Solution 10) Tats: to determine x, motpy both mertor and aaa" eromintorby a ~ 8a et a-si__o a Paap” aa oF aE “The ony thing that oul possibly go wrong with this procedure stat the enominaor 2? ~ 25s er, and that ammo happen ones bth aad ‘fae aro to begin wth) the reason it canaot happen hat V2 ot ‘atonal ‘Could thappen nail that he adie ety clement sequal to ‘the mutpcative one, tht isthat = 1? That issurel sot the intention of| ‘he definition. Alas loophole that avoids such degeneracy isto recall ‘at groups never the enpy se (Because, by assumption, contains ‘dent element. follows tat F isa els, ten F~ 0) is 0 mp. ‘That does isan clement of ~ (0) and therefore 1 #0 Misa fel hen both with + and" wth > ae abelian groups but either of these ats has anything wo do wth the mupleave proper. ‘of te ave inverse 0, As fara they are concerped, do eli general beta the way @,R, and Cd, o does the geneaiy pert ome unssual behavior? Problem 16. Mas muipcation nfl be commutative? 17 Addition and multiplication in fields fa. queston about the behavior ofthe elements of ld concerns only ‘one ofthe eo operations, isles been and uninteresting Example: ‘site hat | ‘en a= 9 (edie cancelation ne)? Answer: yes—jut add —> to both sides. peasant consequence (tht smetines ters mathematical be- nner) since ata=0 ond 094-0) the commu of addon nd the site canton imply that ‘Te try and wef questions about eld concern addon ands: ‘ication simultaneous Problem 17. Sigpse tha Fis fil and and aren Which offal ena! () (ayaa ©-a(-0)= a0. @isizo. (hifa fond 9 20 temas 40 Comment Observe that both operations ete into each ofthe Ake = lations (2) What she mpative Behavior ofthe ative wn? (0) ‘What i the muipative behavior ofthe ade inverse of the mut Plcatve unit? (e) What the malpicative behavior of ave inverses Ingenera?() What the ade behavior ofthe mica unit? (e) ‘What is the relation of muiipliction to the additive unit? ”18 6 LUN ALGERRAPROMLEABOOK. 18, Distributive failure Problem 18, [ether ser with dhe commutative operation + nd ck that (E+) 0 group, both (F~ (0) x3) and (P= f0}, 2) ae gous bat onion of +.) and (2) fea pell? 19. Finite fields ‘Coulit happen that eld has ony tly many clement? es it cools ‘oe ery ey example the set Za costa fon the te integer 0 {hd 1 with addon and lipo defined modelo 2 (Compare the ‘onsldconstuctedin Problem 16) “The sae sort of consration (a8 and multi modulo something) este eld Zy — (01,2) wih ain and multiplication modulo 5. however, 4 ed nea! of 2 or, something goes wrong: the set {= {0,1,2,3) with adtion and mukiplcaton modulo 4s not a eld ‘ihatgocsmongis pot that 2-2 = there nothing wrong with hat— but hat 2 2 O-—thats bad, The reson Iba hat it tps 2 fom having a multpcatve inverse; the et 23 (= Za ~ (0) 0a abelian wp. Porter experimentation along these ines eves that sisal, bot 12s Ty eld but ZZ, ad Z afew: Za i el Bat Zan isot (In Za, 2% 4 = in Z,3 3 = 0; et) General fc (nt hard 0 rove) Za eld and only ifthe mods m8 eine “The fc that Zi nt eld shows that certain way of defining ‘dition and multiplication foe four elements does ot result ina eld 1s ‘possible tha diferent definitions woul lead toa ferent esl Probie 19. thea ith our elements? curren 2 VECTORS 20. Vector spaces Real numbers can be added nso can psi of el amber. is the set of alordeed pairs oo eal umber, the it natal 0 define (hesum of vo elements of R by wring (0.8) +81 =(047.848) ‘the result isthat B® becomes an abelian group. Tere ato kind of arta mutipicaton tht makes seas and seul arel the proves sfphingan seme of are maber anh etn ante element of 248.9) = (09,09). ‘The end result ofthese commenti structre contig of thee pts: natin group, namely? , el, namely nd way of ming the element ofthe group by ie elemento he eld For another emmpeo he Kind of tractre tains lgetna sta fs, cosder the set Pof al polynomials with real cofBien The set P, ‘ndowed with the unl notion of addition of polynomial fa sbi up, Just as inthe case of there fea mlipiatio that makes seal sense namely the process of muliying polynomial p by real number: (eo(a) = 2-9) ‘The resis a8 before, triple struct: an abelian group Bx eld B, and way of mukiping elements of clement of The moifstion of tepiacing the st P of al el poloomil (real Sieeias sas ieee seein sas tela aeby the set By of al ea polyoma of eee ls han or equal 1 3 5 ‘meine: more mal use han the unaied vesa. The Su of wo ements o Py api an clement of Py, ands he pdt fan lame ‘of Py ty al suber ad that al hr 05 ‘oe me ctampe and at wil be enh oe now hi ee Ve the set ofall ered tps (0,5) el mbes sch that atatr=o, Define adon by (abd HP) = (ares trey) ie muita by ets.) sd lnc hat he esl always an dred pe with sum eo. Te se ‘fal sch ipl sone again. a abelian groop Comey) ek nd 2 Ssouble way of mitipying pup elements Hy Hild eames The general ence of 3 wee pace ian station of examples sch the oes ust seen: is ipl consi of un bean gop, ae nd | rulipcaton terse the, Real however, tha ti mer ea Snproiableto endow ae nh moor me ei Sats whoa igh conecting tha, ota ech of hem ested in a eset We {he bs Aso instance whee th somewhat age comudnen el [Goal obeys ithe defison of fel in Problem 16 there an aso, thee a mutipicaion, and thes he een comestion bean th, mel the dstbuve I) "A vector spce over fel F (of eements called sealars is 29a tive (commasve oop (of eleets called vets, oper with 39 ‘operon tag To each scl an each water 2 + pot a iS nin vst Fer such a defines to make god menace seme ‘ke eperation cle selar multiplicaton sod be sured wo the ‘tee pten opeations aden nF, tion in Van mation i ‘The onions tht preset tems mos ata ae thee “The vsor abate lw (od,aab), (a+ ienas +e whenever ant falar and svc ln ater werd. ipso ‘by vector darts oer cl nton) ‘The scl iste lw als +y)=0r-+ay vwerons swheneier a is scalar and andy ate vectors (in other words, tip ‘ation bya seaar dstrbutes over vetoradition). "The ssocitve lw (o8}e= alas) whenever and ae salars and isa vector “The salar identity av for every veto (In other words, the ela aes the enti tran formation on ver) (he reader has no doubt nied tht in salt molpcation the ‘cari alays onthe let andthe vector on the ight—since the her ‘ind of multiplication snot even define it makes no sense to speak of ‘commutative law, Nohig i ls ythis convention and something {nine the very symbol oa product nicates which factors the alar fnd-which the vector) Many questions can and shoud be asked sbout the comitos that, MPN Whenever Mand N tre subepacess tha MAN = Vi outofthe question wes M = N= V. [Note ao that MM = Mand that MN = Nam hpen quite easy, same ist when N.C ML elite othe ative and malipiatinesractare of subspaces and symmetrically comected with bath theres geometsal important os ‘bly that has some ofthe popes of setheoretic eomplementaton ses to bepin itty by looking at some examples. ‘Conse two dnc non-tvl proper wbspaces Mand W of 8 (or. it geomet language f preferred, conier two dit ies in theo inary Eactidean plane). cannot be tre that M+ N= © (hat vrcrons 3 and ae at addve isens of one ate) ait cant Be re that MON R? this, an aren mkipiave ives ne ate). “The exteme oposite te: M-tN = Rand NEN =O. (hak tthe pcre) “Auer example. Lt M be the set of ll xen py (wth, a ssl cee) and he se ofl eal oe the dfs of hse es ‘pea ia Problem 25, Cin aplomb th veh an Anes ‘het shold wove he anew if and ont i esis eo. NOE tar follows that hth Mand Ware mbspces of the wet spe of {pulpal (Caton ithe enderyng ei seh hat t=, the tr definions of evena and odes ar et uve. Ove the il Inpers moo 2 fr instance, every ply bh een ad nthe ‘Caner Flom be writen ata sum ofan even on an a el one? Saree p define gan + by aeaNoerix-a) mt re)=}ote-x-29 4 Contin: MoN=0 a M+N=R. nn genal veclor space ¥ oo stapes Mand Nae called MaN=0 ad MENev. “Tae ence vila y the example vey ine i the ple 3c plement of every ter Ine (no hone of wiguene, and the sabspaces of {ven an ot polyoma are compen im? Al example can Be tBhen in any Vr nay he via abgace and he nope sabaceV ‘es every subse in every ves Space ve at st oe complemen? Does every onl rer subace n every vest sce MVE any on Pemens? (Wut oes “mary” mean’ isle mon ped on he coir fll For finite Rds “any” might jst mean “ethan fone") The ans ae ye a ims, ot he ros pC on tere ‘eigen Z's er) fren tthe spat of avoducoy neat lpr. For he yest spaces that will een ts copying the cee ‘of he age he answer il e obey ma easly cssble mes ‘he set of saepaces with asin (+) ahd itsetion (°) mses (ing a field becanne citer operation adits verses, What abou! the» Pa LuNean ALGERIA PROWLEN BOOK connection betneen the tko operation: how wellbehived isi? A ronal ‘stack om tbe question woul ty to prove o daprove the dsrbutve aw {Wis adisable to approach the question more modesty by asking about sir leben properties of subypace addition, One well nown possible property scald the modular Wet thats what thi problem about Problem 2. Leite harifL, M, and Nar subspces ofa vector space hen La (Mt+(La8) = (Lam) + (LN? 29, Distributive subspaces Problem 29. For hich eto spaces Visit me that, Mand Naresubypace of, ten LaQa+N) = (LM) + (LAN? 30. Total sets Isther asa] £ ofa vector pce sch that he oly su HR] of V ‘hat inclades is Viel? Sure: several such examples have already been Seen, An tampon ? ithe singleton (2) of ay om zero xan example ins = (0,0) (0) the ony subspace of that includes FV, then, of cous, the laters ofl the subspaces that nade Hs just Vs that Vey. ‘Ase with thi property st whose spans the entire vector space, is ‘alle total se By slight extension of the language, set tha spans ‘ rbepace of Vi called ttl for M In the vector space Po al poly ‘omil of degre les than or equal 102th set. Qatettete) isaotl se andin the lager vector pace P ofl polyoma the infinite eee. ‘of monomials is total set. For the space O, the empey set is oa vvcross 3s “The god vector spaces inlinea algebra, the easiest ones to work with andthe ones thatthe subject is rooted i, are the ones that have a ite total set; vector spaces ike that are called finledimenstonal. The space Ty sfntedimenioal, bat (ee Problem 2) the space Pi 0 "The fist natural question about flite-dimensonl vector spaces Sounds deceptively simple: is every subspace finite dimensional etor ce fie dimensions? Tit sounds ike aking whether vey sibs of "finite et isi, but itis ot. The questions suresingy late itis ‘othe kid for which al that's necessary it feed the defn nto & ‘mache and turn the crank Here asp trad acquiring the nesemsry insight Problem 30. 1/2 ttl bs of eto space V, and PMs bp of V does follow tha some bec of isto for MP ‘31. Dependence ‘Te three vectors, 9, ¥=@0, and 2=011) form atta set for Rin at the fst wo are enough and he chi one issuperfoous. There i a simple doctrine at work here: adjoining extra ‘sectors ott et ave it total The new vectors dono am, bat hey ‘ve a0 new information. ‘The vector in this example is the sum of» aby, and that makes ‘obiou that every iar combination of sy, and is alesdy near ceambiaton of any. Te presence of spervour vectors inafotl seis ‘otalvasso clear viable, Foralook ata morehidden indo perf Jet yand : his tine be defied by HUD, 9=28, and 2= 186), doesrtjump tothe eye thats. and Frm total st bu they do—and it does jump to the eye that on of, y and =i supertues butt ‘nue: One way to become convinced of tai ist verify that, 1 1 t Leto md tes on. ‘Once thats granted, oat does jmp 10 the ee: since every vector in tear ? i linear combination of 1,0) and (01), follows that every vector In isa linear combination of, y, ands. AS for superfine 1, aoe fe 5y422=0, a1% eam Lc PROBLEM BOOK i tows = peti” ee t= ia comnion cee ea fy Be Sn of come. ao apn rion e's cand ae fm 2.2, wha et ‘re way Zann he cape degen on anes sen iste cil cond an sts hase eer cmp ele dep Se Nomar wit yd a nage publ wd Sens SPS ans ya tnt ar sown coms Cj Shane 2 md = T's vl ten, td ea Son 00 ay le view oa he ‘She ann: sed oan Si er of western Wh ht eld he nnd ep xe opie el ein ne et fv tc caled pendent aly he ma expe ent dependent ST same ne tc ote aes eo fe sch geod ne i tela yo di aunt Ont =. ample no mater wa ws thee 0,2} depend. Reson boso-t=0.(te: he clr ofits ad al heya nota Zero) A vil example o depen sts he costing ofthe ee (alone Reson: 1-0- 0 Here va mote early tpl expe: if ae lew airy vos, the nt (2,99) dependent Reson dently (D) tes) Sil ante: if ya re arbiary wes, the thes feurtune) ie dependent, Rasen Lertlyt (dts) +0-ub0-0 “This lst exampl ost hl a east one eset dependence ees ‘hewn ality does djing extn wets dei change the proper: ‘etl tha penn set tll dependent. leis nal easy ena of dependence nthe cones eto space Rs ifr and yar any to vere nha pce ht is any 90 el ume), then the set (ya) i dependent. Reson: bath andy a8 tease In tiv a east one of them cifeet fo 0 hen pr (2) a ‘nontrivial Hacer comnbieation deat vanes, vwrcrors 5 “The concep of dependence was introduced ia dicusion of “ie peruous” vectors in toa set Does the sume connttion Between de- pendence and supertity holdin genera? Problem31._Ifavecir 20 inear combination of (25...) les i flow ht the set 42.) dependent? If com wc afte se 29,24.) oF os edged, doe i {follow tata easton of thems linear combination of he ther? 32. Independence Iisa nomzor vector, then the ony linea combination ofthe set (2) that an vanish sth al one—or in plain Eglh the only me a an bee when a = 0. nother words, with one exertion the siglton (2) ‘Bot dependent nthe vector space R? iz = (1,0) andy = (1), hen the ony near ‘combination ofthe st (x that cn vanish isthe trl one thal is the tony tne 2+ yeanbe 270s when a = B= 0. Inoter words the pair {as sot dependent, ‘General definition: a set hati not dependents ale Independent (sua inary independent). ‘Dependence and indepeadeac are peopertes of sts (f vector) bet ost people indi comforable speak le ool nd apy the jest tovecor Instead of peaking ofan “independents [ecto ‘thy speak of [ast of "independent vectors. The sgl ess sharp usage Isn't ealy dangerous. iisoften convenient to extend the use ofthe linguage to two extreme aes, very large sets an very sales, Very gest, Very smal empy. An infinite sti called independent if every ite suse of iis in ‘pendent, Etampe the moaomals 2,2, form annie inde- pendent et nF. Remon: the nly tine a linear combination o powers is th zero popomial is when every eneicent er. (Tis bythe way, is ‘ota statement about the algebra of plots merely «reminder ‘ot what "eo polysomil” means contexts suchas this) sth empty set dependent or independent? The question snot in. ‘wns portant, butt would be fcomvenieat to proceed without ex- mining The pot sha he empy st quite ely occur in the mille of deduction (ben fr astance the intersection of to ete has tobe formed) and it woul be anvardto have to keep making cave die 2‘The bast way (he oly conics wy?) answer questions abut te cone st (ucts of racaussmplcation”) sw ask bow thy can be fate The present gustion ih i lines ombnaton oF ee emp se 1 oes it fellow tht every coer be 0? How could at be ale? Iti fae only if some non altar cambaton of the empy ts tout bane he vale 0 Ts hata Woes combination sae meas (hart hea at oe excita rom Oar that cana pp, Reston: there ae coefficients tall, and eee npr, the i 0 Coeficiente fm 0 Conlon the aerion Wat the mpy ei independcat cannot be fae, A consistent we of language demands ht he Sey set be dvd independ. Nov, byte way hat hs eons iin barony withthe sen eer sbet ofa depend Sts independent “independent” i the accepted iid way wo sa of «St of wets tha it hat no “eperaoe” elements Am indesdettl set ina vec space V icles of V. Epes: if any real mmber diferent fom 0, ten (2) ia bass for if = (40) and y(t) shen (oy) in hai fr BP, and os (2 ~ ye moni oii ss fr Phe mono Dis the vector ce © (coming of te vet 0 on) hve x bass? Since he ny poe cet 0 and se st (0) {rye it asi he anor mat hats wrong Te ser SS yest oe docs havea ant teeny nd he erty feline an pcos. This soo ig ks Sag 08 fst encour bu W's nyt eed 1, bd works Sonate thing wrong ter tele ings. Do wee sacs ays ave bs? That's sig ic ue cyte cies fre geal sneer ae realy ast Fo Fnte densa ctr space, weve te ol amy sve we a sna Problem 32. Docs evry fie-dimensional vector apace have @ ne basis? BASES 233, Hchanging bases ‘The most useful questions shout otal set, ann patel, about bases, srenotsomchbow tomake them, bt how tochange them, Which vector, ‘ean be used to replace some element of prescribed ttl set and hve remain oa? Which ses of vectors can be ed to replace some suet of a presried total se and have itremain otal? What estiction imposed bythe relation between the preserved stand the prescribed tl yet? ‘Problem 33. Under what condition on 0 ttl eT of «vector space Vand a fie sist of doe thee ube F of such hat (FF) UR toa for? Does that sound antard? Ines sited language the question this ‘under what conditions ean oe replace apart foal set by preseibed setithout unig totaly? Comment. ‘The way he problem stated the snaver abe juttake F = 8, Consequence it necesar to think about the pratem before boning to sole it Under what codons on F apd End F docs the ‘gestion make good sense? 34, Simultancous complements Mins subspace ofa vector space V, complement of M was defined in Problem 28 8a subspace N of V such tht MN = {0} and M +N = 'V. (Recall that M+ N denotes the set of all vectors of the fovn ec 336 a” rn Lanean ALGER PROBLENEBOOK with x © Mandy € Nor which fr subypaces comes othe same thing, Fr denotes the span ofthe st M UN) Keay fra subepce to ave Inor than ae complement ort pu the same hing another wa, ts sy forever subspaces to havea simitaneoo” complement, mean ‘complement in common, I easy enough, but that doesn't mean that itatmays happens Sample question (wb wil eause even the exerts think fora nanosecond) two subspaces ae complement can hey have ‘simultaneous complement” Must they always have one? Problem34, Under what condon doe fine colton of mab ‘paces fie dimensonalectorspacehaseasmuaneous con plement? 35. Examples of independence Linear independence sone of the mos important concepts oftineralge- bra. A good way to acquire itn one's bloodstream it ook at many ex- ‘ples, and ti problem, and several of the ones that follow ar intended to provide some practi inthe use af the concept. Most such problems ‘quire very te thoght-— jut a ite work wil sve them Problem 35. (3) Forwhishrel numbers zie hat the ets andar ine depenontin the etorspace Rofrealmumbers (verte fd Q of rational mbes)? (@) Under what conditions onthe scalar € are the vectors (16.16) and (1 G1 +) i? over e feldQ of rational ruben) nea depends? 136, Independence over R and Q Problem 615th subset of thas independent over but dependent over 8? 37. Independence in C? Problem. (9) Underwhat conditions on he scalars and are the vectors (a) and (1,8) C? lina independent? 10) i there ast of thee linearly independent vectors in C*? sts a 38, Vectors common to different bases 38 Problem 3. (3) Do ther exit eo basen suck thatthe ont eco common to ther are (0,0 1,3) and (1, 1,0.071, (©) Do there ext vo baesin that ae no vec incom ‘mon so that on ofthc the eto (100,0)and (0.0) ‘and thecher one conus the vectors (1,10) and (11,1. 39. Bases in C? ” Problem. (a) Under what condition on he lar xo thee tor (1,11) and (8°) forma basi of ©? (0) Underatcondionsonhescalar do the vectors (0,2) (2.0.1}and (2,151 42) forma baa of CP 40. Maximal independent sets o Problem 0.17% ls th set contig ofthe is et in BS, (41.00), 4.0.0, 0,002) 0.1.40, (040.0, (0,12) dd threes so diferent masa inca independent subset of * (A maximal inary independent subst of X82 subset Y of X that ‘becomes inary dependent everytime that vector of X thats ot alteady inYisagjoinedto ¥) 41. Complex as reat a ‘A vector space not only ast of vest it 2 set of vectors together it coefficient fel that acts. it follows that one and the same set ‘ofvectorscanwellbesvectorspacelnseveral diferent wy depending on what saa are amie, So, fr insane, the et Cf complex numbers ‘sa vecior space oer the fd C, but that's at especial shelling what is ‘mote interesting that Cisavector space ver he field Rf eal mmbers us fog that maltpication by nor teal scales posible. The folowing ‘question isa generalization of the one just hited at.a ‘UINeARALGERRA PROBL B00K Problem 1. Ese comple vector space Visine asoited ith eal versace VS he space Vis obtained rom V by refi omy vectors it Vantin other han el scalars. Ifthe dimension of he complex vector space V what the d- meron ofthe eal vectrspace V? 42, Subspaces of full dimension Problem 42. Con. proper subspace of fite-dmensonal vector {ace have the same dimension athe whole space? 48. Extended bases ‘Wich vectors ae ito Belong toa basis of vector pace? The vector Dis os thatthe only excepcon? Which sets of vectors ae ft to be ubets Of base? A dependent se snot thatthe only exception? ‘Consider Special example. The vectors = (40,00), = 01,0,0, 21= (001.0) 4 (000.2) form a ass for C*—that say Suppose, however, tht for ome applisa- tina dilercat bass ieneeded, one tha contains the vectors w= (440) 9=0,23,0) lather such basis? What ican tochecksthat wand ware independent, so that they might be ito Be part of bai, bat the quason & Whether Independence by itelfsa scien condition. Problem 43. Can every (fine) independent ser in fine dimensional vector space be extended ta bats? ases * 44 Finite-dimensional subspaces In Problem 30th queston arose whether every unepce ofa rit: ‘mensonal vector space fite-dimensional butt was notansered thee Nom tht the technique of making independent sts geri at hand, ha ‘oes cn beraied with more peat. Problem 4 sever sbspece of fire dimensional ctr pace fiecimersional? 45, Minimal total sets ‘oa setsare"Targe”insome rough sense, ann particular, itis obviously trv that fs set tal, the ay larger set acces toa a0, Tis ‘vious remark cl atenton fo the fac tat sometins is possble to ‘omit some ofthe elements ffl seta til end up with 3 otal et ‘When tht sot posible, it atual cal the total set maimal Some total eis ae minal and some fr example bases) ar independent. s {ete an implication lation betwen hese two posible ropes foal set ether way? Problem 45. [sy minimal tlt indopendet? is every inde ‘ponent otal et misnal? 46, Existence of minimal total sets Minimal total es ei al right (any bass soe) but Now es re they ‘to come yn prescribed costes? Problem 4, Does ee tale hae minimal tl suber? 47. Infinitely total sets ‘Do there eit total sts tat remain total when ay one oftheir elements ‘is icarde, but coe bring toa i an spropitly chosen et of 0 ements fe dared? Caution: the question abou se ot sequencer, {uplaton of lemens nt appropiate hs conte for instance, ‘Vis 8 2dimensona vector space, and {2,9} isa bass for V, then the “set (oe, yuy snot an acceptable anover A sll modification ofthis unaccepibleconstraton does, bowever sedan answer, nel the set {22029} (povided that the underyng sel eld doe ot have cat- ‘cteritc 2) An obvious extension ofthe technique gives fr each postive a“ ENEAR ALGEBRA PRORLEM HOOK integer a total st that remains otal when an nf is elements ae d= ‘ated, bt ceases being total if an appropriately chosen set of n+ el ‘ements is discarded It even posible fr sett he ffi total in "he sense that it remains otal when any nie subset of ti dacarded. A sci example fora -dimensioal vector pace with bl (sy) oer Ry say. iethesel feyn 28.29 82,89.03) In this example even infinite omissions cane allowed, they are crefaly made, Ievery ter after theseond ones omitted (ats being very care fu) the etl ota bo fal the tems in even positions are omited| {ot cael enough) the remainder nt ol. Ith ery special ae, ‘rare its properties shared yall ify al sets? Problem 47. Does vey nine let have an infinite subset such thatthe ela complemen ~ Bisa? 48, Relatively independent sets Every set fn +1 vectors in an mensional vector pace i dependent eis howeer, teal ond thee vectors iB? such Gat no too hem ate dependent (or, in geometric language, sch that no two of them are linea with he oii), and it seul trvl oid four vectors ia > Sch that no thee of them are coplanar With the eign, an, generally, ‘easy to find n +1 vectors in R™ suc that every m ofthe constite an independent st 1s temporarily conteniet to calla subst of ‘sts hs propel elaiely independent, the property Being ht every ‘ectorsia are independent. relatively independent set R™ can hive se L¥ectos can the number n+ 1 be improwe? Problem 48, Whats he lane possible number of vectors i reid independnt sabe of 2 49. Number of bases ina finite vector space Properties ofthe coefficient field of vector space obviously have an elect ‘on the ner slgsbra properties of the pc. Finite fel re especialy Inportat in some appiatons andthe sabjet aa whol not propery ‘ndersto without teas ile sight ito how he work "The test knowa examples off elds are the one ofthe form 2, ‘thatthe integers modulo p where pis a prime, These examples are 0 ses “ the only ones see Problem 19, Granted that they es linear algebra ca ‘be wed 0 prove lite theorem about them, namely hat he mumber ‘of elements is anys a power of prime. The necessary ons om Hed theory are these nite eld must have pine ehaacerisi eer eld of ‘haracteristiephasa ued nomorphicto Zev elisa vector space ‘ver any sbfld (These statement ong tthe par of eld theo hat Fright next he definitions: they ar eas to prove) An aional ol thatisneededis om near algebra and wie dead ter the proot ‘ofthe “tle theorem” willbe postponed til then. tis tre that if ia power of prime then there dos indeed exis, 1 cl with elements (and, to wihin a change of notation, here on fone sich Held) the ase @ ‘ype Apical vector spc over a eld F mith low many Yectrs doe that vector space contin? The answer ig” and tharseay: The following considerably rier counting question aks not forthe number of elaments but or the aumber of subsets ofa certain Kind Problem $9. IF field wih eements how mary bass are therein? 50. Direct sums “The Euclidean pane can be viewed asthe result of a costution that starts from tro ine (the aus and the yas) and pts them together to foum anew vector space. That constuction an instance ofa general one ‘ter instances of ocertrooghout linear algebra (o, frat mater, throughout mathemati). ITU and V are vector spaces, then thelr aie sum, deooed by vev {nthe et of al ordre pai), with x aU and yin V, and with vector ‘dion an scalar mutilation defined by the natal equations (eum) + (ene) = (a tran tH) and (2,9) = (22.0). ‘The yectrs 2 (in U) andy (in V) are elle the eamedinates of (2) (in UG) Iota langgs the definons jst described canbe expesed ‘bysayng that the linear perationsin Us V ate cefined cordate, It ut of ours, be checked tht the definition are Comet, meaning ttEn “ [UNEARALOEBEA PRONLEN.BOOK. they do indeed define a vector space. That check spines and requires new ectnigue i nodferent fom the roo hat ia fel, hen F¥iravector space. That familar assertion Infact aspecal eas of what ‘snow being aseted nthe present language Fs the diet sum of snd 1 UandV are wel-bchaved vector spaces how well-behaved is USV? Problem 50. 1fUand V are firitesimensional vector spaces, of dimensions n and m respecte whais the dimension of VE Reminder. The dimension of (ite simensiona) veer space was ‘efned in Soation 33 athe mumber of elements ina basis of med ‘stl ftr dhe statement tha abuses hae the same number of elements. 51. Quotient spaces WM isa subspace of veto space V then there are, usualy, many sub spaces such that MaN=0 and Maney, other words M can have many complements and there 30 aat- tural way of choosing one fom among them. There, however, atral ‘consroton tht ascites with Mand V new vector space that plays, forall practic! purpons, the vale of «complement of M The theort cal advantage tht the construction has over the formation ofan abieary Complement ide ispecely ite natura” character, hati tds not ‘epend on choosing basis or, for that mate, on choosing anything al. "To understand the comrution ii god idea to Rep a pitre in sind, Suppor, for inane, that V = R! apd that M coe al hose ‘ectos (1,72) or which 2y =O (he horizontal ax). Each complement ‘tM saline (oter than the boraona ai) through he origin. Observe ‘hat each such complement has the property that it intersects very hoe ‘apna nein exact one pont. The idea of the constuction to be de serbed now sto mk a vetor pace ut ofthe st fal orzo ies, Begin back in the general ese by sing Mt ingle out certain sab- sets of V- zis an arbitrary ecto in Vth Se2+ M consisting of al the ‘ectorsofthe form + with yinM scaled coset of, andes iat [te the ones that are of interest ow. As forthe notation: Ks consistent ith that used before for vector sums (0 Problem 28), In the ese of the ‘lnetne example, the cosets ar the hoizoatal nes, Note that one 3nd fhe same coset ca ase from many diferent vectors tis quite pose that 2 4M = y + Mleven when +9 Ttmakes good sens, just the sme, tospeak of cost, 89K, of M, without peifing which clement (re ements) K comes from: 15a that Ka cove (of M) means spy hat theres at least one uch hat == +. TEM and K are cosets (tM), the vector sum H+ Kis alo a coset of Minded it and then eer clement of + X belong tthe covet (2+) + M (ote that M+ M-=M), and, comersely, every clement of (2+) + Misia +3 (Gb forinsance, x sin then (x+y) -+2 = (2-42) +(y40)) nother words, BeK=(e49)+M, so that H+ Kis acoset as asserted eis easy to verify that coset ation commutative and associative. ‘The coset M (that 0-+ isso that, K+Mak forever coset K and, moreover Ms the oly eset with hi property. (I (e2M)r(y+M) 2M, then +Meonai s+ y,s0thatsry 2 for some win Mths inp that ys in M, and Neoe that y + M = Mt) UK isa cone, then the set consitng fall te vets —u with vin Isla cont which is denoted by ‘The covet ~X issuch that K+ (-K) = Mand, moreover, Kis th oly ‘ost with his property. Tou up: with the operation of eto um the ‘ost of M forma sbelin group. THK is a coset and if nonzero scalar, wea K fo the set, ‘consti fl the vectors within the ost O- is defied to be MA simple verifeation shows tit with salar muipistion so defined the coset of formavector space. Thisvector spac ical the quote spece of V modulo M; tis denoted by VM,“ LUN ALGEBRA PROMLENL BOOK “The quotient pace V/M cole ben defined diferent. Accord ing to an aleratve dfaition, he elements of V/M are the same the ‘ements (eco) of V, but the concept of equality is redetned: ro ee formar to eregarded asthe same ie ile from one anther nly by.2 {stor inM. moter mordy andy are vector in Va tha = y Bo ‘lo M, ex pronounced a “> congreent oy modulo Mand perhaps ‘more bones witen as 2=y (ood M) when sy € M.Thisalteratie formulations tended tobe reminiscent ‘ofthe dissin of plynomias modulo (the lips of fied polyno rial (Se Solution 19), There are two approaches othe study of "quo- tien: none tbe new element are sets with the necessary operation, such as ation, suitably defined and inthe other the new element are the tame athe old one, ds ate the operations but quality suitably re-defined The cose approach could have beea used in Solution 19 and the congruence approach could hve been wed in the definition of quo- tient paces—and in what oom the ter wilin fc be wed whenever itseerscomenient to 020 "There are thee constructions that are wlversl inthe sens that hey ‘ecu in every ind of mathematical structure andar important when: ther thy dour they are usual refered to by expressions sch sabe fractures rect sum structures ad quaint trucare. Such coasts tion appear in prt, n group theo, andin topology, ad, of eourse, intinear algebra tis good idea to acquire some fc n handing them, dia the particular case of aca algebra, the most obvious questions concer dimensions, Problem SL. (2) 5 thee an example of @ vector pace V and a subspace M such ha neither Mor VMs fie dresonal? (0) I the an expe of vector space Vand subspaces M and such that VMs fte-dimensonal but V/N isn? Comment. ‘The quent langage and the quotient notation (¥/M) ‘ight strike some people as inapprpriate—shoulnt the language and {he notation indeate bration rather than dvsn? Yes ado. n-may ‘arts of mathematics sts farted pas (such aba det sum UV), ‘called Cartesian products and in Sch cases itis aturl took tthe reverse as. Kind of cvs, The rouble i that dierent pars of near ‘gebra come, stray rom diferent sources, and the terminological ‘lah is unchangeable by now I's not hard to learn olive with i masts ° 452, Dimension of a quotient space Problem $2._If Vi an nimensional vector space and M i at smaimensiona subspace, what the dimension of VM 53, Adaitivity of dimension Mand Ware subsets of set, there 2 natural third set aso with ‘them, nanel thei uson, MUN. Mand are ite and ifeard (orca ‘inal aumter) is wed wo denote “the number of elements ins then sme cardIMUN) =cardM + card More pecs, the equation tue when Mand Nae doit (MON = 2). they ar not join then height side counts the elements commen {oD and tice, and he equation ae. EM and are subspaces ofa vector spac, there is atu hid subepaceasociated with them, aumely her apan M+ NH Mand ae finite dimensional then sometines (MN) = dia + i “More precisely he equation sre when M and N ae doit (which means that MN = O); otherwise ae, What aay tae? Problem SS. Mand Nae fie dinensiona subspace of avec tor space, what relation, if any abeys rac among the menbers linda, diiQ+ Nand dit MAN)? Teinolgcal caution. Fo sibspaces “soit” means that tel nter- ‘ection sO, nat 2. Since the zero vector belongs fo every subspace, the laters impesibe‘curren 4 TRANSFORMATIONS ‘54, Linear transformations ere is where the action tarts. now the vectors ina vector space ust sat thee; the ation begins when they moe, when they change into other ‘ctor A pial example ofa change cam be sen in he vector space Ps (@lpolmonialsof degree les than or equal 05) replace each polynomial lyre derive Dp. ‘What visible here? Ifp(2) = Band p=) = 52% then Dye) 2 and Dyas) ~ 103; Moreover isthe sum +P a) = 32+50, then Dafa) = 3410. ‘Thissimpe property of diferenition from the present plat of ew its sot important one: the deiaie of um she sum ofthe derivatives, ‘Analmost eqaly important propery stated by Ditala)) = 70s for axy potyomil pan for any salar a word the deviate of scalar itp the same salar multiple of the derivative2 LINEAR ALGER PROBLEN BOOK “Thee wo fears ofthe change tha dieentton eects canbe scribed ty stone statement whether you form ines embiton first and then change, o change is and ihn orm he sme linea cow ination—the result willbe the same. Thats what makes dilerntation| importnt in inear agers the property i describd by saying that Dis linear taneormation ere another example: conider the vector space Rand tech ac vector (24,2) by a factor of 7. Let be the symbol fr thisstech, So that S changes (10,2) (clit) ito (0,16) (= Su), abd § changes (6,-1.5) (clit) in (21,7, 85) (= 0), and, general, Ste,5.2)= (05,7078, Look at scar combination suchas which sequal to (6.0.6)-@,-2,19) and therefore to (3.2.0, snd the stretch get (-21,14,-29, ‘ter posbiliy:stretch wand v separately and then form the linear com ination o get 35020 = (2, (2) ~ (42, -14,70) = (-21 14,28) —the same fal ane Tork every me. Gten to vectors of, for that mater, any ite umber) ify form ines combination of them an then stretch, o You seth Gach veto fs and then form the seme near combiaton, {he results awa be the same, ad, fo that asa, the at of tech ing i called alnear transformation (Symbols such as So and $1, 0,2) are pronounced the way we are all taught when we lear the language of funcions: they are“S af "and “8 of (1,02) reaisronnaTions s ‘To understand a mathematical phenomenon it i esemtia o see Sv ral places where it oscurs and several where it Joes not. In acordance ‘i tht pine what flows pow i desertion of each of ie trans formations ("anges") ona vector space; some ofthe arena trae formations and sone of them arent. (1) The vector space sR the ransormaton T changes each vector by interchanging its coordinates Tey)= (v2) (2) Thevectorspice ie the transformation T repacescach oordinate by its square: Pew) = (ev) (@) Thevector space the transformation T replaces each oondinate by is exponcat: Tian) = (ee) (4 The vector space isP the transformation T integrates: [roe (6) Thevector spaces R the transformation T replaces cach cooeinate tyr certain specifies combination of the wo cordinats To) Te) ‘The resol is tht (1), (amd (8) define near transformations and (2) nd (3) donot The vercation fr (1 and (5) es. In each we, {replace (2) by an abiay Vinca combination (+ 3y,T2 59). x(san) Hoatease pplyT, and compare the est wth the esl f dong things nthe ober ltd, (Is “other order” clear? Tt means apply T to each of (21) ad (ana) and then form the iar combinatin) In oer words, the ver ‘cation consist of applying the very dfntion of linear transformation, and that yee what wanted. The tat of 0) depends on known facts ‘shout integration: the integra of asus the sumo the integra, nd the integral of cla mip is the scala mull ofthe integral. ‘As for 2 eventing goes wrong. fit wer tre tht orpereePy ‘eae ALGEBRA FRORLEN BOOK forall real aumbers # an (an ident that a ew begining students of mathematic are fact tempted wo believe), then woud flow that te transformation Tstisiesone of the ncesary conditions or being ies. ‘Namely would thea Be re that (e+ 27+ and hence that (ltsut+w T\(essm) + (oa) = Tar) +7200 But even fthat were ight calar multiples would stil misbehave For in- «eatiy ts necessary that Tar, ay) shoud equal a (2,9) bt nd aay) = (2? 9?) = (024,09, and except inthe rate cues when = a the to right sides of these ‘equation ate nt eager tobe the same. ‘Warning this argument would be regarded with cisapproralby many profesional mathematcim. The trouble tht the argument docs not Prove that T also bes nea rarnformation it jst points ou thatthe atural way to uy to prove that isa iearansfrmation doesn suc ‘eed. The only convincing way to prove that T doesnot ais the en tity that nea request exitit xpi with conree sealers and ‘eons inear combination hat does at coopeate wth. Tha’ cay enough od: for instance, (cy) = (1,1) and a= then Tazo) = 2) arts. a0 ‘The negative aston tat the transformation described in (3) nota linear transformation eter i proved nila. An expt coun tereeampl given by (2.9) = (0,0) anda = 2: in hat case e221 laz,0y) = 10,0) = (15) ond arte.y) (4.1) = 2,2) Problem SA. (a) Which ofthe lowing the defn of aro formaions on R? give near asormation? (The equations ae ended wo hol forarbiray rea scalars 3, 6) (TE) = (oe + 76-46. QTE) = oe + Bahn +6 OTE) = ohe + Hn e+ Pn (©) Which of he folowing tee defintions of vansfomatons ‘on ive naransfrmatons? (Te equation areinended hold foray pobnomias 3) (Tota) = wh ‘55, Domain and range Integration o the vector pace Pisa perfect goo near ansormaton (Gee Problem 5) but the sume equation 290)= [ x0 sth oe that worked there des not work onthe pace athe rouble is that he die ofthe polynomial hat ges maybe too large. Right? forinsance, (2) = 2 then Diferentiation onthe vector spac Ps might seem to run into sitar twoublo—it loners degrees instead of rising them bt ofc hee is ‘othing wrong witht Sure, is tre that D applied to a polynomial of degre let than or equa o 8 always ile polyorsilfdegee less ‘han or equa to 4 bt isles than 5 and vets ia Py layin, ‘These two examples prepare the rout fr «small but wef gener alization ofthe concept of ner transformation and frit oducing two Sporn constr sci wth ach Ine transformation. The gen craton to transformation (= change, foction, mapping. map op- ator, et) that changes each vector vin one vector space ito a vetor ‘Toina possibly ferent yetr space and doesit in such vay that it eo- ‘operates wih inca combinations. The technical woes "ammts" ‘means ofcourse, tht the result of forming ie combination a then ‘tasforming i aways these as the esl of transforming st and then6 UNEAR ALGEBRA PROBLEM BOOK forming the nar combination. Symbol Tlaw +4) = aTu+ 8T, sample: fT isthe integration defined bythe equation (+) above, hen {Tis liner tarformaton trom Ps to Fy (here the meaning of Fe surely guesses the vector space of al real polyols of degree ot more tha 6). The same equition can alio be repre a dein linear wansformaton from Fe to , and any others in similar conte, ‘A linea tansformaton from a vector space Vt isl is called inca transformation on V thas the Kin tha was introduced in Probe 38, “The st of vectors where a inca wansformaton sari called the hoon of, ad the set of vectors that renal fom appbing T them is tale he range fT the abbreitions dom? and ran se quite commonly seceped So, for example, i is ferentiation on ashen GomT = 75 and san £7 ie cierntiation fom P10 hen ako dom = Py andranT = Py ‘Some confsion i posible here and shoskdbe avoided. Ietgraton canbe ‘oteidered to defines Inearransformation fom P10 Py of a Pst PrortromPs toPips;ineachol these cases the domain sP, andthe range in part of P(Which par? The question deserves moment thought) ‘The vector space that follows the speciation “o” pays mech smaller rol than th range, subsidiary roe and it doesnot hae commonly “sesepted name; the word “adomain”isometnes Sed fo Important observation: the domain fica anformation always a vector space ands he one Tinea 01 the only wsefl inca trasformation from one ves= tor space toa diferent one The change of variables example in Problem s Te) = He"). canbe regarded a tinear transformation on, erate, the same ‘yuston ean be sed to define ines transformation fom Ps 0, Right? ipl) = rhsthen ple) — 2. Sirlythe mlpiation xa in Problem fa), -maansronsaTIons s ‘canbe eparde liner transformation oF, or alternates he sme ‘equation canbe used 10 define nea tansormation fom Bs 0 Py wa) =24,thea Tle) = 24) "The domains and ranges ofthe ines transformations gens ex ‘les in Problem 5 arena cul to find. Challenge: cheek tt fr the "tretchig example on 8 oth the domain ad the range are eualto RS, tnd forthe interchange example (1) inthe discussion of Problem $4) ond forthe linear combination ensmple (Sin he discusion of Problem 54), ‘both the domain and the ange are egul 1 ‘When tying to understand domsins and ranges for linear transforms sions between pss diferent ecor spaces it poo den ota a Teast few now examples. The problems that flow deseribe ome. Problem. (1)TheserRoflleal mumbersisa real ctor space, which nth capaci is denoted by R The sn of 0 el ma ‘rsx andy comidered a weer us thoy sum bined Uarconaideing te es the al umber they ar and ding thar ‘the matipl of "ect" (real mbar) bya “scalar” (rel marr) {jst the produc obtained by forming the product of he wo real ‘umber The equation Fey=2+ty keine finer anfomation from R? wo. This example is @ special cate of a bnpontant la of Ener ansformaton (ar arsjormation rom any al ctor space othe special tor ‘pece Reale a Wace netlonal on V. (The we of on her Ing colton with se explained befor ut has Bfe—wth {hike care confusion can be avoided) What are the domain and {he mange ofthe particular Ener factional here defined? What eer a esa abo the rang of inca functional? (2) Does he equation Tre) = Wie +2) jin near ansormation ram BoP? If, wha ar is ‘domain and ts range? (0) Does he qustion T\e.m2) = (0) djinea near ranformaion fom 3°19? 0, What are its do- ‘nin and ts range?s Even ALGEBRA PROBLEM BOOK (Does te uation Tews) define ater ransformation from 102? fs, what ares do- main and range? (S)LetR be thet ofallpositve real uenbers andy tomake leit areal vector space To do that, incest define an a lion’ foray pine rel mambo and define the “ear mule” fey poate real umber by an arbi (ne neces ost) el mumber In yng do that woul dangerous os ‘he ordinary bole foreddtion and mulplaton tha a con [fusion ex. To vod tha conion, the sum about ob define wll Iedented by (2) and th produc by (and he ta defiions reas follow and tare positive rel number, then (+2943) that th new sof sand te pain ol roduc of and), land fois pote real umber and = a arbiouy rel number then =Bs (iat the new prac of «by = «10 the power in he wu sense: This is a weed procedure, but i works actualy defines @ ‘real vector space. Does the equation (0) =e fine tinerfnctonln that eco space? fs, whats sarge? Cation: what doe og meardoe # mean iy Fle oF toes? 56, Kernel “Thereisareal number and never vector space) theresa vector and rconfiaton wll ever arse between the number andthe vetr onthe ‘are osasons enone threatens, few cautionary word wl dispel. ‘The symbol has more thas ust wo ses in mathematics, and even in linear algebra; ere, for stance, a thir Corer ay two vector Haces ‘Vand Wand define a tnsformtion 7 from ¥ to W by wring Te=0 assronnaTions * forallvinV. Since the description of 7 warned that ts range willbe in W, tis cea thatthe smb 0 te right sd of this equation mest stand forthe ato vector in W. Is ines transformation? Sure—cobviowty Form all te lnear combinations you ie Vand then apply 7 thee Since 7 sends everything on W the res obtained by appying T fist ‘forming nar combination ter wl alvay be 0. Tats fine: ‘lau 90) Isindeed the same sx ater pre because Tou + Be) is Dand au + 80-0 +8 which ao 0 “This very special linear transformation (dat canbe wed between ay vo sector paces) is speci name, namely 0, Linguist interrption 7a linear transformation and va vector ‘nth domain of, the corresponding vector in the range often called the image of orth transform os, under the ston of (Caton here “aafor” i the right word, not tansormatiog”) So: the er near ‘eansformation fom V 10 W ithe one tht mape (= sends) every vector 1 f00, oF in other wordt she one for which every vector in V asthe same image, namely 0. “Zero plays an important role in near algebra So, fo stance, every Uincartransformtio sends 0 to 0 (A precise prot ofthat comment is ny but it belongs othe alsin tomatic ofthe abject, whic be treated ner) There ould perfec wee many other vectors ifr: et rm tht ines ranormatio T sends 100 alo. The collection (Ge) ofl thwe vectors pes vital information about 7: i scaled the Nemnel of, abbreviated ter, Fora ist example, cosier the zero transformation from, sa, R10 1? what sts eel? In other words wha fhe set al vector ia thatthe waeformatonDsends tothe vetorOinR? Answer Osendeevery vectorin 8 1 Rs the kere of ithe whole space RS (Consider eat teins ransormation Ton Py defined ty tp=P focally. lit eal a near tansormaton?Sure~thats very easy. What initskernr? tn sher word whats the se of al polypomi in Py whove image under thi isthe 2x0 polyoma? Answer T can send mo ply ‘nomial t0 0, except only the polynomial 0 the kernel ofthis Tis the set@ LINEAR ALGEBRA PROMLEM BOOK. consti ofthe polynomial 0 only The cautious notation fr that set is {0}, The braces are needed it importan o realize and 19 emphasize thatthe keel of near transformation sala ase The set might 1 ‘sure const of jut oe objec, but its ast just the same, (Analogy: 8 sox wih jot one Bain itso the same as at.) Dy the way the eqution Tp ~ p defines linear transformation on very vector spice, bd tha linear ransformation an important one wih {posal name, (Reval that "on"in his costa desribesa linear rans ‘lon fromthe given vector space ote same space) Its alway called the Ment transformation, batts ac always dened by the sae y= ol. Some peopl eli (othat the number “one and the deni transformation have the same ‘symbol, tere we the letter, rd stil eter indicate the vector space Under consideration by wing the sab. I this book the st of these ots the nomericalsybel, ithe oe that willbe sed most ofthe time; "7" wil be wed when tat practice threaten to lea to conison Problem $6. Wht ae the ere ofthe linear rosfermations semed bow? (1) The near raafrmationT dfn by neat for te)= [noe ‘fom Foto (@) The linear ransfomatonD of ietiation on Py (0) The tina ansfornaton Ton R define by Tew) see eagle (9 Froblem 48, (U) The tnerranformatonT fom P10 Pia defined by the change of ails +34, 78— Toe) = le separ (4 of Prolem 4. (6) Meter ransormation Ton defined by T(s,0) = (2,0). _mansroRNATIONS a (6) The tinea arsformation F from R? 10 R defn by Fly) =24m%, see pat (of Problem 7. Composition Diferenistion (denoted by D) is esr tansfrmation onthe vector space F of al plypomil, nds isthe wansformation Mt (mutipetion by the vada) defined by Mp) = at). ‘What happensto a polynomial both hoe tresformtions tet 0none| after anther? Suppose 0 be speci, that D seas 109, =D and then M sends gto, Ma=r: what canbe a about the pase from tor? Write r=, js to see what happens in speci example, ety) be 2a sete Inthat case oe) = 5485, and therefore Suppose now thatthe same tia it done not for one p but for two, and then a lisar combination formed, so that thereat ok ike aT pe) + asta) ‘Whatithetinearcombination badbeen formed before the two-step tans Formation 7 Would heres, (Tiesp: + en02))(2)be the same? Inotherwords, i alocr transformation I'itear tat the anower mist be yor? T say hat Di near means hat D dsribates| ‘over vector sdition and salar mulipliation—ehat tat D comers a Tncar combination of vectors ito the sme near combination oftheir D images. If ie allowed to act on the linat combination obtained, then the near of Mf means hat A dstaBues over tat that M ‘otnertsitint the ste linear combination ofthe AY images the veto that enter. These wo sentences together sy that estbates oer linear ‘combinations of, noi language, that Ts ines "The reusning jut decribed i quite general it proves thatthe _onaposton of tw near transformations ica ransformation. The concept of compostion 0 intoduced is just soften called product. The ‘cia dition ert tat: Sand Tae linear transformations on the same vector space, then the composition of and, deaoted by st, {sth ransormaton tht sends each eto in the space to the vector ‘bine by apphing Tt and then apn St the res ‘Cation: th ode of evens important What Wald have happened tothe polynomial 2+ 22-42? ithad Been multiplied by >it and then ‘iernited? Anower the matiphiation would have produced aes ast, and then the diferentaton woud have produced seria, hich sot tal he sme asthe sete? btn before nother wor: MD 4 DM. For diferent enlpheniog example, consider the multiplication transformation WN defined oa Py ple) = (1 See Inthat case N+ 824404) = (1302+ 32 +424) 23220? 92924 _TeascromaTIONS « andthe rest of applying Ato thats 4323-209 ~ 994 — 124 On the ther hand M2498 +452) = 20-43? 40, andthe resto ping to that i (0=32)20 + 302 +423) = 20-436? 20904 — 28 the same tia, Thi coud have been obvious without ay auton: ‘the fist result was obtained by two multiplications (1~ followed by 2), 38 was the second (2 followed by 1 32". Sine the order in which Imulipeaons are performed does mater, en sarprie hat aM = NM. ‘The result described by saying thatthe fines transformations AF and N commute (or they are commatatv). The example of M and D ‘hows that linear transformations may fall to commute—they may be ‘Can tasformation muliplication be defined for near transfor. ‘mations that go fom one vector space 10 iferent one? Yes sometimes IV an V are vector spaces, abdif isa liner ansfomation ‘om Ut V then t makes sense to flow an ation of by snober in a ansformation sy 5, butonl if § starts wher Tet off o, a more ‘ini language ifthe domain of $incudes the ange of. other word, foreach vector u in U, the image Tu belongs othe domain ofS, then ST makes sense, and if 1o be specie the range of cided in vector space W, the the product Si defined spd near wasfor. ‘maton from U0 W. Here san example. Soppos that is R, Vie R?, and W Ret T ‘be the linear trassformation rom Rt R? defined by Tiaye)= (ea). and et Sb the linear transformation from R? 1? defined by Sty) =2+. Inthat case ST(2.4,2)= Siz) "2+. (Note: the product cannot be defined. The oaly way 2 symbol such ss erueiuGsadiaasaaeaaads ae gen ee tees“ Laweam ALCEMRA PROBLEM HOOK hai as wansfomation with donainR?, But hen he esa of apling ' ikl est B itdoes not make sense to ply tit —T can tniy ek on tects in, the prot of to ier sors SEIT etc, clew how oad yl sch a ST? A pb ‘Pare of confson, wich sould be vee, 1 that the symbol st be ‘ead “bck fom night oe, To we how ST ats. sve, lt ‘Sin it ft aod then second, let Sacto rea. The reason sa Cnsforatons fr al finton, andthe ws anna tion (8 inf) puts the nae of he ncn net ote eae ofthe vale and othe eof Sten of heats realize ely aif Sla)=s and fz) =242, Sloe) = e42P the fret faction wo at the one sex 10 1th one om the ight The ther eer woul yield (J()) which sx? 2a tal he sae he. Nowcommutsivity ras its rad win) Problem 57. (1) 19 the srechngrouformain on Ste,0) = (2.70, (see Probie 54) Pi the wanformation om 8? defined by Tew (22+ 89,72 — 59) te Sond T commute? (CVU ithe etching rsformain on Stain fete T8, andi the “pjstion” manformaton frm B2 10 B? defined by Teena) = (ews (6 Sond commute? (GIES isthe change of variables on? defi by Sole) = wa), and Ti the aiptiion ranformation Sind by Tye) =) do Sand T commune? RassroRMaTiOns « (15th masformation roe W210 defined by Sioy) = 242 and T's the ransformation from R10? defined by 12)= (2,2), do Sand? commute? (G)1f Sisthechangeof arabe defined on Pa by Sple) = re +2), and isthe nsfomaton defined by Tat tetra +62) at%, oral 8) do S and commute? {leew ofthe preceding cases, what are the domains, ange, and hems of ST and TS (hen hey ma sense)? ‘58, Range inclusion and factorization \Wenis one linear ransfrmation dsl by another? la vew ofthe di ference between right andl the question dest quite make Sense but ‘one dvb simtrpeted one way othe oer hen it doce. ‘Suppose, for instance, tat Ais calle vse by in xe there ‘exits linear rancormation Tsoch hat A = 7 One relation between ‘and san inmedinte consequence, namely hat nanAc rand, 1s that necessary condition fo ft dvs sufcient aba? Problem SE. If 0 lincarransformations A and B on a vector ‘pce are uch ha ra A. eB does it flow tha Ais eft dis {Bley B? What isthe anos nesta condition fo igh di ‘ig? sic? 59, Transformations as vectors “Twotransformation A and Bon veto pce can form a conspiracy for cach vector othe sls ofthe scons of and 2 on can be added piel anew vector. The result of this conspiracy assigns vector, cali Se, Tocach tartingvector ein other words the passage S from oto Av'+ Be“ ‘ean ALGENRA PROBE HOOK isa uansformaton defied on the undehing vector space V. I satura toeall ihe tansormadon $ the rom of and B. The eommutaay and ‘slaty of adition nV ipl medal that he ation of inear {tensformaion fcommutatie abd asoite. "Moch nore thn that rc, The sum of ay nese tesformation and the near vansfrmaton 0 (se Problem 5) A. If for each near tansformation A, the symbol —A i ted to denote the arslormation etined by (Ae = (4, then Asta) andthe liner () transformation —A is uniguely characterized by tha property Tou pth set ofl inarraneormationson Van sbelian [roup with respect tothe operation of ain. Tmorewer, for any sclar a and any near aasformation Aa prod stoi defied by (oAjo= aan), {efollosthat the se of al aca ansfrmations ona veto pace V is iets vector space; sable symbol frit might be LAV). “The set L(V) hae strvetral propery that not ever vector space has, ‘mel I asa ital mokiplation defied on the compeston of linear transformation If A and B are Loca transformations then not only ae a and A+ B near uansformations, but vo als is AB; i posible o form nt onl linear combinations of finest tasformations, bet als linea combinaons of powers of ingle linear tasformation. “Linear combinations of powers long way ty polyoma hat Pls) sap bane tana {sa polynomial, and A ines ansformaton then (A) makes ens HA)= ay tad ts tam” ow are the near and mliphative properties of L(V) elated the secoe pac properties VP Problem 8. (1) What cam be sad about the dimension of MW) interns of he dimension of V2 reusromaTions « (2) Ais linear mosfomaton om afte diensonalvc- torspace does there alvay exit anon eo pol puch hat wa) = 0? (@) If zoisa vector na vector space V, andy i nerf anal on Wand if Ae dined for evry in V by A= mle), then Ais ine ansrmation on V whats the smal pose dpe ofa pobomialp sch tha (A) = 0? 60, Ivertibitity [Addin canbe undone—revesed—by subuacton cn the moka: ion of lisear transformation abo be undone somehow? Ie there «pro ces Ike dvsion fr linear warsormations? Cental special ese can the identity ansormaton Ibe “iid” by any ater ner tansformaton| ‘Tor, mother words, doe inst trnsformation ys have 4 Yep ral"? Suppose that T's a ansformation on a vector pace V0 that Tas: sonst each vector in V another Yecr (or possibly the sate one) nV ‘gan A candidat for areiproca should presumably be wtransormation ‘that goes hacward inthe ease that it asgn teach vectorin V the vo torthat it comes from. That may sound plausible, but there i catch in it—ewo cates in act Toe able to go Backward ac eco ia ma tbe the image under of something (in ober words, ran must be V), and it most make sense to speak of he vector that velar comes from (in her words, 7 must never send two diferent vector ont the same ‘ecto Equivalent language the transformation T must ap V ono ¥ (technia ord T i surjective) and T mus oso in one-one manner (Gece wor iinet ‘Appel violent counterexample (incase the vector space Vino the ‘wv space 0) isthe lnear transformation 0: i fast Satisy the con ‘ios js described inthe worst posible way, Not ony eit falb that is ‘surjective, ba in st ran as al 8 can be—t cosets fone vector ‘nly—and not onl ii fae that jective, but in at Os a mayo ‘nes can be—itsende every veto oto the sme one Here ate couple ‘of ocer examples tat are bad enough but not gute that bathe neat nations dts vet ($n a(S) =(§22)a(2)-() seca ewe eat, (€), orto a a “The veri symbol will em moee appropriate when matrices enter the ptr, bl the horizontal one i ypogrphily more conenien,) Te fangs of 4 consis only of vectors whose two coordinates are equal nd thats nowhere ner al of R®, As for B, he vector (0,0) comes fom incitly many vectorethe tanformation is nowhere nea injec (Qvestion: do A and fair just one reason each, o for 9? That irate that Ais otaurjctie iat eat njetve? And: rte ha Srotinjecie ist at east sree?) ‘linea rnsormationT 00 ector space Viale invertible iit in both injective and sue. I is iaverbl, thea the transformation that assign to each vector vn V the unique vector w hat comes fom {thatthe unique vector» sch that Tu = ») elle the fverse of denoted by T= (pronounced T iver ‘fan invetbe Tats on vector what happens when the iene 1T-¥ act onthe res? The anewer is vious: send Ty bck 0s, to that P(e) ~ v, Does tmork the other nay? In the woes, what happens when T's mide to gotackward befoeit goes forward? Tat may be coll language, but i sloppy enough to Be dangerous. What the question ell assis what Is 70)? To fnd the ase, write = {Te which says the same as Tu = 0, and theo uncambl the notation: neat Ate yop ein stn nt te Srl dPionhemse teat seine ‘Sivarchtn aston gan een ae Sinan Tanp ca epee ce (yume ca eee htt nso ie semieey open rane tem ee ‘tet tots’ stra (5) a 7()- (Ei) - ~=~==—rt ee eater caeces ee _ansromuaTions o “The surjective question for T reduce othe sabi ofthe equations nn etn forall and. That's «routine mater: § mst bea ~ 2 and y mast be 2+ 29, That is the candidate forthe inverse of Tithe neat anon oe ee) eee ‘ST, ateach () by forming S(}) where (@)-(é") Tenet ofdeman s(t) = (ern sker,) -(6)- res eer aes ‘These examplessugaest question owhichtte anger mis be known before he theory cam posed. Problem 60, Mist iene ofan merle near masfrtion ‘ea lincarewrsfomation? 64. teeta examples a rte) emer ain iy *(1)-G) sent Croke r(2)-( 0) dni ein Dene ee pe6262, Determinants: 22 1a and € are known numbers, can the equation arnt be sted for 2? Maybe Ia is not 0 the al that's needed isto divide by i lher~ 0, there trouble #0 the equation has o soution andi 0ithas to many every z works “The question could have been asked this way: fi known Saar, andi liner tasformation Ti defined oR! by Te=a, 167 iverble? The snower iss if and only if #0. ‘Thatanowe sin fact the newer to avery spec as of very general _question. The general question this how doe ents ofan nxn mati determine whether or ott invertible? When » = I, thee ony one fry and the anwer sth the mari saver and nlf that etry feaiterent rom 0. ‘What happens when n = 2 Inosher words, under what conditions on the numbers, 78 the 2 2 matric be soled fore and y? “Po fnd liming, which means muy the fst equation by 6 the second by and subactthe second from the ist to get (05— Pr) = 6 — “Tofindy, molply the fist equation by the second bya, and subtract ‘he ft rom the Second to get (ob — yy = an ~ 06 ab — ty £0, tonal that’s needed sto die by but fad — By =O, theres touble: th ests bined gv 0 faformation about = andy IF cher one of = Sor ~ B00, the equations ave no soltions at ee hadi ae edi ian anne ‘ransromanioss a The emptesson of ~ 9 scaled the determinant of I, abbreviated dam, andthe answer the 2 2 question is thats aver if and only if “et A 0. The function det has seme obvious properties and some non ‘bv one, An bons propery thal at and, more general that Ms gona (hat, == 0) hen det. ME prod of the agonal enies. Another nay property the beh Tor of de with respect sel multiples aA) = Xe at forever eal ealar "Anon-obviows and posiy surprising propery of de that itis mul tipcave, which mean that Mf and Meare two2% 2 marie then et Ma) = (det Mi) at.) tenor, wea (Q 8) am m= (% 8) = in (Geree Sate): sen tistbe prea (exon + Bra) Pa + 6) ~ (uth + Aa}v09 + Ba) = (os — Prr)laa’s~ Bra), and to prone tht there iso help foritcomput. “Malipicativy has pleasant consequence abou inverse. FM hap- pens to be iver thea (et) (et A) m ee) = det = sotbat aaa ‘Can he resus aout the determinants of 2 2 mates be generalized to bigger sizes? One tempting direction of generalization is ther veptace the aartn "UNEARALGERRA PROBLEM BOOK. ents Sof 2 2 mate by 2 2 matrices (0), (B)()s( thas (tng a maa (@ 9) a) “The attempt to generalize the concept of determinant rus into puzle before ican ge tartd: sic the matrix ates may al to commute, is ot lear wheter the generalized determinant ought tobe deine ab (OE) -WO). oF (ANE), oF (6(@)= (Ba), oF (Na) EB) “These fou “formal determinants” scem to play equal roles—10 reason to refer one othe these apparent. The est ting odo therefore 1 te modes assume ar mach ss possible and conlae sie as posible. ere sone posse question. Problem 62. Which (if iter) ofthe fling tw anerions me? (1) a2 <2 manic M of 2 2 mates siete, then at east one ois formal deeminansis vei. (0) al be formal determinants of 2 2 mat M of 22 mates reine then M sive 68. Determinants: nn ‘When linear slgeba gan i was called “near algebra”™—the central partothe subject westhoughttobe the concept of determinant Nowadays ‘eteminant theory i considered avery sal par of near algebra. Ove reason that this part of near alr snot ely Haear—the subject isan intricately combinatorial one that some people love for that reason, wile other iss thatthe ony cegant way to prosedis to avoid it when ‘cer pose. Everyone admits, bowever, that eof it st be known to every sade ofthe subj and bere comes itl. Tis not obvious how the definition of determinant fr 2% 2 mates canbe extended ton n matics, Even the baie defn wth which ‘mostreatments begin atl rghtenng IfM = (a) nan man mate, the cofactor ofan entry, alt Ay the (m1) x (w 1) matric bined by rmcrog fom MY the entite rowan the entire col that onan thats Femoving row and column. Tos for instance, the cofactorafain(® isthe 1x1 matin(s) andthe cotton ofthe resromaTIOns : n 1% 1 mtr (9). The standard definition of determinants uses cofactors to proceedinductvly. The determinant of 1 matic (2) defined to bethe number = andthe determinant of an n matric im terms of is (=I) (m1) submatrices (writen hee form = 4) sen by 0M = on dst Aus any deh A Hae Ay det In words matply each clement ofthe sel bythe determinant of (Sart cin sn tay nae soe So a8 (5 4) | _=-=-=-—sSse ‘nrc soma nes one oe don nas on ein ny sa pr ae — = -= bg me! nn sen hh ffs) wow minis) wo Cay yf peso mimo tc ibe Coe et Spee ce iT nos es {ea oon een = ee he) — 7d), yet Ay ye Ay ye Ay — 4 Aa ‘or the negative af hat depending on wheter the sign of ai ls or ee) nanos ~en0) ~an(oass~ e130) tenloums— ewes), ensonaas~ar9031) ‘teal ~ 34031) ~ elas — x0 “Thee formuus re called the expansion of et in terms of he is and the second columns there is alo, of cours, an expansion i terms of hethis coum, aad there are completely sina expansions in tems ofthe “Ie assertion that these vious signed sums alge the same answer (in every as, nat only for 3% $ matries) neds prot but the roo is ot ie to elves the readers soul ands omited bere. Comment fall paeatheses are removed that the expansion of the detexinan of 8 5icSmatrixiewriten ut in complete deta, hen each fhe resting sit tems ies product (with appropiate sig) of eaty one element fom ‘ach row aodeach column. Asimlarstatement iste about nxn mates foc every the value ofthe determinant isthe sum, with appropri signs, ‘ofthe product that contain exact onefctoe fom each ow and ech ome, A description such a hat i sometimes wed as an alternative {efiion of determinant “Another (deftly non-tvl) assertion s that (for matices of ll slat) determinant emit and i te WO mm mates, then tM Ma) (dt i) >.) An ear propery (with it ease proof aio omite) tha he de- termina ofan upertanglar mari sch for isance Ose oos.|: 9008, Sethe product of the dagonl entries. (The pictures intended to convey thar the eouies below the main diagonal are 0 wile the entries on and shove ae abitay. A simi picture and simi comment apy lower trangulor matrices als) Special case the determinant ofa dagonal ma trivisthe product ofthe diagonal entries. Special case f that special case: the determinant ofa sclar mars 13%, and, in parc, the deter ‘mina of 1, For ivetble matries ant a =r and for any matrix, ea(AM) = 0" dot (whore sam abivary saan) ar and away the moet useful property of deteminants i that ‘ae M if and ont MB invertible. (The prot sjust a ited 5 the other pros so fat in this section.) That propery is probably the one aasromano%s 1s thats mos frequently exploited, and it wil indeed be epoited at some ‘crucia sptsia the sequel “The actual numeral valves of determinants are rarely of any itr st whats important ithe theoreti iformation tat he extenceof| | Tanetion of matics with the properties described shove implies The ‘qestone tha follow, however, do have oda with he merc vase tion of some deteminantthey are intended to induce at en mall amir with (and perhaps a ina fecing toward) suc calculations. Problem 6 If Mi, My and My are se maces blow what re ‘hevalurof dot i, et My and Sty? 2100 » (HEY) 0043, 2 ° 6 2 M= & 4, Zero-one matrices Mates wih ony a small umber of diferent ents inigue mathe ‘mains such matrices have some pleas, and curious andsometines surprising properties. Suppose for instance, that ever enya ann ‘mates ether O or how lily isch a matrix tobe iavetble? tis ‘earthatit doesnt have tobe. The extreme example the matin which fey entry is equal © O—the zero mati. Equally lary a mati of O's nds (would "Ol-matra” be ausefl abbreviation”) ean succeed in being lnvertbl—the wiv example the ideaiy max Itacems reasonable {hat the more ros a matt, the more likey cs that determinant 4s 0, and hence the fess key the matrix is tobe inerible. What in facts% LUNAR ALGERRAPRONLIN BOOK. the largest munber of ' that O-atri of ie can have ad il be imerle? Equivalent what the smallest numberof ' that O- ati of ize nxn can hae ands avert? Thats the answer fbn. The mmber of sin the ety matt mis matric has fewer, ‘hn at east ne ofits ows mut consi of oly, which pis that its eterminant i, (Why?) Consequence: the maim numberof that ln imertble Ol-matrxcan haven ‘Whatabout Px? Ann xn maths” entre they are all equal to 1then for sre, is ot inert in fat ts determinant 0. What ithe Lngest numberof Is that nnn eat ean have and be invertible? “Hangular examples suchas 1 ‘suggest the conjecture answer alae 0) nh (Le tin) = stright? Problem 64 What ee largest mamber of tha an invertible Od mans of nn can habe? Comment ‘The displayed formols has sot uacommon problem at its Towest valve: when m= the lef side aso be nterpeeted with some inden. 65. lnvertible matrix bases “The set L() of al near transformation of n-dimensional real vector space V tof, qulalenty the set of all x real matrices, is = ‘eto space that hs bass consisting fn? elements sce Problem 59. How god ca hat basis be? Problem 6S. Der L{V) havea basis conssing of erie near ‘wansformations? -masronnaons 7 (66, Finite-dimensional invertibility ‘The to conitons neded for verti are cay to characterize ind dual to that near treformationT ons vector space Vis jective means jus that ran T= Vd tsa hat injective means hat eT = {0} The int statement is nothing but language: tha what he words mean. The second sstement is eal two statements (1) 7 in- ject then he T= (0), 0 (2) leeT = (0), then Ti injective. OF thes (1) obiouts fT inject, then, a prt, 7 can neve send vector other than Onto 0. Pat (2) almost equally obvious if T never ‘ens anon-serovetor ont then cannot send we difeent vectors ‘and onto the same vector, because iit did then by ineriy) T would Send) ~ u 0a “The interesting question along thes ns swheter heres any rel tion between the wo conditions. si possible for Yo be surjective bu nat injective? What about the oter way around? These questions, and their answers tun out to have a dep (and somewhat complied) theory in ‘he init pars of inear algebra Inthe fte dimensional case the facts are nearer tothe sure. Problem 66. Can linear oansforation on afte dimensional eco space be injective but na saectne? How aul ote ny rund? 67. Matrices matrix isa square array of scalars, such as a1 ge 2 001 M0 ye ew o DoE ‘This cxampl scaled 44 mare (pronounced "ourby fou” allother sis (2 2,11 1) are equally legitimate. An eteme case 11 ‘mat, which shard tell apr froma scala. In some conte (sighty ‘more general than the ones hee considered) even rectangular maces te alowed (instead of only quate ones). ‘Matrices hae aleay ozurted in these problems Sostion 59 shows Ahatabasis(s.s,.-veq) faint dimensional ecto space cane we ‘o establish one-to-one correspondence betwee linear transforms ‘tons Aon that space and all matrices fay), The relation between a lines! 07 ‘NEAR ALGEBRA FRORLEM BOOK transformation A and its mati {ou} that foreach j = 1,2... What i sleady known thatthe inear proper ties of ica transformations coxespond justine tthe near properties of matices ftw transformations And B have matics {a} and (8) ‘hen transformation such a €4-4nB asthe matric (E+) WAL [Snot known show maties behave under multiplication what, tobe de Inte, te mari of AB? The ony way fad the answer isto indulge in sitet not especialy facinating computation ike this: 4(Zovn) = Tae “Za (Ee)-EEEos)s ‘Concasio the (entry of he matric of AB is Loads ‘may bok complicated to someone who has neve sce it before, bull takes litle peting wed toi seal ut easy o work wi ‘Hlere wan any example the et Cf cole numberss areal ()¥ee toxspace these {i} bass or that space, andthe action Cf complex ‘ovjaton i linear transformation an that space—what isthe corre ‘ponding ati? That's two questions: what isthe expansion, a terms of Teapot Ci and what the expansion in terms of [54 CH? Since the mowers ar obvious: Cl = Land Ct = ~i the matt 10 0 “That's too cay Fora lite more evealing example consider the vee tor space Ps o al polaris of degre 4 ores, with basis andthe ner transformation A on Fe defined by “Ax(t) = (t41) Agate Aaya (O41)? 2041, ee, It follows tha the mati (lo ti olumas) is at Y 34 04 Problem. What hapensio the manicofa liner manfornation na fritedimensinal ctor space when the elements ofthe bss ‘wh spec fo which the mars computed are permed among thems? Comment ‘Ta consideration of ively intoaced in Problem 60 can te formulated moe simply and more naturally in terms of matric. "Thus for instance, the question about he transformation ofthat prob Jem could have been ake this way ithe matin (2) ‘verte? (6. Diagonal matrices Some matrices are casero wok with than others, andthe easiest, sal, are the diagonal ones—they ae the ones, such 5 ooo “0 4 040 0 0 1, {in which ever entry not on the main agonal is 0. (The ain agonal ‘of matric (a4) the st of entries ofthe form a, tha the ees ‘whose two suscrips ae equal) The sum of two dgonal matrices a agonal mati and extra pleasant, een the mulipcation formula for ‘igonal matress era simple. The progect of to diagonal matress the diagonal matrix obtined by multping exch entry of one of them by o ° °° ‘the conesponingentyinthe othe. 1 follows parculr that within the {eritoy ef diagonal matrices multiplication is commutaive. The product ‘ot wo mates usally depends onthe orderin which they are multiplied, but if A and 2 ae gona matics the alas AB = BA. "The simplest among the diagonal matries are the elar mates, ‘which means the matrices that are sear mules ofthe dey: at tes in which ll the diagonal entries are equal. They are the simples Took ty but i happens hat sometimes the extreme opposite, the diagonal ‘ralcsin whic al agonal enies are diferent, are the easiest ones rok with Problem 6 If Ais diagonal manic whose diagonal ens re diferent, ondif Bisa mavisthatcommuses with A, mus Bao bedlagonal? 69, Universal commutativity ‘Wich mates commit with al matrices? To keep the question fom be- ing owsense it mt be asuned of corse that az xed once and for All and only square mates ofthat size are aditted tothe competition ‘One example the Kent mati another tbe aro mati, Which are the noo ial examples? Problem 9. Which xnmanices Bhavethe propery that AB = Bdforal n = 2+ yam Ioreover, andy ae uniquely determined by =-The ecto ical the Projection of «at or xt pain") M along (or paral 0) N, and, Siri the projection f= oN long M “Apictre forthe cate a which M and are distinct ines trough the ign the plane help to se whats going o. If es pel pont not ‘neither Mor N, then draw aie through x parallel M; the point where -reseromuanoss s that parallel intersects isthe projection of# oN. (Sia, of course, the imersecton wth M othe ine trough 2 parallel tis the projection ‘of: 19M) What happens f= doe belong to Moe N? Consider the corespondence (transformation) that asses to each = the vector 2—all it and, sim, let P be the transformation that ‘signs to cach = the vector y- The verieation that and Fare near transformations is ull routine (ut nevesay). Since = +y = follows that E+ = 1. The wod prajetonsusd fo the transformations and (aswel forthe vector andy in thee range) i calle the pro jection on (along N) and F the projection on N (ahng Mt. Warning: ‘emphasizes M, bts defiation depends erly on both Mand Nd, similarly, emphasiae Wut depends on both subspaces as. In other words Nand Ny are to dferet complements a M, then the projec: tions By and #, on M slong Ny and Ny are diferent transformations I C= V in which ease uniquely determined as O), then = 1 i MO, then £ = 0. These re ral examples of potions what are some non-tvalones? Could, for iastanc, that every near tansfor- ‘maton tbe peojecsion to some rubpace along one of ts complements? Problem 72) Which near ransformaions are pects? (0) 1 Ei te projection on Malo whalae ran and eB? Comment Question (2 aks for characterintion of some sgebaic ind (as opposed othe geometric definton that pus al projections into ‘one bagand ll oter inca tanformatios into sn athe 73. Sums of projections Tsthe sum of wo projections avaysa projection? Ofcourse not—theiden- ty transformation I, frinstane, i projection, but the sum of he iden- tity an el, the waasformation 2 certainly not «projection, (Infact. {he double of projection diferent rom 0 never a pojection. Prof”) ‘On the oer hand the sum of to projection can often be a proje- ‘ion. A trial example given by any projection F ad the projection 0. ‘Anon ighly es tv example is. (0) = (52) B” “ ayEAR ALGEBRA FRORLENEBOOK ‘A numerical somewhat combersome example, ia, howeser, the same svi. sgn by a(t e) ‘Wi’ going on? Problem 7. When the sum of oo projections projection? 7A, Not quite idempotence Alinear transformation Bsa projection fad nb tts iderpoteat, and that eondtion i equaent tthe equation B(~E) =, that equation Sssatised then £ = E* and 1 = (1 — 6). 10 follows that Eis ‘ompotent then he dehy weer equations B-B)=0 and BOB ar sted ko. Are these necessary coos sukient? Caution: does the question mean together or patel? Problem 74,1 linear ranformation suck that 0-5)! deri fallow that Es empotent? Is that condition equivalent to U-z) =o? DUALITY 7S, Linear functionals 8 ‘The most wefl functions on vector spaces arth ner funtonuls.Re- call their definition (Problem 5) a near factional isa scalavaued funtion ¢ such that ees (2)+60) sod las) = a=) whenever andy are vecorsin V and ris asc sample on: (212351024) = 3 sample on R€(2,9,2) = 2 2 +32 samples onthe spce Pf poo: eae ieeas or feweya, oo 3 ‘The most trv liner functional is also the most important one, ‘namely 0 That iif isdefined by k)=0 forall, then € is Kinearfnctional Eacept for thi uninteresting cae, ‘very linear functional akeson every scl value—thas nea eerie {Ge Problem 55(1)). So, for instance, iffy isa non-zero linear functional% ona inte dimensional vector space V, then there vay exis a vector + in soch that f(z) = 3 Doestworkthe ober way? That sf sano ro vector ia ite-dimensional vector space V, does ther alma eit ica fenton such that (2) = 3? That aes tle more thought, but the anne stil yes. To see tha et (25.235..25) bea basis for V that haste prescribed vector as one of ts elements 5,2) = 24 then ‘he ft example above dows he jo, ‘These statements are manly about the ranges of ner fonctonals an something Intelligent be si sbot their Kernels? I, for nstace, € {nd ya liner functionals (onthe sme vector space V) and aris salt a) = nga) for every iV then, cleat (2) = Owheneret (2) = 0. Is theres chance that he converse statement i trve? Problem 75.1 and yr linear ancsonal (on he sme vector {puce) sch that na) = O whenever 2) ~ 0, mathe abe (ra salar sch tha (2) = af foral 2? 176, Dual spaces (ld vector paces ca sometimes be used to make new nes A pia x: ample of such a happeing isthe formation ofthe subypaces ofa vector ‘pave. Another example stirs from to spaces, vector space ad asah- ‘pace, and forms the quent pace-Stl another example stars rom wo itary vector spaces and forms their det su, ‘One ofthe mostimportan ways to et ew vector spaces trom oones ‘sunlit: corresponding to ever real eto space V thee i a s-caled dual space VT elemeats of V areca enough to describe: they are the linear functionals on V. Linear funsonalscan be aed: if and are linear functional on V hen nes functional ¢ = €-+ 9 defined for allzty ote)» 2} + 0. Linear functional an be mul by scalars: if a near fonctions ‘anda isa yeaa, then a ner fantonal 7 ~ of defined foc all by a2) = aft) With these defntions of ation and scalar mulation the st "of linea fonctions becomes vector race, and that the dal of V. Problem 76, [sth da of fie mensional vector sac fin (dimenonal? eury " 77. Solution of equations Every vector a vector spc (nept the 270 vector) jut ike every ‘othe vector and ever linear functor ercept the rinse funtion) Is just Ie eery other. I omever, Fis fd, apd fr some postive ine ‘egern, the artical vector space under consideration is F thea the extence of ulin coordinates makes it possible to single ot cera spe ‘al vector and speci near fanconals. Ts, fr ose, the vectors ‘that hae oaly one coordtate diferent fom 0 and that one equal to 1 are ‘often mode 6 aya important role, andthe same i tue ofthe inar function p; defined by Pilenvze) ety Fete «alle the coordinate faction oF cordate projections “These vectors and funcional are most conspicuous athe procedure called “soving” tems of near equations inn unknowns. Here isha ‘that sems to mean to most students: keep foming near combinations of the gen equations il they tke the form and then feel uted in deciding that (2...) the sought for sl "The most fas honest way of describing what the reasoning shows is tosay that IF there na soon, THEN the procedure eid tone but ‘existence proa of some kind is probably called for, andso sa uniqueness proof. Some teaches worry about puting such incomplete tool into the ands oftheirstdens and feelcaled upon justi themsehesy anary ‘wave ofthe apd andthe suggestion jo follow the steps backward youl be all sigh Is that ays te? ‘Alincar equations presumably something ofthe frm w2)=a, where ya linear functional gives), sasealar (known) and isavector (Gatnown).A nse ofm linear equations nm unknowns, then vahes ‘linear factional ye ad mea yy What wanted is vector = (op...) suc hat 6) Another ay of png ll thie odie Bina transformation from Friar" by writing Tle) = Theis.) = (1 le)o--etala)).. EYEAR ALGEBRA PROBLEM 00K nd then hope tht enough known abou to guarantee that its range {sal of (existence of solutions) and that is kere! is 0} (eniquenes. “The hope, inher wor i tat Tis invert it the he desi sein 0,10) gen by 70-09) "Wit iden assumption i therein he sul slution rocedore that right be enough to imply the inverbity of T? The nt especialy wel ‘iden assumption isha tis pone to “keep forming linear combinations of he given equations til hey take the form 2) = ay. 4 = Oy" nother words the pan of the linear functionals, (ther span in the dl space of F of couse) contains each ofthe coordinate projec Problem 7. fyy--st ae Uncarfnctonal on F> such that cach ofthe coordinate projecons belong thi spar, des a- ‘ay follow tha he near tanafrmationT frome Po defined > Te) = (onl) tle) rime? ‘78. Reflexivity Sometimes wo diferent vector spaces can resemble each other so much ‘tht ifs hard ol them apart. Ar it bls the space Ps (plynomals of ‘eqs 30 es) andthe Space RE Gequences of ength&) may no ook tach alike, but on second thought maybe they o. What are vector Prop” tse of pba such | ap bout tex? sas, how do they compare with the vector properties of wequences suchas Grit? In this question the tradiona se ofthe alphabet rsa ite ater than lps Change te os to and jack up ther indies by one of ese change the sto a's and Kove thelr indlcesby one, athe diferences end 1 way the only dilernce betwen he vector Qtetrer tee nb and he vector abate) ‘in that one ses pus signs and andthe other uss parentheses and commas—potation, no aubtance, More cleanly sid there 8 it ralone-o-one curespondence between Rand Ps, namely th resp ‘ence T defined by Tene = +t +E +6, and both tht correspondence andi inven ae ines. Ie the mening of that sentence clea? Itsy that aot ony is ane tone correspondence, but mreower,if2 = (nn GGe) a0 y= (nt toa) ae Rand cand are salir then Tog +n) =a) + 870), ada hati pang ae ny then Tap Aa) = a9) +07"), (See Problem 6) An informal bt not misleading way of saying al hi i ‘o ty that and dle in notation ony or even moe informal and ethapsa ny bit misleading that Py and Ré are enentalthe sme. ‘The digned word for “eset the sume” is isomorphic. An Is- iam rom aecior space V to vector space W isa one 1-0 line ‘comespondence fom (lo) Vt (all af Ws tro spaces at called o- ‘morpicif tere exists an somorphism between them. Trivial Vand V sre alas omorphi, andi Vand W are omer then so are W abd ‘Vie inverse ofan samorphism san omorphisn), ad, Sally, U,V, sand W ae veetor spaces ich that Uisiomorphicto Vand Vr eosorphic {0 W, thea Uisisomorphico W (the composition of wo omorphis is anisomorphism, What wast sd that omorpiam san equivalence ‘elation and nothing that as been sid onthe subject so far dep at a lsomorpians preserve all important properties of vector spaces. sample: somorpie vector spaces have the sume dimension. Prot if {Gyn} sa bss or Vandi an omorphigm rom V to W, then (Pe. .T6y} aba for W. Reason eT Ho bane then Thasgi +---+an€,) = 0,»” ‘sean ALGEBRA PROBLEM BOOK hich pis hat ott and hence hat the 7'sare neal independent. moreover, y san abinay vector in W, thea Ty (nV) sa linear combination of the 2=—hat Ty has the form ay. +--+ a for suitable a Apply To conde hat ye aiTe +00 banTey—the Te'sspan W. ‘The comers of he result jot proved is ao tue iftvo Bite dimen. Sonal vector spaces Vand W hve the sme dimension, then they ar o- morphic Prolif {6-6 bas for Vand ---) bas for Wy, then thee i ane and only ne linear wansformationT from ¥ to W such that 76, =n (5 = 2st), and that transformation ian ‘morphism rom Vt0 W. "The proof ja sketched iscorrect, bat inthe view of some mathe cian it wpit x waatral. Reason: it depend on two astray (a ‘tral choles aba fr V mst be choseh ands asst W must be chosen, and the argent depeads oa those to bases. If thse bases are ‘hanged the iomorpism 7 changes. Yes, sure, there exis aniomer- ps, and in fact, there are many Somorpisms from to W, but there fo reaon to prefer anyone of them o any oter—there i o tral stay to make the chic between them ‘Therels on eebated circumstance f which aturaliomorphism between emo vector spaces dos sping othe ee, ad tha is between = ‘ate dmensonal vector space V andthe dual spce(¥ ols dal space \ (Utis more convenient and customary to dente tha second dal pace ty V") The elements of ¥" ae linear fonctions of lnear funciona. ‘What isan example of such thing? Here ion: fia vector fin V nd ten, foreach element of V— thai fr each ina? funstinal yo voit (0) = neo. Emphasis: fs eld fied here (in V) and i allowed to vary (in V. ‘Consequence: & a fuetion on Va funtion of y and hala inate’ sing a the way) (hich egal (7) depends on should convnce ‘everyone that a linear Fnetonl on. ‘Does every linear functional on V" arise inthis way? powsry ” Problem 78. If Via vector space andiforeech vector sin Var cement 2 (= Ts) of Vide (0) =n2), ‘ther Tiana near rarsformatin fom V0 W"(eifcation?} Initabeys an tomorphien? Comment. ‘The question belongs to one ofthe subtest ars of linear ‘sta, to putt note ight context couple of comment are advisable, (C) The mapping 7 here dened scaled the natural mapping fom Y¥ to V" Incase It happens that F maps V onto W" (So that it isan fo morphism) the vector space Vis cae relive (Waring fr ifite- Almensonal topological cor sacs the sme word is defined wih a eta wit—ihe use ofthe preset definition in thse eases can Bead 1 ror and confusion ) {Q) If finite dimensional vector space V is efleve—if, hat, not ony are V and V" isomorpic, but fc, the natural mapping an ‘Somasphisn—tea it is eequntycoavenient (hough ml soppy) ‘enti the somorphi spaces V and V". In more dea if is eee, then each vector zn V is regarded asthe same a its image (= T=) ‘Vrs Asaspecial ease recall the contruction Geserbed in Solution 7) of| sts dul to prescribed ope, Start wh bass. X= feted in Yet Ue font) ‘the dual asin Van thatw(s) = foal and), and do ga: et (hye ‘be the bassin "dua to U (so that lu) = hy forall andj). Since 250) = ey) forall andj follows thatforall win W and forall j,s0that eat the image of = under the ‘utr mapping fom V to Ve proposed entiation dares that foreach, the vectors 2 and re he same, nd hence that the bases! and Kare the same 79, Annihilators ‘The kernel of linear transformation (se Problem 6), and in particular, the kernel ofa liner functional isthe Set subspace) of vectors at which it lakes the vl 0. A question can be asked inthe other cretion: if isa ‘torn vector space V, what the set ofall near fnctional x 08 V sichthatu(2) = 0? Freqandy sed reformulation: what isthe ania ‘of? An obviously related ore general question sth IM is a subset {possibly but not acces subspace) of vector pce V, what isthe set ‘fall liner functionals on V sch tatu) = O for every zn M? The ‘nowor whatever itis denotedby Mand referred asthe annihilstor ot “vil examples: 0? = V' and V? = 0 (nV). IV i fiite-dimen- sional an M costal a non-zero vector, then (se the discussion preced- fing Problem 63) Mo 2 V. “The annilatr ofa singleton (6 = {2} consis fal those Tinear functionals for which isin ker In the abbreviated language of double i terms ofthe aysis ‘hee the ordered n-type determined by = just the m-ple (en—san) of coeticints. The game can ofcourse be played in the othe ireton: ‘noe a bass ied, each ordered tuple of alas determines vector, namely the vector whone sequeace of coeticints ts. ‘Now change the rules agin, o, rather, play the alta changed eles ‘butchange the emphasis Given an dimensional vector Space Vand an ‘ordered ntuple (,--y.) af scalars, ote hat each basis (2,2) Of V determines a vetr la V, namely the vector described by the st equation above. Thatveetr depends obiousonth basis f(y, -ste} lb a bass of Vt would be a urpsing coincidence the determined turned ut to be the same as asthe bass hangs, the vector changes. eysand {sare bases of ecor wha the raion Bee he eto and Reformation. What happeas to vectors under a “change of basis"? Emphasis: "These coeFicens (9.2) appear in the wo displayed ‘equations. 85, Change of basis: coordinates (ety) and (st) ae basso a vector space, the problem ‘of chagigfom one tothe oer can be thought on two was () Gen an ordered rtp (0) of sels what he rel tion bemeen the econ. and (2) Gena vector, what she relation betwen its coordinates wth sespectotherandthe yA preceding problem (4) ook he st pink of view, How doe the answer dined compare with he one demanded bythe seond point a view? Problem 8S. If 2. -taand (ym) re bass fever space and if Gann tt ate = mn tt nt whats the reaton beeen the coondinas and 1? 86, Similarity: transformations Vectors are in he easy part of aca algebra the more challenging and ‘more vse par dels with ines transformations One andthe same "co ‘dinate vector” (ay,.-yaq) ean correspond to two different elements of spatazery » a yector space va to diferent ses—tha's what Problem 8 about ‘A parle! statement onthe highe evel that one and he same matin “eancorrespond to two dire ica transformations on estor space that's whal the presen dscsron about Problem 86. If{2i...ta)and (p.-sdy) am basesofa vector space and Bej= Doge ont ; Cu = Daw wha he ration betwen he ea anfmaos Band? Reformalatin. What happens o inca transformation under a change cof basi? ‘Emphasis ‘The same mars (a) apearsinthe to displayed equations Comment. This problem sony sight harder thn Problem 83, bat much deeper. Two transformations ested ia the way ere deuribed are alle similar, and simi the right the geometric, mayo clas lin- ‘ear transformations To sy that wo linear tanformations are similar i tosayineflectthat they ae “esentally the same” Similarity ithe ingle ‘mos importan: posible relation between lina taslormations—t hes the eat of linear algebra 87. Similarity: matrices A change of isis canbe looked at ia two wap: geometrically (what does it do to vetors?—Problem 88) and numerically (what does it do 0 ‘oordaates?— Problem 8), The same two pont of view ae salble in the study ofthe eer o a change of ass onthe bigher level geometric Gineae tansformaions) and numerical (matics). The fist of thse was trated by Problem 85; bres the second. Problem 7. {fone asisofa ect spac suse ope incr transformation as a mats, and then another bas aed forthe same prpone forthe sume linear rnsormation the rei ro ‘matrices isthe relation between thm?100 LINEAR ALGHBRA PROBLEM BOOK 88, Inherited similarity Sinilaiy sometimes passed on from oe pai af eansformatons oan ‘ther, Example: and C ae simi, then so ze and C2. deed THT! = C (Ge Slaton 86), then abr} = Pa(r—T)BT- = (rHT-\(PBT) =0C =C* Simiey, of course, 8 and Caesar, thea so are Band C™fr al pone integers and, therefore 0 a8 p(B) al (Cfo al polyp Sep. (Minor comment: iB is sie to scale, then sequal 0 Renn: Ty"! = T-!) "The kind of soning ue bre can go eit further. It proves, for Instance, tat if 2 and Care smi, then 50 are BY and C". (For the adjoins of both sides ofthe eqaton TT! = C, and we the results ‘oF Problem 80.) I proves als ht if and C ae sir and both are invert, then 8" and O~! are iar (Form the inverse ofboth ides ‘ofthe similar equation) Whats ue shout pods? Problem 8, and are Bncarransfomation (on the same ector pace, aby that BC and CB are iar? Question, Docsit make any diference whether H andC re invertible? ‘89, Siollarity: real and complex Anyone ho seas of ecto space must have sleted acne ed totein wth anyone who speaks ofa matrix asin minds enti, which ‘belong to some prescribed eld. What happens to vectors, and nea tans formations ad mates whe the fd changes? fn pray, wo ferent elds and sy appear tobe pertinent to some stay. wth CF, then every vector space ver Fis automatically eeoe space over E alo (ors more preity, naturally induces vector space over Eby just estrit- Ing salar multiplication to); the pnerl question show mech informs ‘dw an F ft ges about an E spee. Te faowing special question is 8 sell koma, npovtnt and yal instance, Problem 9. If AandB areowo real maces tha are silver (G do they have tobe similar over B? 90, Rank and mallty 0 ‘Which near ansformation (mats i biges (1) «GE “The question dost make sease—except fr the sz of mate (in the sense in which hese 3 3 examples ae of size 3) no way of measuring linear transformations has een encourtered ye. ‘The warsformaton Cisinertbe bathe transformation Bis m0: the ‘ange Bsa rdimensonal subspace. Inothe words, he wansformaton 2B callpses the entire space into a prope subspaco—that might be one od reason forealingB smaller han C. Another eon might be tht rinks some vectors (sen them 0 0) and C does not. The dimension ofthe range of «near uatsformation—caled is rank a measur of sien the present example ranks 1 and rake = 3, of measure of siz; nthe present example mullB=2 and mull=0, ‘Roughly transformations ae le ther lies re smal Ts here relation Benween these two measures of size? And whst shout the ze ofa tansormation apd ton? Problem 9°. fi lneartansforation of rank ona vector {spac of mension what are he poste ales ofthe rankof A? What rth possible value of the may of A? 91, Similarity and rank oo Problem 91. fw near ransormationson a fine dimensional ctor pace are sina ty hve the ame rank? 92. Similarity of transposes 2 ‘wo ner trandermations on finite diensona vector space have the ‘sume rank, must they be similar? That question is the converse of the one1 ‘ue ALGEREA PRORLEM OOK in Problem 91, ant woud be sly to expect it to have an afiematve an ser (Ate wo iverile mates aye sna?) In some special cases, Iowever, he afrmaive answer might be te ayy, So, formance ‘ry tanformaton has the same rank its adjoint could hat statement ‘estrengtbened sometimes to one about snr? Cs. Gay 93, Ranks of sums Problem 93. If A and re near manformatins on ft dimensional ete Space what the aon of eak(A +B) © the separate rank, ask Aad a B? 94, Ranks of products Problem 94. 1f A and are linear rnsformatins on fie limensional vector sac, what the lation of asc AD othe sat ranks, rank Aand vk 2? 95. Nallities of sums and products Since rank and nly ava add up to the dimension ofthe space (Prob- Jem 0), every ation between ras ial a elation between lies. ‘Thats tue parculr, abou the sm and produc formas (Problems ‘9and4), bute nly elton obtained that way re far rom tiling ‘There, however, «nul lation that comes nearer oth and that isnot immediate conseqsene ofthe rank relations lead svaiabe. Problem 98. If A and ar inear mansfomations oma ine limensonal vectr space, 1s dare a simple relation invoing ‘nll (AB) nail A and null B? ssnmaniry 103 96. Some similarities ‘The best ay to get fecing fr what sinlariy means sto look a speci) casessometines the snowe isnot what you wold expect. Pre. tay Loe na (0 2 1) amirwe=(0 & 2)s 008 003 oii oie na (99 t)amurwe= (0 0 3)> 20 006 aay 200 © noa(i 3 2) amurnen (64 8) 08 005 ore 020 © 9 (0 62) antewe= oo alt 009 an wont Ll)mmee (ER) Comment. Similar questions make sense, an shouldbe asked, for ms ces ose larger thn 33 97. Equivalence ‘The contraction ofa matrix stoned with nea transormation de pends on wo bates sot ne Indeed, Ke (ented and R= (G8) are bases of Vandi Aisa linear transformation on, the the matrix of| ‘A with espct aX and % denote temporary by 06,5), should be defined by a= Devt“The definiton originally ven (sce Problems 6 an 68) corresponds 19 the apeial cs in which X = X. That special case leads othe concept of Similar sod Care sir if there exist bases X and such thal the ‘matic of with respect oX nega othe mate of with respect oY, ‘or iathe notation introduced above BUK,X) = CY, ¥). “The analogous eatin suggested bythe general case called eg lence: Band ae called equivalent if ther exist bs pis (X, 5) sn (9,9) such hat BX,X = C1, ‘The pica question about egutalence, writen out incomplete deal ‘sin prt the same the original question (Problem 72) shoot sary. Problem 9. If (25.00-2ab (Bp.00 Zab {Otte and yoo) ae ses of vector space and B= Dots n= Davi what the relation Benen the incor ansormation Band C? Reformelatin. What happens to linear wansformatons under to se smulsacous changes of bases? Emphasis. The same matrix (oy) sppensin the wo displayed equstons. Comment ‘Te question issomowhat vag, jst as itwas in Problem 5. ‘Te relation that here ex bes with the ated propery and why fant that an answer? The unformulted reason, atthe Une Problem & sesstted, wa the hope thatthe “geometrie” definition could be replaced by an “algebraic” necessary and sfcient condition. That hope pests ere too 98. Rank and equivalence 1B sa projction with range Mand kere N, then there exists a basis {euuctrtrasies Ea) ofthe space sch that (2,...,2,) 8a basi for “Mand (2,41,....2y} i. basis for N, The matrix of E with respect to that oaisietntom (2°) tee pH een mie tai oer Sd toon tpn oma totes tos) Compre tt on sn pcos {sek (ote ye ce ae: pesos of ‘Sere Sr Sine sty mesh gn han gehen pr a pres ane a enc intat semen prt Problem 8. ft ner ransformatins on fie mensional ctor spac have he ame ek, st thy be epuaen!?urns 7 CANONICAL FORMS 99. Rigenvalues Alage vector spce (one flare dimension tat i) isa complicated ob- ject, and nea ransforations on tare even more complicated. I he "dy of liner transformation oa slr space sen helps to com Centrale utenti onthe way the ansormation acs 0a small subspace, ‘The phrase “anear uanformaton ating on a subspace is usual int preted mean that the subspaces invariant under the anformation in the language of Problem 70), and "sal subspace i one of dimension 1 (ourey the smallest that anon ivia subspace canbe) In view of hee comments, 4 promising approach tothe stb of near transormations ‘ould seem abe to search for variant subspaces of dimension 1A ia linear wansormation and f= 2 vector in kar Athen, of ‘couse, Az = 0 nit ollows hat A(22) = for every seaar A. Conse ‘queace the dimensional sbspace consisting of al scale multiples of 2 ‘invariant under A. Thisisan eample—an extreme sort of exaple—of the possbiliydewribed above, What does otis partial = ply omit ity c: Az=0e, Ales exteme example might bea liaertansfomation A anda vector = sch that, a, deat, Can that happen Sure—ithppens for intance when A= 7-1 (he Pierre aig rn. meer eesteps psn re crm aa(Z 2). ao, smn et hep ng a an(32) 200, A diferent oking nd prbips surprising example it (eriestios”) TA ight so Aszs = Tay tat an acidet ors it aba abit thst ‘Asha? What other vectors 2 have the property that Ay = 72? Une ‘Sttctry answer allel mops of =p have that property. (igh? “Atdes) = M(dgzy) = 40725 = 7 (ay)) Are there any ober? The ‘question amounts to aking for soltions (03) ofthe enuations 1, + 32 = Tas Sa + 2g = To “That's routine question ad the easy caluted answer i tht al 0- Iatons are ofthe form (7,7), abd those are est the “unstsicto” ‘ones already dismiss Tsthere something special shout 7 snd 2? Are there other salar and other vectors = sch that Asad ‘Thistine question isabout the solutions of 10a + 8ay = Ay Se +205 = So sd that requires aie more thought ‘Theres one dll soliton, namely ay =n = O—that works for every ‘Aan yt no information If hats dismissed iin ober words, only ‘oneto vectors ae to be acepted a olor, then the question be- Comes thie for whic scalar valus of does the mati (Gee) camonea. ons 9 have x non-trialkernel? Equvaley: for which scalar ales of. sit tre that W-A 3) gy a(S a2a)om “Te determinant is ear enough o cleus and when that’s done the ueston becomes this what ar he roots fhe equation Boasmeo ‘Thatcanbe answered by anyone who knows hw to sole quadratic equa tions Th answers that there ar oly Wo vale of ame 7 ad ‘Curioser and crousr. The ae 7 ian od rend, withthe core: sponding vector zy = (1,1). What vectors work for 5? That what are the (oon-2eo) solutions ofthe equations Way + a3 = Say Say + 2ay = Sou? Easy caluatd anwer al vectors ofthe frm (tr, “The matric here tied, and its elation to certain speci alas and ‘ecto exemplifies ut wellhe theory on hich ital es General def inion’ an eigevale of nar tansformation Aa scala Asoc hat as for some non-zero vector 2. (With = = Othe equation i woul wes itissatsied no mater what A and are) Every aon-2er vector 2 tha ‘ante wed bere called an egemetor ofA comesponing tothe eigen value ‘A salar Ais an clgenvale of near transformation A on aie simensonal vector space if and aly if 4 — has 2 noi! Kernel, and that happens and only i satis the characters equation dea a) 0 ‘The expression de( ~ A) is polyoma of degre n (he diension ofthe space in called the characte plymomll of A What i portant about the characteristic eqution i what soos are Ta much of lear algebra and ts appiations the main probem to find characters ‘icequations and their tot that eigenales. Hee ia smal ample. Problem 99. What can the character equation of projection be100 101 102 103, 100, Sums and products of eigenvalues, “The eigenvaves of good” matrices canbe quite bad. Thus, for instance, the eigenvalues of mats af integers are ot necessary intepers—they are not even necessarily rational (Example: ( 4) dost how bad an the cigerles of good matrixbe? Problem 100, Can bo he sm anh product ofthe elgemaes ofa mars of atonal numbers he satonl? Compan, Te qu ott sin Ft (0 2) senmnt pec 101. Eigenvalues of products 1A and Hare near transformations onthe sme frite-dimensonlvec- torspac, andi AB isivertbe, then each of And Bis iwertble (2A «ee B #0) and therefore Bis invertible Contaposiivey (with heroes of A and B interchanged) AB snot invertible, then BA i not iver: Ibe. Another way of stating the result is that if isan eigeavalue of AB, then Osan elgemalue of Bab, For ater eigenvalues the stations not so ear. when #0 thee dest seem tobe any way opus fom {aformation about det( AB ~ A) to information about de(A ~ A) Problem 11. If Aan B are ner sansormations onthe same ‘inte dimesional etor pace, and fsa non ero egervae of ‘AB, must bea eigeslu of BA alo? 102, Polynomials in eigenvalues Problem 1€2. 1/Asatinerimnsforation ona finite dimensional ctr spac ani pisapolmomil what information do the een values ofA gv abour (A)? 103, Diagonalizing permutations Formatrcs that re simple enough, the theory of eigenvalues works Hike ‘charm. For the trivial I I matric (2), there is ofcourse nothing to do. CANONICAL FORMS am The 2x2 digooal mati 20) 03, astwo eigenvalues, and its study reduces to that of wo vil mates of size x1. The x 3 matrix O30 004, ‘stage, but itis sila Heston. It has thre distinc eigenvalues ad cortesponingo them thee don elgeaspaces—the nai of api ‘gemalues reduce sage study to stall pecs (Problem 6) stil works ie 00 (033) ‘The matric is rom the present point of view perhaps a shade les beautiful—it has ‘only two eigenvalues but its egenspaces sil have a tal dimension 3, and testy resents no cfcoltes Matrices ach as (is) (3) risheaves ite more—the total dimensions oftheir eigenspaces ae not {ge a ove could Wish It begins to look aif eigevae theory might ‘ot tretch ove complet information about mates, ‘Things et realy ough wih a matrix sich as or for shat mater, is characters equation sai=0, andsinee there ino real number A that satisfies that equation it ook as ifelgemalue theory might ee no information about A104 “Te disse just notice nt fat aha 1 is cre contsned in the diagnos Se there 20 real umber tat sais the carateris- ‘oqtion, but hat phenomenon etc wha complex umbers a> dsignedto den with and ndced, they ole the problem. “The properties of ertor spaces and fear teansformation on them ae trongyinfoeaed by the underyngcoelliet Hel. That act was Try noticeable il nom-—much othe theory woes equally well for 7 fell The exposition til ow has either cl or expily sumed {hat the coficien eh was the eld R of real mumbers—the ld thats ‘probably the mos ful to most stents nthe appatons however {of lines algebra, and of mathematics in geeral the Hed Co complex umber often moce useful For that reason, rom hereon itl be ‘sumed that the vector paces tobe considered are complex oes, and that, ‘orespoadigy, he Yetos an near transformations obe studied a ‘it compl linear combinations. The typical coordinated example wil therfore beC* (90 R*)- “The problem that follows is small step toward geting wed othe sppearance of complex umber. Problem 108. Whatareihegeoauesand iene often ‘ear mansforaton A defined on © by Alay.2008) (ana)? 104, Polynomials in eigenvalues, converse Doestecomere of Soltion 102 hve a chnce of bing te? According to Soliton 12,4 san eigenvalue of and p isa polyoma then 9() iraneigenale of pA). The coaverse might be something ie this fp) Jan eigenvale of pA), ust tbe te that 8 a eigenvalue of A No, thats absurd, Counterexample: if A = (he ideatty tansormaton), = 1 (the mamber), and pA) = 2%, then p-1) (= 1) san elgenalu of ‘A, tt Lie nat an egenale of 7) (= 1) "Te negative solution of one posible version ofthe comers problem oes’ ste the iete—shghty weaker problems canbe posed and an hve hopes of aimativeslutins. Here one: is every eigemale of (A) ofthe form (A) for some eigenale 4 of A? Te question fone {nwhich the coefiient ld mater it isconcefabe that the ashers for ‘he veal eld and the comples eld are diferent. ‘canon. voRses n "The anver forthe real el inno IE o a4): bennett nt fom some Cermave Xe # singh Seow A cece no les tare felony hc wie ‘recast motoex ral eer of ica bration Problem 104 If izalnearrasformation on fie dimensional (compes) vector space and if pis. pobmomia ee eigenvalue (fA) ofthe frm 9 forsome egenvale of AP G89 {san cigemalue ofA? Sur, has obvious iz, = (1,00), then 105. Multipicities " An =e 1s ao tse that every now 2er0 multiple of = an eigenvector of A (acnzer0" because thas how eigenvectors are defined), bu hat trae statement is untersally tue and ges no new information, New informs tion is however aval: It sab rue that i= (0,1), then Any = 80 Both of the radially illerentvestors yan ae eigenvectors of A. ‘What goes sta he set ol hoe vectors tha ti the equation ae. (ctuing he vector 0) isa subspace of dimension its sometimesclled ‘he elgenspace ofA cotespondiag othe eigerae 3. (The vector is never regarded a an eigenvector, but the vector is says regarded telongingto the egenspace corresponding ancigen- value 3. This apparently contradictory use of langage might take afew Secondo get used, ut teases no touble and at Dore con- ‘venient tha cing forced to dal wth the avkwatd “puncture” subspace obtained by considering only the nonzero soltions of x = A.) 105In yore plas seas the number 3 ozurs twice a an eigemvaive ‘ofthe matric A above Ifthe mulpiiy—in more deta the geometric Imukipicty—of an eigenvalue 3 of a uansformation Ai defined the ‘imensio o he sto solutions of Az = Az then nthe example under ‘enidration the number 3 isan eigenale of geometric muliity 2. ir 210 o-(034). O08 ow do the at for 1 compare with he facts for A The number 3s a cigemaluc of 2, Ba <0, dist sit was for A. The vector, however, is nt an eigenvale of B. ‘Whats the geometric mokpicy ofthe eigemalue for B7 The ques ion sone about soutons (a, 2) of the equations debe oa en 30. 1 (a, i 2 solution, then the last equation implies tht w= O and theft equation imps that» — 0. Consequence: the eigenspace cor- responding fo the eigenvalue 8 for B is the set of al veto of the form (40,0)—2 space of dimension I Is that stale puzaig? The matrices A and dont lok very 4 matrix have fot! dimension & Sin statments apply of ‘our the obvious generalizations ofthis 4 mate tom x for every Posie integer. ‘Granted tha aot evrymatrixcante diagoalized what ete nex best, thing hat can be done? The mati 410) oa0 00 4 {sno s0 ea) 10 work with as 300 oso}, oo. but ts not to bad is eigenvalues (and thei mukipts) can be read ‘offata lance, and event pomers are eay to compe, (For intance G3) -G ) Coes gett et ig grin Senile "The characteris propety ofa marin ingul form fr example 4c dmatrinsuchas is that here ents as consisting of vector ein the example ‘heya (0,00) (1.00), (0,140.0) ee) such that (Ais sealar mile of» (or, in plain English, such that wf an igemalue of A), eect aes ae see sees (8) Awisatinear combination of and w—ete Invew of hiscomment a aturalapprosch io uying to wangularize strc 4s (1) 0 ind an egenvector (2) find vector such that Ae 'alinear combination fw apd ey ee. The answer othe question i yes every matrccanbetranglanized. The proposed proofisty induction nthe sm ofthe matrix Thebegaing,n =I vey enoogh ifn 1, here i thing to do Foran arta nthe lt sep a any event i slays pole very linear ansformaton ona complet vector pace V has an eigenvector “The induction tp has tobe preceded bythe observation that Ms the -iensiona space ofall multiples ofan eigemrector—an egenspace then the quia space V/M has dimension n~ 1 (Problem 52) Recall ow tht according to one definition of quaint space the element of '/Mae the vectors of V but with quality defined as emgruence modulo M (Problem SI. Use that denon to define inea ransormation Ay ‘on V/M called the quotient transformation induced by A y writing, Aye = Ae foreveryzin V. Thi defistion nce defense: t must be checked that it is unambiguous. The rouble i (coal be) that two “equal” vectors (hat is vectors tat are congruent modulo M) might have unequal images. The defense, in other words, must prove that fz = y mod M, then Ae ‘Ay mo Mor equally, hati yisinM hen Qe yin ML In| ‘that orm the impliation obows—i asters no more and 0s than that Ms ovarian under A “The ground is now prepared forthe induction sep since aim V/s =n the wansformaton Ay on V/M canbe wangularied. That means 82 Sir step that thee ext vectors yu. nV (comedered ere a pho ‘ograph of VM) such that Aye sa scalar lil oft, Ayes saint combination of wand wet In difereat language: A is equal to scala ‘multiple of plusan clement of M, Aw sequal toa linear combination of ‘vandw plusan element of Met Concson:oconlys Awa scalar mal tiple of but ao Ae isa linear combination of wand and Aw sa inst combination of u,v, and w,et-—and tha ay exactly that hasbeen ‘angulated, Conlon: every anformation canbe tangled ‘ofc in one's mind this ouine ofan argument, might be a good ‘Went follw tin a couple of oneete muri cases, and tha’ what the following peoblem sugges.109 110 Comment To eiangsarie” a matric tis not enough exhibit t= ngular marx Mg ado prove hat M and My are sina. What wane ‘ether the exp determination ofa newbs with respect which the ‘ow matriof he sam ines transformation angular, or equivalent, the exp determination fan inverble matt he transformer, sch that TMP" itrangulr In he course of looking fora utable bai the ‘eigenvalues of Mf shoul bezomevsle—hich is fequenly preceded by ‘he determination ofthe characteristic poloial and fone by the de termination of he elgenvecon. Reminder. ‘Te theories of pper nd lower wangulariaion ar boring tke; inthe discussion above, or no especial good reason, upper was emphasized 109. Complexificat Does ever lines tresformation on” have an variant subsp of ‘mension eal 1? oa tat ste stm tasking whether every neat transformation on B® hasan eigenvector, and the answer ott is obvi ‘uly no (ee Problem 103) What happens the questions iberaized a fine? Problem 109, If > 1 does ee near ransfomaton on™ have an iariat subspace of meson equal 2? 110, Unipotent transformations Problem 16, if ince ransformaton Aon finite dimensional (comple) recor pce uch that A= forse posite meer Kms A be digoalzble? Comment. Transformations rome positive por of whichis equa tothe Sdentity are sometimes called wnipetent. 19 ‘Trarsfocnations wih many distin! eigenvalues are dagoalabl (Prob tem 105) does that imply that ifs eansformaton has only a sal number af eigenvalues, hen ical wo dlgonalie? A ce to the answer ean be found in the wiangularzaton discussions of transformations wih jst one eigenvalue (Problem 105) Inthe sty of linear transformations with jst one egenvale, the cual sumer ale of hat eigen cnt mater macs fas he Unique eigmaive 0, then A ~ af has the ungue eigenvalue 0, and (4al) + 31 has he unique eigenvalue 6. Since the ation ofa scalar ‘annotproduce ary majorchanges the question might ewe ested tothe easiest eigenvalue to work with mel @ How ear i to find eames fines traformations whose only eigenvalue is 07 One example the ubiquitous (4) _ 1s the later obvious? The statements surely ota deepone—a ew ee- ‘ond ealtion shows tht the characteristic obmomi of Ae but special pint of view on itis wsefullypeneralizable. To wit since an equ ‘onset at Another Areas implies tat Bese ‘a ftlows from A? = 0 (afew microsecond clelation) that = O(ecept fn the degenerate ase x = 0), Generalization ifs inca snsoemation ‘A lssuch that A¥ = Oforsome poste iter then is oly eigenvalae |s0. The proof ithe same sy the one just seen Arad, then r= Xs, and therefore A = 0 (or 2 = 0). un2 ry NEAR ALGERRA PROBLEM. BOOK. Atiocarteasfomation Asch that AV = Oforsome posite integer scaled iptent the sale qthat work calles indexof aparece “Tae observation ofthe preceding paragraph wasthat if Ais potent, hen spec Acomtsfaloe. The comers sao tre, butts deeper. Iced epee A = (0, then atangulaization of A (see Problem 105) Ins otoes on 28 wel 8 belon thems gona, nd a angular matrix te that is npotet. The eason that i Se sqanred them the rest as ae Soeos f Sees ; “Emphasis: he diagonal just sboe the main one coasts of zr0es ol. Mulpy by 4 again: for the two diagonals jst above the main one ‘onlt of zeroes only Comtaus this way, and infer that A™ = 0. Conch potent (bt cakuation ofthis sort des not eeal is exact Problem 11. [fa incareansformaion Acoma fine dimensional sector pace i potent of nde ad for each vector inthe ‘pee a subipace Ma) defined te span ofthe vers hw lag athe dimension of Mi) be? 112, Nilpotent products “Anobvows exer about alpotence eto ak whether the product of wo ‘ilpotent transformations isnesewariy potest The anwerisyesifthey Comme, but the anwerisnoin genera astandardeay example ge bythe wo matrices (0) = (0a) \| eanoweaL roms na ‘That doesnt sette everything hous here ae tek ipotence questions that arise in some contents and to which he anser ot preditable jst ‘rom the existence of examples such as hese Problem 12. 17 A and Bar lina wonsforations onthe same sector space such hat ABAB =O does follw that BABA = 0? 113. Nilpotent direct sums 16 A,B, and C are npoten mats of sires 6 4, nd 4 respectively ad Indies of mipotene ao 6, and 4 respetvely ithe mae wi(oae ee ls potent? That's vl question; the 14 matric A inobiouty nilpotent of index 6 ow else an one obtain potent matrix fs 14a index 5 One ay amwer just jul the numbers replace the snes and indies of ‘Band, for stance, by 53043, oF replace the snes ad indices of Band by 6 and 2, ee. These examples ste rect sums they are obtained by ing together examples of the sme or smalls, What other may of ‘manufactring nilpotent matrices there? ‘Theres of Problem 111 ipl that if Mia aipotent atx of Index, then there exit a vector x ck tha the vectors eMe, Ate ae laeary independent Extend that lneary independcat st oa basis land write down te matrix of M with spect otha ass. The et ook “ ($8) (3): and Bsa mate tht mate nilpotent ako, with nde less thao est 103. Question can X be thrown away? Preis ie (ca) where 34 a ayean ALGEBRA FROLE BOOK “That question ints general form sone of he most important ones ‘nica letra ad its answer corresponding ica Ten al ha Liicle_—ie methods used wo far serve to prove thatthe answer ys butitends toe longish and complisted. A sight feoig forte spirit of the answer can be obtained by woking Oa Wey easy special ase; here Problem 13. Whats bss wih respect whi he near rans formation dined by the mate 1019 boro wa]oo000 dooon D000 0 she mao 01000 oo100 m=]oo0 00/7 ooo01 00000, 1114, Jordan form ‘What happen when the general theorem tha exhibits iptent mati tsa direct sum (Problem 108) i applied rpesteiy? The theorem says that wth respect oa site asi every pent mati of nde 9,5, noe orm mt where A and have the following speci properties (0) Aisa mate ofthe same form (or form) athe 8 9 mati 010 oon 000, described in Problem 108, meaning thatthe entries on the diagonal [stabowe the main one are Yanda others ae 0, and ‘nontcaLms ns (2) Bs ipotnt wth index ls thi equ tg “Toapply that result the second ine means to apply ito B The rest isarepresemation Basa diretsum oftwo note mates, of which the firsts Jordan frm, with index equal the index of (and with Sesame ate). Appileston ofthe method “repeated” a ofen as posible yields a mati reprsentation for M ofthe form A 00 oo oo Here ach 4, on th diagonal isa nipotent mate in Jordan form, of sie and index gy with q, 2 ee 2 2 =" Ths called the Jordan form of Mw. Could it be true that every matcan be obtained by aig together exsy ones? Could it for instance, be re that thee pst” every ma ‘ui can be spit off and stati separatey? What might that ean? Well, posible hope ita vey mate (or smilar to) adrect sum, sch ‘ G9) ofa er mati ands non ero matrix that snot re, Example 09 0 9, ‘The weakest way of saying “zero” and the sroagest wy of tying “non ero" suggest modified hope: could ite that every mate (ri miar {o)a dee sem ofa lpotentmatrixand an avril mate? Ye thats eve, andthe rea known Fitting’ lemma, ‘The inverbl diet summand that iting’ lemma yield (clit) oes not have ia i spectrum, bu ince does have some geval 2. Fitting’ lemma is aplicabl tothe marx f ~ 2. Consequece: Mis ‘epresntable asa direct sum that erat resembles te one dipped in the potent cae bat with diet summands 4, A106 DAus el EAR ALGEBRA PRONLEN HOOK, ‘on whose nin agonal apeatsisead of In an obvious extension of| the tenminoogy introduced before, that form known asthe Jordan frm oth “Arguing the same way separately foreach egenale of an abirary matrix lads othe grad conclusion —the asso that every mati iesiiar oa det sum of matrices Mj, Bf, n Jd fem, ith sic igre. Tat direct si elle the Jorn form of in the second and ial roading of tht expression), and the possi of ‘eprenating every Mf tat way ithe apex of nar algera I ficult {othink ofan ansterable question abut near tansformations whose a swerisnoaconsequenceorepeesentablyin Jordan fora hereisasmall but pleasant sample Problem U4 Does er mari havea square rot? Comment 16 A= B?, then ofcoue, Bis clled x square roto A 115. Minimal polynomi Is every marc algebraic? The language is borrowed from the theory of lgebras an element a of a algebra cll sles there ext 4 ‘non-zero paloma p such that pe) = 0 Example: if sa pojecin, andig(3) = ~A,thea p(B) ~ 0. Another example if Ais ptea of Index gan i p(8) = A then (A) = 0. “The second example can be geacralod: if linea wansformation Ay ‘on aintedimensional vector space has only oe elgenvalae ya then ‘Ay~ ol isnipoent finde sy, and therefore the poypomial mA) =A)" nites A. Important note: isthe smal degre that such pl ‘nomial ean hae, and (3) the usque mone polynomial of that degree ‘hat dos the jb. 11a linear tnsfomatio has ost one eigenvalue bu two, Ay and 2 hen its Jordan for ok ike mo w(t) ee follows that tere sone and only one monic poywomial of mininal epree that aniiates 3 namely the pool A= AYA da} 0) ‘eANONICAL FORMS ns ‘The number 2 has nothing oo with this statement os proof. The several satemeat iS that for every matric A there exis @ unigue ‘monic polyromia of minimal degree that anaes Ait scaled the ‘minimal polynomial of A. This minimal poymomial is in fat, equal to the product ofthe factors ofthe frm (A = 3, obtained by leting the 2y'stangetheough he distinct ienvalues ofA he are comesponding lndens i the Jordan or ringu) form. ‘Sine each factor ofthe minima polynomial factor ofthe chara ‘erate polynomial alo, follows that if te characteristic palyomil of ‘Aisa then (4) = 0; ths famous statement i known as the Hanlon: Cayley equation. If the minimal polynomial of liner transformation on a space of mension na depos, est follow that he transformation i dingo- tliat Aver no-ayoe-seaterapet (8 ov do the minimal polynomial andthe characteristic potynomil of a Gigonal mate compare? Anewer:if a oo 0 yo alo oee |. ‘then the characteris plynomal the product ofa the (A — but ‘the minima polyorial the product of jst oe epesentative of cach ossbl factor So, fr example, if 0 then the charncterticpolmomial i (A ~ 1} ~ 2), and the minal polynomials (3 1)(0~2), “These examples were trying to cut frendhip toward minis! oom the folowing problem igh tes the sucesso he temp Problem LS. What are the msl pont and the charae- tere polmamial ofthe diferentaon oansfomaton D and the ‘tania ranformation Ton the space sof polmomials Liege es a cg Remind: Delt) = and ie) =2(¢4 1)16 6 ‘UNEAR ALGEBRA PRONLEM OOK 116, Non-commutative Lagrange interpolation here a polynomial such that pn) = 10" for eer integer between "and 10 fcsiv? Sore, why inact teres poynamial of degree ‘i that does that. All yoke odo to peor itis to wet down the pet- eat ystem of 100 (lies) equations nthe 100 annow cet and fe that is determinant (special instanceof» Vandermonde) 00. easy to formulate a general theorem of which this rena i speci casey aren tine numbers (he soidaceof repens is tssential), sy, sh ate amy wmumber then here exists a (nigne) obomial pofdepce nL such that ve) = for j =4,...yn, Te celebrate Lagrange interpolation formals san x- pit presentation ofthat pom The “numbers” inthe general te- ‘rem can be paced by clement in an arbitrary fed, andthe ests = olomial with oeficints in that Bel ‘Once ll hte granted shallow generalization i ay to come by Xion Xe ne pase dint Site sets of umber (o element of narbitrary eld) ani, ate abeary polyoma with coe ‘Gens ia the same eld), thea there exist a pomomia so that we) = nile) whenever = € Xj = 1,~.m- Poot apply the Lagrange interpolation Theorem wo the se of (stn) pumbers in XU Xo wih the coe responding values y chosen tobe pz) whenever 2 ¢ X(T smallest pole degree ofp en odes in terms ofthe aber abd the oer ofthe set Xi. Ny) Atalement ofthis generalization ia terms of matrices goes ike tis iy, My ate lagonl matics with a= ‘wise digoit spectra hat pnw dijon set of eigemaaes or, wht owns to xsl the same hing, patwise dion ets of diagonal ets), tnd, me polmomiay, then here ests pooma such hat iM) = 74M) ‘he inost conspicuous fat shout diagonal matrices that they all comma with one another the matrix Lagrange interpolation theorem ‘hat wae jot formulsted belong to commutative Unearalgebra, Does is ‘raightforward non-commutatne generalization have a chance of being love or does the concoon isl mpl some kind of pata commuts tiviy? Ro avo extraneous rouble with nominee of ier, he [ecu roe straightforward generalization willbe formulated oer the Bel ofcom- plex umber Problem 116. fs alas that if Aga near ran Jomains with pacvise dein spe (hat pate din 25 of eervaluts) oma fte-doensonal ctor pace ¥ oer land if p.m are pobmoials wth cores ik C he here 2s a pool with corficens in C sch thar As) = (As)| H | INNER PRODUCT SPACES 117. Inner products ‘Which thse vectors in i rgr (21,8) (3 44)? Does the ques tion make sense? The only ses, the oniy numbers, tat have been con. sidered a0 far ae dimensions. Since (29,5) belongs to Rapa (11,11) belongs to, th ate isin some sens larger, bu it isa weak Sense and ‘ota tefulone, Te tine hascome to look at thecal ond uefa way of measuring” vector “The central concepts tha ofan inner product in ral or complex eto space, That by definiton, 3 (0) Herman symmetric, (2) conogate bina, and (2) positive deni Fom—shich mean hat ts «namical aed function of ordered Pals vectors andy such that eo=a a (oxz1 + eatny) = eos) + een a (2) 20;(2.2)=Oitandonyyitz =0, o Standard examples: for = = (G63) andy = (mom) in RP, write (=n @Gh sam10 Lunar ALGEBRA PROBLEM BOOK ‘emis ofthe Forma ft cosine of the angle tween epmen), fd for =a yin P we oan [0a (Soma “otis” analog fhe ain Rand ft matali on in RY, ‘The ope bas here dense compen congo; the ease they ae neces hs do i teased non of feng The pin hat he Teng (ease) of ects 2 defied by lo = Vea. ee tcl Gam a een instead af + thn fo {ector#n the comer fs sar ue (whe += y=1) ‘ould fad to an enpenant sure The raion ete immer pros Td seals woul il Wel? = (6) = at) = (5,2) = Ha? so tha ould be ep samples. The sare of eat shoul' rely be regit—that weal! ea 1 length whose vale i an imapitary unter an that snot he sar of thing oe anally thinks of 5 2 sible ‘mee of ae TA ler pod space isa vec sce witha ier product. The Inte interpretation of (9) the ease ofthe ae Between 2 ad y ‘an, corespontigy (29) — Oconee Dib vectr = ay {Seca orthogonal (= prerclaTo what eens his mei cone fn harmony wt the nt once ea a? Problem 117. How large does afte ortagoal set of ron 2r0 ectars have 1 bet e nearly depends? Comment sof vectors is clad ethoga if ach pai of ts ements tipo Real ht when vectors enlarged. near dependence elation beeen tem Besos more than wae before 118 Polarization ‘The orm ina nner prt space is dfn in ems of he ner prot Isdhre any he of ping in teeter aren? Problem IR, Can rm fret ier prod eld the same even rnoDucrseaces rn 119. The Pythagorean theorem ‘The Pythagorean theotem sy tht the sum ofthe squares of to ides of "right angle sequal wo the square of the hypotenuse, le aything ike that ue foe vector spaces in general? Problem 19. Under what condom to vector andy it ‘ruc that 120. The parallelogram aw Problem 12. Under what condion on wo vector and yt ‘meat let uP + eal? Hel + 21a? Comment The equation snot wstange aa fit it ight spear Think shout pitres: i andy are wo intersecting sides parallogram, then '=+yand—ycanbe thought of its two diagonals. The ‘paallogram uw" of elementary geomet is exact the egaton under consideration, 121. Complete orthonormal sets ow large can an orthogonal st be? One posible interpretation of hat ‘ueton i this fr which values of mit possible to find an othogoa set {21,..-t) of vectors in a ane proc pace? That's not lea sense interpretation: the notation allows many al) of the 0 e 0, ‘nd in tat sense mean be cosenarbirarly le. Aneicent wy tore ‘ut that uninformative interpretation of the gueton st "normalize the ‘vectors that are allowed to enter. Inthe languge tha customary in this ‘icles. ay that vector nommal or normalized mean hat lel = 1, and, corresponding, an erthogoal set (2,2...) icalled| ‘orthonortnal ifs 2,)= 8 fr all ad ‘Anorthonormal set iscaled ample tis mama, ht iit can- ot be enlarged or, in oter word its no a suet of ay lpr of ‘onormal st. Since orthonormal sare nearly independent (Prom 117, an immer prods space of dimension n cans have orthonormal 5 ‘with more than n elements, Can it always hone thet manag?” 120 2m2 Problem 121, Does evry ane paduct space of mension nave anonhononmal sof melemens? 122, Schwarz inequality {In what way are orthonormal Bases eter than jut plain bases? A partial swe that when vector = expanded in ters ofan orthonormal taste coeficems ie pri informaton about thes ofthe vector. Thin foct {2,2 ivabothonormal se (nt even neces aba), and zisan arbitrary vector, then Jeter] (2.2) Dlevsdteu)— Deeyaer2) +LDesdteenteos) Cieza? -Lleaa? + Deve Consequence Diteza s te. “Thiers is known ms Besse nequally uence (fan y ae vectors in an inne proc space then est important conse Ha) fe “This resis known a the Star neqully It canbe derived fom Bowes inequaiy 1s fllows fy ~ 0, both ies ae Oy 0 he Set constingof the vector" only orthonormal ad consquenty by mi Bese'sinequlty, J(=2)) ste NER ROOUCT Aces 3 2)itxinavectorand (2, produt space, then {4} an ononorm basin an inner I= Dkeaoe. “oprove ta obsene ha icp interme 2 s-Yoms ‘then, forming he nner produc of ech side wth tel ks lee (Sense) = pe) - Lie sn forming ine rot bh sides with ach ik Gna Treemton bP = Deco? ‘known as Parsvals Ment No roves a more general result i small modication ofthe technique Eyayzyandy=Tyayzy then Tak, ‘Bessel and Schwarz and Parva ae part of he standard lore ofthis subject The answer tothe net question equally well known to thee ers, bit i ighty more resondit and, perhap, lite moe fan, ew Problem 122. Rarhick pai of ecto darth Schwa inequl- liybecome an equation? 123, Orthogonal complements 123 4st how much orthogonality in “armony” with inary? What ak "eady known that vectors hat fer lot nthe metre venue fr lovin the near sense to (orthonormal setae lineal independent, se ‘Problem 117) What ifatnchof vectors all have common Corthogoal) e0emy—does follow that they areal (lines en? sharp form- ion ge usin hs oh wt ae el ohoa ns 1 ‘seve ALGEBRA PROMLES 200K FB ea set of vectors in an inne product space V, the orthogonal ‘complement £* (pronounced "E perp") of ithe set of a tore vers in Vthatare orthogonal i overyvectorinE. Itisan easy excise over that Bia subspace of V (i doom mater whether se mbspac of not. and saying the meanings the symbols ough toconsince any fone that EC ls the intended meaning of Eclat ts (E°)") Consequence: spon BA, Problem 123, [/Misesubgace oft dimenionalinnerprod ‘ct space V what are he relations among MM and Mi? 124, More linear functionals Inthe resemblance between the superscrps such ain M (nator of subspaces) andthe ones in Mt (orthogonal complements of subspaces) 4 ‘strutral one of merely tations? It urs oat tht the questions eal ‘ne aboot near functional Linear fnctionalson an ane produt space V ate etsy enough to ‘come by: fixan element in Vang the define funtion on Vy wen 2) = (a9) forall. That is ea functional isan immediate onsequece ofthe etn properties finer prods, Are the linear Fncionals oad inchis way pial? Problem 124, ft econ onan loner rode Wosth obey cite wary Veh arn si) (0.9) fora? 125, Adjoints on inner product spaces Isa vector in an nner prodt space the sme linea ontiona? That ‘ay look ke a foolish question, bat (a) linear lgbeast are uted 0 con- ‘dering linear funciona as vectors (elements ofthe dus space), and (8) inan nner produce space each vector induces (nea fetonl te SEIN Chics iant iuicacsaeceecaneee sen nooUcrseuces Bs cach vector y ina inner product pace V the linear functional that Indes, fe)= (ew), isa onesocone correspondence between allo Vs al ofthe dual space "YOnetrone? Surety ad yp crzespond tothe sme then ean) = (em) forall s,s hat (an-w)=0 feast Ea then ys +n — 6+ Ge—tas ‘cyan ify inde then a scalar mute ay indices—no, tof, ‘ut almost in fc does, Cea I zy) = 2) forall then (Gray) = Alaa) ~ Béla fora 2. The corespondence y - € doestt tite deserve tobe called an omoephisn its a conjugate isomorphism, Ts the dul space ofan ier produt space an inner prods pace? ‘et that depends how ithe inner prodae of wo nea functionals sd defined? 12) = (2) and 2) = (29), the most natural Tooking definitions probably this 6) = (no “rable: it doesnt work Is (Gn) Hea in 67 Addit ial ih, but ‘site hat (ans) = af6, 657" Nozsince ays induces aj, 80 that af iindced by Zn, (os) = (@raan) =H) = 166), ‘it ftoms that, once more, a conjugation appears wher it was ited "There isa bre fore remedy, but i ar om lear on fist lance ‘that itl work why noe define (1) 1b (3)? Does it work? Ye. Indeed, with that deiniton, (62) = Gin) = Eons) = a). ‘Concasion: wth the inner producto defined the apace of al linear fan tonal on an inner product pace Vi itself an inner produc pace, and, 256 aytaKALGEMRAPRORLEM HOOK such itis denoted by V" The isomorphism statement forthe pure vector Speces V and V' now extends to the inner product spaces Vand V they too are conjugate oomph. fin aezordace with hat conagatesomorphi the spaces Vand" reidentied regarded asthe samethen ny eve statements aout the relation beteenV and W become more inteerting and more wae, ‘So for instance, te aserton that cotespnding to each basis of V here isa dal bss in V becomes the aston that o cach as 2-25) of V there coresponds anther bass (Gf) of Vs the dual basis, uch that (216) = 6. The corespondencebesween subspaces of Vand their ‘nniltorsin V besomes the correspondence between subspaces of ¥ ‘nd theirorthogoal complements Mt aoa V. Fall and most impor tant the eorespondenc betwees ear tansformatons on Vand thei agjins on W becomes acorespondence between neu tasformations ‘Aon Vand their acintson V", denoted in his contest by A°-The prey Tinear aon and the ner product kind difler in minor way onal of ich have to do wit he coausation tat haste bul it the complex ‘theory. The dlifeences are hat (ay =3A" (tod o hat he muti of A* (ith respect to an oonomal tas) i he conte transpose ofthe mati 4, (a) desomes 5) (ato, @ saithat deta THA (potdera). ® ‘Tats the bad news—anditsur st very bad. The good ness thai A {sa fnear tansormaton, not only are A and A" comparable bts are ‘Aan A*-For A and A "comparable tums oat 9 ean “eu”. For ‘Aan 4 tat can happes, but does’ have a, bu, a ay ese, new an “aluabe question can be asked, When situue that A* = A? How about ‘Av = AY What can be said about the sum ofA and A°? What about the roduc when do and 4" commute? These questions are athe basis of the mest important part of ier algsbra. Before beginning their proper stu, coupe of problems sho he looked at byway of practce—the ‘ropes ofthe cbrespondence rs AP lke geting used 16. Problem 12 Thee sum V © W of so inner produc spaces itdefined tbe the direct mam of th vecor spaces Vand W endowed even rnonocrseuces ry sith he mer product defined by ( (oxo. tenan) = (ert) + ora) (Check i his ined an ier pros?) {@) fa lnarnsfornaton U is defined on Vo V by vie) whats 0°? What are UU and UU"? (0) The raph of incr ranfornation Aon a vector space V ‘sth set ofa honoree pai (2,9) 2 8 fori y= A. Ihthegoph abaya subspace of VV? (0) 'Gishepraph ofa near Pansfoomatin Aon, whats the pap ofA"? woe hoses aed? 126, Quadratic forms 126 Aji enterica alsbra through sil another door, the back door of ‘qndratic forms (whose name, to Be sure dest sound very linea). A ‘Gudea form i speciation ofa bilner form, which, frm [eterlation of ner functions “The about way o generalize ica functionals inthe ieton of the function of several varias called multlinear forms. The eset bt ‘evertelss pial mules forms are the bilinear ons they re, by fussed soon, For now, however, Best o get back othe general theory of sesquiinear forms. wen Prowvcr crs » ie a sequins frm, what should be calle? (Here, as be fore, (2) = o(a2)) No soeurate word ext emiguadrtc and ses ‘urate suggest themseives?but the word has adopted ether one), td thettore, an inncarate ones commonly se. Iga sequlinear form and 2) = p(2) then, jus asin thebinar case, ial the quadratic form asxite with (induced by) "Tere is a may of making em sexqulinese forms out of old Hy is s sequlnear fom, aed iP and Q ave linear transformations then the expression el 2,Q9) sins another sexginear form-—in this sense near transformations (cx, rniber, piso near teaformtios) at on sexquliea forms. inpanicaa, on) = (As ther P29) = (AP=,Q9) = (Q° APE) ‘Thais the action of? and Qon replaces the ina transormaton A by an oguivalent one (nthe rit ene of the word, diseased in Problem 95) IF ithe qondratic form ssoiated wih thon the natural Way to ritina near transformation to consider (Pe). Sine APs) =(APs, Pe) = (PAPE 2}, the action of Pon 9 replaces A by he unfamiliar contract P*AP. That onstructxagnd thing's know out the conceit defies scaled con tence. That wo inear asformations A and are caled comgruet ‘there exist an aver linear ransormation Peach hat B= Par, ect is sential ere without it the relation is oo lose to be of such nerest Congrcce fu special cave of equilence, What aes speci propeties? Problem 126. (a) sconguencean equivalence elation? (@)/f Aan Bare congruent ae A and congruent? (6) Does tee exit incr ansfomaton A such that Aiscon- puent toa alr abut A a? (©) Do there exit inca ansfrmatons Aan B such that A and B are congruent but A? and B? are net?at PP "UNEAR ALGEBRA PROBLEM HOOK (6) Doerr nie near rarsormation and Bsc ‘hat and Bare conguen but AW! and Barna? 127. Vanishing quadrati forms ‘Towa extent ds a qusdrate form (2) determine the iear rans formation A? Cen it happen fr two deve! tanormations A and that (4,2) = (Bo) forall 2? ‘Problem 127. oer her exit nan seo ier ransformation am inne produc pce sack that (Az. 2) = forall =? Comment. es clears i, tha this question about ze i the sme sth uniqueness question: i tre that (A, 2) ~ (Be forall Wand onbif ((A~ B)2.2) =Otorall=? 1128, Hermitian transformations oe eran tp reebcnget Hers Potoerentnepmtenrt eter ‘nd me a eer oe ‘Sr pekcapes tome oen ec ere ey eee one Sopot ee bt ingran of com asm i sno ten Wit a tunes meh tent ees ot ice Gepsrmienashehs 2 etoamsn aet tate el tents fon nar pep 2a a rn sa eos ‘Mecareu heparin pean oftcarapte iacanaane tnence' Treen on sali ayy ne mal be ps wane) (cern i Tews fern bree eo ieatome ) ta ith respect io the orthonormal basis (1,0), (0,1), then Ais Herman In however the no-onthonormal bs (ya) sed where 1 =(1,0) and w= (1), nem noducr secs m then Au =(041)= (4.1) (0) = 92m, ad Ana, sha the matric of A with espe () ¢ Since ts easy enough to write down at many content metre ma trices as ampone could desire tise oprodue examples of Hermitian transformations, Very special ease: a salar transformation i Hermitian if ‘nd ony ifthe alan gueton ea ‘What follows is a sequence of problems (pur) intended 10 ge theisove the apport of geting se othe properties of Hermitian rearfoot Problem I When ihe producto vo Hernan manor tions Hemi? 129, Skew transformations ‘The mst unreal munbers are the socalled pure inaginry ones, the eal ‘itp off. The complex conju of such a aumber isnt ea sf but sequal to its negate: 1 = ~The transformation analogs of those numbers ae calle shew Herman, o imply shew: they a the teanformation A for which 4° = ~A, Various combination of Hera tin ransormatons and skew transformations can sometime er ut be Hermitian or shew; here ae some sample questions. ‘Problem 129. (3) If and I areconget and Ai shew does it {low that Bis stew? (O)IAsssken does it follow that ssw? How abou 4°? {@)If Ais ether Hemi o sew, and f Be citer Herition orske: what con be sid about AB's BA? What bout AB” BA? ‘Comment. “Congruent” refers tothe concept discussed in Problem 120. 29130 1 1 ‘ise acum reomtas 900% 130, Real Hermitian forms How mich do Hemitanarfonatons semble el members? The mei tation for nding thom ove was the equation At ats ly 2 ermal logy Is te rai cent ettine (ass) =n 3 (Ung)ane tein =a els any can gt Ave hse phenomena pie” Problem 130, Whats he lation ere Heritin rar ‘ane ond raaformains with rel guaati om? 131. Positive transformations res th 1 of poitve lamers have mnie ansformation ag site tf allel mune? Anata att fo define petvenes for ttaoeatons i to lait the efition of resi via qd rms tat in at 6 what is usually done Aiea wasfirmaion scaled postive i (x2) 2 D for every vetr xf (Ar1) > 0 for all nae Eth pre postive defi ted The smc way of yng hat A tod the satemeat A ~ 12 0c aloe writen a Aze, ‘The weak sin (2) canbe replaced by the sng one (>) when te fa emi it and 2 means of coun, the same as A 2 B. wen nooUcr sce rs Examples: if A an stir linea transformation, then A°A 2 0 (because (4°, 2) = Ao), and therefore i Bisa Hersam raor- tation, then B* 2 0 (because 8 = BB). These statment at rans formation analogs ofthe numerical statements 2 0 (forever complex umber») and > 0 (forever rel mame) To sy that a matics postive mean tht the iearwansformaton it efi poste in mati notation that erred by saying that TEatez 2) Conerete examples: or every vector (6, la +P +a G2) mw (2 21 19, se not postive in both cases Because the values of thei quadrate forms the vector (11) ae negate Some caution i ele for using the symbolism of ordering when complex numbers ener the picture. Everybody agres that $ > 2 and almost everybody sooner or ater agrees that 2 > 3, What abot sea nea is hat tae? What tue that sorting the iht ie from the ft ‘es a posive number, bu, nevertheless, mos peopl el como he with he nequaliy. Como sense upg hat sch equates ae best oid, and experience shows that thing ot by song them ‘nd using inequalities for real numbers and Herta transformations) ‘ony Its pertient areal that if > so that (Ae,2) 2 Ofoall then in parla (42,2) ira for all and therefore A must be Hern (Problem 130),Problem BL (0) lth an cial of eps marcntaof hom i pine? own mpl of nope mar a of whe wine pie? 1 (tte mani (: Le £3) mir Le re ‘ te Corer gotten 132, Postive inverses Problem 133. If positive ansformation imei, mst itn vere ako be pose? ‘Ra, but most tequenty when the contest makes rotation a etian- loge fuss unnecessary, even the word "perpendieulr is droped and people just speak ofthe projection ono would be pity it perpendicular projections wore lt ia the crowd of al posible protons Ir there away of resin them? Problem 13. Whi near ranformations oman ier product ‘pace are pependiaar projections? Comment The question vaguethe fst problem fo look for non ‘vag interpretation oft In ih ess vague ters the challenge 19 Took for an alebri characterization of hase ner transformations ob am ner product space tha are perpeadcula projections, 134, Projections on CC Problem 134. Whar cane manic ofaprojectonon CxC (= look ite? 134 | Caution, “Marie ete eersto 2 matiwith respect to an orthonormal 133, Perpendicular projections ass “Thenddition toa vector space ofan nner product strcture makes the the | ‘ry more speci and therefore deeper); how dos it aflet the questions and answers about prejetions? The answer sth alets those questions fad answer quite ot. The main reason forthe change thatthe lane { product sructre picks oa special one among the many compemens that a subspce has, mumely (bviowly) the orthogonal complement. Re- cal that if M and N are complementary subspace of ite dimensional 135, Projection order "ow isthe geometric ordering of projections reatd to the alebrially ‘defined ordering via postvenss (Pzobiem 131)? The geomet ordering ‘sone that suggests self naturally and are projections wit anges Mandl then tisan almost nestle temptation say that Eissler ‘han Fin ease Ms smaller than N (meaning that MC). qe ! Problem 138. If Band Fare perpendicular projections, ihe an so that every sn Vis uniquely epresentabe as implication in ciher direction Deen the satemens zeaty ese with x a M and yin then the proetion to M along is the near ent ‘tansformation dei by Es = 2 (Problem 72) IV ia inne prodct ace then the projection onto subspace M along ts orthogonal comple- a ‘ment M scl the perpendicular preection onto. When exaotd- ran8 Cran F? ‘nay caution is needed, that perpendicular projection can be demoted bya7 6 ‘ean ALGEBRA PRONLEM BOOK 136, Orthogonal projections How isthe orthogonality of wo spaces refetd by thee projections? Problem 136. fond F ar pepeniclar projections what alge lai raion Between Band P characters the omen propery often Being otagonal gran F? Comment Whatever the answer turns ott be it sems reasonable to ‘we for that algebras relation the same word a for spaces. That is FF and F sll be clled orthogonal projections excl in ease an and ran Fae orthogonal subspaces 137 Herman gras Mor ere psn om i ce Pata hr —— — ———— wt ta gc angle eso eh ema omig axis pm aap Siete wae (42): ‘hats the roots of the quadratic equation on sare 3.44 and 3 ~ 4. Usa general construction vise here? Caney ‘complex number bean geval of eal mati”) "The concept of a "eal mtr” i an atl one—reaiy isnot 2 property of linear transformation bot a consiracy betwen 4 Kear "aaforation and abasis (Suchonspiracies are wally clled matrices) What abou the notion of reality that a propery of linea ransorma- tion cs that behave diferent? Problem 137, Whatcom bes about the eigen of Heri trasormations? What bout postive ransformaton? (Question Ate the conditions onthe eigenvalues ncesiy or sufclen, be bork? 138, Distint eigenvalues “ete a good question oak that may no osu o everyone immed rely but hat does play aol inthe theory i there ay elation betwee eznvectors belonging to diferent eigenvalues? Example: it 1a a(0 3): _~~=—=—s—S—se with genalue nd there 0 obviously dlconerabe elation between ‘hose tro eigenvectors. Why nat? Problem 138. Is there any ation ere eigenvectors belonging ‘oditint eigemalue of « Homan ranfommaton? 138courter 9 NORMALITY 139, Unitary transformations ‘The tree most obious pleasant lations that linear ansormation a aminne produc space can ave ois adjolat are tha they ae equal (Her- ita) or that nei the negate ofthe other (skew, o that one he inverse ofthe other (oot yt discussed). The word that desribes the las of these possibiies sunita: ths what ana rarsformation U sclled incase itis verte snd U™ = U", The defini cn be expres a 1 "es prejudiced” way a "U7 = 1st proud in the sense tat sume lss—but ts ot clear tat he ess prejudiced way yds just as ‘mach: Does Problem 19. 1fU is near ansformation uch har UU = does flow tar UU = 140, Unitary matrices "Wscems flo apl the word “unary” toa matrxin case the fina trans formation i dfine i unitary one (Ceaton: when language that makes sense in nner product paces only is applied to mates the bas that es ‘nblsbes the corespondenehetween matrices andliner transformations ‘nad beuer ean erthonarmal one) A qk lance uly sfice ol whether or ot mati Hermitian there yt tell hy ooking at 8 ‘matic whether r aot sanitary? Te folming speci aes ae flr Penland enn pol 401 Lavearavomea mon 900K Problem 10. (0) Fornhich ates ofa (2) aunty me Moytrntesniatan (4 } 2) aunty manic? (6 lsehew a 3% Stary mat whose fst row is a maliple oft? 141141, Unitary involutions ‘The wosimplet properties tha linear transformation ona ner prod: uctspace can have ae ting Hermitian or being nity. A pleasant and imerestingl related property isbeing inoltry (ea tarsformation U iscalled a inoltion oF ivory if U = 1.) What ae the relations among these properties? ‘Problem 11. What are the implication elation among the con ions" =, U°0 = 1 and 0? 142142. Unitary triangles Problem 12. Which unary maces arian? 143143, Hermitian diagonalization Diagonal (or dagoatizable) macs are pleasant to wosk with; tale sys srt ioe ofa cles fears under stay hat they an bs ‘Sagonaized. (Remember, for stance, tbe diagonalization of permutsr ‘on, Problem 103, and the diagonalization of tansormatins wih i tine geal, Problem 108) Ts very Hermitian transformation dagonalzble? Here i «phony prof tht the anwer xyes Given Hermitian A, Sd bans tener sch thatthe matrix of A with respect to hat bas i upper triangular (robiem 108,10 be specie, Ae Lovee with ay = Dwhenever > j ten (eee) = Couleven)= Taha = ou ‘The Hermitian caraetrof implies that = (Ata) = (eA) sna hence that ay = O whenever j> b Consequence: ay =0 whenever j and therfore the mati (a) is agonal ‘What’ wrong with that proo? Aner: uses the ortbonomaliy of. the ass 52 and thts completely njestieg. Al thatthe trian- _rization theorem sayaisthat there ext some sista does the job ‘teaver ope the queton of wheter or not thet exists an orthonormal ‘ss that doe it isesj enough to doctor up basso that with respect ithe mati ‘of some Hemian tansformaton comes out rangle Dut not age. Fora conrete example, consider the nae transformation on C? whose oe an(2 a) sich is ofcoure sent be Hermitian by cas ance. Consider now the (oom otonormal) bass {0.0.0.9 and 0,0 (aay otha 2) = 1-041) 40-00, and A,1) = 1-0, 43-00, ‘it fllows that he matric ofA with respect that basis _—Wingular but not diagonal144 12. UNA ALGENRAPROBLEN ROOK. ‘Which Hermitian mares are triangular? The anseris “just the agonal nes’—thats what the phony proof above realy roves. Te org Inal question, homer, sill stad Problem 4, fia Heian ranformation omafite-dimen sonal comple inner produc space, does thee alway exit anor ‘honomal ba wit msec which th mai of A diagonal? Comment ‘To say that s near ‘ransformation is dagoalable means thats maz A (wth respect oan arbitrary bs) similar to agonal ‘matrix and that eonlasin canbe expres by saying that there exss an invertible matrix such hat TAT gona (Problem 6). nthe sme ‘ey the ausertion that linea transormaton Ais igonalizable with e- sect oan orthonormal bss can be expressed by saying that there exists unitary matrix sch that U"AU is agonal This assertion isan imme- late consequence ofits predecesor—all ht has tobe recalled shat @ linear ransformatin that changes ne otonormal bas ito athe it neces ontry. The preset question could therefore have been fr ‘mulated ths way: if isa Herman matric oes there aleays exist a uni- tary matic Usk that "AU diagonal? 144, Square roots 1 Aisa linear tansformatio, dows e4 make sense? Or ce A? or VA? ‘The general question i whet sens it makes to fom functions ofa ans- formation, and wheter it does aay good 0 do 50. ‘Yes, functions of transformations sometimes make sense and are sometimes very wef The most pial and most important special ease fs the aserton that every invertible near transformation (4 fite-

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