2.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF
GENERAL ANGLES
In order to extend the definitions of the six trigonometric functions to general angles, we
shall make use of the following ideas: In a Cartesian coordinate system, an angle is
said to be in standard position if its vertex is at the origin O and its initial side
coincides with the positive x axis (Figure 2.1). An angle is said to be in a certain
quadrant if, when the angle is in standard position, the terminal side lies in that quadrant.
For instance, a 65 angle lies in quadrant I or simply that it is a quadrant I angle. As
Figure 2b shows, an angle of 187 is a quadrant II angle.
If the terminal side of an angle in standard position lies along either the x axis or the y
axis, then the angle is called quadrantal. For example, 360 , 270 , 180 , 90 , 0 ,
90 , 180 , 270 , 360 are quadrantal angles. Evidently, an angle is quadrantal if and only
if its measure is an integer multiple of 90 ( or

Figure 2.1

radians).

is in standard position

y
terminal
side

initial side

Figure 2.2
(a)

(b) quadrant II angle

quadrant I angle

y
terminal
side

terminal
side

65

187

Definition 2.1: Trigonometric Functions of a General Angle

Let be an angle in standard position and suppose that ( x , y ) is any point other than
( 0 , 0 ) on the terminal side of (Figure 2.3). If r = x 2 + y 2 is the distance between
( x , y ) and ( 0 , 0 ), then the six trigonometric functions of are defined by
Figure 2.3

y
r
x
cos =
r
y
tan =
x

r
y
r
sec =
x
x
cot =
y

sin =

csc =

(x,y)

provided that the denominators are not zero.

Using similar triangles, you can see that the values of the six trigonometric functions in
Definition 2.1 depend only on the angle and not on the choice of the point (x, y) on the
terminal side of .

Example 2.1 ---------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------Evaluate the six trigonometric functions of the angle in standard position if the
terminal side of contains the point (x, y) = ( 2, -1).
Here, x = 2, y = -1, and
r=

x2 + y2 =

2 2 + (1) 2 =

5.

Thus,
sin =

y
r

x
r

5
5

2 5
5
5
1
1
y
tan =
=
=
x
2
2

cos =

csc =

5
r
=
=
y
1

5
r
=
x
2
2
x
cot =
=
= 2 .
y
1

sec =

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

You can determine the algebraic signs of the trigonometric functions for angles in the
various quadrants by recalling the algebraic signs of x and y in these quadrants and

10

y
is
r
positive in quadrants I and II (where both y and r are positive), and it is negative in
quadrants III and IV (where y is negative and r is positive). By proceeding in a similar
way, you can determine the signs of the remaining trigonometric functions in the various
quadrants and thus confirm the results in Table 2.1.
remembering that r is always positive. For instance, as Figure 2.4 shows, sin =

Figure 2.4
y
y>0
sin =

y>0

sin =

>0

>0
r
Quadrant I

r
Quadrant II

y<0
sin =

y<0

sin =

<0

<0
r
Quadrant IV

r
Quadrant III

Table 2.1
Quadrant
Containing
I
II
III
IV

Positive
Functions
All
sin , csc
tan , cot
cos , sec

Negative
Functions
None
cos , sec , tan , cot
sin , csc , cos , sec
sin , csc , tan , cot

Example 2.2 ---------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------Find the quadrant in which lies if tan > 0 and sin < 0.
This example can be worked by using Table 2.1; however, rather than relying on the table, we prefer to
reason as follows: Let ( x , y ) be a point other than the origin on the terminal side of (in standard
y
position). Because tan =
> 0, we see that x and y have the same algebraic sign. Furthermore, since
x
y
sin =
< 0, it follows that y < 0. Because x < 0 and y < 0, the angle is in quadrant III.
r
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11

Reciprocal Identities
If is an angle for which the functions are defined, then:
(i) csc =

1
sin

(ii) sec =

1
cos

(iii) cot =

1
tan

Quotient Identities
If is an angle for which the functions are defined, then:
tan =

sin
cos

and

cos
sin

cot =

Example 2.3 ---------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------If sin =

1
3

and cos =

2 2
3

, find the values of the other four trigonometric functions

of .
tan =

sec =
cot =

1
sin
3
=
cos
2 2

2 2

1
1
=
cos
2 2
1
1
=
tan
2

2 2

4
1
1
=
= 3.
csc =
1
sin
3

2
4

3 2
4

= 2 2

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

By using the reciprocal and quotient identities, you can quickly recall the
algebraic signs of the secant, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent in the four quadrants
(Table 1), if you know the algebraic signs of the sine and cosine in these quadrants.
Another important identity is derived as follows: Again suppose that is an angle
in standard position and that ( x , y ) is a point other than the origin on the terminal side
2
2
2
of (Figure 9). Because r = x 2 + y 2 , we have x + y = r , so
(cos ) 2 + (sin ) 2

2
2
x2
y2
r2
x
y
= + = 2 + 2 = 2 = 1.

(cos ) 2 + (sin ) 2 = 1
The relationship:
is called the fundamental Pythagorean identity because its derivation involves the fact
2
2
2
that x + y = r , which is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem.

12

The fundamental Pythagorean identity is used quite often, and it would be

2
2
bothersome to write the parentheses each time for (cos ) and (sin ) ; yet, if the
parentheses were simply omitted, the resulting expressions would be misunderstood. (For
2
instance, cos is usually understood to mean the cosine of the square of .) Therefore,
2

it is customary to write cos and sin to mean (cos ) and (sin ) .

Similar notation is used for the remaining trigonometric functions and for powers other
4
4
n
n
than 2. Thus, cot means (cot ) , sec means (sec ) , and so forth. With this
notation, the fundamental Pythagorean identity becomes
cos 2

+ sin 2 = 1.

Actually, there are three Pythagorean identities the fundamental identity and
two others derived from it.

Pythagorean Identities
If is an angle for which the functions are defined, then:
(i) cos 2 + sin 2 = 1

(ii) 1+ tan 2 = sec 2

(iii) 1+ cot 2 = csc 2

We already proved (i). To prove (ii), we divide both sides of (i) by cos 2 to obtain
1+

sin 2
cos 2

1
cos 2

2
2
sin
1
1 +
,
=

or

cos

cos

provided that cos 0 . Since

sin
= tan
cos

1
cos

and

= sec ,

we have that
1 + tan 2 = sec 2 .
2
Identity (iii) is proved by dividing both sides of (i) by sin .

Example 2.4 ---------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------The value of one of the trigonometric functions of an angle is given along with the
information about the quadrant in which lies, Find the values of the other five
trigonometric functions of :

13

( a ) sin =

5
,
13

in quadrant II.
2

By the fundamental Pythagorean identity, cos + sin = 1, so

2
5
cos 2 = 1 sin = 1
13

= 1

25
169 25
144
=
=
.
169
169
169

144
12
=
.
169
13
Because is in quadrant II, we know that cos is negative; hence,
12
.
cos = 13
It follows that
5
sin
1
12
1
13 = 5
tan =
=
cot =
=
=
-5
cos
12
tan
5
12
12
13
1
1
13
1
13
1
=
=
csc =
=
=
sec =
5
12
cos
5
12
sin
13
13

Therefore, cos =

( b ) tan =

8
and sin < 0.
7

Because tan < 0 only in quadrants II and IV, and sin < 0 only in quadrants III and IV, it follows that
must be in quadrant IV. By part (ii) sec 2 = 1 + tan 2 , so

( )2

sec = 1+ tan 2 = 1 + - 87

= 1+

64
49

Since is in quadrant IV, sec > 0; hence,

sec =

113
.
7

Because sec =

1
,
cos

it follows that
1
cos =
=
sec

Now, tan =
so
Finally,

113
113
=
.
49
7

113

sin
cos

113
7

8
sin = (tan )(cos ) =
7

csc =

and cot =

1
=
sin

1
=
tan

7 113
.
113

1
8

1
- 8 113

7 113

= 8 113 .
113
113

=
113

113
8

7
.
8

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

14

In the applications of trigonometry, and especially in calculus, it is often necessary to

make trigonometric calculations, as we have done in this section, without the use of
calculators or tables.

Section 2 Problems--------------- ------- -----------------------------------------------------------In problems 1 to 10, sketch two coterminal angles and in standard position whose
terminal side contains the given point. Arrange it so that is positive, is negative, and
neither angle exceeds one revolution. In each case, name the quadrant in which the angle
lies, or indicate that the angle is quadrantal.
4
3
4

1. ( 1 , 2 )

2. ( 2 , )

3. ( 5 , 0 )
5. ( 5 , 3 )

4. ( 3 ,
6. ( 0 , 4 )

7. ( 1 , 1 )

8. (

9. (

3
4

3
4

2
2

,0)

10. ( 0 , 3 )

In problems 11 to 18, specify and sketch three angles that are coterminal with the given
angle in standard position.
11. 60

12. 15

13.

14.

15. 612
17.

5
6

4
3
7
16.
4

18. 1440

In problems 16 to 28, evaluate the six trigonometric functions of the angle in standard
position if the terminal side of contains the given point ( x , y ). [Do not use a calculator
leave all answers in the form of a fraction or an integer.] In each case, sketch one of the
coterminal angles .
19. ( 4 , 3 )
20. ( 2 , 7 )
21. (5, 12 )
22. (2, 4 )
23. (3, 4 )
24. ( 1 , 1 )
25. ( 7 , 3 )
26. ( 1 , 3 )
27. ( 3 , 2 )
28. ( 20 , 21 )
29. Is there any angle for which sin =

5
4

? Explain.

15

30. Using similar triangles, show that the values of the six trigonometric functions in
Definition 2.1 depend only on the angle and not on the choice of the point
( x , y ) on the terminal side of .

31. In each case, assume that is an angle in standard position and find the quadrant in
which it lies.
(a) tan > 0 and
sec > 0
(b) sin > 0 and
sec < 0
(c) sin > 0 and
cos < 0
tan < 0
(d) sec > 0 and
(e) tan > 0 and
csc < 0
csc < 0
(f) cos < 0 and
(g) sec > 0 and
cot < 0
sin > 0
(h) cot > 0 and

32. Is there any angle for which sin > 0 and csc < 0? Explain.

33. Give the algebraic sign of each of the following.

(a) cos 163

(b) sin 211

(c) sec ( 355 o )

28

45
38
sec

15

(e) cot
(g)

4
5
csc
12

(d) tan
(f)

34. If is an angle for which the functions are defined, show that
sec ( sin )( tan ) = cos .

35. If sin =

5
13

(a) sec

and cos =
(b) csc

12
13

, use the reciprocal and quotient identities to find

(c) tan

16

(d) cot .

36. If sec =

5
4

(a) sin

5
3

and csc = , use the reciprocal and quotient identities to find

(b) cos

(c) tan

(d) cot .

In Problems 37 to 48, the values of one of the trigonometric functions of an angle is

given along with information about the quadrant (Q) in which lies. Find the values of
the other five trigonometric functions of .
4
,
3
12
cos = ,
13
3
sin = ,
4
3
sin = ,
4
4
cos = ,
7
1
cos = ,
3
3
csc = ,
2
5
sec = ,
3
4
tan = ,
3

37. sin =

in QI

38.

in QIV

39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

46. tan = 2,
47.
48.

12
cot = ,
5
25
csc = ,
7

in QIII
not in QI

sin < 0
not in QI
in QI
in QIII
in QI

sin < 0
csc > 0
sec < 0

17