Alexandria and Alexandrianism

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Alexandria and Alexandrianism

Papers D e l i v e r e d
at a S y m p o s i u m O r g a n i z e d
b y T h e J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m a n d
The Getty Center for the H i s t o r y
of A r t and the H u m a n i t i e s
a n d H e l d at t h e M u s e u m
April 22-25,

993

T h e J. Paul G e t t y Museum
Malibu, California
1996

 1996 The J. Paul Getty Museum

17985 Pacific Coast Highway
Malibu, California 90265-5799
Mailing address:
P.O. Box 2112
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Christopher Hudson, Publisher
Mark Greenberg, Managing Editor
Kenneth Hamma, Editor
Benedicte Gilman, Manuscript Editor
Nancy Moore, Copy Editor
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The Sheila Studio, Series Design
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Except where noted, all illustrations are reproduced by
permission of the institutions or individuals that own them.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Alexandria and Alexandrianism: papers delivered at a
symposium organized by the J. Paul Getty Museum and the
Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities and
held at the Museum, April 22-25, 993p. cm.
I

ISBN 0-89236-292-8

1. Art, HellenisticEgyptAlexandriaCongresses.
2. Art, RomanEgyptAlexandriaCongresses.
3. Alexan
dria (Egypt)CivilizationCongresses. I . J. Paul Getty
Museum. I I . J. Paul Getty Center for the History of Art and
the Humanities.
N5888.A54A44

1996

709'.32dc20

95-53984
CIP

Typography by G & S Typesetters, Inc.

Printed by Science Press, Div. of the Mack Printing Group
On the front cover: Bust of a king, provenance
unknown. Diorite. About 220-180 B.C.
New Haven, Yale University Art Gallery
1.1.1953 (on loan from the Peabody Museum
of Natural History, Yale University). See essay by
Bernard V. Bothmer

Contents
ix

Foreword
John W a l s h and T h o m a s F. R e e s e

INTRODUCTION

Alexander's Alexandria
Peter G r e e n

THE

29

CITY

OF ALEXANDRIA

IN

THE HELLENISTIC

PERIOD

Egyptian Influence on Daily Life i n Ancient Alexandria

H e n r i Riad

41

" A l l A r m y Boots and Uniforms?": Ethnicity i n Ptolemaic

Egypt
Diana Delia

55

City Planning?
Giinter G r i m m

75

Cults i n Hellenistic Alexandria

Lilly Kahil

85

Body and Machine: Interactions between Medicine,

Mechanics, and Philosophy i n Early Alexandria
H e i n r i c h von S t a d e n

ARTS OF HELLENISTIC ALEXANDRIA:

GREEK

109

AND EGYPTIAN

CONTRIBUTIONS

Alexandria and the Origins of Baroque Architecture

Judith M c K e n z i e

vi

Cont ent s

127

From the Double C r o w n to the Double Pediment

John O n i a n s

141

From Hellenistic Polychromy of Sculptures to Roman

Mosaics
W. A. Daszewski

155

Ein spatromischer bemalter Sarg aus Agypten i m

J . Paul Getty Museum
Klaus Parlasca

171

Roots and Contacts: Aspects of Alexandrian

Craftsmanship
Michael P f r o m m e r

191

Pharaonic Egyptian Elements i n the Decorative Arts of

Alexandria during the Hellenistic and Roman Periods
Robert Steven Bianchi

203

Ptolemaic Portraits: Alexandrian Types, Egyptian

Versions
R. R. R. S m i t h

215

Hellenistic Elements i n Egyptian Sculpture of the

Ptolemaic Period
B e r n a r d V. B o t h m e r

231

The Alexandrian Style: A Mirage?

Andrew Stewart

247

Is There an Alexandrian StyleWhat Is Egyptian

about It?
A r i e l l e P. Kozloff

C o n t e n t s

THE

263

CONTINUING

INFLUENCE OF

ALEXANDRIA

Late Antique Alexandria

G. W. Bowersock

273

Medieval Alexandria: Some Evidence from the Cairo

Genizah Documents
A b r a h a m L. U d o v i t c h

285

Alexandrian Culture i n M o d e r n Times: Egyptian

Identity and Cosmopolitan Aspects
Mohamed Ghoneim

302

Reigns of the Ptolemies

303

M a p of early Ptolemaic Alexandria

vii

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ix

Foreword

T h e papers p u b l i s h e d i n this v o l u m e were first presented at a s y m p o

s i u m h e l d at the G e t t y M u s e u m i n A p r i l 1 9 9 3 . T h e s y m p o s i u m , j o i n t l y
sponsored by the M u s e u m a n d the G e t t y Center f o r the H i s t o r y o f A r t
a n d the H u m a n i t i e s , encouraged p a r t i c i p a n t s t o range w i d e l y over the
A l e x a n d r i a n landscape a n d t o examine n o t o n l y the ancient c i t y b u t
also its e n d u r i n g legacy. Speakers were asked t o elicit d u a l or m u l t i p l e
readings o f the m a t e r i a l remains o f H e l l e n i s t i c A l e x a n d r i a f r o m b o t h
E g y p t i a n a n d Greek p o i n t s o f v i e w a n d t o consider the m o d e r n concep
t i o n a n d re-creations o f t h a t city, w h i c h is as legendary as its founder.
T h e b r e a d t h o f the speakers' interests is reflected here i n the scope o f
subjects, f r o m Alexander's A l e x a n d r i a t o T h e C o n t i n u i n g Influence
of A l e x a n d r i a .
A l t h o u g h m o s t papers are focused o n the v i s u a l arts o f
A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , the allure o f the c i t y i n later
times emerges t h r o u g h o u t . O n e of the basic questions the t w o i n s t i t u
t i o n s w a n t e d t o explore i n o r g a n i z i n g this s y m p o s i u m was w h e t h e r o r
n o t t r u l y A l e x a n d r i a n attributes can be seen i n the arts created t h e r e
w h e t h e r there is such a t h i n g as an " A l e x a n d r i a n style." I n A l e x a n d r i a ,
w h e r e people i n subsequent ages u p t o the present have b u i l t t h e i r cities
o n t o p o f those w h o preceded t h e m , l i t t l e o f the ancient w o r l d is avail
able for excavation a n d direct e x a m i n a t i o n , so m u c h is left t o specula
t i o n a n d nostalgia. Participants were asked t o consider the p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t the A l e x a n d r i a n associations o f certain materials a n d techniques,
certain subjects, a n d certain elements o f style, m i g h t be based at least i n
p a r t o n w h a t o u r age imagines A l e x a n d r i a t o have been, o n the m y t h o f
its o w n nature. T h e s y m p o s i u m also e x a m i n e d the many-sided c u l t u r a l
a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l character of the c i t y f r o m other vantage p o i n t s , h e l p i n g
t o p o r t r a y a richer c o n t e x t by considering l i t e r a t u r e , science, m e d i c i n e ,
a n t h r o p o l o g y , a n d c i t y p l a n n i n g . A n i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d a s u m m a r y o f pa
pers l o o k i n g at the e n d u r i n g influences of A l e x a n d r i a f r o m

post-antique

t o m o d e r n times further p u t these discussions i n perspective, r e m i n d i n g

us again o f the distance t h a t separates us f r o m the ancient city.

Foreword

We are delighted t o have h a d the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r o u r s i b l i n g

i n s t i t u t i o n s t o offer the f o r u m for this fascinating m a t e r i a l a n d t h a n k f u l
t o the speakers f o r their papers a n d c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the discussions.
A n d we are grateful f o r the w o r k o f o u r staff, i n p a r t i c u l a r M a r i o n True
a n d the members o f the A n t i q u i t i e s D e p a r t m e n t of the M u s e u m , a n d
members o f the Center's staff.
John

Walsh

Director
T h e J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m
Thomas

F. Reese

Deputy Director
T h e Getty Center f o r the H i s t o r y
of A r t a n d the H u m a n i t i e s

Introduction

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Alexander's Alexandria
Peter

Green

A recent I t a l i a n article asked, i n its t i t l e , the ( n o t entirely r h e t o r i c a l )

q u e s t i o n , " E g y p t i a n A l e x a n d r i a a m y t h ? " Wisely, the w r i t e r o m i t t e d a
1

m a i n verb. I f is evokes memories o f E. M . Forster, C o n s t a n t i n e Cavafy,

a n d Lawrence D u r r e l l , was takes us back t o the A l e x a n d e r R o m a n c e ,
2

t o the grandiose dreams a n d processions o f P t o l e m y Philadelphos, t o

Cleopatra's suicide after A c t i u m , t o the A r i a n a n d M o n o p h y s i t e her
esies. A l e x a n d r i a has always h a d a m y t h i c q u a l i t y a b o u t i t . Cavafy, the
3

poet o f h o m o s e x u a l nostalgia ("Days o f 1 8 9 6 . . . " ) , reached back i n t o

the city's Hellenistic a n d Byzantine past f o r i m a g e r y a n d examples:
Sophists a n d soldiers, p o l i t i c a l lies, dynastic fantasies, m o m e n t s o f m e m
orable defeat, a n d always, u n c h a n g i n g d o w n the ages, ephemeral yet
4

eternal i n t h e i r a g o n i z i n g beauty, the y o u n g m e n f o r w h o m his heart

a n d b o d y hungered. T h o u g h A l e x a n d r i a h a d h a d a r e p u t a t i o n f o r g o o d l o o k i n g a n d available boys a l m o s t since its f o u n d a t i o n H e r o d a s i n the
early t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. m e n t i o n s t h e m i n the same breath as gaudies,
philosophers, a n d g o l d i t remains true t h a t Cavafy (like D u r r e l l after
5

h i m , l i k e A n d r e Gide i n Algeria) was i n effect shamelessly using another

c o u n t r y as a name f o r his o w n obsessions. T h i s h a b i t has n o t been re
6

stricted t o poets a n d novelists.

A n o t h e r factor encouraging m y t h i c i z a t i o n has always been
A l e x a n d r i a ' s m o r e - t h a n - s y m b o l i c separation f r o m E g y p t . B o t h i n the
Hellenistic a n d i n the R o m a n periods i t was officially k n o w n as " A l e x a n
d r i a by E g y p t , " seldom as " A l e x a n d r i a in E g y p t . " T h i s was a p p r o p r i a t e
7

i n m o r e t h a n one sense. I t distinguished the r o y a l f o u n d a t i o n o f the

G r a e c o - M a c e d o n i a n r u l i n g elite f r o m the o l d p h a r a o n i c capitals o f
M e m p h i s . I t enshrined the concept o f a g o v e r n m e n t t h a t regarded E g y p t
as alien " s p e a r - w o n t e r r i t o r y , " fit f o r economic e x p l o i t a t i o n . I t r u b b e d
i n the fact t h a t n o P t o l e m y u n t i l the last representative o f the dynasty,
C l e o p a t r a v n , ever b o t h e r e d t o learn E g y p t i a n , p r e f e r r i n g t o operate
t h r o u g h a corps o f Greek-speaking E g y p t i a n interpreters. Seers at its
f o u n d a t i o n h a d prophesied, accurately, t h a t the c i t y w o u l d be a m e l t i n g
p o t o f a l l n a t i o n s , perhaps w h a t D u r r e l l ' s N e s s i m meant w h e n he char
8

acterized A l e x a n d r i a as "the great wine-press o f l o v e , " a n d this was t o

9

r e m a i n true t h r o u g h o u t A l e x a n d r i a ' s l o n g a n d c o l o r f u l h i s t o r y , except

INTRODUCTION

t h a t the nations never, i n any i m p o r t a n t sense, i n c l u d e d E g y p t itself u n t i l

after the 1 9 5 6 Suez W a r . M o h a m m e d A l i was a nineteenth-century
T u r k i s h adventurer w h o operated m u c h i n the s p i r i t of the Ptolemies o r
Alexander's governor, Kleomenes (of w h o m m o r e later): " H e e x p l o i t e d
the f e l l a h i n by b u y i n g g r a i n f r o m t h e m at his o w n price: the w h o l e of
E g y p t became his private f a r m . "

1 0

N e i t h e r Cavafy n o r D u r r e l l , we m a y

note, c u l t i v a t e d E g y p t i a n friends o r made any serious a t t e m p t t o inte

grate E g y p t i a n realities i n t o their A l e x a n d r i a n m y t h .

1 1

I n this they were

s i m p l y a d h e r i n g t o an age-old t r a d i t i o n .
T h e magic o f A l e x a n d r i a , i n fact, can be seen f r o m start t o
finish

as the p o w e r f u l b y - p r o d u c t o f a c o s m o p o l i t a n a n d ( i n G r a h a m

Greene's sense) seedy c o l o n i a l i s m , at once rootless a n d e x p l o i t a t i v e , o f

w h i c h the casual p i c k - u p s o f H e r o d a s a n d Cavafy, n o t t o m e n t i o n D u r rell's grisly c h i l d prostitutes, can serve as an eloquent s y m b o l . A l e x a n
d r i a became the e m b o d i m e n t o f H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e precisely because i t
h a d n o n a t i o n a l basis. T h e C y n i c p h i l o s o p h e r w h o p r o c l a i m e d himself a
kosmopolites,

a " c i t i z e n o f the w o r l d , " m i g h t w e l l have h a d the Ptole

maic c a p i t a l i n m i n d . T h e scholarship a n d the e d i t i n g i n the M o u s e i o n ,

the obsessional search f o r past literature t h a t characterized the L i b r a r y
(and at least one m o n a r c h , P t o l e m y i n Euergetes 1, w h o forfeited his
fifteen-talent

deposit so as t o keep the official A t h e n i a n copies o f A i s c h y -

los, Sophokles, a n d E u r i p i d e s ) ; the scientific expertise t h a t w e n t i n t o

12

the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the Pharos, the great lighthouse t h a t g u i d e d n i g h t

travelers t h r o u g h the shoals a n d reefs outside A l e x a n d r i a ' s m a i n h a r b o r ;
the m e d i c a l p i o n e e r i n g w o r k o f an Erasistratos o r a H e r o p h i l o s t h a t de
pended o n r o y a l p r o t e c t i o n against c u r r e n t religious prejudice t o a l l o w
h u m a n dissection a n d v i v i s e c t i o n ; the l i t e r a r y activities o f a K a l l i m a 13

chos o r a T h e o k r i t o s , blissfully i n n o c e n t o f any influence f r o m native

E g y p t i a n literature: a l l these things were i m p o r t e d , i m p o s e d , alien. H y
b r i d i z a t i o n , w h e n i t came, began i n the l o w e r strata o f society, a fertile
seed bed f o r exotic superstition a n d religious syncretism.
T h u s the regret sometimes expressed by r o m a n t i c Hellenists
for the p o s t - 1 9 5 6 demise o f the " o l d A l e x a n d r i a " has an i r o n i c t w i s t t o
i t : T h e nostalgia m i g h t w e l l be regarded as a k i n t o t h a t o f displaced
French pieds noirs f o r the o p i u m dens o f the Casbah, a n d Islam's w a r y
suspicion o f the c i t y f r o m the t i m e o f its conquest by A m r ( A . D . 640) was
n o less n a t i o n a l t h a n religious i n nature. T h e s i l t i n g u p o f harbors a n d
canals can perhaps be ascribed i n p a r t t o i n g r a i n e d A r a b distrust o f the
sea a n d of naval w a r f a r e ;

14

b u t Forster was surely r i g h t i n essence w h e n

he w r o t e t h a t " A m r a n d his A r a b s . . . i n s t i n c t i v e l y shrank f r o m A l e x a n

d r i a ; she seemed t o t h e m i d o l a t r o u s a n d f o o l i s h . . . t h o u g h they h a d
n o i n t e n t i o n o f destroying her, they destroyed her, as a c h i l d m i g h t a
watch."

1 5

B u t i t was n o t u n t i l the regime o f G a m a l A b d e l Nasser, the

Green

first t r u l y E g y p t i a n r u l e r o f E g y p t i n t w o a n d a h a l f m i l l e n n i a , t h a t
A l e x a n d r i a was finally integrated i n t o the b o d y p o l i t i c o n w h i c h f o r so
l o n g i t h a d existed as an alien a n d exotic g r o w t h . Readers of Cavafy a n d
D u r r e l l m a y perhaps reflect t h a t this change was, o n balance, n o b a d
t h i n g : t h a t e x o t i c i s m can be b o u g h t at t o o h i g h a price.
Those researchers w h o , like myself, n o r m a l l y react t o a m y t h
by w a n t i n g t o get b e h i n d i t have a m o r e t h a n usually t o u g h p r o b l e m o n
their hands w i t h A l e x a n d r i a , n o t least i f they hope, as I d o , t o clarify the
circumstances of the city's o r i g i n a l f o u n d a t i o n . W h e n we l o o k at o u r l i t
erary evidence, i t at once becomes clear t h a t m y t h i f i c a t i o n began very
early. T h e A l e x a n d e r R o m a n c e , despite a s t r a t u m of valuable early H e l
lenistic evidence, ascribes Alexander's begetting t o the last independent
p h a r a o h , N e k t a n e b o i i ; cites his correspondence w i t h the A m a z o n s ; has
h i m arrive i n E g y p t after a razzia t h r o u g h Sicily, Italy, a n d A f r i c a ; a n d
describes his e x p l o r a t i o n of the sea b o t t o m i n a m a g i c a l d i v i n g b e l l .

16

T h e h i s t o r i a n A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s , w r i t i n g i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y A . D . ,
h a d Cleopatra v n responsible f o r b u i l d i n g b o t h the Pharos a n d the H e p t a s t a d i o n (the seven-furlong causeway l i n k i n g the island o f Pharos a n d
the m a i n l a n d ) , t h o u g h b o t h i n fact antedated her by a l m o s t three cen
turies.

17

T h e earliest detailed d e s c r i p t i o n o f the c i t y t o survive is t h a t by

the geographer S t r a b o ,
20

B.C.

1 9

18

w h o was i n A l e x a n d r i a f r o m 24 t o ( p r o b a b l y )

a n d is thus, similarly, three h u n d r e d years o u t o f date, the dif

ference, t o take a m o d e r n p a r a l l e l , between the L o n d o n o f Samuel Pepys

a n d the c i t y I k n o w today. By the date o f Strabo's visit the o r i g i n a l f o u n
d a t i o n h a d already been t r a n s f o r m e d a l m o s t b e y o n d r e c o g n i t i o n , since
D i o d o r u s Siculus ( w h o was there o n l y a few years before Strabo) w r i t e s
t h a t " a l l subsequent kings o f E g y p t v i e d i n the city's development. Some
a d o r n e d i t w i t h splendid palaces, some w i t h dockyards a n d h a r b o r
w o r k s , a n d others again w i t h various further notable dedications a n d
w o r k s o f art, t o the p o i n t w h e r e m o s t people r e c k o n i t the first o r second
c i t y o f the i n h a b i t e d w o r l d . "

2 0

T h e n o r m a l recourse i n such circumstances w o u l d be t o the

so-called h a r d evidence o f p a p y r o l o g y , epigraphy, n u m i s m a t i c s , a n d the
archaeological r e c o r d . B u t here A l e x a n d r i a presents an unusual a n d
f r u s t r a t i n g case. T h o u g h the c i t y has survived w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n f r o m
a n t i q u i t y , nevertheless f r o m the M i d d l e Ages u n t i l the advent o f M o
h a m m e d A l i i n 1805 o n l y the western p a r t , i n p a r t i c u l a r the silted-up
neck o f the f o r m e r H e p t a s t a d i o n , r e m a i n e d under c o n t i n u o u s occupa
t i o n . As Fraser says, "even w i t h i n l i v i n g m e m o r y m u c h o f the area east
of the Great H a r b o u r consisted o f s a n d - d u n e s . "

21

Since this was precisely

w h e r e the i n t e r i o r o f the Ptolemaic c i t y was located, i t m i g h t have been

t h o u g h t t h a t the o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r excavation were excellent. T w o fac
tors, one man-made, one n a t u r a l , c o m b i n e d t o render such a p r o j e c t a l l

INTRODUCTION

b u t impossible. T h e r a p i d e x p a n s i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a as a p o r t d u r i n g the
nineteenth century, i n p a r t i c u l a r under K h e d i v e I s m a i l , n o t o n l y effec
tively b u r i e d the ancient strata under n e w b u i l d i n g s b u t also, i n the c o n
s t r u c t i o n o f the C o r n i c h e ( 1 9 0 6 ) , created an artificial coastline u p t o
300 m i n depth.

22

To m a k e things even worse, i n m a n y districts ancient

sherds were redeposited, i n complete c o n f u s i o n , o n t o p o f the later strata.

B u t such f r u s t r a t i n g h u m a n activities were eclipsed by those
of nature. O v e r the centuries there has t a k e n place, p a r t l y t h r o u g h seis
m i c disturbance, p a r t l y t h r o u g h the w e i g h t o f the silt washed d o w n b y
the N i l e , a general subsidence o f u p t o f o u r meters. As a result, m u c h o f
the coastal section o f the Ptolemaic c i t y ( w h i c h , as we k n o w , i n c l u d e d at
least some o f the r o y a l palaces), n o w lies under the waters o f the M e d i
terranean, a n d the on-site p a p y r o l o g i c a l evidence, w h i c h c o u l d have t o l d
us so m u c h a b o u t the capital's f u n c t i o n i n g , has been t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d .

23

T h u s i f we w a n t t o understand the circumstances of A l e x a n d r i a ' s f o u n

d a t i o n , we find ourselves c o m p e l l e d t o reexamine the l i t e r a r y evidence
w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f various h i s t o r i c a l factors: strategic, economic,
c o m m e r c i a l , c u l t u r a l , even religious. Some o f these are p e r e n n i a l , so
t h a t , surprisingly, we find m o d e r n A l e x a n d r i a shedding l i g h t o n its an
cient c o u n t e r p a r t .

24

Let us begin, t h e n , w i t h the enigmatic f o u n d e r himself.

A l e x a n d e r 111 o f M a c e d o n f r o m adolescence o n made a h a b i t of creating
or t a k i n g over cities a n d n a m i n g t h e m after himself. H i s first recorded
venture of the sort was at the tender age o f sixteen. A p p o i n t e d regent
w h i l e P h i l i p was c a m p a i g n i n g against B y z a n t i u m a n d Perinthos, he dis
l o d g e d a g r o u p o f rebellious T h r a c i a n t r i b e s m e n a n d established a m i l i
t a r y o u t p o s t , A l e x a n d r o p o l i s , t o m a t c h the P h i l i p p o p o l i s his father h a d
set u p t w o years p r e v i o u s l y . A l e x a n d e r never lacked the c o m p e t i t i v e
25

s p i r i t . P l u t a r c h (Mor. 328E) credits h i m w i t h n o less t h a n seventy f o u n

dations i n a l l : each n a m e d A l e x a n d r i a , a n d m a n y of t h e m n o m o r e t h a n
f r o n t i e r fortresses. A l e x a n d r i a - b y - E g y p t p r o v e d b y far the m o s t success
f u l . I t was also the one i n w h i c h he seems t o have t a k e n the m o s t per
sonal i n t e r e s t .

26

W e m a y l e g i t i m a t e l y ask ourselves w h y .

T h i s question f o r m s p a r t o f a larger p r o b l e m : w h y d i d he
choose t o go t o E g y p t at all? A f t e r the battle of Issus (September 333)
w h y d i d he n o t at once pursue the defeated a n d disorganized forces o f
D a r i u s eastward t o Babylon? W h y , instead, d i d he m a r c h over three h u n
d r e d miles o u t o f his w a y d o w n the coast o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , spend
seven m o n t h s besieging T y r e a n d a l o n g w i n t e r i n a n d a r o u n d the N i l e
Valley, a n d n o t resume his career o f conquest u n t i l late A p r i l o f 3 3 1 ? To
u n d e r s t a n d this we m u s t appreciate (as A l e x a n d e r himself u n d o u b t e d l y
d i d ) the dangerous a n d fluid s i t u a t i o n t h a t h a d developed b e h i n d his ad
vance, i n A s i a M i n o r a n d the Aegean, a n d t h a t n o w seriously threatened
his ever-lengthening lines o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

Green

Since his siege a n d capture o f M i l e t o s i n 3 3 4 , A l e x a n d e r h a d

operated, except f o r one s m a l l t r a n s p o r t s q u a d r o n , w i t h o u t a fleet. V a r i
ous reasons have been suggested f o r this; b u t the t r u t h o f the m a t t e r
seems t o have been t h a t the b u l k o f the navy was s u p p l i e d by his reluc
t a n t Greek allies, w h o m he distrusted so deeply t h a t he a c t u a l l y preferred
the r i s k o f r e b e l l i o n i n his rear, n o t t o m e n t i o n the challenge o f n e u t r a l i z
i n g every key p o r t f r o m the l a n d w a r d side, t o t h e i r c o n t i n u e d presence.

27

W o r s e , the Persians h a d also decided t o c a r r y o u t an aggressive, a n d

h i g h l y successful, naval c a m p a i g n i n the Aegean, f o r w h i c h they m a i n l y
e m p l o y e d the large P h o e n i c i a n fleet. A f t e r Issus, D a r i u s gave t h i s c a m
p a i g n t o p p r i o r i t y : M i l e t o s a n d H a l i k a r n a s s o s were r e c a p t u r e d , a n d K i n g
Agis i n o f Sparta, already p l a n n i n g a n a t i o n a l i s t r e b e l l i o n , was f u r n i s h e d
w i t h g o l d a n d n o less t h a n eight t h o u s a n d mercenaries, w h i l e the Persian
cavalry c o m m a n d e r , N a b a r z a n e s , c a m p a i g n i n g i n A n a t o l i a , threatened
t o sever Alexander's l a n d w a r d lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

2 8

I n the circumstances, the sea lanes a n d p o r t s o f the eastern

M e d i t e r r a n e a n assumed e n o r m o u s strategic i m p o r t a n c e . A l e x a n d e r h a d
done w h a t he c o u l d t o secure t h e m as far as C i l i c i a . W h a t r e m a i n e d n o w
were Phoenicia a n d E g y p t ,

29

o n b o t h o f w h i c h Persia, being herself a

n o n m a r i t i m e i n l a n d c o u n t r y , h a b i t u a l l y d r e w f o r her fleet. I t s h o u l d n o w
be i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t w h y A l e x a n d e r spent seven m o n t h s besieging
the great offshore s t r o n g h o l d o f T y r e . Tyre's n e i g h b o r a n d r i v a l S i d o n ,
h a v i n g been reduced savagely by A r t a x e r x e s O c h u s i n 345 after an at
t e m p t e d r e b e l l i o n , w e l c o m e d the M a c e d o n i a n s w i t h o p e n arms. B u t
30

Gaza also gave A l e x a n d e r t r o u b l e , a n d another t w o m o n t h s were spent

i n r e d u c i n g i t . Besides being a spice e n t r e p o t at the head o f the Eastern
caravan routes, the c i t y c o u l d serve as a m i l i t a r y fortress g u a r d i n g the
l a n d approaches t o E g y p t .

31

F r o m Gaza A l e x a n d e r made the 2 0 0 k m t o the f r o n t i e r

s t r o n g h o l d o f Pelusium, at the m o u t h o f the N i l e , i n just under a w e e k .
T h e s m a l l fleet he retained g o t there before h i m , a n d he f o u n d i t at an
c h o r i n the h a r b o r .

32

Since A r t a x e r x e s Ochus h a d earlier (343) dealt

w i t h E g y p t just as b l o o d i l y as he d i d w i t h S i d o n ,

33

Alexander met w i t h

n o o p p o s i t i o n at Pelusium a n d was indeed w e l c o m e d as a l i b e r a t o r .

34

B o t h Phoenicia a n d E g y p t were n o w safely under M a c e d o n i a n c o n t r o l .

Alexander's strategy at this p o i n t is clear e n o u g h . I t w o u l d
take D a r i u s at least a year t o r e c r u i t , t r a i n , a n d d e p l o y a n e w a r m y .
Since there was n o t h i n g A l e x a n d e r w a n t e d m o r e t h a n another full-scale,
a n d , w i t h l u c k , decisive, engagement, he was w e l l c o n t e n t t o let D a r i u s
prepare for t h i s , w h i l e he h i m s e l f dealt w i t h other pressing p r o b l e m s . So
far, he h a d secured C i l i c i a a n d the P h o e n i c i a n coast, thus safeguarding
m u c h o f the East M e d i t e r r a n e a n sea r o u t e , b u t there still r e m a i n e d N o r t h
A f r i c a . To the west o f Cyrene lay " b a r b a r i s m a n d C a r t h a g e , "

35

about

w h i c h n o t m u c h c o u l d be done as yet. B u t Cyrene itself, a n d a f o r t i o r i

INTRODUCTION

the N i l e D e l t a , h a d t o be made safe. W h a t e v e r other considerations

A l e x a n d e r h a d i n m i n d as he m a r c h e d t h r o u g h the desert t o H e l i o p o l i s ,
this one was surely p r o m i n e n t .

3 6

Mazaces, the Persian satrap, whose g a r r i s o n h a d been t a k e n

f r o m h i m t o fight at Issus a n d w h o was thus v i r t u a l l y defenseless, crossed
the river f r o m M e m p h i s a n d surrendered the c i t y t o the M a c e d o n i a n s ,
together w i t h eight h u n d r e d talents a n d the r o y a l f u r n i t u r e .
phis, a c c o r d i n g t o the R o m a n c e ,

38

37

In Mem

A l e x a n d e r was n o t o n l y e n t h r o n e d as

p h a r a o h b u t also, o n being s h o w n a statue o f N e k t a n e b o n , the last

E g y p t i a n p h a r a o h , inscribed w i t h a p r o p h e c y that he w o u l d come again
t o r i d E g y p t o f the Persians, declared himself Nektanebo's

sonperhaps,

i f there is any t r u t h i n the story, t o strengthen his o w n c l a i m as Egypt's

n e w ruler. A t the same t i m e , w h i l e d u l y sacrificing t o the E g y p t i a n gods,
A l e x a n d e r also h e l d lavish Greek-style games, b o t h m u s i c a l a n d athletic,
w i t h top-level c o m p e t i t o r s i m p o r t e d f r o m the Greek m a i n l a n d ,

3 9

a nice

example o f his increasing need, as his career of conquest advanced, t o be

all things t o a l l m e n . W h i l e i n M e m p h i s (perhaps after a t o u r o f inspec
t i o n t h r o u g h the nearby c o u n t r y s i d e ) , he settled the future a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
of E g y p t i n his usual manner: t h a t is, by c h a n g i n g n o t h i n g apart f r o m
those i n charge at the t o p .

4 0

W h a t he d i d n e x t has been the subject of considerable dis

agreement a m o n g historians, ancient a n d m o d e r n alike. B o t h Q u i n t u s
C u r t i u s Rufus a n d D i o d o r u s clearly state t h a t his n e x t act was t o pay a
visit t o the o r a c u l a r shrine of Zeus A m m o n (of w h i c h m o r e i n a m o m e n t )
i n the S i w a h Oasis. I n p a r t i c u l a r they, like J u s t i n ,

41

place the f o u n d a t i o n

of A l e x a n d r i a after this visit, t h o u g h i t is o n l y the A l e x a n d e r Romance

t h a t develops the post hoc, propter

hoc a r g u m e n t that Alexander's p u r

pose i n v i s i t i n g the shrine was t o discover w h a t site the g o d favored f o r

his n e w city, a n d t h a t A m m o n d u l y responded w i t h an oracle i n s t r u c t i n g
the k i n g t o " f o u n d his famous c i t y across f r o m Proteus's i s l e . "
other h a n d , b o t h A r r i a n a n d P l u t a r c h

4 3

4 2

O n the

appear t o place the f o u n d a t i o n

of A l e x a n d r i a before the visit t o S i w a h . W e have here w h a t has m o r e of

ten t h a n n o t been t a k e n (mistakenly, I t h i n k ) as a f u n d a m e n t a l conflict o f
p r i m a r y sources.
B r a d f o r d Welles, i n an influential a r t i c l e , argued t h a t the
44

A l e x a n d e r R o m a n c e was r i g h t : t h a t n o Greek c i t y c o u l d be f o u n d e d
w i t h o u t d i v i n e a p p r o v a l a n d t h a t the evidence of A r r i a n a n d P l u t a r c h
m u s t therefore be rejected. Previously " A l e x a n d e r historians [had] u n hesitantly accepted the Ptolemaic v e r s i o n " o f A r r i a n .
Welles's thesis gave rise t o a simpliste

4 5

N o w , for a while,

a n d misdirected debate between

the advocates o f " b e f o r e " a n d " a f t e r . "

46

I t was B r i a n Bos w o r t h w h o

l o o k e d i n the r i g h t d i r e c t i o n f o r a s o l u t i o n t o this p r o b l e m . There was

n o reason, he argued, w h y A l e x a n d e r s h o u l d n o t have p i c k e d o n a site
first, t h e n have o b t a i n e d d i v i n e a p p r o v a l f o r i t at S i w a h , a n d finally have

Green

established an official " f o u n d a t i o n d a y " o n his r e t u r n . O n e m i g h t also

stress the fact t h a t oracular consultants, i n c l u d i n g w o u l d - b e colonists,
h a b i t u a l l y framed their questions i n such a w a y as t o solicit a p p r o v a l
for a choice already

made.

47

W i t h these considerations i n m i n d , w e can

m a k e o u r sources y i e l d a fairly consistent a n d plausible account o f w h a t

actually happened.
F r o m M e m p h i s A l e x a n d e r sailed d o w n the C a n o p i c b r a n c h of
the N i l e .

4 8

H e already h a d i n m i n d the d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o f o u n d a n e w c i t y

i n the area. I t was t o be large, w e l l p o p u l a t e d , prosperous, w i t h a g o o d ,

safe h a r b o r .

49

A r r i a n o n several occasions mentions Alexander's motives

in founding cities.

50

W h i l e he h a d an eye for a strategically o r otherwise

advantageous site, his m a i n concern always seems t o have been t o leave

a large a n d famous m e m o r i a l o f himself, an extension o f his quest f o r
g l o r y (kleos).

T h i s was w h y every such f o u n d a t i o n bore his name, t o

shed a n a t u r a l luster o n i t . H i s other recipe for success was a large p o p u

l a t i o n , so t h a t we r e g u l a r l y f i n d h i m n o t o n l y d i r e c t i n g Greek a n d M a c e
d o n i a n colonists i n t o his n e w cities b u t f o r c i b l y r e l o c a t i n g indigenous
i n h a b i t a n t s f r o m s u r r o u n d i n g areas. I t is also clear t h a t his m o t i v a t i o n
was very often, i n p a r t at least, c o m m e r c i a l . T h i s being so, d u r i n g his
voyage he m u s t at the very least seriously have considered the claims o f a
famous Greek e m p o r i u m already l o n g established o n the C a n o p i c b r a n c h
of the N i l e : N a u k r a t i s .

51

N a u k r a t i s h a d been a p r i v i l e g e d c o m m e r c i a l en

t r e p o t for the Greeks at least since the early s i x t h century, a n d i t is h a r d

t o believe t h a t the r i c h businessmen, w h o surely w e n t o u t of t h e i r w a y t o
entertain the M a c e d o n i a n c o n q u e r o r w h e n he reached N a u k r a t i s d u r i n g
his t o u r o f inspection, d i d n o t t r y also t o sell h i m the idea o f t u r n i n g
N a u k r a t i s i n t o the c i t y o f his dreams. I t is even possible t h a t they f o r a
brief w h i l e succeeded. P l u t a r c h , i n a passage t h a t has elicited s u r p r i s i n g l y
l i t t l e c o m m e n t , records t h a t o n the advice o f his technical consultants
A l e x a n d e r h a d already selected a sitewas, indeed, o n the p o i n t o f mea
s u r i n g i t off a n d enclosing i t w h e n a p r o p h e t i c d r e a m t u r n e d his atten
t i o n t o the offshore island of P h a r o s .

52

T h a t this was N a u k r a t i s is made

even m o r e p r o b a b l e by the fact t h a t one o f his advisers, Kleomenes, was

himself a native o f the city, a n d almost certainly (as his subsequent career
suggests) one o f its leading f i n a n c i e r s .

53

D u r i n g the n i g h t , a c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , A l e x a n d e r dreamed
t h a t a w h i t e - h a i r e d a n d venerable o l d m a n s t o o d beside h i m a n d de
c l a i m e d t w o lines f r o m H o m e r ' s Odyssey

( 4 . 3 5 4 - 5 5 ) : " T h e r e is an is

l a n d i n the ever-surging m a i n , / offshore f r o m Egypt: Pharos is w h a t m e n

call i t . " T h e king's religiosity was one of his strongest characteristics.

54

Struck by this v i s i o n , he sailed o n t o the coast, e x p l o r e d L a k e M a r e o t i s ,

a n d e x a m i n e d Pharos itself. H i s first i n s t i n c t seems t o have been t o f o l
l o w his d r e a m t o the letter a n d b u i l d a c i t y actually o n the island, being
dissuaded f r o m this p l a n o n l y by the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t Pharos was n o t

10

INTRODUCTION

big e n o u g h for w h a t he h a d i n m i n d .

5 5

B u t t h e n , surveying the l o n g

limestone ridge between lake a n d sea, n o t i n g the n a t u r a l deep-water

h a r b o r , the p r o t e c t i o n afforded by Pharos, a n d the lack o f c o m p a r a b l e
facilities elsewhere a l o n g the coast, he decided, P l u t a r c h says, t h a t H o
mer "was n o t o n l y e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n other respects b u t also a very clever
city planner."

56

A t this p o i n t , says A r r i a n ( 3 . 1 . 5 ) , "a l o n g i n g [pothos]

for the

w o r k t o o k h o l d o f h i m , " a n d i n his usual i m p u l s i v e , enthusiastic m a n

ner, he began m a r k i n g o u t the future city's m a i n features: the site o f the
agora; the n u m b e r a n d l o c a t i o n o f t e m p l e s m o s t l y t o Greek gods b u t
also t o E g y p t i a n Isis a n d Serapis (the H o m e r i c d r e a m m a y even have
t a k e n place d u r i n g a n i n c u b a t i o n i n the e x i s t i n g shrine o f Serapis at
R h a k o t i s ) t h e streets, l a i d o u t i n a r i g h t - a n g l e d g r i d p a t t e r n a n d so
57

placed as t o catch the c o o l p r e v a i l i n g breeze;

a n d a massive great r o y a l palace.

59

58

hugely strong r a m p a r t s ;

These features are a l l specifically at

t r i b u t e d t o A l e x a n d e r rather t h a n t o his successors. O n e further feature

f o r w h i c h he can safely be given the credit is A l e x a n d r i a ' s r e m a r k a b l e
system o f u n d e r g r o u n d drains, c o n d u i t s , cisterns, a n d sewers.
clearly h a d t o be i n place ab initio.
Alexandrine

60

This

I t is referred t o by the a u t h o r o f the

War, * a n d (according t o the A l e x a n d e r Romance) was ac

6

t u a l l y r e c o m m e n d e d t o A l e x a n d e r by one o f his technical advisers.

62

O n e factor t h a t u n d o u b t e d l y influenced A l e x a n d e r as a strate

gist i n favor o f the site was its s t r i k i n g resemblance t o t h a t o f T y r e .

6 3

A g a i n , he f o u n d an offshore island capable o f c o n t r o l l i n g access t o the

m a i n l a n d , a n d his o r i g i n a l n o t i o n o f establishing A l e x a n d r i a o n Pharos
itself confirms the c o m p a r i s o n . T h a t the island was t o o small t o c o n t a i n
the k i n d o f c i t y he h a d i n m i n d was n o t the o n l y a r g u m e n t , however,
i n favor o f p r e f e r r i n g a site centered o n the limestone ridge k n o w n as
R h a k o t i s . W h a t A l e x a n d e r h a d done at T y r e by d r i v i n g a great causeway
f r o m shore t o i s l a n d , others m i g h t yet achieve h e r e .

64

Better t o anticipate

t h e m . W h a t was m o r e , A l e x a n d e r at once perceived t h a t the existence of

such a causeway, quite apart f r o m its strategic advantages, w o u l d greatly
i m p r o v e the d o c k i n g f a c i l i t i e s .

65

F r o m an open roadstead merely shel

tered by Pharos, the p o r t o f A l e x a n d r i a w o u l d at one stroke acquire

m a j o r eastern a n d western h a r b o r s , each easily p r o t e c t e d against b o t h
v i o l e n t storms ( f r o m whatever quarter) a n d attack f r o m the sea. For
these reasons I a m i n c l i n e d t o believe t h a t the H e p t a s t a d i o n f o r m e d p a r t
of Alexander's o r i g i n a l p l a n a n d was i m p l e m e n t e d d u r i n g his lifetime.
I n a passage m u c h c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h later m y t h , A m m i a n u s picks u p
one t r a d i t i o n t h a t has the r i n g o f t r u t h a b o u t i t : the H e p t a s t a d i o n , he
reports, was r e m a r k a b l e n o t o n l y f o r its size (it was nearly a m i l e i n
length) b u t also for the "scarcely credible speed" w i t h w h i c h i t was
built.

6 6

T h e k i n d o f speed t h a t amazed those w h o saw i t (and a f o r t i o r i

those w h o became its v i c t i m s ) was, o f course, one o f Alexander's bestk n o w n characteristics.

Green

II

T h a t A l e x a n d e r ' s purpose i n f o u n d i n g A l e x a n d r i a was at least

as m u c h strategic as c o m m e r c i a l seems c e r t a i n .

67

Egypt's r e m a r k a b l e

a b i l i t y , even u n d e r the m o s t i n e p t o f the Ptolemies, t o resist successful i n

v a s i o n b y l a n d o r sea testifies i n retrospect t o his foresight. H i s acquisi
t i o n o f the N i l e V a l l e y guaranteed h i m a l m o s t i n e x h a u s t i b l e supplies o f
g r a i n a n d o t h e r p r o d u c e . M e m p h i s gave h i m c o n t r o l o f the D e l t a . Pelus i u m h a d o n l y l i m i t e d facilities f o r the maintenance o f a fleet; b u t w i t h
the establishment o f a deep-water p o r t i n A l e x a n d r i a (at the one p o i n t
o n the E g y p t i a n l i t t o r a l w h e r e this was possible) A l e x a n d e r c l i n c h e d his
d o m i n a t i o n over the eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T w o w o r l d w a r s have a m
p l y c o n f i r m e d the port's c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e as a n a v a l base. A l e x a n d e r ' s
emphasis o n the size a n d strength o f the c i t y w a l l s suggests a d e t e r m i n a
t i o n t o m a k e his f o u n d a t i o n equally i n v u l n e r a b l e f r o m the l a n d w a r d side.
T h e site o f R h a k o t i s h a d been used f o r a defense post i n ear
lier periods. Strabo describes h o w the p h a r a o h s established a g a r r i s o n
there, t o keep o u t foreigners, p r i m a r i l y Greeks ( o n e c o n o m i c g r o u n d s , i t
is alleged, w h i c h sounds l i k e an a n a c h r o n i s m f r o m Ptolemaic t i m e s ) , a n d
"gave t h e m as a d w e l l i n g place the area k n o w n as R h a k o t i s , n o w t h a t
p a r t o f the A l e x a n d r i a n s ' c i t y situated above the d o c k y a r d s , w h i c h was
t h e n a village; a n d the l a n d a r o u n d the village they gave t o herdsmen,
w h o also were able t o prevent incursions by o u t s i d e r s . "

68

Strabo's evi

dence is c o n f i r m e d i n some d e t a i l b y the A l e x a n d e r R o m a n c e , w h e r e , i n

a difficult a n d i n places c o r r u p t passage, w e hear o f a dozen s m a l l villages
s u r r o u n d i n g R h a k o t i s itself, w h i c h served as t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t e r .

69

Even m o r e i n t r i g u i n g , t h o u g h e x t r e m e l y h a r d t o evaluate, are the exten

sive u n d e r w a t e r r u i n s o f a huge h a r b o r c o m p l e x l y i n g t o the n o r t h a n d
west o f Pharos: T h e y c o u l d be a m i l l e n n i u m older t h a n the f o u n d a t i o n o f
A l e x a n d r i a , a n d the m o s t plausible t h e o r y identifies t h e m as p a r t o f the
M i n o a n thalassocracy centered o n K n o s s o s .

70

Pottery deposits suggest,

as w e m i g h t expect, a Greek presence i n the area at least since the m i d seventh c e n t u r y .

71

H e r o d o t o s a n d T h u k y d i d e s b o t h refer t o g a r r i s o n

posts i n the area, the one i n the s i x t h century, the other i n the fifth, i n
each case as p a r t o f a d e s c r i p t i o n o f Egypt's general defense s y s t e m .

72

T h e r e is n o reason t o suppose t h a t A l e x a n d e r , w h o h a d a l l H o m e r a n d a
g o o d deal o f Euripides b y heart, w o u l d n o t also be f a m i l i a r w i t h the t w o
great exponents o f his o w n themes o f conquest a n d e m p i r e .
T h e shape o f the o r i g i n a l c i t y w a l l is l i k e n e d b y several o f o u r
sources t o a c h l a m y s , a M a c e d o n i a n m i l i t a r y c l o a k ,

7 3

w h i c h was f o r m e d

f r o m a r e c t a n g u l a r piece o f c l o t h shaped s o m e w h a t l i k e the segment o f a

circle: a c o n v e x l o w e r edge subtended t o t w o s t r a i g h t sides c o n v e r g i n g
o n a m u c h n a r r o w e r t o p edge, the latter s t r a i g h t o r slightly c u r v e d .
city's dimensions are also v a r i o u s l y r e p o r t e d , Strabo's

figures30

74

The

stades

f r o m east t o west, b u t n o m o r e t h a n 7 - 8 n o r t h t o s o u t h , between L a k e

M a r e o t i s a n d the s e a b e i n g p r o b a b l y the m o s t accurate. Strabo also
75

makes i t clear t h a t the c i t y b o u n d a r y stopped s h o r t , i n the west, o f the

12

INTRODUCTION

suburb k n o w n as N e k r o p o l i s , " i n w h i c h there are m a n y graves a n d gar

dens a n d embalmers' p a r l o r s . "

7 6

A s i m i l a r terminus ad quern is p r o v i d e d

i n the east by the cemetery o f Shatby.

77

Insofar as the chlamys image bore

any r e l a t i o n t o reality, i t seems t o have envisaged an area r o u g h l y rectan

gular b u t n a r r o w i n g n o r t h w a r d as i t approached the h a r b o r area.
I f A l e x a n d e r w i s h e d t o o b t a i n d i v i n e a p p r o v a l for his f o u n
d a t i o n , i t first h a d t o be defined. T h i s is the true r a i s o n d'etre b e h i n d the
m o s t famous anecdote c o n c e r n i n g his activities at the site: most o f o u r
sources r e c o r d i t , b u t none perceives its relevance.

78

W h e n Alexander

h a d fixed o n the site at R h a k o t i s , as we have seen (p. 10 above), he

strode a r o u n d , A r r i a n says, m a r k i n g o u t (we are n o t t o l d h o w ) various
features o f his n e w city. B u t the c h a l k o r l i m e used for m a r k i n g r a n
o u t a n d was replaced, i n this emergency, by the barley meal o r polenta
t h a t f o r m e d the t r o o p s ' a n d w o r k m e n ' s rations ( w h a t they h a d t o say
a b o u t losing their l u n c h is n o t recorded). A vast s w a r m of seagulls a n d
m a r s h birds appeared a n d devoured the barley meal. A l e x a n d e r , super
stitious t o a degree, was concerned as t o w h a t this m i g h t p o r t e n d b u t got
w e l c o m e reassurance f r o m A r i s t a n d e r a n d his other seers, w h o declared
t h a t the c i t y w o u l d a b o u n d i n w e a l t h a n d p r o v i d e sustenance for m e n o f
every n a t i o n .

7 9

W h a t has escaped notice a b o u t the barley-meal anecdote is

t h a t i n every version o f i t w h a t A l e x a n d e r is m a r k i n g o u t is, specifically,
the city's perimeter, its f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , its defining b o u n d a r y w a l l s .

80

This

lends some c r e d i b i l i t y t o the generally disregarded c o m m e n t of Q u i n t u s

C u r t i u s Rufus, w h o i n f o r m s us t h a t the use o f barley meal t o establish
the outer c i r c u i t , w h a t a R o m a n w o u l d call the pomerium,
was "a c u s t o m o f the M a c e d o n i a n s . "

81

of a n e w c i t y

I n any case w h a t A l e x a n d e r was

d o i n g was m a k i n g a r i t u a l declaration of i n t e n t , at least as m u c h for

divine as f o r h u m a n n o t i f i c a t i o n . H e t h e n "offered sacrifice f o r these
actions, a n d the sacrifice appeared f a v o r a b l e . "

82

A t this p o i n t Alexander's lieutenant Hegelochos a r r i v e d by

sea w i t h w e l c o m e news f r o m the Aegean, where the naval c a m p a i g n was
everywhere t u r n i n g i n the M a c e d o n i a n s ' f a v o r .

83

I t was n o w that, once

again, A l e x a n d e r was seized by a sudden urge, a pothos,

shrine o f Zeus A m m o n i n the L i b y a n desert.

84

T h i s pothos

t o visit the
m a y n o t have

been exclusively religious i n nature. A l e x a n d e r still needed t o secure

Cyrene. H e r e l u c k was o n his side. Before he reached P a r a e t o n i u m
(Mersa M a t r u h ) , envoys met h i m f r o m Cyrene bearing r i c h gifts a n d so
l i c i t i n g a treaty o f alliance, w h i c h he was o n l y t o o glad t o grant t h e m .

8 5

H o g a r t h argued t h a t A l e x a n d e r o n l y w e n t t o Siwah at a l l because he

n o w h a d n o need t o proceed t o Cyrene a n d felt he m i g h t as w e l l make
the l o n g m a r c h w o r t h w h i l e . Alexander's religious nature suggests o t h
8 6

erwise; b u t H o g a r t h is u n d o u b t e d l y r i g h t i n his c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the j o u r

ney was also strategically m o t i v a t e d .

Green

We are o n l y concerned here w i t h t w o facets o f this m u c h discussed episode: the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t one reason f o r A l e x a n d e r ' s f o r a y
i n t o the desert was t o secure A m m o n ' s blessing o n the p r o p o s e d n e w
city, a n d a search f o r evidence establishing the c h r o n o l o g y o f b o t h the
p i l g r i m a g e itself a n d the city's f o u n d a t i o n . T h e sole source c l a i m i n g t h a t
A l e x a n d e r c o n s u l t e d the oracle r e g a r d i n g his p r o p o s e d f o u n d a t i o n is
p r o v i d e d b y the A l e x a n d e r R o m a n c e .

87

T h o u g h as a n u n s u p p o r t e d w i t

ness this t e x t does n o t inspire confidence, Welles has offered c o n v i n c i n g

reasons w h y i n this case w e s h o u l d believe w h a t i t tells us. As he says,
" D i d any Greek i n d i v i d u a l o r c o m m u n i t y ever f o u n d a n e w c i t y w i t h o u t
first c o n s u l t i n g an oracle? . . . A n y o n e i n a n t i q u i t y k n e w t h a t A l e x a n d e r
m u s t have h a d d i v i n e guidance i n f o u n d i n g his name c i t y . "

8 8

T h e oracle,

a c c o r d i n g t o the R o m a n c e , i n s t r u c t e d the k i n g t o d o so " o p p o s i t e the

isle o f Proteus," just as he h a d h o p e d , "over w h i c h A i o n P l o u t o n i o s h i m
self presides,/ t u r n i n g the boundless w o r l d o n its

five-hilled

ridges."

8 9

T h i s deity, the R o m a n c e d u l y i n f o r m s us, was none other t h a n Serapis.

90

T h o u g h the degree o f A l e x a n d e r ' s personal i n v o l v e m e n t i n the Serapis

c u l t is m u c h d e b a t e d ,

91

the existence o f a serapeion i n R h a k o t i s seems

c e r t a i n , a n d i t clearly o c c u p i e d the same site as the later t e m p l e , t h a t is,

the southwest p a r t o f the city, o n the l i t t l e h i l l w h e r e "Pompey's P i l l a r "
(actually p a r t o f the temple itself) s t i l l s t a n d s .

92

T h a t A l e x a n d e r received

a p p r o v a l f o r his f o u n d a t i o n f r o m A m m o n , a n d t h a t this a p p r o v a l was i n

some w a y l i n k e d t o the c u l t o f Serapis, seem h i g h l y p r o b a b l e .
T h e j o u r n e y t o S i w a h was m a r k e d by t w o p h e n o m e n a t h a t
enable us t o date i t w i t h reasonable p r e c i s i o n : heavy r a i n ,
storm,

9 4

9 3

a n d a sand

p r o d u c e d by the southwest k h a m s i n w i n d s . B o t h these are re

stricted t o the w i n t e r m o n t h s .

9 5

Alexander had arrived i n Egypt during

N o v e m b e r 3 3 2 : he p r o b a b l y c o n s u l t e d the oracle i n late December o r

early January. T h e A l e x a n d e r R o m a n c e offers an E g y p t i a n date, 25 T y b i ,
f o r the f o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a . C o n v e r s i o n t o a J u l i a n date depends
9 6

o n w h e t h e r the w r i t e r o f the R o m a n c e was c a l c u l a t i n g f r o m the Ptole

m a i c calendar, w h i c h gives us A p r i l 7, o r f r o m Augustus's R o m a n calen
dar, w h i c h w o r k s o u t at January 2 0 .

9 7

Since a f e w lines earlier he equates

T y b i w i t h January, the latter seems m o r e p r o b a b l e a n d fits very w e l l w i t h

the c l i m a t i c evidence. I n any case, A l e x a n d e r left M e m p h i s f o r Phoenicia
"at the very first sign o f s p r i n g , "

9 8

a n d this w i l l c e r t a i n l y have been be

fore the second week i n A p r i l . T h e one t r u e inconsistency i n o u r testim o n i a ( w h i c h also baffled A r r i a n , w h o reports i t ) concerns his r o u t e
back. D i d he r e t u r n by the same r o u t e (thus A r i s t o b u l u s , f o l l o w e d by
Q u i n t u s C u r t i u s R u f u s ) , o r m a k e the shorter, b u t far m o r e dangerous
t r e k across the desert t h r o u g h the Q a t t a r a Depression, d i r e c t l y t o M e m
phis?

99

T h e o n l y reason he w o u l d have chosen t o d o the latter w o u l d be

i f he was pressed f o r t i m e . W i t h a January rather t h a n an A p r i l date he

h a d n o such urgency. H e was also, u n d o u b t e d l y , eager t o see his n o w d i -

13

14

INTRODUCTION

vinely sanctioned p r o j e c t under way. I therefore believe t h a t A r i s t o b u l u s

was r i g h t a n d t h a t A l e x a n d e r traveled back via P a r a e t o n i u m a n d the
coast r o a d t o R h a k o t i s .
I n a brief notice D i o d o r u s records the sequence o f his actions
at this p o i n t : " K i n g A l e x a n d e r charged c e r t a i n o f his Friends w i t h the
b u i l d i n g o f A l e x a n d r i a , made a l l arrangements i n E g y p t , a n d set o u t
back f o r Syria w i t h his a r m y . "

1 0 0

W h o were these Friends, a n d w h a t

precisely were the i n s t r u c t i o n s they received? We have already m e t the

d u b i o u s l y n a m e d H y p o n o m o s , w h o (according t o the A l e x a n d e r R o
mance

101

) advised A l e x a n d e r o n the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a sophisticated under

g r o u n d system o f w a t e r supply a n d sewers, the existence o f w h i c h is

c o n f i r m e d b o t h by later l i t e r a r y evidence a n d b y a r c h a e o l o g y .

102

With

h i m are also n a m e d N u m e n i o s , a stonemason; K r a t e r o s of O l y n t h o s ( n o t

the M a c e d o n i a n general); a n d Kleomenes o f N a u k r a t i s , described as an
engineer (lArixttviKos). T h e first t w o are otherwise u n k n o w n . Kleomenes,
o n the other h a n d , together w i t h the architect D e i n o k r a t e s ( w h o m the
R o m a n c e also m e n t i o n s

, 0 3

) , was directly responsible f o r the i m p l e m e n t a

t i o n a n d i n i t i a l development of Alexander's d r e a m city. J u s t i n b l u n t l y

states t h a t Kleomenes " b u i l t A l e x a n d r i a . "
was responsible f o r its unusual d e s i g n .

105

1 0 4

I f he b u i l t i t , D e i n o k r a t e s

B o t h o f these larger-than-life

m e n are w o r t h a closer l o o k . A l e x a n d r i a w o u l d n o t have been A l e x a n

d r i a , perhaps m i g h t n o t even have survived, w i t h o u t t h e m .
V i t r u v i u s , the R o m a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l w r i t e r , describes i n de
tail

1 0 6

h o w D e i n o k r a t e s , a r m e d w i t h letters o f i n t r o d u c t i o n , sought

Alexander's patronage. I m p a t i e n t at the delay i n o b t a i n i n g an i n t r o d u c

t i o n t o the k i n g , D e i n o k r a t e s h i t o n a decidedly t h e a t r i c a l scheme. Being
a t a l l , handsome, w e l l - b u i l t m a n , he s t r i p p e d off at his l o d g i n g house,
o i l e d himself, p u t o n a w r e a t h o f p o p l a r leaves, d r a p e d a l i o n s k i n over
his left shoulder, a n d m a r c h e d o u t , grasping a c l u b , t o the t r i b u n a l
w h e r e A l e x a n d e r was g i v i n g j u d g m e n t . T h e appearance o f this deuteroH e r a k l e s caused a sensation. A l e x a n d e r , c u r i o u s , s u m m o n e d h i m . T h e
sales p i t c h was ready. D e i n o k r a t e s , w h o h a d a taste f o r the k i n d of p u b
lic g i g a n t i s m t h a t afterwards distinguished the P t o l e m i e s ,

107

and w h o

clearly shared Disraeli's belief t h a t w h e n flattering r o y a l t y y o u s h o u l d lay

i t o n w i t h the p r o v e r b i a l t r o w e l , a n n o u n c e d a p l a n t o carve M o u n t A t h o s
i n t o the likeness o f A l e x a n d e r himself, w i t h one h a n d h o l d i n g a basin
t o collect the f l o w o f water, a n d the other s u p p o r t i n g a c i t y o f ten t h o u
sand i n h a b i t a n t s .

108

A l e x a n d e r a n n o u n c e d himself pleased w i t h this

m o n s t r o u s piece o f v u l g a r i t y b u t , w i t h his usual p r a c t i c a l eye f o r logis

tics, asked w h e t h e r the c i t y h a d an adequate local g r a i n supply. W h e n he
heard t h a t a l l g r a i n w o u l d have t o be i m p o r t e d , he k i l l e d the p l a n b u t
at the same t i m e expressed a p p r o v a l o f the c o n c e p t

109

and enrolled Dei

nokrates as a m e m b e r o f his staff, i n t e n d i n g t o m a k e use o f his services.

T h i s revealing anecdote tells us a l o t n o t o n l y a b o u t A l e x a n -

Green

der's architect b u t also a b o u t A l e x a n d e r himself a n d his grandiose plans.

D e i n o k r a t e s w e n t t o E g y p t i n the king's t r a i n a n d was there c o m m i s
sioned w i t h the p l a n n i n g o f A l e x a n d r i a

1 1 0

i n the king's name, w h i c h

suggests t h a t he was given a free h a n d t o i m p r o v i s e d u r i n g Alexander's

absence i n the East. Nevertheless, i t seems l i k e l y t h a t m u c h o f the essen
t i a l p l a n n i n g was done w i t h Alexander's p r i o r a p p r o v a l a n d t h a t some
of i t m a y be a t t r i b u t a b l e t o the k i n g himself. Blanche B r o w n r e m i n d s
us o f Alexander's interest i n siege craft, h a r b o r d r e d g i n g , a n d drainage
schemes.

111

Was he responsible f o r the u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r - s u p p l y sys

tem? V e r y p r o b a b l y . W e m a y also detect his h a n d i n the c r e a t i o n of

v i t a l canals: one l i n k i n g the Western H a r b o r w i t h L a k e M a r e o t i s , an
o t h e r s o m e miles i n l e n g t h b e t w e e n L a k e M a r e o t i s a n d the N i l e ,
thus c o n n e c t i n g the country's i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l t r a n s p o r t systems.

112

D e i n o k r a t e s was responsible f o r the c h l a m y s l i k e shape o f the c i t y p e r i m

eter

1 1 3

a n d f o r the o r t h o g o n a l street system, t h o u g h i t m a y have been

A l e x a n d e r w h o insisted t h a t at least the t w o m a i n - a x i s streets s h o u l d be

(like those o f B r i g h a m Young's Salt L a k e C i t y ) a plethron,

t h a t is, n o less

t h a n a h u n d r e d feet i n b r e a d t h , a m o s t unusual s t i p u l a t i o n f o r t h a t day

and age.

114

T h e A l e x a n d e r R o m a n c e , o n the other h a n d , represents b o t h

D e i n o k r a t e s a n d Kleomenes as dissuading A l e x a n d e r f r o m creating an

over-large t e r r i t o r y (xcopa, chord)

f o r A l e x a n d r i a , a r g u i n g t h a t he w o u l d

never be able t o find enough people t o fill i t ;

1 1 5

the k i n g seems t o have

t a k e n t h e i r advice, since the actual t e r r i t o r y the Romance tells us he

agreed o n m o r e o r less coincides w i t h h i s t o r i c a l fact. T h e same source
states ( 8) t h a t he ordered anyone l i v i n g w i t h i n t h i r t y miles o f the c i t y
b o u n d a r y t o move i n t o the c i t y itself, at the same t i m e g r a n t i n g t h e m
l a n d a n d A l e x a n d r i a n citizenship. C u r t i u s adds t h a t he evacuated some
other l o c a l t o w n s a n d " f i l l e d the n e w c i t y w i t h a vast p o p u l a t i o n . "

1 1 6

Kleomenes o f N a u k r a t i s is an altogether m o r e f o r m i d a b l e
figure.

I t m a y have been his engineering skills (p. 14 above) t h a t first led

A l e x a n d e r t o enlist his services f o r the b u i l d i n g o f A l e x a n d r i a ; b u t i t very

soon became apparent t h a t this a m b i t i o u s Greek's chief q u a l i f i c a t i o n was
as a t o u g h , a n d h i g h l y u n s c r u p u l o u s , financier a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r .

117

His

first official a p p o i n t m e n t was as t a x c o l l e c t o r f o r the r e g i o n east o f the

D e l t a a n d subsequently f o r a l l E g y p t a n d the adjacent p a r t o f N o r t h
Africa.

1 1 8

H i s i n s t r u c t i o n s were t o let the n o m a r c h s c o n t i n u e t o rule t h e i r

districts i n accordance w i t h long-established t r a d i t i o n b u t t o e x t r a c t

t r i b u t e f r o m t h e m , w h i c h they f o r t h e i r p a r t were ordered t o pay. So
successful was he t h a t A l e x a n d e r soon established h i m as governor o f
E g y p t , the equivalent o f a Persian s a t r a p .

119

I n t h a t capacity he r u l e d

E g y p t f r o m A l e x a n d r i a u n t i l 3 2 3 / 3 2 2 . A f t e r Alexander's death, however,

w h e n P t o l e m y g o t E g y p t as his o w n satrapy, Kleomenes was d e m o t e d t o
deputy governor.

120

Ptolemy, however, h a d n o i n t e n t i o n of r e t a i n i n g so

a m b i t i o u s a n d unscrupulous an a d m i n i s t r a t o r , whose reduced p o s i t i o n

15

16

INTRODUCTION

was an open i n v i t a t i o n t o conspiracy: indeed, r u m o r h a d i t t h a t K l e o menes was already i n secret c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h Ptolemy's bete n o i r e ,
Perdiccas. I t is, t h e n , n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a l m o s t as soon as P t o l e m y ar
r i v e d i n E g y p t , he h a d Kleomenes arrested a n d e x e c u t e d .

121

Inspection of

the treasury revealed t h a t his predecessor h a d managed t o amass n o less

t h a n eight t h o u s a n d talents d u r i n g his years i n o f f i c e .

122

A great deal o f this m o n e y h a d been acquired by m a n i p u l a t

ing the g r a i n m a r k e t . Demosthenes (or w h o e v e r w r o t e the speech against
D i o n y s o d o r o s ) d r a w s a graphic p i c t u r e o f p r i c e - f i x i n g a n d resale deals
by a cartel consisting o f m e n w h o were a l l "subordinates a n d confeder
ates" o f K l e o m e n e s .

123

F u r t h e r details are p r o v i d e d by the pseudo-

A r i s t o t e l i a n Oeconomical

w h i c h n o t o n l y confirms the price-fixing

charges b u t gives us a glimpse of Kleomenes' other activities. I n p a r t i c u

lar, he was responsible f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g Alexander's r e l o c a t i o n policy,
w h i c h i n c l u d e d the area o f Canopus, together w i t h its p u b l i c m a r k e t .
H i s dealings w i t h the priests a n d p r o p e r t y owners are i n s t r u c t i v e . First
he a n n o u n c e d he w o u l d transfer t h e m . T h e y t h e n b r i b e d h i m t o leave
the m a r k e t w h e r e i t was. H e a c c e p t e d u n t i l the b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l was
ready. T h e n he r e t u r n e d a n d demanded a vast s u m , " w h i c h he said rep
resented the difference t o h i m between h a v i n g the m a r t near the Pharos
a n d at C a n o p u s . " W h e n they t o l d h i m this was impossible, he trans
ferred t h e m anyway. (Readers o f The Alexandria

Quartet

w i l l at once

recognize a s p i r i t u a l ancestor of M e m l i k Pasha.) A l l the anecdotes c o n

cerning h i m e x e m p l i f y his ingenious ways o f e x t r a c t i n g m o n e y f r o m the
u n w i l l i n g a n d the u n w a r y .
N o n e o f t h i s , clearly, b o t h e r e d A l e x a n d e r , w h o was quite
h a p p y as l o n g as Kleomenes d i d his j o b efficiently a n d remained l o y a l .
T h e governor, f o r his p a r t , made sure t h a t A l e x a n d e r g o t the lion's share
of any profits (one e x t r a c t f r o m a letter he w r o t e t o the k i n g lists s m o k e d
q u a i l a n d thrushes by the t h o u s a n d ) .

125

T o w a r d the end of his life A l e x

ander w r o t e t o Kleomenes, i n s t r u c t i n g h i m t o erect a shrine t o Hephaist i o n " o f vast size a n d u n p a r a l l e l e d m a g n i f i c e n c e " o n the island of
Pharos, name i t after H e p h a i s t i o n , a n d issue a decree o b l i g i n g business
contracts t o have Hephaistion's name w r i t t e n i n t o t h e m . D o t h i s , A l e x
ander c o n c l u d e d , " a n d any w r o n g y o u have done i n the past, I w i l l par
don, a n d i n the future, however y o u m a y err, y o u w i l l suffer n o h a r m
from me."

1 2 6

T h i s a t t i t u d e p r o f o u n d l y shocked the respectable A r r i a n ,

w h o characterizes Kleomenes (quite justifiably) as "a bad m a n w h o h a d

perpetrated m a n y injustices i n E g y p t " a n d c a n n o t b r i n g himself " t o ap
prove such a mandate f r o m a great k i n g t o a person r u l i n g over so w i d e
an area a n d so m a n y p e o p l e . "

1 2 7

Yet, l i k e h i m o r n o t , this was the m a n w h o g u i d e d a n d f o r m e d

A l e x a n d r i a t h r o u g h the first c r u c i a l decade o f the city's existence, and
we can be c e r t a i n t h a t he left his o w n i d i o s y n c r a t i c stamp o n Alexander's

Green

o r i g i n a l plans. I t seems clear t h a t one o f the first t h i n g s Kleomenes es

t a b l i s h e d i n A l e x a n d r i a j u s t as w e m i g h t expect, c o n s i d e r i n g his c o m
mercial instinctswas a functioning m i n t .

1 2 8

H i s dealings i n g r a i n s h o w

t h a t r i g h t f r o m the start the n e w f o u n d a t i o n f o r m e d a n a t u r a l e n t r e p o t

for East-West trade. M e r c a n t i l e requirements suggest t h a t the h a r b o r s
a n d d o c k s a n d , n a t u r a l l y , the H e p t a s t a d i o n h a d p r i o r i t y w h e n i t
came t o c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k , a l o n g w i t h the c i t y w a l l s . A l e x a n d e r ' s palace
a n d the shrine o f Serapis w e r e , s i m i l a r l y , features t h a t n o p r u d e n t gover
n o r w o u l d neglect. Nevertheless, i t is w o r t h e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t at the t i m e
of Kleomenes' death none o f the m a j o r features w e associate w i t h
A l e x a n d r i a t h e Pharos, the M o u s e i o n , the L i b r a r y , the r o y a l m a u
soleum (Sema), the m o r e e x t r a v a g a n t palaceshad even been started.
T h e cross f o r m e d by the t w o great c e n t r a l t h o r o u g h f a r e s m u s t have been
i n place, b u t m a n y smaller streets a n d alleys were left t o evolve at r a n
d o m , w i t h l i t t l e regard f o r the o r t h o g o n a l g r i d .

1 2 9

T h i s n a t u r a l d e v i a t i o n f r o m r e c t i l i n e a r consistency m a y have
been responsible i n p a r t f o r the persistent d e n i g r a t i o n o f M a h m o u d Bey's
pioneer w o r k i n p l o t t i n g the remains o f the ancient city. H e , l i k e a l m o s t
every scholar since, assumed t h a t the street p l a n was absolutely regular
t h r o u g h o u t . T h e m o s t t r e n c h a n t c r i t i c i s m came f r o m D . G . H o g a r t h ,
w h o , w i t h E. F. Benson, excavated briefly i n A l e x a n d r i a i n 1 8 9 5 .

1 3 0

Eh

chief c o m p l a i n t (apart f r o m generalized sneers at M a h m o u d Bey's ama

teur status, incompetence, a n d lack o f experience) was t h a t the o r i e n t a
t i o n o f streets o n M a h m o u d Bey's m a p c o u l d n o t be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h a t
of w a l l s a n d pavement f o u n d by H o g a r t h h i m s e l f .

131

Since b o t h m e n be

lieved i n a s t r i c t a x i a l g r i d , i t is easy t o see h o w this m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g

came a b o u t ; b u t i t was d o u b l y u n f o r t u n a t e i n t h a t H o g a r t h ' s strictures
m e a n t t h a t M a h m o u d Bey's w o r k was a l m o s t w h o l l y neglected u n t i l very
recent times. N o w , however, e x c a v a t i o n has t o a s u r p r i s i n g degree v i n d i
cated his o r i g i n a l p l a n .

1 3 2

We still k n o w very l i t t l e a b o u t early A l e x a n

d r i a i n archaeological terms; b u t w h a t w e d o k n o w f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t
the C a n o p i c W a y f o l l o w e d the line o f m o d e r n rue Rosette, t o d a y the
Sharia H o r r e y a

1 3 3

we owe largely t o M a h m o u d Bey.

I f w e have succeeded t o any degree i n rescuing A l e x a n d e r ' s

A l e x a n d r i a f r o m m y t h , this is scarcely due t o the e p o n y m o u s f o u n d e r
himself, w h o s e m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n was t o a d d some h i g h l y p o t e n t m y t h s
o f his o w n . As H o g a r t h p i t h i l y r e m i n d s us, A l e x a n d e r "stayed i n the N i l e
V a l l e y just a b o u t the t i m e t h a t a n o r d i n a r y t o u r i s t spends o n a single
v i s i t , a n d he never r e t u r n e d t o i t except as a n e m b a l m e d corpse."

1 3 4

I n death he ceased t o be a t o u r i s t , a n d became a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n .

P t o l e m y Soter d i v e r t e d the funeral procession a n d i n effect h i j a c k e d
A l e x a n d e r ' s b o d y t o E g y p t , w h e r e i t r e m a i n e d o n p e r m a n e n t display
(rather l i k e L e n i n i n R e d Square), first i n a g o l d coffin a n d t h e n ( w h e n a
later P t o l e m y s o l d t h a t f o r cash t o pay mercenaries) i n a replacement o f

17

18

INTRODUCTION

glass o r alabaster. Julius Caesar m e d i t a t e d over h i m . Augustus acciden

t a l l y b r o k e off a b i t o f his nose. C a l i g u l a stole his breastplate f o r per
sonal use. Septimius Severus restricted access t o the t o m b . Caracalla,
i n an u n w o n t e d l y generous gesture, t o o k off his o w n p u r p l e toga, his
rings, a n d jewels a n d placed t h e m o n the bier ( A . D . 2 1 5 ) . A f t e r t h a t ,
o b l i v i o n . T h e t o m b , its occupant, a n d the palace area generally were
p r o b a b l y destroyed a b o u t A . D . 2 7 3 , d u r i n g the disturbances o f Aurelian's
reign. A c e n t u r y later J o h n C h r y s o s t o m is asking, r h e t o r i c a l l y : " T e l l me,
w h e r e is Alexander's t o m b ? Show me, tell me the day o n w h i c h i t ceased
t o exist!"

1 3 5

Despite t h i s , f r o m a n t i q u i t y t o the present day h o p e f u l fanta

sists have c o n t i n u e d t o search f o r the M a c e d o n i a n conqueror's last rest
i n g place: Alexander's p o s t h u m o u s charisma ( w h i c h so i n h i b i t e d his
successors t h a t they h e l d c o u n c i l meetings i n the presence o f his e m p t y
throne and regalia

l36

) still retains a l l its o l d m a g n e t i s m .

137

T h e quest

has m o s t l y concentrated o n the mosque o f the p r o p h e t D a n i e l o n N a b i

D a n i e l Street, the presumptive site o f the Sema. Despite the archaeolo
gists' flatly negative
undeterred.

139

findings,

138

o p t i m i s t s , m o s t l y amateurs, continue

M y o w n favorite " s i g h t i n g " is one w h i c h Forster records,

by a d r a g o m a n o f the Russian Consulate ( " p r o b a b l y a l i a r , " Forster

m i l d l y c o m m e n t s ) w h o i n 1 8 5 0 c l a i m e d t o have seen t h r o u g h a hole i n
a w o o d e n d o o r "a h u m a n b o d y i n a sort o f glass cage w i t h a d i a d e m o n
its head a n d h a l f b o w e d o n a sort of elevation o r t h r o n e . A q u a n t i t y o f
b o o k s o r papyrus were scattered a r o u n d . "

1 4 0

W i s h f u l t h i n k i n g is a great

p r o m o t e r o f visions.
We k n o w a l i t t l e of Alexander's plans f o r A l e x a n d r i a ; we
k n o w v i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g o f its u l t i m a t e i m p o r t a n c e i n his scheme o f things
h a d he l i v e d , m u c h less h o w close a resemblance ( i f any) the shape t h a t
the c i t y finally assumed bore t o the v i s i o n he h a d i n m i n d as he strode
a b o u t the site at R h a k o t i s , architects a n d aides s c r a m b l i n g b e h i n d h i m ,
d r i b b l i n g trails o f barley meal over d a r k soil a n d limestone o u t c r o p p i n g s
(cf. p . 12 above). V i c t o r Ehrenberg's r o m a n t i c a s s u m p t i o n

141

that Alex

ander p l a n n e d t o m a k e A l e x a n d r i a - b y - E g y p t the c a p i t a l o f his empire is

w h o l l y u n s u p p o r t e d by evidence a n d u n l i k e l y i n the extreme: the c a p i t a l ,
as has often been said, was wherever A l e x a n d e r happened t o be, his n o
t i o n o f i m p e r i a l rule being (to p u t i t k i n d l y ) d y n a m i c rather t h a n static.
Even Fraser's c l a i m t h a t he " c o n t i n u e d t o take an interest i n the c i t y u n
t i l he d i e d " rests o n n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n the king's request f o r an outsize
m o n u m e n t t o H e p h a i s t i o n a n d his awareness o f Kleomenes'
peccadilloes (p. 16 a b o v e ) .

142

financial

A l e x a n d e r never saw A l e x a n d r i a i n his life

t i m e , even t h o u g h he became the city's resident daimon

once he was

dead. C o u l d he m i r a c u l o u s l y have come back t o see w h a t h a d been done

i n his name, w o u l d he have a p p r o v e d w h a t he saw?
T h e c i t y indeed became large a n d p o p u l o u s , t h o u g h w i t h a

Green

r i b a l d c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m t h a t m i g h t have disconcerted h i m , since his n o

t i o n s o f fusion always left the M a c e d o n i a n s f i r m l y i n charge. O n t h a t
score the Ptolemaic c o u r t a n d the A l e x a n d r i a n bureaucracy, w h i l e allay
i n g his fears, w o u l d also have aroused his p u r i t a n a n t i p a t h y t o l u x u r y
a n d self-indulgence. T h e h a r b o r s , docks, canals, a n d c i t y w a l l s p r o b a b l y
t u r n e d o u t m u c h as he h a d envisaged t h e m . T h e Pharos w o u l d have
pleased his taste f o r p r a c t i c a l science w h i l e also a p p e a l i n g t o his sense
of g i g a n t i s m . A r i s t o t l e ' s p u p i l , w h o h a d t a k e n endless geographers, b o t a
nists, a n d h i s t o r i a n s w i t h h i m o n his conquest o f the East, can h a r d l y
have failed t o approve o f the M o u s e i o n a n d L i b r a r y , t h o u g h the b a c k b i t
i n g antics o f its resident faculty w o u l d n o m o r e have appealed t o h i m
t h a n they d i d t o T i m o n o f Phlius w h e n he w r o t e : " I n the p o l y g l o t l a n d
of E g y p t m a n y n o w find pasturage as e n d o w e d scribblers, endlessly
q u a r r e l i n g i n the M u s e s ' b i r d c a g e . "

1 4 3

W h e r e I suspect he w o u l d have felt m o s t alien f r o m the A l e x

a n d r i a o f later m y t h is i n the solipsistic sexual p h a n t a s m a g o r i a t h a t
p r o v e d so p o t e n t a s t i m u l u s t o Forster, Cavafy, a n d D u r r e l l o r , f o r the
m a t t e r o f t h a t , t o K a l l i m a c h o s . Despite H e p h a i s t i o n ( w h o m Cavafy, f o r
one, w o u l d have dismissed as the m o s t s t u n n i n g o f square bores), despite
the Persian e u n u c h Bagoasso t a n t a l i z i n g l y r o m a n t i c i z e d by M a r y Re
n a u l t A l e x a n d e r w o u l d surely have f o u n d the "great wine-press o f
l o v e , " n o t least its too-seductive dregs, b o t h repellent a n d t e r r i f y i n g . I n a
m o m e n t o f u n g u a r d e d c a n d o r he once declared t h a t he was never so c o n
scious o f his o w n m o r t a l i t y as w h e n asleep o r i n the act o f s e x .

144

Of

fered t w o b e a u t i f u l boys, he asked the d o n o r w h a t shameful q u a l i t y he

h a d perceived i n his k i n g t h a t he s h o u l d m a k e such f o u l proposals. Sol
diers g u i l t y o f rape he ordered p u t t o death "as w i l d beasts b o r n f o r the
d e s t r u c t i o n o f m a n k i n d . " Persian w o m e n he described as " i r r i t a n t s t o
the eyes."

1 4 5

So r n u c h f o r Justine, D u r r e l l ' s c h i l d p r o s t i t u t e s , a n d the

seedier denizens o f the rue Lepsius. Perhaps, h a d A l e x a n d e r l i v e d , the c i t y

he f o u n d e d at the crossroads o f East a n d West m i g h t have assumed a dif
ferent character. Perhaps: b u t at heart I d o u b t i t . T h e m e l t i n g p o t o f a l l
n a t i o n s p r o v e d as m y t h i c a l l y d u r a b l e as its f o u n d e r , even t h r o w i n g u p , i n
C l e o p a t r a v n , a figure whose b r i l l i a n c e a n d c h a r i s m a m a t c h e d A l e x a n
der's o w n . O n l y by t u r n i n g back t o E g y p t c o u l d the m u l t i r a c i a l spell be
b r o k e n : a n d f o r t h a t the c i t y h a d t o w a i t over t w o m i l l e n n i a .

1 4 6

The University of Texas at Austin

A U S T I N ,

T E X A S

19

20

INTRODUCTION

Notes

S. D a r i s , " A l e s s a n d r i a d ' E g i t t o : u n m i t o ? "

10
I I

C f . J. L . P i n c h i n , Alexandria
rell and Cavafy

Forster (note 3 above), p p . 9 5 - 9 6 .

45 (1990): 1 0 3 - 2 0 .

Paideia

Still:

Forster,

Dur-

C f . M . M a n z a l a o u i , "Curate's Egg: A n A l e x a n
d r i a n O p i n i o n o f D u r r e l P s Quartet,"

(Princeton 1977).

E x p o u n d e d w i t h clarity a n d w i t by E. M . For

12

ster i n w h a t B o n a m y D o b r e e o n c e d e s c r i b e d

Etudes

15.3 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 2 4 8 - 6 0 .

Anglaises

G a l e n Comm.

in Hipp.

Epidem.

i i i (cited at

l e n g t h b y Fraser, 11 [ n o t e 7 a b o v e ] , p . 4 8 0 ) .

as " s u r e l y t h e best g u i d e - b o o k ever w r i t t e n " :

Alexandria:

A History

and a Guide,

introduc

13

H . v o n S t a d e n , Herophilus:

t i o n b y L . D u r r e l l (rev. e d . , N e w Y o r k 1 9 8 2 ) ,

cine in Early

pp. 7 9 - 8 2 .

ch.

The Art of

Medi

(Cambridge 1989),

Alexandria

6, p p . 1 3 8 - 5 3 ; G r e e n ( n o t e 5 a b o v e ) ,

p p . 8 5 9 - 6 0 w i t h f u r t h e r refs.
4

I a m t h i n k i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y o f the strange p o e m

'kTTokeiireiP b debs

'APTCOPLOP,

its title a n d

t h e m e t a k e n f r o m P l u t a r c h ' s Life
(ch.

of

14

Antony

A . L . U d o v i t c h , " L ' e n i g m e d ' A l e x a n d r i e : Sa p o

s i t i o n a u m o y e n age d ' a p r e s les d o c u m e n t s de l a

7 5 ) , i n w h i c h t h e defeated R o m a n hears

G e n i z a d u C a i r e , " Revue

aoparos OCaaog pa ireppa jme jmovaLKeg

man

de VOccident

musul-

46 (1987): 7 1 - 7 9 .

et de la Mediterranee

egaicnes, /me cfrcovesa s i g n t h a t t h e g o d " t o

w h o m he m o s t l i k e n e d a n d a t t a c h e d h i m s e l f "

15

Forster (note 3 above), p p . 6 2 , 8 4 .

16

Ps.-Call. 1 . 4 - 1 2 , 3 . 2 5 - 2 6 , 1 . 2 9 - 3 0 , 2.38 (ed.

was a b a n d o n i n g h i m .
5

H e r o d . Mim. 1.29: c f . P. G r e e n , Alexander

H . V a n T h i e l ) . T h e best a v a i l a b l e t r a n s l a t i o n s i n

to

E n g l i s h are t h o s e b y K e n D o w d e n ,

(rev. e d . , B e r k e l e y 1 9 9 3 ) , p . 2 4 5 .

Actium

Ancient
6

T h e i d e a is E r n e s t G e l l n e r ' s : see h i s r e v i e w a r

ley

t i c l e " T h e M i g h t i e r Pen? E d w a r d Said a n d t h e

The

Greek

Novels,

Collected

e d . B . P. R e a r d o n ( B e r k e

1989), p p . 6 5 0 - 7 3 5 , a n d by R. Stoneman,
Greek

Alexander

(London 1991).

Romance

D o u b l e Standards o f Inside-Out C o l o n i a l i s m , "

Times

Literary

Supplement

4 6 9 0 (19 February

17

A m m . Marc. 22.16.9-11.

18

Strabo 1 7 . 1 . 6 - 1 0 ( C . 7 9 1 - 9 5 ) .

19

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p . 7 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 7

3~4- Gellner continues: " N o d o u b t i t

993)

w a s easier t o find a t t r a c t i v e h o m o s e x u a l p a r t
ners i n B i s k r a t h a n a m o n g t h e haute
geoisie

protestante,

bour

b u t t h i s does n o t m e a n t h a t

t h e A l g e r i a n oasis w a s a r e s i d u e o f a n c i e n t

above), p p . 1 2 - 1 3 n . 2 9 .

M e d i t e r r a n e a n sensuous h a r m o n y , l i b e r t y a n d
f u l f i l l m e n t . " N o r , he m i g h t h a v e a d d e d , w a s t h e

20

D i o d . Sic. 1 . 5 0 . 6 - 7 : ol Kara

TO egrjs

ancient Mediterranean. M u t a t i s mutandis, the

fiacrikevcroLVTes

same c r i t i c i s m c a n be l e v e l e d a t b o t h C a v a f y

(f>LAoTL/jirj9rjaap els TTJP ravTTjg avgrjaLP.

and Durrell.

fiep yap

rfjs AiyviTTOv

fiavikeiois

irdpreg

pueyakoirpeTrecrip,

P(opoL<; xal Xiixecriv ol 6 ' erepotg

7

P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

Alexandria,

Kal

vol. 1 (Ox

KaTaaKevdajuLaatP

Toaovrop

18 (hereafter " F r a s e r , 1 " a n d " F r a s e r , 11"). T h e

irkeCaTOLq 7rp(orr]p rj Sevrepap

R o m a n prefect's t i t l e w a s Praefectus

Kara

dreae

et Aegypti,

TTJP OIKOV/ULPT)P

adrijp

apadrjtiao-i
irrl

(bare irapa

ford 1972), p . 107; v o l . 2, p p . 1 9 6 - 9 7 n n . 1 1 0 Alexan-

iKda/mrjcrap

d^tok&yoig

ol

ol 8e

TOIS

apiQpuelcrdai

TWP

irokeiop.

and Romans i n Alexandria

w r i t e o f t r a v e l i n g to E g y p t ( m u c h as a m o d e r n

21

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 8 - 9 .

22

I b i d . C f . also M . R o d z i e w i c z , " L e d e b a t s u r l a

G r e e k w o u l d s p e a k o f g o i n g to E u r o p e ) .
8

P l u t . Alex.

2 6 . 1 0 ; S t e p h . B y z . s.v.

t o p o g r a p h i e de l a v i l l e a n t i q u e , " R e v u e de

AAegapSpeat.

T h e seers t o l d A l e x a n d e r t o be o f g o o d cheer:

cident

7rokvapK(TTctTTJP yap oiKi^eaQai

(1987): 3 9 - 4 8 .

avrov,

Kal 7ravra8a7T(bv

TTOXIV

V7r

musulman

et de la Mediterranee

I'Oc

46

OLvQpojTTiQV io-ojtieprjp
23

rpo<f)6p.

H o w m u c h w o u l d h a v e c o m e d o w n t o us even
g r a n t e d o p t i m u m p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r sur

L . D u r r e l l , Justine
p. 1 4 .

( L o n d o n 1957, repr. 1985),

v i v a l r e m a i n s a m a t t e r f o r d e b a t e . I t is a c u r i o u s
fact that documents referring t o A l e x a n d r i a

Green

f r o m elsewhere i n E g y p t o n l y begin a b o u t the

middle o f the reign of Ptolemy

35

H o g a r t h (note 29 above), p . 54.

36

Arrian

37

C u r t . 4 . 7 . 4 - 5 ; A r r i a n 3.1.2.

Philadelphos

( 2 8 3 - 2 4 6 ) , that is, i n the m i d - t h i r d century

3.1.1-3.

(Fraser, 1 [ n o t e 7 a b o v e ] , p . 6; Fraser, 11 [ n o t e 7
a b o v e ] , p p . 9 - 1 0 n . 2 3 ) ; w h e t h e r t h i s is e v i
dence f o r t h e s l o w b u r e a u c r a t i c g r o w t h o f t h e
capital, o r (more likely) f o r the gradual exten
s i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e chora,

38

re

P s . - C a l l . 1.34: evedpoviacrav

avrbv

AlyvTTTioi . . . dig AlyvTTTiov

ol

fiacnAea.

mains uncertain.
39
24

40

i l l u m i n a t i n g article " A l e x a n d r i a f r o m M o

C u r t . 4 . 7 . 5 : a Memphi

h a m m e d A l i to G a m a l A b d a l Nasser," i n

ad interiora

N . H i n s k e , e d . , Alexandrien:

bus ita ut nihil

gen dreier Jahrtausende

mediterranen

Kulturbegegnun-

im Schmelztiegel

mutaret

einer

P l u t . Alex.

Kara

9 . 1 ; S t e p h . B y z . , s.v.

'kke;av8peiai

41

A r r i a n 7 . 2 3 . 7 ; cf. A . B . B o s w o r t h ,

Conquest

and Empire:

the

of Alexander

Great

42

(Cambridge 1988), pp. 2 4 6 - 4 7 .

27

Studies
y$th

Presented

Societies
to Victor

and

Institutions:

Ehrenberg

on His

( O x f o r d 1966), pp. 3 7 - 6 9 ,

Birthday

louis

uectus,

Hammonis

rr)v ALJVTTTOV

oraculum

esse Aegypti

sta-

8e ra

els "A/xyLiw^o?.

irpor)\6ev

condidit

re

more

ab

Hammone,

et coloniam

Macedonum

iubet.

P s . - C a l l . 1 . 3 0 - 3 1 , esp. 1 . 3 0 . 5 : KrCe

irokiv

7TpC(f)7JJilOl> VTTEp HpQ)T7]C8a VTjCTOV.

E. Badian, " A l e x a n d e r the Great a n d the Greeks

o f A s i a , " i n Ancient

flumine

compositisque

Aegyptiorum

J u s t . 1 1 . 1 1 . 1 - 2 , 1 3 : reuersus
caput

The Reign

eodem
penetrat,

ex patrio

adire

Alexandream

(no. 3); T h e o p o m p u s fr. 110.

26

Aegypti

tuit; D i o d . Sic. 1 7 . 4 9 . 2 : Karaarrjaag

(Mainz a m Rhein

Grofistadt

1981), pp. 6 3 - 7 4 .
25

A r r i a n 3.1.4.

O f especial v a l u e i n t h i s c o n t e x t is P. M . Fraser's

43

A r r i a n 3 . 1 . 5 - 2 . 2 , 3 . 3 . i f f . ; P l u t . Alex.

26

passim.
44

C . B r a d f o r d W e l l e s , " T h e D i s c o v e r y o f Sarapis
and the Foundation o f A l e x a n d r i a , "

esp. p . 4 8 .

Historia

(Wiesbaden) 1 1 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 2 7 1 - 9 8 . T h o u g h I re
28

P. G r e e n , Alexander
A Historical

356-323

of Macedon,

Biography

g a r d h i s f u n d a m e n t a l p r e m i s e as m i s c o n c e i v e d ,

BC:

I w o u l d e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e r e is a g r e a t d e a l o f

(Berkeley 1991),

pp. 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 2 1 6 - 1 8 , 2 4 2 - 4 3 ; A . R. Burn,

o r i g i n a l v a l u a b l e s c h o l a r s h i p i n Welles's a r t i c l e

"Notes o n Alexander's Campaigns,

o n points of detail.

B C , " Journal

of Hellenic

Studies

332-330

72 (1952):

81-91.

45

A . B. Bosworth, "Errors i n A r r i a n , "

Quarterly

29

Classical

26 (1976): 136 n. 102.

D . G . H o g a r t h , " A l e x a n d e r i n E g y p t a n d Some
C o n s e q u e n c e s , " Journal
ogy 2 ( 1 9 1 5 ) :

of Egyptian

Archaeol

46

53-60.

See, e.g., E . N . B o r z a , Historia

P. M . Fraser, Opuscula

16 (1967): 3 6 9 ;
7 (1967):

Atheniensia

30 n . 27.
30

A . T . O l m s t e a d , A History
pire

of the Persian

Em

(Chicago 1948), p p . 4 3 6 - 3 7 .

47

C f . H . W . P a r k e , Greek

Oracles

(London

1 9 6 7 ) , c h . 5, " O r a c l e s a n d C o l o n i s a t i o n , "
p p . 4 4 f f . , esp. p . 4 5 .

3I

B o s w o r t h (note 26 above), p . 6 8 .

32

A r r i a n 3.1.1; Curt. 4.7.2.

48

O l m s t e a d (note 30 above), p p . 4 3 7 - 4 0 . I n

49

33

a d d i t i o n t o l o o t i n g the temples a n d c o m m i t t i n g

A r r i a n 3.1.4.
A r r i a n 3 . 1 . 5 , v8aC/mova;

P l u t . Alex.

jmeyaArjv Kal iroAvavOpcoirov,

26.4,

D i o d . Sic.

o t h e r o u t r a g e s , O c h u s d r o v e i n t o e x i l e t h e last

1 7 . 5 2 . 1 , juLeyaArjv; C u r t . 4 . 8 . 2 , magnae

n a t i v e p h a r a o h , N e k t a n e b o ( N e k h t - h a r - h e b i ) 11

V i t r u v . 11 praef.

1.4, portum

naturaliter

sedis;
tutum.

l a t e r t o u t e d i n m y t h as t h e f a t h e r o f A l e x a n
der (see p . 5 a b o v e ) .
34

50

D i o d . Sic. 1 7 . 4 9 . 1 - 2 ; C u r t . 4 . 7 . 1 ; P. A . B r u n t ,
Arrian,

vol. 1 (Cambridge, Mass.

p . 2 2 3 n . 3.

1976),

51

A r r i a n 4 . 1 . 3 - 4 , 24.7; 6.15.2, 22.3; 7.31.7.

F o r a useful s u r v e y o f N a u k r a t i s , see J. B o a r d m a n , The Greeks
Colonies

Overseas:

and Trade,

Their

Early

3 r d ed. ( N e w Y o r k 1980),

21

22

INTRODUCTION

pp. 117-34, w i t h further bib. For a description

o f t h e e m p o r i u m i n t h e A r c h a i c p e r i o d , cf. H d t .

<>

2.178-79, w i t h the commentary o f A . B . L l o y d ,

Herodotus

Book

11: Commentary

(Lei

99-182

63

d e n 1988), p p . 2 2 2 - 3 1 .

C f . R . C a v e n a i l e , " P o u r u n e h i s t o i r e p o l i t i q u e et
sociale d ' A l e x a n d r i e : Les o r i g i n e s , "

52

P l u t . Alex.

26.4:

53

yap . . .

64

. Berve, Das Alexanderreich

graphischer

UAntiquite

4 1 (1972): 9 4 - 1 1 2 .

Classique

28 a b o v e ) , 2 4 7 - 6 3 , w i t h t e s t i m o n i a t h e r e c i t e d .
auf

prosopo-

65

v o l . 2 ( M u n i c h 1926),

Grundlage,

F o r t h e siege o f T y r e i n g e n e r a l , see G r e e n ( n o t e

S t r a b o 17.1.6, C.792, w h o i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f
t h e H e p t a s t a d i o n i n f o r m s us t h a t o r i g i n a l l y i t

p . 210, n o . 4 3 1 , asserts t h a t K l e o m e n e s " v e r -

also served as a n a q u e d u c t t o P h a r o s .

m u t l i c h der hochsten Finanzaristokratie v o n

Naukratis angehort [hat]."

66

A m m . M a r c . 22.16.10: beptastadium
credenda

54

I b i d . , v o l . 1, p p . 8 5 - 1 0 0 , assembles t h e

celeritate,

sicut

ita magnitudine

mira

uix
con-

struxit.

evidence.
67
55

C u r t . 4 . 8 . 1 - 2 : contemplatus

loci naturam,

pri-

mum

urbem

con-

in ipsa insula

statuerat

dere; inde ut apparuit

baud

capacem

est

magnae

esse, elegit

nouam

sedis

urbi locum,

68

C f . C a v e n a i l e ( n o t e 63 a b o v e ) : io3ff.
S t r a b o 17.1.6, C . 792:

insulam

ubi

nunc

Alexandrea.

56

P l u t . Alex.

26.7:

"

'

<5'

.
69
57

P s . - C a l l . 1.31.2, best s t u d i e d i n t h e t e x t a n d

O n A l e x a n d e r ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h Serapis, see

commentary provided by A . Ausfeld, " Z u r

W e l l e s ( n o t e 44 a b o v e ) : 283.

Topographie v o n A l e x a n d r i a u n d Pseudokallisthenes 1 3 1 - 3 3 , " Rbeiniscbes

58

D i o d . Sic. 17.52.2. C f . R . M a r t i n ,
dans

la Grece

Philologie

L'Urbanisme

fiir

C f . also Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 5 - 6 ;

(Paris 1956), p p . 4 2 - 4 3 .

antique

Museum

55 (1900): 3 4 8 - 8 4 , esp. p p . 3 5 0 - 5 3 .

Fraser, ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p . 7 . i 8 .

I a m n o more convinced than was M a r t i n that

t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a ' s street p l a n h a d a
r e l i g i o u s o r r i t u a l significance.

70

See Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 8 - 9 n . 2 1 , f o r
a g o o d b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l survey o f the scholarship

59

D i o d . Sic. 17.52.3, 4:

60

o n these t a n t a l i z i n g u n d e r w a t e r r u i n s . T h e C r e

<5' "

t a n c o n n e c t i o n w a s first a d v a n c e d b y R . W e i l l ,

. . .

" L e s p o r t s a n t e h e l l e n i q u e s de l a c o t e d ' A l e x a n

d r i e et l ' e m p i r e c r e t o i s , " Bulletin

de

Frangais

16 (1919):

'.

M a h m o u d Bey, Memoire

sur Vantique

Alexan-

71

[Caes.] Bell.
quibus

Alex.

5.1: Alexandrea

est fere

babet

pertinentis,

specusque
aqua

Llnstitut

See i n p a r t i c u l a r M . S. V e n i t , " T w o E a r l y C o r i n
t h i a n A l a b a s t r a i n A l e x a n d r i a , " Journal
Egyptian

suffossa

Orientale

1-37

drie ( C o p e n h a g e n 1872), p p . 2 9 - 3 2 .
61

d'Archeologie

in priuatas

a Nilo
domus

of

61 (1985): 1 8 3 - 8 9 ; ear

l i e r b i b . i n Fraser, ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p . 6 n . 16.

tota
72

inducitur.

Archaeology

H d t . 2.30; T h u c . 1.104.1, w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f
C a v e n a i l e ( n o t e 63 a b o v e ) : 1 0 3 - 5 .

62

P s . - C a l l . 1.31: T h e adviser's n a m e is g i v e n as
H y p o n o m o s ( t h o u g h t h i s m a y be n o m o r e t h a n
t h e excuse f o r a n a e t i o l o g i c a l p u n ) :

73

See, e.g., D i o d . Sic. 17.52.3; P l u t . Alex.

S t r a b o 17.1.8, C . 793; P l i n . NH

26.8;

5.62.

74

F. B . T a r b e l l , " T h e F o r m o f t h e C h l a m y s , "
sical Philology

Clas

1 (1906): 2 8 3 - 8 9 , esp. 2 8 4 - 8 5 .

Green

75

S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 8 , C . 7 9 3 ; S t e p h . B y z . , s.v.

90

1 7 . 5 2 . 3 ( 4 0 stades X 1 p l e t h r o n ) ; J o s e p h .
Jud.

P s . - C a l l . 1 . 3 3 - 1 - 4 , 8.

( 3 4 X 8 stades); D i o d . Sic.

2.16.4 ( 3

stades); P l i n . NH

Bell.

91

See, e.g., W e l l e s ( n o t e 4 4 a b o v e ) : 2 8 2 f f . ;
Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 4 8 6 .

5.10

( 2 4 k m c i r c u m f e r e n c e ) . C f . Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 7
above), pp. 2 6 - 2 7

92

*>4

S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 1 0 , C . 7 9 5 ; cf. M a h m o u d - B e y ( n o t e
6 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 5 3 - 5 6 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) ,

76

S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 1 0 , C . 7 9 5 :

p p . 2 6 8 - 7 0 ; Fraser, ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 84ff.

n. 190.

.
93

D i o d . Sic. 1 7 . 4 9 . 3 - 5 ; C u r t . 4 . 7 . 1 4 ; P l u t .

Alex.

2 7 . 1 ; A r r i a n 3.3.4.

77

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p . 1 3

78

A r r i a n 3 . 2 . 1 - 2 ; Plut. 2 6 . 8 - 1 0 ; Curt. 4.8.6;

94

D i o d . Sic. 1 7 . 4 9 . 5 ; P

m t

- Alex.

2 7 . 3 ; cf. C u r t .

4.7.11-12.

S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 6 , C . 7 9 2 a d fin.; P s . - C a l l . 1.32;
cf. A m m . M a r c . 2 2 . 1 6 . 7 ; S t e p h . B y z . , s.v.

79

95

Welles (note 4 4 above): 2 7 8 - 7 9 w i t h n . 36.

I f t h i s is a n e x a m p l e o f A l e x a n d e r ' s a l l e g e d p o l

96

Ps.-Call. 1.32.6.

97

See Fraser, ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p . 3 n . 9 , w i t h b i b .

98

A r r i a n 3 . 6 . 1 :

icy o f r a c i a l fusion, w e s h o u l d bear i n m i n d t h a t

t h e f u s i o n w a s t o be c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r s t r i c t
G r a e c o - M a c e d o n i a n o v e r l o r d s h i p : as J u s t i n
(note 4 1 above) reports, A l e x a n d r i a b y E g y p t

R . S.

b u t n o t o f i t w a s t o be n o t o n l y t h e c a p i t a l b u t

Bagnall, " T h e Date o f the F o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x

"a M a c e d o n i a n c o l o n y . "

a n d r i a , " American

Journal

of Ancient

His

tory 4 ( 1 9 7 9 ) : 4 6 - 4 9 , argues f o r A p r i l 7 o n t h e
80

S t r a b o :

C u r t i u s : orbem

C a l l . :
ambitus

lineales;

g r o u n d s t h a t n o A l e x a n d r i a n w o u l d receive a

Plut.:

A r r i a n :

t r a d i t i o n a l d a t e i n J a n u a r y t h a t he t h e n c o n

. . .

futuri

verted t o T y b i . Perhaps n o t ; b u t this a s s u m p t i o n

Ps.-

muri;

underrates b o t h the c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m o f R o m a n

Amm. Marc:

-,
S t e p h . B y z . :

A l e x a n d r i a a n d the fact t h a t the city's f o u n d a

t i o n d a t e m u s t have been c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e ,
81

C u r t . 4 . 8 . 6 : "ut Macedonum

mos est."

a n d indeed a p u b l i c h o l i d a y , i n either (adjusted)

T h e fact

c a l e n d e r . T h e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e also gives

t h a t t h i s c u s t o m is n o t r e p o r t e d e l s e w h e r e does

us a t e r m i n u s a n t e q u e r n ( F e b r u a r y at t h e latest,

n o t offer p r i m a facie g r o u n d s f o r r e j e c t i n g i t .

I w o u l d judge): I a m not convinced that Arrian's

82

A r r i a n 3 . 1 . 5 :

p h r a s e c i t e d a b o v e is as v a g u e l y flexible as B a g

n a l l w o u l d l i k e i t t o be. T h e f a c t t h a t A l e x a n d e r

could,

i n t h e o r y , have left M e m p h i s as late as

83

Arrian 3.2.3-7

A p r i l a n d s t i l l have k e p t his d a t e w i t h d e s t i n y at

84

F o r t h i s e p i s o d e , see A r r i a n 3 . 3 . 1 - 4 . 5 ; C u r t .

t h e o t h e r e v i d e n c e is a l l a g a i n s t i t .

G a u g a m e l a is n o p r o o f t h a t i n f a c t he did;
4 . 7 . 6 - 3 2 ; P l u t . Alex.

z6.6-zy;

and

Diod.
99

Sic. 1 7 . 4 9 . 2 - 5 1 . 4 ; J u s t . 1 1 . 1 1 . 2 - 1 2 .

A r r i a n 3 . 4 . 4 , cf. C u r t . 4 . 8 . 1 . A . B . B o s w o r t h ,
A Historical

85

D i o d . Sic. 1 7 . 4 9 . 2 - 3 ; C u r t . 4 . 7 . 9 .

86

H o g a r t h (note 29 above): 5 7 - 5 8 .

87

Ps.-Call. 1 . 3 1 - 3 3 passim.

of Alexander,

Commentary

on Arrian's

History

v o l . 1 ( O x f o r d 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 2 7 4 , has

a b r i e f b u t sensible d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m ,
s u g g e s t i n g , p l a u s i b l y , t h a t A r r i a n m a y w e l l have
m i s i n t e r p r e t e d his sources: " I f A r i s t o b u l u s h a d
a detailed statement that A l e x a n d e r returned
via P a r a e t o n i u m t o Egypt w h i l e Ptolemy said
88

baldly that Alexander returned to M e m p h i s , it

Welles (note 44 above): 2 7 5 - 7 6 .

w o u l d have been p o s s i b l e f o r h i m t o d r a w a
89

P s . - C a l l . 1 . 3 0 . 5 - 7 :
'

m i s t a k e n inference f r o m Ptolemy's b r e v i t y a n d

assume t h a t t w o r o u t e s w e r e at i s s u e . "

100

D i o d . Sic. 1 7 . 5 2 . 6 . M o r e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s i n
Arrian 3.5.2-7; Curt. 4.8.4-9.

23

24

INTRODUCTION

101

Ps.-Call. 1 . 3 1 . 9 - 1 0 .

Geschichte

(Munich 1969),

Ptolemaios'1

pp. 3 9 - 5 1 .
102

[Caes.] Bell.

5 . 1 ; M a h m o u d - B e y (note 60

Alex.

I 18

above), p p . 29ft.

A r r i a n 3 . 5 . 4 specifies t h e m o r e l i m i t e d area o f
" A r a b i a t o w a r d s H e r o o n p o l i s " ; C u r t . 4.8.5

103

refers t o "eiusdem

Ps.-Call. 1.30.6.

est"]
104

J u s t . 1 3 . 4 . 1 1 : Cleomenes,

qui

107

Aegypto

iuncta

The natural infer

went on.

V i t r u v . 2 praef.

4 ; P l i n . NH

5.62; V a l . M a x .

I 19

1.4.7, e x t . 1 ; A m m . M a r c . 2 2 . 1 6 . 7 .
106

[ i . e . , "quae

Aegyptique."

ence is t h a t his a u t h o r i t y w a s e x t e n d e d as t i m e

Alexandriam

aedificauerat.
105

Africae

V i t r u v . praef.

[ A r i s t . ] Oecon.

1 3 5 2 1 7 ; A r r i a n , '

1.5% 2 R o o s ; [ D e m . ] 5 6 . 7 ; Paus. 1.6.3.

b

1-4.

A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , he h a d a h a n d i n d e s i g n i n g

120

A r r i a n , i b i d . ; Just. 1 3 . 4 . 1 1 .

121

Paus. 1.6.3.

122

D i o d . Sic. 1 8 . 1 4 . 1 .

t h e vast n e w t e m p l e o f A r t e m i s at E p h e s o s :
S t r a b o 1 4 . 1 . 2 2 - 2 3 , C . 6 4 0 - 4 1 , cf. W . B . D i n s m o o r , The Architecture

of Ancient

(3rd

Greece

rev. e d . , L o n d o n 1 9 5 0 ) , p . 2 2 4 .

123

[Dem.]

$6.yn.

D e m o s t h e n e s is a p p e a l e d t o as a

w i t n e s s at t h e close o f t h i s speech ( 5 0 ) ; b u t i t
108

V i t r u v . 2 praef.

1 - 3 ; P l u t . Alex.

has been a r g u e d t h a t his n a m e w a s i n s e r t e d b y a

7 2 . 3 - 7 ; Strabo

l a t e r scribe w h e n t h e speech h a d f o u n d a p l a c e

14.1.23, C.641.

i n t h e D e m o s t h e n i c c o r p u s . I n a n y case, since
109

V i t r u v . 2 praef.

3: "formationem

puto

K l e o m e n e s ' t e n u r e o f office is s p o k e n o f as o v e r

pro-

( 7 refers t o t h e

bandam."

I 10

V i t r u v . 2 praef.

4 : Ibi Alexander

nomine
111

ciuitatem

Alexandriam

eum

American

Society

the

o n l y a m o n t h o r t w o before Demosthenes'

suo

flight

and death i n 322.

constituere.

B. R. B r o w n , "Deinokrates and Alexandria,"

Bulletin,

. . .

speech m u s t have been d e l i v e r e d , at t h e earliest,

[after n o t i n g

t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e site] . . . iussit

124

15

of Papyrologists

[ A r i s t . ] Oecon.

1352

z.z.^^a-,

passim; 2.2.39, I 3 5 3

17-1352

25,

1-7.

( 1 9 7 8 ) : 3 9 - 4 2 . esp. 4 1 - 4 2 .
125
112

Strabo 17.1.4, C.789.

I I3

P l i n y NH

12 6
Deinocrates

5 . 6 2 : metatus

est earn

. . . ad effigiem

[Alexandriam]

C i t e d b y A t h e n a e u s , Deipnos.
A r r i a n 7 . 2 3 . 6 - 8 :

Macedonicae

9.393c.

chlamydis.
127
I 14

A r r i a n 7.2.3.8, 6: ,

D i o d . Sic. 1 7 . 5 2 . 3 ; S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 8 , C . 7 9 3 .

I 15

P s . - C a l l . 1.31 p a s s i m .

I 16

C u r t . 4 . 8 . 5 : ex finitimis
Alexandream
tudine

impleuit.

iussis

urbibus

nouam

urbem

commigrare
magna

. . .

multi-

H o w q u i c k l y was this reloca

128

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p . 1 3 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 7
above), p . 10 n . 25.

t i o n carried out? Even i f the n e w A l e x a n d r i a n s

were s u m m o n e d to build their new homes f r o m
scratch o n the l a n d a l l o t t e d t h e m p r i v a t e en

129

R o d z i e w i c z (note 22 above): 4 5 - 4 6 .

130

D . G . H o g a r t h a n d E . F. B e n s o n , " R e p o r t o f

t e r p r i s e at t h e service o f p u b l i c w o r k s a c o n
s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d m u s t have elapsed b e f o r e t h e
n e w city was ready for occupation.

Prospects o f Research i n A l e x a n d r i a , w i t h N o t e

For a t h o r o u g h , i f over-kind, study of Kleo-

Egypt

m e n e s ( r e p r e s e n t e d as t h e v i c t i m o f P t o l e m a i c

pp.

o n Excavations i n A l e x a n d r i a n Cemeteries,"
I 17

Exploration

Fund

( L o n d o n 1895?),

1-33.

p r o p a g a n d a : cf. also Fraser, 1 [ n o t e 7 a b o v e ] ,

p . 7 ) , see J. Seibert, Untersuchungen

zur

I3I

I b i d . , p. 17, where H o g a r t h writes: "For i n -

Green

stance, his C a n o p i c Street ( o n w h i c h a l l o f his

grille

o f streets d e p e n d s ) lies at a n angle w h i c h

I
I

fits v e r y i l l w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e w a l l s f o u n d
144

by me to the south o f i t . "

P l u t . Alex.

132

C f . Mor.

R o d z i e w i c z (note 22 above): 4 4 - 4 7 : "Des

2 2 . 6 :

65F,

717V.

f o u i l l e s recentes de p l u s en p l u s n o m b r e u s e s
o n t m o n t r e que ce p l a n e t a i t juste et q u e n o u s

145

P l u t . Alex.
at

a v o n s la le seul p l a n fiable des rues p r i n c i p a l e s "

2 2 . 1 , 4 ; 2 1 . 1 0 :

(P- 4 7 )
146
I 33

I r e c o r d w i t h grateful t h a n k s the generous help

M a h m o u d - B e y ( n o t e 6 0 a b o v e ) , p p . i 8 f f . ; cf.

I have h a d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r f r o m

n o w Diana Delia, " F r o m Romance to Rhetoric:

m y f r i e n d Professor D i a n a D e l i a , w h o p u t her

T h e A l e x a n d r i a n L i b r a r y i n C l a s s i c a l a n d Is

g r e a t k n o w l e d g e o f A l e x a n d r i a a n d her re

l a m i c T r a d i t i o n s , " American

m a r k a b l e c o l l e c t i o n o f r a r e o r inaccessible A l e x

Historical

Review

a n d r i a n s c h o l a r s h i p f r e e l y at m y d i s p o s a l .

97 (1992): 1456 w i t h n. 26.

N a t u r a l l y she is n o t t o be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
a n y o f m y e r r o r s o r w i l d e r flights o f fancy.

134

H o g a r t h ( n o t e 29 a b o v e ) : 5 3 .

135

D i o d . Sic. 1 8 . 2 6 . 3 , 2 8 . 2 - 4 ; Paus. 1.6.3; S t r a b o

1 7 . 1 . 8 , C . 7 9 4 ; A e l . VH 1 2 . 6 4 ; C u r t . 4 . 6 . 2 9 ,
cf. L u c a n 1 0 . 1 6 - 5 2 (Caesar); Suet. Div.

Aug.

1 8 . 1 ; D i o Cass. 5 1 . 1 6 . 3 - 5 ( A u g u s t u s ) ; Suet.
Calig.

52 ( C a l i g u l a ) ; D i o Cass. 7 0 . 1 3 ( S e p t i m i u s

Severus); H e r o d i a n 4 . 8 . 9 ( C a r a c a l l a ) ; J o h n
C h r y s o s t . Orat.

136

2 6 . 1 2 : ,

;
'

C u r t . 1 0 . 6 . 4 ; D i o d . Sic. 1 8 . 6 0 p a s s i m ,
1 9 . 1 5 . 3 - 4 ; P l u t . Eum.

1 3 ; N e p . Eum.

7.2-3;

Polyaen. 4.8.2.
I 37

For a comprehensive (though unevenly docu

m e n t e d ) survey, see F a w z i el F a k h a r a n i , " A n
Investigation i n t o the V i e w s C o n c e r n i n g the L o
cation o f the T o m b o f A l e x a n d e r the Great,"
Bulletin
versity

I 38

of the Faculty

of Arts,

Alexandria

Uni

18 ( 1 9 6 4 ) : 1 6 9 - 9 9 , w i t h figs. 1 - 1 1 .

See Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 5 - 1 7 ;
Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 4 - 4 1 n n . 8 2 - 9 0 ;
D e l i a ( n o t e 133 a b o v e ) : 1 4 5 6 n . 2 7 .

I 39

T h e m o s t r e c e n t a t t e m p t I have seen is t h a t o f
T h o m a s Stelios ( d e s c r i b e d as a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
e x e c u t i v e a n d a F e l l o w o f t h e A I A [ ? ] ) i n The
Mediterranean

1.2 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 2 6 - 3 3 .

140

Forster (note 3 above), p p . 1 1 2 - 1 3 .

141

V . E h r e n b e r g , Alexander
Beihefte

142

zum Alten

Orient

und Agypten,

vol. 7 of

(Leipzig 1926), p. 28.

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , p . 7; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 7
above), p . 10 n . 2 4 .

143

T i m o n of Phlius fr. 60 W a c h s m u t h , cited by

A t h e n . Deipnos.

i . 2 2 d :

25

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The City of Alexandria in the

Hellenistic Period

This page intentionally left blank

29

Egyptian Influence on Daily Life in

Ancient Alexandria
Henri

Riad

There is n o m o r e impressive o r majestic reflection o f the achievements o f

the Greeks i n E g y p t t h a n the great c i t y t h a t carries Alexander's name.
A l e x a n d r i a has often been celebrated by the w r i t e r s of a n t i q u i t y . Greek
a n d R o m a n w r i t e r s , i n inscriptions a n d p a p y r i , almost always accom
p a n y the name o f the c i t y w i t h l a u d a t o r y epithets: the great, the very
great, the r i c h , the very n o b l e , the very happy, the splendid, the t o w n
t h a t possesses a l l t h a t one can have o r desire. Even the A r a b i c h i s t o r i a n
A l M a k r i z y t h i n k s that G o d is r e f e r r i n g t o A l e x a n d r i a w h e n m e n t i o n is
made i n a verse o f the K o r a n of a c i t y " w h i c h has n o l i k e i n the w o r l d . "

I n the R o m a n p e r i o d , A l e x a n d r i a was n o t considered a p a r t

of the i m p e r i a l p r o v i n c e of E g y p t , either i n title o r i n law. Its official
n o m e n c l a t u r e was Alexandria

ad AegyptumAlexandria

by E g y p t

rather t h a n in or of E g y p t , a n d the f u l l title o f the prefect o f E g y p t was

praefectus

Alexandreae

et Aegypti prefect
1

of A l e x a n d r i a a n d o f E g y p t .

T h e A l e x a n d r i a n s were celebrated for their love o f w o r k a n d

of money, f o r their m o c k i n g s p i r i t , their novelties, a n d their revolts. T h e y
bestowed nicknames u p o n everyone, even o n their k i n g s . H i s l o v i n g sub
jects called P t o l e m y v i n Euergetes n physkon,
was n i c k n a m e d "the flute p l a y e r . "

or "fatty." Ptolemy x i n

T h e geographer Strabo visited the c i t y i n the first century of

R o m a n rule a n d gave us this v i v i d d e s c r i p t i o n : " T h e w h o l e c i t y is criss
crossed w i t h streets suitable for the traffic o f horses a n d carriages a n d by
t w o t h a t are very w i d e , being m o r e t h a n one pletbrum

[ a b o u t 30 m ] i n

b r e a d t h , these intersect each other at r i g h t angles. T h e c i t y has m a g n i f i

cent p u b l i c precincts a n d r o y a l palaces w h i c h cover a f o u r t h or even a
t h i r d o f the entire c i t y . "

T h e c i t y was d i v i d e d i n t o five sections designated by the first

five letters o f the Greek alphabet. To the east was the A quarter, a n d there
as w e l l as i n a substantial p a r t o f the B quarter lived the i m p o r t a n t Jew
ish c o m m u n i t y o f A l e x a n d r i a . N a t i v e Egyptians were concentrated i n the
west, a r o u n d the site of the o l d village o f R h a k o t i s . I n the other quarters
lived the m a j o r i t y of the Greek o r hellenized p o p u l a t i o n o f the c i t y .

T h e first Ptolemies attracted i m m i g r a n t s t o the n e w c i t y f r o m

m a n y areas o f the M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d : f r o m Thrace, M a c e d o n i a ,

30

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

m a i n l a n d Greece, the Aegean islands, the coastal cities o f Asia M i n o r ,

f r o m Persia, Syria, a n d Judaea. T h e flow o f i m m i g r a n t s p r o b a b l y never
d r i e d u p completely. Later, R o m a n s or Italians were attracted by trade,
or perhaps they stayed o n after c o m p l e t i n g m i l i t a r y o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
service. W e m a y a d d t o this l o n g list L i b y a n s , C i l i c i a n s , E t h i o p i a n s ,
A r a b s , Bactrians, Scythians, a n d I n d i a n s . A n d there was also, o f course,
a steady i n f l u x o f Egyptians f r o m u p - c o u n t r y ready t o seize the o p p o r t u
nities offered by trade a n d commerce a n d , after a t i m e , by the g r a d u a l
o p e n i n g u p o f official positions t o non-Greeks.
T h e native Egyptians f o r m e d the m a j o r i t y o f the p o p u l a t i o n
o n whose labors the economic p r o s p e r i t y of the c o u n t r y depended a n d
w i t h w h o m the Greek settlers were i n daily contact. T h e y were, however,

FIG.

entirely excluded f r o m citizenship, a l t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m t i m e t o

Statue of Serapis i n the shape

t i m e were able t o acquire i t . T h e p o l i c y of the first three Ptolemies was

6

of the bull Apis as worshiped

by Egyptians. Black basalt.

s t r o n g l y M a c e d o n i a n a n d H e l l e n i c ; they treated the natives f r a n k l y as a

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman

conquered race. T h e Jews were also denied citizenship, a l t h o u g h they

Museum.

possessed their o w n p a r t i c u l a r privileges, w h i c h , a m o n g other distinc

t i o n s , set t h e m apart f r o m the rest o f the populace.
T h e d i s t i n c t i o n s between Egyptians a n d Greeks created ten
sion a n d resentment between t h e m . Such feelings can surely be seen
i n d e m o t i c l i t e r a t u r e . A m o n g the r o m a n t i c tales c o m p i l e d a n d c i r c u l a t e d
i n the Ptolemaic p e r i o d , there is a p r o p h e c y piece called " O r a c l e o f the
Potter," w h i c h says,
A n d then the Guardian Spirit w i l l desert the city w h i c h they
founded and w i l l go to god-bearing Memphis and i t w i l l be
deserted. That w i l l be the end of our evils when Egypt shall see
the foreigners fall like leaves from the branch. The city by the
sea w i l l be a drying place for fishermen's catch because the
Guardian Spirit has gone to M e m p h i s , so that passers-by w i l l
say, "this was the all-nurturing city i n w h i c h all the races of
mankind live."

T h e message is quite clear: T h e foreigners are the M a c e d o

n i a n rulers, their c i t y is A l e x a n d r i a ; M e m p h i s w i l l rise again. I t is a t a n
gible p r o d u c t o f the native h o s t i l i t y t o M a c e d o n i a n rule a n d prophesies
the departure o f the g u a r d i a n s p i r i t , agathos

daimon,

f r o m the c i t y o f

A l e x a n d r i a for M e m p h i s . T h i s feeling, however, d i d n o t prevent the de

sire a n d need o f t h e i r rulers t o t r a n s m i t the native E g y p t i a n h i s t o r i c a l
t r a d i t i o n i n t o Greek. T h i s b r o u g h t the E g y p t i a n priest M a n e t h o o f
Sebennytos t o A l e x a n d r i a t o w r i t e three volumes o n the h i s t o r y a n d r e l i
g i o n o f E g y p t , p r o b a b l y early i n the r e i g n o f P t o l e m y Philadelphos.
I n order t o unite Egyptians a n d Greeks, there was a need for
a deity w h o c o u l d be w o r s h i p e d by t h e m b o t h . D u r i n g the r e i g n of
P t o l e m y a n e w deity was created, the g o d Serapis, w h o c o m b i n e d Egyp-

Riad

t i a n a n d Greek elements. H i s name is E g y p t i a n , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f Osiris

a n d A p i s ; i t refers t o the A p i s b u l l w h o was w o r s h i p e d i n M e m p h i s
a n d w h o after his death became an Osiris (fig. i ) . H i s Greek f o r m is an
o l d , bearded m a n clad i n a c h i t o n , resembling their supreme g o d , Zeus
(figs. 2, 3). T h e n e w g o d became a n a t i o n a l g o d s i m i l a r t o A m e n , Ra, a n d
H o r u s . As his w i f e , he was given Isis, a p u r e l y E g y p t i a n goddess, a n d as
a son H a r p o k r a t e s , o r H o r u s the c h i l d , son o f Isis. A n d so the Egyptians
a n d Greeks were u n i t e d i n a c o m m o n w o r s h i p . I n a d d i t i o n , the Greeks
8

identified their gods w i t h the E g y p t i a n deities: A m u n a n d Zeus, H o r u s

a n d A p o l l o , T h o t h a n d Hermes, H a t h o r a n d A p h r o d i t e , Hephaistos a n d
Ptah, a n d so o n . H o w e v e r , there is l i t t l e evidence i n the Ptolemaic p e r i o d
for priests i n E g y p t i a n cults being given Greek names.
E g y p t i a n habits a n d customs also gained g r o u n d a m o n g the
n e w settlers. F r o m the earliest p e r i o d , the s t a b i l i t y o f the r o y a l f a m i l y
was reinforced i n p h a r a o n i c E g y p t by the practice o f n a m i n g a son a n d
heir d u r i n g the r e i g n o f the father a n d before the latter's death, as was
FIG.

Statue of Serapis as worshiped

by Greeks. Marble. Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman Museum.

the case w i t h P t o l e m y 11 Philadelphos a n d P t o l e m y 1 Soter at the end o f

285 B . C . Less remote f r o m Greek conceptions was the w o r s h i p o f the
9

l i v i n g Ptolemy. W h e n A l e x a n d e r conquered E g y p t , he was received by

the Egyptians as l i b e r a t o r . As k i n g of E g y p t , he became a p h a r a o h a n d
was therefore d i v i n e . W h e n P t o l e m y 1 made h i m s e l f k i n g , he, t o o , be
came d i v i n e . A f t e r his death, he was deified by his successor, as was his
w i f e Berenike, under the name Soter, o r savior, a title granted t o h i m by
the R h o d i a n s . W h e n his sister-wife A r s i n o e 11 d i e d i n 2 7 0 B . C . , P t o l e m y 11
deified her as A r s i n o e Philadelphos, "the b r o t h e r l o v i n g , " a n d since the
k i n g c o u l d n o t be left o u t of the c u l t o f his w i f e , the t w o were associated
as theoi adelphoi,

or "the fraternal gods." So the Ptolemaic r u l e r c u l t

was extended t o the l i v i n g k i n g , a n d a l l the r e i g n i n g Ptolemies w i t h t h e i r

wives were w o r s h i p e d i n temples as i n p h a r a o n i c E g y p t .

10

T h e marriage o f b r o t h e r a n d sister was c o m m o n i n p h a r a o n i c

E g y p t , even a m o n g o r d i n a r y people, a n d especially i n the R o m a n p e r i o d ,
b u t i t was quite a b n o r m a l t o the Greeks. Consanguineous marriage i n
ancient p h a r a o n i c times was p r a c t i c e d i n the r u l i n g families t o keep their
noble b l o o d p u r e . T h e Ptolemies i m i t a t e d the p h a r a o h s , a n d the first
consanguineous marriage occurred between P t o l e m y 11 Philadelphos a n d
FIG.

Bust of Serapis as worshiped

by Greeks. Marble. Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman Museum.

his f u l l sister A r s i n o e 11; the practice was m a i n t a i n e d u n t i l the end o f

the dynasty.

11

T h e a r r i v a l i n E g y p t of these n e w settlers b r o u g h t an interest

i n g p r o b l e m : h o w w o u l d a m i n o r i t y of Greeks w i t h their Greek tongue
a n d Greek c u l t u r e coexist w i t h the mass o f native p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h its
o w n language a n d culture? Greeks a n d Egyptians t r i e d by a l l means t o
understand each other, especially t h r o u g h language. I n a letter d a t i n g
f r o m the second century B . C . , a m o t h e r w r i t e s t o her son, " I congratulate
y o u a n d myself o n the news that y o u are l e a r n i n g E g y p t i a n , f o r n o w

31

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HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

w h e n y o u get t o the c i t y [ A l e x a n d r i a ] , y o u w i l l teach the c h i l d r e n at the

house o f . . . the p h y s i c i a n . "

1 2

I t is indeed significant t h a t a k n o w l e d g e o f

E g y p t i a n s h o u l d i m p r o v e the prospects of a Greek i n the c a p i t a l city. I n

actuality, n o m o n a r c h u n t i l the last Cleopatra ( v n ) learned t o speak
E g y p t i a n . I t was one o f several languages i n w h i c h she c o u l d converse
w i t h o u t an interpreter. K n o w i n g b o t h languages was necessary; Ptole
maic contracts (marriage, d i v i s i o n o r sale o f p r o p e r t y , a n d the like) i n
d e m o t i c or a m i x t u r e o f Greek a n d d e m o t i c suggest the a d o p t i o n o f b o t h
languages. I n fact, e x i s t i n g w r i t i n g exercises, numerous t a x receipts, a n d
contracts t e n d t o suggest that w r i t t e n demotic was accessible t o the
Egyptians i n the same w a y t h a t Greek documents were t o the Greeks; a
d e m o t i c t a x receipt or c o n t r a c t w i t h a Greek d o c k e t o r the reverse shows
h o w b o t h languages f u n c t i o n e d .
I n r e l i g i o n , P t o l e m y i was careful enough t o realize the i m
portance of being c o n c i l i a t o r y t o w a r d the E g y p t i a n p r i e s t h o o d w h i l e at
the same t i m e perceiving t h a t its p o w e r m i g h t be dangerous t o the r o y a l
a u t h o r i t y . So he t o o k the management o f the sacred l a n d possessed by
the temples i n t o his o w n hands, a d m i n i s t e r i n g i t f o r the benefit o f the
temples a n d at the same t i m e keeping i t under his c o n t r o l . I n a d d i t i o n ,
the taxes p a i d by the priests were l o w e r t h a n average, a n d they seem t o
have been e x e m p t f r o m the p o l l t a x .

1 3

A l t h o u g h the Ptolemies levied a m o n o p o l y o n trade, they al

l o w e d the priests t o c a r r y o n t h e i r usual industries b u t under t h e i r strict
c o n t r o l . For example, the a r t o f w e a v i n g the fine byssus l i n e n for w h i c h
E g y p t was famous was a specialty o f the temples; after h o l d i n g back the
q u a n t i t y necessary f o r r i t u a l purposes, the priests were r e q u i r e d t o
deliver t o the k i n g a fixed q u a n t i t y o f the l i n e n , w h i c h became a valuable
i t e m i n the e x p o r t t r a d e .

14

T h e Ptolemies strengthened their c o n t r o l o f

the temples b y a p p o i n t i n g t o each an overseer, or epistates.

T h e priests,

o n the other h a n d , received a regular salary f r o m the government a n d

seem further t o have been exempted, at least i n p a r t , f r o m the o b l i g a t i o n ,
or corvee, t h a t r e q u i r e d personal w o r k o n the d i k e s .

15

I n fact, the p o l i c y

of the p o w e r f u l Ptolemies t o w a r d Egyptians was a m i x t u r e of benevolent

patronage a n d strict c o n t r o l .
As t i m e passed a n d the dynasty weakened, there was a shakeup. A f t e r the Battle of R a p h i a i n 217 B . C . , w h i c h gave confidence t o the
native E g y p t i a n soldiers, revolts began t o occur. T h e later Ptolemies were
c o m p e l l e d t o m a k e concessions t h a t t h e i r predecessors w o u l d certainly
n o t have c o n t e m p l a t e d .

16

I t is certain t h a t at the end o f the Ptolemaic

p e r i o d the p o s i t i o n o f E g y p t i a n priests was stronger t h a n i t h a d been i n

the t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C.
O n e o f Octavian's tasks was t o c u r b this dangerous p o w e r .
There seems t o have been a c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n o n the r i g h t o f a s y l u m .
Large tracts o f sacred l a n d were confiscated t o the benefit of the r o y a l

Riad

d o m a i n . Priests were exempted f r o m the p o l l t a x i n l i m i t e d , fixed n u m

bers, b u t there was n o e x e m p t i o n , i n p r i n c i p l e , f r o m l i a b i l i t y t o the
corvee or other o b l i g a t i o n s t o do state services. T h e temples were re
q u i r e d t o m a k e an a n n u a l a u d i t o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y , of the temple inven
t o r y , a n d of a l l the categories of priests. Periodic visits were made by
g o v e r n m e n t inspectors t o examine the accounts, check the accuracy of
the r e t u r n s , a n d arrest any offenders.

17

T h e sacrifices a n d other details of

the temple c u l t were strictly supervised.

I n spite o f these restrictions, the E g y p t i a n p r i e s t h o o d , w h i c h
still enjoyed the p r o t e c t i o n o f the state, does n o t appear t o have been hos
tile t o R o m a n rule before the r e i g n of M a r c u s A u r e l i u s ( A . D . 1 6 1 - 1 8 0 ) ,
w h e n a r e v o l t led by a priest b r o k e o u t i n the D e l t a . There m u s t thus
have been some discontent a m o n g the priests. As a result o f t h a t r e v o l t ,
the n u m b e r o f priests i n some temples c e r t a i n l y declined, due i n p a r t t o
the l i m i t e d e x e m p t i o n f r o m p o l l t a x a n d the corvee. T h e senates g r a n t e d
by Septimius Severus at the b e g i n n i n g o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y t o the capitals
of nomes, i n c l u d i n g A l e x a n d r i a , meant, as W i l c k e n says, "the complete
subjection of the E g y p t i a n ' c h u r c h ' t o the state a n d the a s s i m i l a t i o n of
the priests t o the rest of the p o p u l a t i o n . "

1 8

T h e progressive decline of the

E g y p t i a n cults c o n t i n u e d , a n d at the end o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y the rise o f

C h r i s t i a n i t y was everywhere t h r e a t e n i n g the o l d r e l i g i o n .
We k n o w very little a b o u t i n d u s t r y a n d trade i n ancient
A l e x a n d r i a . F o o d stuffs, c l o t h i n g , domestic wares, a n d m a n y other items
necessary f o r daily use were m a n u f a c t u r e d there. T h e m a i n industries of
the c i t y seem t o have been different k i n d s of m e t a l w o r k i n g , glassworki n g , a n d the m a n u f a c t u r e f r o m r a w materials of scents a n d unguents,
w h i c h f o u n d a w i d e m a r k e t . These industries were m a i n l y i n the hands
of E g y p t i a n craftsmen.
M e t a l w o r k i n g p r o b a b l y enjoyed the highest r e p u t a t i o n . T h e
account o f the R h o d i a n h i s t o r i a n K a l l i x e i n o s shows the w e a l t h o f pre
cious metals t h a t the Ptolemies possessed at t h a t t i m e : " V i c t o r i e s w i t h
g o l d w i n g s , a b u n d a n t g o l d j e w e l r y w o r n by w o m e n ; g o l d c r o w n s w i t h
f l o r a l a n d other d e c o r a t i o n i n g o l d leaf; g o l d e n cornucopias; a g o l d e n a l
tar, g o l d e n m i x i n g b o w l s a n d t r i p o d s ; a n d cups a n d pitchers of v a r i o u s
k i n d s , c a r r i e d by Satyrs a n d S i l e n i . " N o t a l l these various objects were
m a n u f a c t u r e d i n A l e x a n d r i a ; a considerable a m o u n t o f fine m e t a l w o r k
i n the Greek style was made i n M e m p h i s b y the H e l l e n o m e m p h i t e s , w h o
used t o p r o d u c e t h a t type of E g y p t i a n - f l a v o r e d Greek w o r k characteris
tic o f the early Ptolemaic finds. H o w e v e r , i n the later Ptolemaic p e r i o d
m u c h m e t a l w o r k was p r o d u c e d i n A l e x a n d r i a as a result of the g r a d u a l
decline of M e m p h i s .

1 9

Silver vases f r o m A l e x a n d r i a have been discovered

as far away as central E u r o p e . T h e "Tazza Farnese" dish of the first

century B . C . is a masterpiece of A l e x a n d r i a n a r t i s t r y (see K o z l o f f fig. 9,
b e l o w ) . C a r v e d f r o m s a r d o n y x , i t represents the N i l e g o d as an o l d

33

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HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

m a n h o l d i n g a c o r n u c o p i a . A t his feet, Isis reclines o n the head o f a

s p h i n x , a n d the central figure o f H o r u s - T r i p t o l e m o s carries a knife a n d
a bag o f seeds.

20

G l a s s m a k i n g h a d always been an i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y i n E g y p t ,
a n d i t c o n t i n u e d t o be so i n Ptolemaic A l e x a n d r i a . I t sprang i n t o n e w life
under the Ptolemies, a n d f o r m a n y centuries A l e x a n d r i a was the center
of the f a b r i c a t i o n o f articles i n glass. Strabo refers t o glassmakers o f the
c i t y i n a w a y t h a t shows t h a t they were a substantial, well-established
b o d y o f craftsmen. A l e x a n d r i a n glassmakers, like m e t a l w o r k e r s , n o t
o n l y c o n t i n u e d a n d m o d i f i e d native t r a d i t i o n s b u t also p r o d u c e d i m i t a
tions o f m e t a l vases.

21

E g y p t h a d n o rivals i n the manufacture o f p a p y r u s . I t h a d

been used i n E g y p t since the very early p e r i o d a n d was certainly avail
able t o the Greek w o r l d f r o m the fifth c e n t u r y B . C . o n w a r d . I t was u t i
lized n o t o n l y as a w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l b u t also i n m a k i n g various objects o f
d a i l y a n d domestic use, such as mats a n d simple w r a p p i n g paper. I n the
Ptolemaic p e r i o d , the papyrus i n d u s t r y was a r o y a l m o n o p o l y , b u t free
markets also existed. Strabo tells us t h a t i n his day, papyrus d i d n o t g r o w
a b u n d a n t l y i n the i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o r h o o d o f A l e x a n d r i a , a l t h o u g h i t
d i d generally i n the L o w e r D e l t a . Nevertheless, the m a n u f a c t u r e o f pa
pyrus was also c a r r i e d o u t i n A l e x a n d r i a under the P t o l e m i e s .

22

T h e source o f the h i g h - q u a l i t y p o t t e r y frequently encountered

i n A l e x a n d r i a is u n c e r t a i n . T h e d o u b t arises p r i m a r i l y f r o m the absence
of adequate potter's clay i n the n e i g h b o r h o o d of the city. T h e famous
A l e x a n d r i n e Tanagra figurines are made o f i n f e r i o r clay t h a t h a d been
considerably washed a n d refined (figs. 4 , 5). There were, however, beds
of fine clay b o t h i n U p p e r E g y p t , at Qena, a n d i n the D e l t a ; these were
p r o b a b l y the m a i n sources o f A l e x a n d r i a ' s p o t t i n g clay.
Two

m a i n types of p o t t e r y cinerary urns are associated w i t h

A l e x a n d r i a : black-glazed r i b b e d vases w i t h f l o r a l d e c o r a t i o n i n w h i t e
a n d sometimes i n relief, a n d the H a d r a vases (fig. 6 ) . T h e first g r o u p oc
curs elsewhere i n the H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d b u t is sufficiently m o r e numerous
i n A l e x a n d r i a n t o m b s t o oblige us t o suggest t h a t this variety is A l e x a n
d r i a n . T h e H a d r a vases fall i n t o t w o d i s t i n c t classes. T h e first a n d larger
g r o u p , frequently f o u n d i n Ptolemaic t o m b s , consists o f fine, well-fired
clay decorated w i t h panels, flowers, scrolls, a n d palmettes, as w e l l as
scenes o f animals o r h u m a n figures a p p l i e d i n black o n the pale buff o f
the t e r r a c o t t a . T h e second, less frequent type consists o f vases p a i n t e d
w h i t e a n d decorated w i t h p o l y c h r o m e objects such as an altar, a s w o r d ,
or a p a i r o f shoes. These t w o groups are contemporaneous a n d fre
q u e n t l y appeared at Shatby, a d i s t r i c t of A l e x a n d r i a ; the o r i g i n of b o t h
types is p r o b a b l y A l e x a n d r i a n .

2 3

Faience was another very p o p u l a r type of p o t t e r y i n A l e x a n

d r i a a n d was p r o d u c e d l o c a l l y as w e l l as elsewhere i n E g y p t . A m o n g the

FIG.

Alexandrine Tanagra figure.

Terracotta. Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum.

Riad

m o s t n o t a b l e p r o d u c t s i n faience are the " r o y a l o i n o c h o a i , " w h i c h s h o w

i n relief the figure o f a Ptolemaic queen p o u r i n g a l i b a t i o n o n a n altar.
T h i s type is a p p a r e n t l y a l m o s t t o t a l l y confined t o the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C .
T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t this hellenized faience is essentially the p r o d u c t o f
Alexandria.

2 4

W e a v i n g reached a very h i g h s t a n d a r d o f p e r f e c t i o n i n ancient

E g y p t . L i n e n p r o d u c t i o n was one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t industries i n
A l e x a n d r i a , a l o n g w i t h the w e a v i n g o f tissues a n d c l o t h o f m o r e t h a n ten
different varieties. Carpets, dyed p u r p l e , a n d e m b r o i d e r e d c l o t h w i t h
figures of a n i m a l s a n d birds were also m a n u f a c t u r e d i n the city.
A l e x a n d r i a was famous f o r the m a n u f a c t u r e o f n a t u r a l p r o d
ucts f o r w h i c h E g y p t h a d n o r i v a l : perfumes, unguents, a n d other a r o matics, such as incense a n d m y r r h . T h e r a w materials f o r perfumes,
e x t r a c t e d f r o m flowers a n d p l a n t s , were f o r the m o s t p a r t c u l t i v a t e d i n
E g y p t ; whereas the a r o m a t i c gums a n d resins were m a i n l y i m p o r t e d
f r o m S o m a l i l a n d , A r a b i a , a n d I n d i a . A l t h o u g h perfumes o f v a r i o u s types
were w i d e l y used i n the p h a r a o n i c p e r i o d , t h e i r m a n u f a c t u r e was per
FIG. 5

Alexandrine Tanagra figure.

Terracotta. Alexandria, GraecoRoman M u s e u m .

fected i n A l e x a n d r i a .

2 5

I n a letter t o his b r o t h e r - i n - l a w Servianus c o n c e r n i n g the i n

h a b i t a n t s o f A l e x a n d r i a , E m p e r o r H a d r i a n says,
[It is] a city rich, opulent, productive, i n w h i c h none lives idle.
Some are glass blowers, some makers of papyrus, some linen
weavers, all have some art or other. The gouty have something
they can do, the b l i n d likewise, not even those w i t h gout i n the
hand are idle. Their o w n god is n o t h i n g [that is, " m o n e y " ] ; this
Christians, this Jews, this all alike venerate.

26

T h e i r love o f w o r k a n d o f m o n e y was equaled b y the love o f p u b l i c spec

tacles, o f gymnastics, feasting, a n d m a t e r i a l pleasures. B u t i t m u s t n o t be
t h o u g h t t h a t A l e x a n d r i a was entirely g i v e n u p t o f r i v o l i t y a n d amusement.
A t this same t i m e , Saint C l e m e n t was f o u n d i n g the great s c h o o l o f C h r i s
t i a n t h e o l o g y i n A l e x a n d r i a , w h i c h h a d so immense a n influence o n the
t h o u g h t o f the C h u r c h w h i l e pagan p h i l o s o p h y still flourished i n the city.
O n e o f the first aims o f O c t a v i a n after the R o m a n conquest
of E g y p t was t o e x p l o i t its r i c h g r a i n lands. H e engaged the R o m a n a r m y
t o r e b u i l d the dikes a n d clean the canals, w h i c h h a d suffered f r o m ne
FIG.

glect d u r i n g the late Ptolemaic p e r i o d . I n some years the N i l e flood was

Hadra hydria. Alexandria,

t o o l o w o r t o o h i g h , a n d a shortage o f g r a i n resulted. M o r e o v e r , native

Graeco-Roman M u s e u m .

revolts occasionally caused devastation o f g r a i n lands i n parts o f E g y p t .

I n A . D . i o o , famine i n E g y p t was so serious t h a t E m p e r o r T r a j a n o r d e r e d
the g r a i n fleet t o r e t u r n f r o m R o m e t o A l e x a n d r i a i n order t o relieve the
suffering o f the E g y p t i a n s .
T h e t r a n s p o r t o f the g r a i n t r i b u t e t h a t R o m e levied o n E g y p t
was p r o b a b l y the m o s t a m b i t i o u s m a r i t i m e enterprise o f the ancient

35

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HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

w o r l d . D u r i n g the first three centuries o f the R o m a n p e r i o d , 1 5 0 , 0 0 0

tons ( t w e n t y m i l l i o n modii) were sent a n n u a l l y f r o m A l e x a n d r i a t o
R o m e , o n the largest a n d fastest ships o f the day. A t A l e x a n d r i a , the
g r a i n was stored i n great granaries t o w a i t f o r the s h i p m e n t t o R o m e .
T h e g r a i n fleet usually sailed as a u n i t at the b e g i n n i n g of s p r i n g , p r o b a
bly i n A p r i l . T h e j o u r n e y w o u l d have t a k e n at least a m o n t h , sometimes
t w o ; the fleet a r r i v e d at the seaport o f R o m e , p r o b a b l y at the b e g i n n i n g
of M a y . T h e r e t u r n t r i p c o u l d be made i n t w o or three weeks i f the
w i n d s were favorable. A q u i c k t u r n a r o u n d m i g h t result i n another sail
i n g before w i n t e r .
D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , there were t w o seafaring divinities: Isis
a n d Serapis. Isis became the goddess o f the sea; festivals i n her name
m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g o f the sailing season. O n those occasions a ship,
o r a m o d e l , w i t h e m b r o i d e r e d sails a n d decorated w i t h offering scenes
a n d lights, was launched o n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o open the w a y f o r safe
sailing. T h e second deity, Serapis, was also one of the i m p o r t a n t seafar
i n g gods a n d was f o u n d as an object o f w o r s h i p i n a l m o s t a l l the b i g
p o r t s i n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

27

O w i n g t o the l o c a t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a , between the M e d i t e r

ranean t o the n o r t h a n d L a k e M a r e o t i s t o the s o u t h , its cemeteries m u s t
i n e v i t a b l y have been located t o the east a n d west o f the city. Excavations
u n d e r t a k e n since the m i d d l e o f the nineteenth c e n t u r y i n the eastern sub
urbs have b r o u g h t t o l i g h t extensive cemeteries d a t i n g f r o m the earliest
Ptolemaic p e r i o d . D u r i n g t h a t t i m e , those b u r i e d i n the eastern ceme
teries were a l m o s t exclusively Greeks a n d other foreigners, w h i l e i n the
western cemeteries the m a j o r i t y were Egyptians. A t the close o f the P t o l
emaic p e r i o d a n d d u r i n g the R o m a n p e r i o d , the eastern cemeteries were
still i n use f o r b u r i a l s , b u t i n m u c h smaller numbers t h a n the western.
M u m m i f i c a t i o n was p r a c t i c e d exclusively i n the western
cemeteries, w h e r e native Egyptians were b u r i e d . A l t h o u g h the early
Greek settlers preferred c r e m a t i o n , they later i m i t a t e d the Egyptians a n d
chose e m b a l m i n g rather t h a n c r e m a t i o n . W h e n the dead were cremated,
the ashes were preserved i n an u r n , w h i c h usually h a d the f o r m of hyd r i a . I n 1 8 8 0 at I b r a h i m i e h , a d i s t r i c t t o the east of the city, a t o m b was
f o u n d t h a t c o n t a i n e d several r o w s o f niches h o u s i n g the c i n e r a r y urns of
the numerous mercenaries w h o served under the early Ptolemies, as w e l l
as urns o f the religious envoys f r o m various Greek t o w n s . Such urns
were also f o u n d i n great numbers at Shatby, at H a d r a (hence the name
H a d r a vases), a n d i n the western cemeteries at G a b b a r i a n d W a r d i a n .

2 8

Several o f these urns bear, p a i n t e d o r engraved, the names o f

the deceased, often accompanied b y the father's name a n d t h a t of his
c o u n t r y . A g r o u p o f these i n s c r i p t i o n s a l l o w s us t o fix w i t h p r e c i s i o n the
date o f t h e i r use. T h e y belong t o mercenaries w h o came f r o m T h r a c e ,
Crete, Thessaly, a n d other cities, o r t o ambassadors w h o i n c o n n e c t i o n

Riad

w i t h religious feasts were sent t o A l e x a n d r i a , where they died a n d were

buried.

29

D u r i n g the l o n g course of ancient E g y p t i a n history, m a n y cus

t o m s c o n c e r n i n g death a n d b u r i a l r e m a i n e d r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r . O n e
procedure t h a t u n d e r w e n t subtle change was m u m m i f i c a t i o n . I n later
p h a r a o n i c h i s t o r y i t was c o m m o n t o envelop the entire bandaged b o d y
of the deceased i n cartonnage, w h i c h consisted o f l i n e n r e i n f o r c e d w i t h
plaster, m o d e l e d t o the o u t l i n e o f the e m b a l m e d body. T h e section cover
i n g the head was usually fashioned as a c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d idealized p o r
t r a i t o f the deceased, w h i l e the p o r t i o n covering the b o d y was frequently
decorated w i t h scenes o f deities a n d the n e t h e r w o r l d . D u r i n g the Ptole
maic p e r i o d , the use of cartonnage was confined t o c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s of
the l i n e n - w r a p p e d m u m m y t h e head, chest, s t o m a c h , t h i g h s , a n d feet.
T h e head was t h e n covered w i t h a mask decorated w i t h a w i n g e d scarab
beetle, w h i l e a r o u n d the neck was placed an elaborate c o l l a r w i t h ter
m i n a l s i n the f o r m of f a l c o n heads. T h e area between the head and the
feet was decorated w i t h deities a n d religious scenes. M u m m i f i c a t i o n c o n
t i n u e d t o be p r a c t i c e d even i n early C h r i s t i a n i t y .
According to tradition, Alexandria's involvement w i t h Chris
t i a n i t y started i n the m i d d l e o f the first c e n t u r y A . D . w h e n the evangelist
Saint M a r k came t o A l e x a n d r i a preaching a n e w r e l i g i o n . O n his a r r i v a l ,
he was fascinated by the beauty of the city. H e was w a n d e r i n g t h r o u g h
its streets l o o k i n g at the magnificent b u i l d i n g s , w h e n one o f his sandals
became t o r n . H e w e n t t o a shoemaker by the name o f A n i a n u s t o have i t
repaired. W h e n the shoemaker t o o k the a w l t o w o r k o n the sandal, he
accidently pierced his h a n d ; Saint M a r k h e l d the cobbler's h a n d , preach
i n g the Gospel, a n d the man's h a n d m i r a c u l o u s l y healed. T h e cobbler
a n d the members o f his f a m i l y were converted t o C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d were
baptized.

30

A f t e r t h a t A l e x a n d r i a n Christians g r a d u a l l y m u l t i p l i e d i n

n u m b e r u n t i l the pagans t o o k notice o f t h e m a n d sought t o arrest the

evangelist. I n A . D . 68, d u r i n g the celebration o f the festival of Serapis,
Saint M a r k was arrested, t o r t u r e d , a n d p u t t o d e a t h .

31

D u r i n g the first c e n t u r y a n d the first h a l f o f the second cen

t u r y , the spread of C h r i s t i a n i t y i n A l e x a n d r i a a n d some parts o f E g y p t
was n o t considerable. A c c o r d i n g t o his letter t o Servianus, E m p e r o r
H a d r i a n ( A . D . 1 1 7 - 1 3 8 ) h a d seen the A l e x a n d r i a n s w o r s h i p i n g Serapis
a n d C h r i s t i m p a r t i a l l y . "Those w h o w o r s h i p Serapis are C h r i s t i a n s , a n d
those w h o call themselves bishops o f C h r i s t are devoted t o S e r a p i s . "

32

T h e y saw n o great difference between the t w o religions. B u t f r o m the

t i m e of Septimius Severus ( A . D . 1 9 3 - 2 1 1 ) the development o f C h r i s
t i a n i t y was very r a p i d . T h e catechetical s c h o o l a C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l
u n i v e r s i t y w a s f o u n d e d at t h a t t i m e . T h o u g h C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d made
great progress, i t was largely confined t o the l o w e r and m i d d l e classes
a n d made l i t t l e impression o n the aristocracy.
C h r i s t i a n i t y , however, d i d n o t enjoy an easy g r o w t h . I t suf-

37

38

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

fered b l o o d y persecutions under the r u l e o f Septimius Severus ( A . D . 2 0 4 ) ,

under Decius ( A . D . 2 5 0 ) , a n d under Valerianus ( A . D . 2 5 1 ) . T h e greatest
persecution o f the Christians o c c u r r e d i n the t i m e o f D i o c l e t i a n , w h o
was so detested b y E g y p t i a n C h r i s t i a n s t h a t , later, the c h u r c h dated
the E r a o f M a r t y r s f r o m the first year o f his r e i g n i n A . D . 2 8 4 .

3 3

I n ad

d i t i o n t o these persecutions, isolated incidents, such as Caracalla's

massacre o f the A l e x a n d r i a n p o p u l a c e , resulted i n a steady surge o f
A l e x a n d r i a n n a t i o n a l i s m i n the late second a n d t h i r d centuries.
Reports o f violence c o n t i n u e d . A v i s i t o r t o A l e x a n d r i a i n the
t h i r d c e n t u r y w r i t e s t o his parents i n his h o m e t o w n o f O x y r h y n c h u s i n
U p p e r E g y p t saying, " T h i n g s have happened the l i k e o f w h i c h hasn't
happened t h r o u g h a l l the years. N o w i t is c a n n i b a l i s m , n o t w a r . . . . So
rejoice the m o r e , l a d y m o t h e r , t h a t I a m outside the c i t y . "

3 4

M o s t o f the

violence i n A l e x a n d r i a was l i n k e d t o struggles between pagans a n d

C h r i s t i a n s . T h e disturbance o f A . D . 4 1 2 - 4 1 5 c u l m i n a t e d i n the m u r d e r
of the p a g a n teacher o f p h i l o s o p h y , H y p a t i a .

3 5

A l e x a n d r i a thence became a g r o w i n g center o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .

W h e n E m p e r o r Theodosius gave the final b l o w t o p a g a n i s m by officially
a d o p t i n g the C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n i n A . D . 3 8 9 , he gave the task o f a b o l i s h i n g
p a g a n i s m i n A l e x a n d r i a t o the p a t r i a r c h T h e o p h i l u s , w h o , w i t h great en
ergy, persecuted a l l those w h o refused t o embrace the n e w r e l i g i o n a n d
set a b o u t the d e s t r u c t i o n o f temples, m o n u m e n t s , a n d statues. A m o n g
others, the celebrated temple o f Serapis, a l o n g w i t h its a d m i r a b l e statue,
were destroyed. A c h u r c h dedicated t o Saint J o h n was erected o n the site
of the S e r a p e i o n .

36

Nevertheless, A l e x a n d r i a was still an i m p o r t a n t c o m m e r c i a l

a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e center, a l t h o u g h its days, even as such, were n u m
bered. I t was o c c u p i e d b y Persians w h e n they c o n q u e r e d E g y p t , t h e n re
covered b y the i m p e r i a l forces. W h e n the A r a b s i n v a d e d E g y p t , the A r a b
a r m y , w i t h the help o f native Egyptians, m a r c h e d i n t o A l e x a n d r i a , w h i c h
they reached o n 29 September 6 4 2 . T h e A r a b forces m a r v e l e d at the
magnificence o f A l e x a n d r i a ' s palaces a n d m a r b l e colonnades. A few
years later, the c i t y was recovered b y the R o m a n s , b u t the A r a b s soon
t o o k i t again.
A l t h o u g h A l e x a n d r i a c o n t i n u e d f o r a t i m e t o have some i m
p o r t a n c e as a naval center, i t g r a d u a l l y sank i n t o decay. Its great b u i l d
ings disappeared one after the other, a n d earthquakes s h o o k the l a n d
a n d l o w e r e d the g r o u n d level so t h a t m u c h o f the o l d c i t y is n o w under
the sea. N o t h i n g remains o f the o l d magnificent A l e x a n d r i a b u t frag
ments o f sculpture a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s i n museumsshattered r e m n a n t s o f
a g l o r i o u s past.
Chicago House
L U X O R ,

E G Y P T

R iad

Notes

E . B r e c c i a , Alexandrea

(Bergamo

ad Aegyptum

20

D . B. T h o m p s o n , i n H . Maehler and
V . S t r o c k e r , eds., Das ptolemaische

1920), p. 34.

Agypten

(Cairo 1978), pp. 1 1 3 - 2 2 .

2

P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

Alexandria,

vol. 1 (Ox

ford 1972), pp. 1 0 7 - 8 .

21

Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 3 7 .

See B r e c c i a ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 3 4 .

22

Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 4 1 .

H . L . Jones, The Geography

23

Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 3 8 - 4 0 .

24

Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 4 0 ; i n g e n e r a l , see

(London

of Strabo

a n d N e w Y o r k 1 9 3 2 ) , p . 33 ( = 1 7 . 1 . 8 ) . See also
Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 f t .

D . B . T h o m p s o n , Ptolemaic
5

I . B e l l , " A l e x a n d r i a , " Journal

Archaeology

of

Portraits

Egyptian

Oinochoai

and

(Oxford 1973).

13 ( 1 9 2 7 ) : 1 7 4 ; B r e c c i a ( n o t e 1

a b o v e ) , p . 6 8 ; Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 4 - 3 7 .

25

B r e c c i a ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 1 - 3 2 ; Fraser ( n o t e

26

Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 4 1 .
E . L . B u t c h e r , The Story
Egypt,

2 above), pp. 3 8 - 9 2 .
7

in Faience

P. O x y . 2 3 3 2 ; see Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 5 0 9 ,
6 8 1 , 6 8 4 ; A . B o w m a n , Egypt

after

the

27

Pharaohs

of the Church

of

vol. 1 ( L o n d o n 1897), p. 40.

J. R o u g e , Ships

and Fleets

Mediterranean

( M i d d l e t o w n 1975), p p . 198ft.

of the

Ancient

(Warwickshire 1986), p. 3 1 .
8

28

Breccia (note 1 above), p . 2 2 2 .

(note 2 above), pp. 206, 246.

29

Breccia (note 1 above), p p . 2 2 2 - 2 3 .

B o w m a n (note 7 above), pp. 2 3 - 2 4 .

30

B r e c c i a ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 5 ; Fraser

O . M e i n a r d u s , Christian
Modern,

10

I . B e l l , Cults
Egypt

and Creeds

in

Egypt,

Ancient

and

2 n d rev. e d . ( C a i r o 1 9 7 7 ) , p . 3 0 .

Graeco-Roman

( L i v e r p o o l 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 2 2 - 2 4 ; Fraser

3I

Ibid., p. 163.

32

Butcher (note 26 above), p . 4 0 .

33

B o w m a n (note 7 above), p. 4 5 .

34

P. O x y . 3 0 6 5 ; see B o w m a n ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) ,

(note 2 above), p p . 1 8 9 - 3 0 1 .
II

B o w m a n (note 7 above), p. 24.

12

U . W i l c k e n , Urkunden

der

Ptolemaerzeit

(Berlin-Leipzig 1 9 2 7 - ) , no. 148 = L . M i t t e i s

a n d U . W i l c k e n , Grundziige
der Papyruskunde,

und

p. 214.

Chrestomathie

v o l . 1 (Leipzig 1912),

no. 136.

35

B o w m a n (note 7 above), p . 214.

I3

B e l l ( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 5off.

36

B o w m a n (note 7 above), p . 207.

14

Bell (note 10 above), p p . 5 i f f .

15

Bell (note 10 above), p . 55.

16

Bell (note 10 above), p . 53.

17

Bell (note 10 above), p . 54.

18

M i t t e i s a n d W i l c k e n (note 12 above), p. 115;

Bell (note 10 above), p . 55.

19

Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 3 6 f t .

39

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41

" A l l Army Boots and Uniforms?"

Ethnicity in Ptolemaic Egypt
Diana

Delia

T h e o k r i t o s ' s Adoniazousai

(Idylls

15) begins w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the

crush o f people o n the streets of A l e x a n d r i a amidst the c e l e b r a t i o n o f an

A d o n i s festival d u r i n g the r e i g n o f P t o l e m y Philadelphos. U n d a u n t e d by
the s w a r m o f pedestrians a n d cavalry, G o r g o , P r a x i n o a , a n d t h e i r c o m
p a n i o n s are borne by the surge o f celebrants a l o n g a t h o r o u g h f a r e lead
ing t o the r o y a l palace, w h e r e the festivities w i l l take place. T h e c r o w d is
described by the d i s g r u n t l e d w o m e n as " a l l a r m y boots a n d u n i f o r m s "
a n d , en r o u t e , P r a x i n o a is nearly t r a m p l e d by a r o y a l h o r s e m a n . O n fi
n a l l y reaching her d e s t i n a t i o n , p i q u e d by the p u s h i n g a n d s h o v i n g i n
w h i c h she herself h a d also h e a r t i l y i n d u l g e d , P r a x i n o a responds t o a
stranger's h u s h i n g o f her chatter by d e m a n d i n g t o k n o w his o r i g i n .
Swelling w i t h condescension, she announces t h a t she a n d her c o m p a n
ions are Syracusans, w h i c h by extension makes t h e m C o r i n t h i a n s , a n d
t h a t as Peloponnesians, they speak i n the D o r i c dialect. W i t h this v o l u b l e
r e t o r t , she dismisses b o t h c r i t i c a n d c r i t i c i s m .
W h i l e m u c h o f the Adoniazousai,

l i k e any w o r k of l i t e r a t u r e ,

m a y be p u r e i n v e n t i o n , t w o aspects are h i g h l y p r o v o c a t i v e a n d w a r r a n t
further i n v e s t i g a t i o n : first, the poet's i m p r e s s i o n t h a t soldiers were pre
p o n d e r a n t i n t h i r d - c e n t u r y - B . c . A l e x a n d r i a a n d , second, the emphasis
placed o n ethnic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Since the Ptolemaic a r m y extensively em
p l o y e d f o r e i g n mercenaries, b o t h issues find a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r i n
the nature o f e t h n i c i t y i n A l e x a n d r i a . T h i s paper w i l l address t h a t sub
ject, focusing o n the late f o u r t h t h r o u g h early second c e n t u r y B . C .
before the repressive measures o f P t o l e m y v i n Euergetes 11 reversed the
" b r a i n d r a i n " t o A l e x a n d r i a characteristic o f preceding centuries.
O n e m a y as w e l l begin b y p o s i n g the historian's c o n v e n t i o n a l
l i t a n y : w h o came t o A l e x a n d r i a ? whence? a n d w h y ? D i d o r u s Siculus a n d
Polybios relate t h a t p r o m i n e n t p o l i t i c a l figures were b r o u g h t t o A l e x a n
d r i a as hostages. Conspicuous a m o n g these was Pyrrhos o f E p i r o s , w h o
a r r i v e d i n 2 9 8 , m a r r i e d P t o l e m y 1 Soter's daughter, a n d w i t h his help re
gained an empire the f o l l o w i n g year. Subsequently, C h r e m o n i d e s a n d
G l a u k o n , sons o f the A t h e n i a n Eteokles, secured t h e i r father's pact w i t h
Philadelphos by distinguished service under h i m a n d his successor, w h i l e

42

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

A n d r o m a c h o s , father of the A s i a n r u l e r Achaios a n d b r o t h e r - i n - l a w of

Seleukos, resided i n A l e x a n d r i a as a r o y a l prisoner i n 2 2 0 B . C .

O t h e r nabobs deliberately sought p o l i t i c a l a s y l u m here.

Pursuant t o the A n t i g o n i d conquest o f Athens i n 3 0 7 , D e m e t r i o s o f
Phaleron t o o k refuge i n A l e x a n d r i a , w h e r e his stellar rise t o i n t i m a t e
counsellor o f Soter appears t o have occasioned o d i u m a n d subsequent
disgrace under Philadelphos. A n d r o n i k o s o f O l y n t h o s , w h o h a d refused
to surrender T y r e t o Soter i n 3 1 2 , was later w a r m l y received a n d h o n
o r e d b y h i m at A l e x a n d r i a . H i p p o m e d o n o f Sparta j o i n e d the c o u r t of
Euergetes 1 a n d was subsequently sent o u t t o govern the H e l l e s p o n t a n d
T h r a c e . H i s c o m p a t r i o t Kleomenes m was n o t as f o r t u n a t e ; h a v i n g fled
to A l e x a n d r i a w i t h three t h o u s a n d Spartan soldiers a n d h i g h hopes o f
o b t a i n i n g Philopator's assistance i n r e g a i n i n g his t h r o n e , he died at
t e m p t i n g t o escape f r o m this h a v e n . As A l e x a n d r i a was a n e w c i t y f o u n
2

d a t i o n , the early Ptolemies necessarily r e c r u i t e d foreign talent as "friends

of the k i n g " t o serve as chief ministers a n d advisors, c o m m a n d e r s o f
t h e i r b o d y g u a r d , ambassadors, governors o f overseas possessions, c o u r t
philosophers, physicians, a n d r o y a l t u t o r s . A c t i v e n e t w o r k i n g ensured
3

t h a t friends a n d relations w o u l d be considered f o r i m p o r t a n t posts.

I n the p o l y g a m o u s m i l i e u o f the r o y a l h o u s e h o l d , foreign

w o m e n secured positions o f influence as official wives or concubines.
T h u s the n o t o r i o u s A t h e n i a n hetaira Thais m a i n t a i n e d i n t i m a t e relations
w i t h P t o l e m y Soter, despite his marriages t o E u r y d i k e , the daughter o f
A n t i p a t e r , a n d t o Berenike. A r s i n o e 1, Lysimachos's daughter, was mar
r i e d t o Philadelphos t o secure Egypt's alliance w i t h Thrace; a m o n g her
husband's m a n y mistresses was a foreigner o f such surpassing c h a r m t h a t
the c u l t o f A p h r o d i t e Bilistiche was i n s t i t u t e d i n her h o n o r i n A l e x a n d r i a .
Berenike 11 b r o u g h t her father's k i n g d o m o f Cyrene as a d o w r y w h e n she
m a r r i e d Euergetes 1, a n d the u n i o n o f C l e o p a t r a 1 a n d Epiphanes sealed
the pact e n d i n g the F i f t h Syrian W a r . I n the n e x t generation, A g a t h o k l e a
of Samos e x p l o i t e d her influence as P h i l o m e t o r ' s mistress t o advance the
c o u r t career o f her b r o t h e r , a r o y a l c a t a m i t e .

T h e n a r r a t i v e o f Polybios is rife w i t h notices o f d i p l o m a t i c

missions t o a n d f r o m the c i t y o f A l e x a n d r i a i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the
M a c e d o n i a n a n d Syrian w a r s o r p e t i t i o n s o f Ptolemaic allies seeking p r o
t e c t i o n o r p r o t e s t i n g the malfeasance o f neighbors. C i n e r a r y urns f r o m
H a d r a c o n t a i n the remains of A t h e n i a n , C h i a n , R h o d i a n , C y z i c a n , a n d
Cyrenaean ambassadors w h o died o n t h e i r missions. O t h e r H a d r a vases
6

c o n t a i n the ashes o f sacred envoys, OecopoC, dispatched b y various Greek

cities t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n festivals at A l e x a n d r i a , t o offer sacrifices at
A l e x a n d r i a n shrines, or s i m p l y t o announce f o r t h c o m i n g festivals cele
brated i n t h e i r h o m e l a n d s . A n u m b e r o f H a d r a urns have been discov
7

ered outside o f A l e x a n d r i a ; these were c a r r i e d back t o the homelands of

ambassadors, o r SecopoC, identified o n the u r n s . Streams o f foreign dele8

Delia

gations a r r i v i n g i n , t o u r i n g , a n d d e p a r t i n g f r o m the c i t y m u s t have been

a regular feature o f A l e x a n d r i a .
T h e Ptolemies i n v i t e d f o r e i g n priests t o i n s t i t u t e p o p u l a r mys
tery cults at A l e x a n d r i a . Soter b r o u g h t the E u m o l p i d T i m o t h e o s f r o m
Athens t o establish the c u l t o f Demeter i n a s u b u r b of the city, a p p r o p r i
ately d u b b e d Eleusis. T h e fledgling c u l t n o d o u b t benefited f r o m the
religious expertise o f the famous A t h e n i a n P h i l o c h o r o s , w h o lived i n
A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g Philadelphos's r e i g n . H i s c o n t e m p o r a r y Philiskos of
9

K o r k y r a presided over the rites of D i o n y s o s .

10

Foreigners often h e l d the

e p o n y m o u s p r i e s t h o o d o f A l e x a n d e r a n d supervised the dynastic c u l t .

11

N u m e r o u s professional schools sprang u p i n A l e x a n d r i a u n

der the early Ptolemies, a n d i t was t o these t h a t m a n y foreign p u p i l s
flocked: the a n a t o m i s t Praxagoras o f K o s settled i n A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g
the r e i g n o f Soter a n d opened a m e d i c a l school t h a t t r a i n e d , i n successive
generations, H e r o p h i l o s o f C h a l c e d o n , Kleophantes o f Keos, P h i l i n o s of
Kos, and Chrysippos of Rhodes.

12

To this g r o u p o u r learned colleague

H e i n r i c h v o n Staden w o u l d a d d Erasistratos o f Keos. Hence i t is n o t sur

p r i s i n g t h a t A l e x a n d r i a became so h i g h l y r e p u t e d as a center f o r m e d i c a l
studies t h a t , centuries later, A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s observed t h a t a
p h y s i c i a n merely h a d t o c l a i m t h a t he h a d studied at A l e x a n d r i a f o r his
credentials t o be considered i m p e c c a b l e .

13

L i k e w i s e , the m a t h e m a t i c i a n -

astronomers E u c l i d a n d A r i s t a r c h o s o f Samos left Athens f o r A l e x a n d r i a

by the early t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . T h e i r studies attracted K o n o n o f Samos,
Eratosthenes of Gyrene, A r c h i m e d e s o f Syracuse, a n d A p o l l o n i o s o f Perge
t o A l e x a n d r i a , a n d the research o f these scholars, i n t u r n , i n s p i r e d the
m e c h a n i c a l studies o f Ktesibios a n d P h i l o n o f B y z a n t i u m . Such studies
d i d n o t develop i n a v a c u u m b u t b u i l t u p o n available models a n d the
progress o f t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e .

14

A f t e r the M o u s e i o n was f o u n d e d by Soter, talent scouts were

dispatched t h r o u g h o u t the M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o r e c r u i t leading p u n d i t s a n d
entice t h e m t o relocate t o A l e x a n d r i a b y prospects o f r o y a l patronage,
extensive research facilities, a n d the o p p o r t u n i t y t o associate w i t h the
greatest m i n d s o f the d a y .

15

Some scholars t o o k u p p e r m a n e n t residence

i n the city, others visited o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y . D e m e t r i o s of Phaleron h a d

already i n i t i a t e d the t r a n s p l a n t o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h o u g h t f r o m A t h e n s
t o A l e x a n d r i a , a n d he was soon j o i n e d by a f e l l o w peripatetic, S t r a t o n
of L a m p s a k o s , a n d the Stoics Eratosthenes o f Cyrene a n d Sphairos o f
Bosporos.

16

T h e c o m i c w r i t e r s P h i l e m o n o f Syracuse a n d M a c h o n l i k e

wise came, f o l l o w e d b y the poets K a l l i m a c h o s o f Cyrene, H e r a k l e i t o s o f

H a l i k a r n a s s o s , H e r m e s i a n a x of K o l o p h o n , H e r o d a s o f K o s , T h e o k r i t o s
of Syracuse, a n d the e p i g r a m m a t i s t H e d y l o s .

17

N u m e r o u s historians,

ethnographers, a n d biographers t o o k u p residence i n A l e x a n d r i a , w h i l e

K a l l i x e i n o s o f Rhodes was so impressed b y the c i t y t h a t he c o m p o s e d an
essay o n i t .

1 8

T h e L i b r a r y ' s superb resources attracted t o A l e x a n d r i a

43

44

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

generations o f g r a m m a r i a n s , w h o edited a n d c o m m e n t e d o n H o m e r i c ,
A r c h a i c , a n d classical l i t e r a r y w o r k s . Discussed at l e n g t h by Peter Fraser,
these require n o f u r t h e r c o m m e n t here, apart f r o m the observation t h a t
the o r i g i n s of m a n y s c h o l a r s p a r t i c u l a r l y Cyrene, K o s , a n d Samos
c o i n c i d e d w i t h areas under Ptolemaic c o n t r o l .

1 9

A c c o r d i n g l y , one w o n

ders w h e t h e r A r i s t o p h a n e s o f Byzantium's circumstances really o u g h t t o

be considered u n i q u e : his father i m m i g r a t e d t o E g y p t t o enter Ptolemaic
service as a mercenary a n d b r o u g h t the f a m i l y a l o n g ; other mercenaries
surely d i d l i k e w i s e .

20

A n e w c i t y f o u n d a t i o n p r o v i d e d extensive o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
architects a n d engineers such as D e i n o k r a t e s , w h o l a i d o u t the o r i g i n a l
c i t y p l a n , a n d Sostratos o f K n i d o s , the designer o f the Pharos l i g h t
house.

21

A l e x a n d r i a ' s s p l e n d i d s i t u a t i o n o n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , w i t h nat

u r a l h a r b o r s a n d access by N i l e canals t o upper E g y p t a n d b y o v e r l a n d

routes t o the R e d Sea, r a p i d l y p r o m o t e d the c i t y as a mecca f o r business
and commerce.

22

T h e Z e n o n archive conveys a g o o d sense o f h o w exten

sive such interests h a d already become b y the r e i g n o f Philadelphos, f o r

Z e n o n f r o m K a u n i a s c o m m u t e d between A l e x a n d r i a a n d f o r e i g n lands
t r a n s a c t i n g businessbanking a n d t r a d i n g o n behalf o f his employer,
the dioiketes

A p o l l o n i o s . T h e Z e n o n p a p y r i also reveal the v a r i e t y of

p r o d u c t s i m p o r t e d b y A p o l l o n i o s i n t o A l e x a n d r i a : w i n e a n d cheese f r o m
Lesbos, K n i d o s , a n d C h i o s ; o i l f r o m Samos a n d M i l e t o s ; a n d L y c i a n
honey, t o name a f e w .

23

A l t h o u g h A p o l l o n i o s e m p l o y e d his o w n agents

a n d fleet t o p r o v i s i o n his h o u s e h o l d , such p r o d u c t s p r o b a b l y t y p i f y

those b r o u g h t t o A l e x a n d r i a by foreign traders f o r general sale.
I n 1 9 5 5 , V i r g i n i a Grace sorted m o r e t h a n fifty-five t h o u s a n d
a m p h o r a handles b e l o n g i n g t o the B e n a k i a n d G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m
collections i n A l e x a n d r i a . T h e lion's share o f these bear R h o d i a n stamps,
a l t h o u g h K n i d i a n , a n d , t o a lesser degree, K o a n , T h a s i a n , a n d C h i a n
stamped vessels also a b o u n d .

2 4

Fraser's surmise t h a t e m p t y R h o d i a n ves

sels were shipped t o A l e x a n d r i a i n vast quantities is n o d o u b t correct,

just as A r n o l d E n k l a a r demonstrated the C r e t a n o r i g i n o f H a d r a vases,
i m p o r t e d i n t o A l e x a n d r i a f o r some t w e n t y years before the m a n u f a c t u r e
of l o c a l A l e x a n d r i a n i m i t a t i o n s b e g a n .

25

Just as foreign talent sparked

the development o f a native t r a d i t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l , scientific, a n d l i t

erary studies i n A l e x a n d r i a , f o r e i g n - m a n u f a c t u r e d wares furnished the
impetus f o r the p r o d u c t i o n o f l o c a l i m i t a t i o n s . M e r c h a n t ships o r d i n a r i l y
d i d n o t r e t u r n h o m e e m p t y b u t were laden w i t h cargoes o f g r a i n , pa
p y r u s , perfumes, unguents, spices, a n d aromatics f o r w h i c h E g y p t was
justly famous. A l e x a n d r i a thus f u n c t i o n e d as a g r a n d entrepot o f the
eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a t t r a c t i n g foreign shippers, shipbuilders, sailors,
merchants, a n d the moneylenders o n w h o m they a l l necessarily relied
t o finance c o m m e r c i a l ventures. O p p o r t u n i t i e s such as these encouraged

Delia

massive i m m i g r a t i o n of b o t h foreigners a n d Egyptians t o A l e x a n d r i a .

2 6

M a n y o f the f o r m e r were b u r i e d i n the cemeteries o f Shatby, H a d r a , a n d

I b r a h i m i e h , c o m m e m o r a t e d by modestly p a i n t e d c i n e r a r y urns o r l o c u lus slabs preserving merely t h e i r names, p a t r o n y m i c s , a n d e t h n i c s .

27

O n the eve o f the F o u r t h Syrian W a r , N i k a g o r a s of Messenia

sailed t o A l e x a n d r i a w i t h a cargo of horses t h a t he sold t o a r o y a l
agent.

28

Horses were v i t a l f o r the cavalry, encamped a l o n g w i t h the rest

of the a r m y some distance outside the c i t y w a l l s , p r o b a b l y i n the v i c i n i t y

of Bulkeley, at the l o c a t i o n later occupied by the R o m a n castra
drinaP

Alexan-

A l t h o u g h i t is impossible t o assess w i t h any c e r t a i n t y h o w m a n y

t r o o p s this g a r r i s o n m a y have housed, Polybios indicates t h a t a r o u n d

2 2 0 B . C . three t h o u s a n d Cretans, one t h o u s a n d Peloponnesians, a n d n u
merous Syrians a n d Carians c o n s t i t u t e d merely a p o r t i o n of i t .

3 0

T h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of ethnics i n Polybios's catalog o f the Ptole

maic army, w h i c h was p r e p a r i n g at a b o u t the same t i m e f o r the F o u r t h
Syrian W a r , is s i m i l a r l y revealing: E u r y l o c h o s o f M a g n e s i a c o m m a n d e d
the R o y a l G u a r d ; Sokrates the B o e o t i a n led a c o n t i n g e n t o f peltasts;
A n d r o m a c h o s o f Aspendos a n d Ptolemy, son of Thraseas, supervised the
p h a l a n x ; Phoxidas the Achaean c o m m a n d e d the Greek mercenaries;
Polykrates supervised the cavalry o f the g u a r d a n d L i b y a n a n d E g y p t i a n
horsemen; Echekrates o f Thessaly c o m m a n d e d the Greek a n d mercenary
cavalry; K n o p i a s o f A l l a r i a a n d P h i l o of Knossos led the C r e t a n c o n t i n
gent; A m m o n i o s o f Barca c o m m a n d e d L i b y a n s a r m e d i n M a c e d o n i a n
fashion; Sosibios was i n charge o f the Egyptians; a n d D i o n y s o s the
T h r a c i a n supervised the T h r a c i a n s a n d G a u l s .

31

A l t h o u g h this m i l i t a r y

b u i l d u p was o f l i m i t e d d u r a t i o n , funerary i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d c i n e r a r y urns

f r o m Shatby, H a d r a , a n d I b r a h i m i e h , o n w h i c h the names of soldiers
are a c c o m p a n i e d b y foreign ethnics, c o r r o b o r a t e the v i e w t h a t a great
m a n y soldiers stationed at A l e x a n d r i a were f o r e i g n i n o r i g i n .

3 2

Egyptians

also enlisted i n the Ptolemaic army, b u t p r i o r t o the Battle o f R a p h i a i n

2 1 7 B . C . t h e i r service appears t o have been restricted t o the native corps
of /maxL/uLoi;

hence i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t E g y p t i a n names have n o t

t u r n e d u p a m o n g the m i l i t a r y personnel i n these cemeteries.

33

D u r i n g the h a l f c e n t u r y t h a t preceded R a p h i a , E g y p t h a d en
gaged i n f o u r Syrian campaigns as w e l l as the C h r e m o n i d e a n W a r against
M a c e d o n i a , r e s u l t i n g i n the o c c u p a t i o n o f n u m e r o u s Aegean islands a n d
bridgeheads o n the coast o f Asia M i n o r . T h e solid gains of Philadelphos
a n d Euergetes 1 established the Ptolemaic overseas empire, i n s t r i k i n g
contrast t o the earlier, ephemeral conquests o f Soter. H a r d l y a season
passed t h a t d i d n o t witness m i l i t a r y a c t i o n i n Syrian o r Aegean theaters.
A f t e r R a p h i a , the Ptolemies engaged i n yet another Syrian w a r a n d spent
two

decades suppressing w i d e s p r e a d native revolts i n U p p e r E g y p t . I t

is n o w o n d e r t h a t the Ptolemies were c o n s t a n t l y i n need o f seasoned

45

46

HELLENISTIC

A L E X A N D R I A

soldiers a n d c o m m a n d e r s . L i k e w i s e , they extensively e m p l o y e d f o r e i g n

ers t o t r a i n recruits a n d t o c o m m a n d overseas m i l i t a r y operations
and garrisons.

34

Polybios d i d n o t have t o attend a festival i n d o w n t o w n

A l e x a n d r i a i n order t o r e p o r t t h a t f o r e i g n mercenaries c o n s t i t u t e d a m a
j o r segment of the p o p u l a t i o n o f this c i t y i n his day. Nevertheless, he
seems t o echo Praxinoa's sentiments i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e m as fiapv KCU
TTOXV

Kal avaycoyovoppressive,

abundant, and uncultivatednoting

as w e l l t h a t they posed a significant menace whenever E g y p t i a n dynasts

were w e a k .

35

I n a d d i t i o n t o the g a r r i s o n outside the city, the Ptolemies

m a i n t a i n e d h o u s e h o l d t r o o p s (ra depaireCa)
rrepl rr\v

OLV\T)V

a n d a r o y a l b o d y g u a r d (ra

4>vkaKeZa) inside i t ; c o m m a n d e r s a n d other soldiers were

often present at c o u r t .

3 6

A n o t h e r g a r r i s o n , serving p r i m a r i l y as a customs

post, was stationed nearby at Schedia.

37

For a d m i n i s t r a t i v e purposes, the c i t y of A l e x a n d r i a was orga

nized i n t o five d i s t r i c t s , n u m b e r e d after the first five letters of the Greek
alphabet, b u t p o p u l a t i o n settlement d i d n o t c o n f o r m t o the same pat
t e r n . Instead, the l i t e r a r y a n d d o c u m e n t a r y sources reveal a p a t c h w o r k
of scattered ethnic n e i g h b o r h o o d s , o r At/meves ("shelters"), t h r o u g h o u t
the c i t y .

38

For e x a m p l e , the oldest Jewish n e i g h b o r h o o d , w h e r e the great

synagogue described i n the T a l m u d m u s t have been located, appears t o

have been situated i n the A d i s t r i c t , east o f Silsileh, yet P h i l o relates t h a t
Jews resided i n a l l o f the other districts as w e l l .

3 9

Likewise, Rhakotis, lo

cated i n the south-central sector o f the city, appears t o have been the
oldest E g y p t i a n settlement, p r e d a t i n g even the f o u n d a t i o n b y A l e x a n d e r ;
yet, by the t i m e o f Caesar, the i s l a n d of Pharos c o n s t i t u t e d a s u b u r b
b o a s t i n g an E g y p t i a n p o p u l a t i o n so massive t h a t i t occasioned c o m
ment.

40

So, t o o , the various A l e x a n d r i a n deme headquarters, n o d o u b t

located i n the oldest sections of the city, scarcely reflected a c t u a l resi

dence patterns o f A l e x a n d r i a n citizen deme members a n d t h e i r families
centuries later. O t h e r ethnic groups also m a i n t a i n e d central headquarters
i n the city, l i k e w i s e situated i n the n e i g h b o r h o o d s first settled b y f e l l o w
countrymen.

41

E t h n i c c o m m u n i t i e s fostering c o m m o n social a n d c u l t u r a l

bonds developed wherever foreigners settled i n the c i t y a n d were replen

ished a n d r e v i t a l i z e d b y the constant i n f l u x o f n e w i m m i g r a n t s .
For the v a r i o u s reasons n o t e d above, A l e x a n d r i a steadily ab
sorbed a stream of f o r e i g n i m m i g r a n t s d u r i n g the f o u r t h t h r o u g h m i d t h i r d c e n t u r y B.C. T h e n u m e r o u s funerary stelae a n d c i n e r a r y urns of this
p e r i o d b e l o n g i n g t o m e n a n d w o m e n possessing f o r e i g n ethnics suggest
t h a t , after the i n i t i a l settlement at the t i m e of the f o u n d a t i o n o f the city,
f e w f o r e i g n settlers a c q u i r e d the A l e x a n d r i a n f r a n c h i s e .

42

Residing f o r

m u c h o r a l l o f t h e i r lives i n a c i t y n o t their o w n , w i t h o u t politeia o r au

t o n o m y , the use o f ethnics b y f o r e i g n residents signified m o r e t h a n mere
s t a t u t o r y c o m p l i a n c e w i t h Ptolemaic regulations. For ethnics preserved

Delia

n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y w h i l e simultaneously d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between i m m i
grants f r o m Greek cities a n d Egyptians a n d other n o n - H e l l e n e s .

43

Like

wise, at A l e x a n d r i a , i n the D e l t a a n d i n U p p e r E g y p t , at Cyrene, a n d

wherever large numbers o f foreigners resided, ethnic associations k n o w n
as TToXnevybara were f o u n d e d t o perpetuate n a t i o n a l c u l t practices.
P r i m a r i l y religious i n nature, TrokirevfjiaTa

nevertheless m o d e l e d t h e i r

i n t e r n a l structure a n d procedures o n democratic i n s t i t u t i o n s : they m e t

as assemblies, w h e r e members deliberated matters, v o t e d decrees, a n d
elected m a g i s t r a t e s .

44

I n cities such as A l e x a n d r i a , m e m b e r s h i p i n a

Greek rroXirevixa p r o b a b l y sufficed t o ensure the e n r o l l m e n t o f sons i n

the l o c a l g y m n a s i u m , i n m u c h the same w a y t h a t the designations ol
arrb rod yvfjbvaaCov, ol jxiqTpoTroXCTai, a n d ol

K&TOLKOL

perpetuated H e l

lenic status i n enchoric m e t r o p o l e i s d u r i n g the R o m a n P r i n c i p a t e .

cisely because TrokiTevjiaTa.

45

Pre

a n d gymnasia perpetuated elitist social

status d i s t i n c t i o n s undesignated by law, these i n s t i t u t i o n s were assidu

ously c u l t i v a t e d b y strangers i n a strange l a n d as h a l l m a r k s o f H e l l e n i c
o r quasi-Hellenic c i v i l i z a t i o n .
As a Syracusan at A l e x a n d r i a , P r a x i n o a behaved i n a m a n n e r
t h a t is n o t difficult t o c o m p r e h e n d . T h e c i t y was teeming w i t h foreigners,
m a n y of t h e m mercenaries deprived of the privileges a n d benefits enjoyed
by citizens. I n f l a u n t i n g her Greek o r i g i n , P r a x i n o a s u m m o n e d t o her
defense the one status badge t h a t foreigners m i g h t a c t u a l l y possessa
Greek ethnic. Served u p by a q u i c k m i n d a n d a ready t o n g u e , i t was n o t
t o be t a k e n lightly.
Brown University
P R O V I D E N C E ,

R H O D E

I S L A N D

47

48

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Notes

P y r r h o s : W . P e r e m a n s , E . v a n ' t D a c k , et a l . ,
Prosopographia
6.14566;
PP

Ptolemaica

(hereafter

[ h e r e a f t e r P. Cair.

(Cairo 1925-1931),

Zen.]

11, n o s . 5 9 0 4 5 - 4 6 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 2 5 7 B . C . )

PP)

C h r e m o n i d e s : PP 6 . 1 4 6 3 6 ; G l a u k o n :

6 . 1 4 5 9 6 ; A n d r o m a c h o s : PP 6 . 1 6 1 4 0 .

A t h e n a e u s i 3 . 5 7 6 e - f ; B e r e n i k e I : PP 6 . 1 4 4 9 7 ;
T h a i s : PP 6 . 1 4 7 2 3 ; A r s i n o e I : PP 6 . 1 4 4 9 1 ;

D e m e t r i o s : PP 6 . 1 6 7 4 2 ; A n d r o n i k o s :
PP

B i l i s t i c h e : PP 6 . 1 4 7 1 7 ; B e r e n i k e 11: PP 6 . 1 4 4 9 7 ;

4 . 1 0 0 6 2 a ; H i p p o m e d o n : PP 6 . 1 4 6 0 5 ;

C l e o p a t r a I : PP 6 . 1 4 5 1 5 ; A g a t h o k l e i a :

K l e o m e n e s : PP 6 . 1 6 1 1 8 .
3

P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

PP

Alexandria,

vol. 1

[hereafter Fraser] ( O x f o r d 1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 1 0 2 - 3 ;
F. H e i c h e l h e i m , Die auswartige
Ptolemaerreich,

Bevolkerung

PP 6 . i 4 7 8 8 f f . See also P. M . Fraser, " I n s c r i p

t i o n s f r o m P t o l e m a i c E g y p t , " Berytus

" A H a d r a Vase i n t h e A s h m o l e a n M u s e u m , "

Journal

passim. For example:

of Egyptian

the Metropolitan

Chief ministers and advisors: K a p h i s o p h o n

39 ( 1 9 5 3 ) :

Archaeology

8 4 - 9 4 ; - F- C o o k , Inscribed
Museum

Hadra

cia,

e d . , Catalogue

des antiquites

r e n t u m : PP 2 . 4 3 3 1 a n d 6 . 1 4 6 3 0 ; P o l y k r a t e s o f

Iscrizione

A r g o s : PP 6 . 1 5 2 3 3 , a n d F. P r e i s i g k e et a l . ,

= SB ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , 1, n o . 1 6 8 6 .

griechischer

Urkunden

(Cairo 1911), no. 190

e latine

see also C o o k ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) ,

PP 6.14996ft.;
pp.

3 6 5 9 ( A l e x a n d r i a ) ; a n d his b r o t h e r P t o l e -

20-25,

(fro

A p o l l o n i a ) , 3 (Pho-

caea), 7 ( A c h a i a ) , 8 ( B o e o t i a ) , a n d 1 0 ( D e l p h i ) .
8

Ambassadors: Theodoros of Cyrene:

6.16761;

greche

Egyp-

aus

[ h e r e a f t e r SB] ( S t r a s b o u r g 1 9 1 5 ) , 1,

m a i o s : PP 6 . 1 5 7 7 0 .

PP

d'Alexandrie,

nos. 1 - 5 6 8 :

tiennes

eds., Sammelbuch

au Musee

general

C o m m a n d e r s o f the b o d y g u a r d : Sosibios o f Ta-

no.

in

a b o v e ) , 1 1 6 7 6 a n d 1 6 4 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; E . Brec

6.14576.

Agypten

Vases

(New York

of Art

1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 2 3 - 3 4 , n o s . 7 a n d 8 = SB ( n o t e 3

of K o s : PP 6 . 1 4 9 9 0 ; A g a t h o k l e s o f S a m o s :
PP

13

( i 9 6 0 ) : 1 5 9 - 6 1 ; T . R o n n e a n d P. M . Fraser,

im

B e i h e f t 18 ( L e i p z i g 1 9 2 5 ) ,

Klio,

6.14714.

A . E n k l a a r , " C h r o n o l o g i e et p e i n t r e s des h y dries de H a d r a , " Bulletin

D e m e t r i o s o f A t h e n s : PP 6 . 1 4 7 5 4 .

Antieke

Beschaving

60 (1985): 145.
G o v e r n o r s : PP 6 . 1 5 0 3 i f f . See also R . S. B a g n a l l ,
The

Administration

sions

Outside

of the Ptolemaic

of Egypt

Posses

T i m o t h e o s : PP 6 . 1 6 7 1 8 ; see also K a l l i m a c h o s ' s

h y m n t o D e m e t e r , a n d Fraser ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) ,

(Leiden 1976), pp. 2 2 9 -

35 a n d p a s s i m . Fraser, p p . 6 6 - 6 7 , a s t u t e l y o b

pp.

served t h a t a m a j o r i t y o f P t o l e m a i c officials at

mente

1 9 9 - 2 0 1 ; P h i l o c h o r o s : F. J a c o b y , Die

D e l o s , T h e r a , a n d C r e t e possessed G r e e k c i t y

FGrH]

der griechischen

Historiker

Frag-

[hereafter

(Berlin 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 5 8 ) , B, no. 328.

ethnics other t h a n A l e x a n d r i a n .
10

P h i l i s k o s : PP 3 . 6 5 4 1 . L i k e w i s e , a t e m p l e o f C y bele w a s b u i l t n e a r b y at C a n o p u s b y t h e r e i g n

C o u r t philosophers: Demetrios of Phaleron:

PP

6 . 1 6 7 4 2 ; D i o d o r o s K r o n o s f r o m Iasos:

of Euergetes : E . B r e c c i a , " L a

PP

6 . 1 6 7 4 6 ; M e n e d e m o s o f E r e t r i a : PP

C a n o p o , " Bulletin
d'Alexandrie

6 . 1 6 7 7 0 ; M n e s i s t r a t o s o f T h a s o s : PP 6 . 1 6 7 7 2 .
P h y s i c i a n s : C h r y s i p p o s o f K n i d o s : PP

6.16646;

I I

de la Societe

archeologique

17 ( 1 9 1 9 ) : 1 8 8 - 9 2 .

E.g., K a l l i k r a t e s o f Samos ( 2 7 2 / 2 7 1 B . C . ) :
3.5164; Patroklos of M a c e d o n (271/270

P h i l i p p o s o f K o s : PP 6 . 1 6 6 4 0 , a n d Fraser,

PP

pp.

B . C . ) : PP 3 . 5 2 2 5 ; Pelops o f M a c e d o n ( 2 6 5 / 2 6 4 -

369-70.

2 6 4 / 2 6 3 B . C . ) : PP 3 . 5 2 2 7 ; G l a u k o n o f A t h e n s
T u t o r s : P h i l i t a s o f K o s : PP 6 . 1 6 7 2 4 , a n d Fraser,

( 2 5 5 / 2 5 4 B . C . ) : PP 3 . 5 0 7 1 ; N e o p t o l e m o s o f

pp.

309 and 450; Straton of Lampsakos:

P i s i d i a ( 2 5 2 / 2 5 1 B . C . ) : PP 3 . 5 2 0 4 ; T l e p o l e -

PP

6.16786;

Apollonios of Naukratis "Rho-

dios": ? ? 6 . 1 6 5 1 1 ; Aristarchos o f Samothrace:

PP

6.16512,

mos of Lycia (247/246 and 245/244 B . C . ) :

PP

3 . 5 2 8 8 ; A g a t h o k l e s o f Samos (216/215

B . C . ) : PP 3 . 4 9 8 6 . See also J. I j s e w i j n , De

d Fraser, p . 4 6 2 .

dotibus
Lagidorum
4

See, e.g., C . C . E d g a r , Zenon

Papyri,

4 vols.

sacerdotiisque

Alexandri

Magni

saceret

(Brussels 1 9 6 1 ) , a n d F r a s e r ( n o t e 3

above), p p . 215 and 2 2 2 .

Delia

12

Praxagoras: Fraser (note 3 above), p . 3 4 5 ;

A . S. H u n t , eds., The Oxyrhynchus

H e r o p h i l o s : P P 6.16606;

( L o n d o n 1 8 9 8 - ) , x , n o . i 2 4 i . i i ( s e c o n d cen

Kleophantos:

PP 3 . 1 6 6 1 5 ; P h i l i n o s : PP 6.16639,

Papyri

t u r y A . D . ) a n d Fraser, p p . 3 3 0 - 3 8 o n t h e suc

a n d Fraser,

cession o f L i b r a r y d i r e c t o r s .

p . 3 5 9 ; C h r y s i p p o s : PP 3 . 1 6 6 4 6 , a n d Fraser,
p p . 3 4 6 - 4 7 . O n E r a s i s t r a t o s , see PP 6 . 1 6 5 9 7 ;
cf. Fraser, p . 3 4 7 .

20

Fraser ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 0 7 - 8 , 4 5 9 - 6 1 .

13

z2.16.18.

21

Deinokrates: Rhodian? PP 6.16530, and

14

E u c l i d : PP 6 . 1 6 5 4 1 , a n d F r a s e r ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) ,

Bulletin

p p . 3 8 7 - 9 6 ; A r i s t a r c h o s : PP 6 . 1 6 5 2 6 , a n d

gists

B. R. B r o w n , "Deinokrates and A l e x a n d r i a , "

of the American

Society

of

Papyrolo-

15 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 3 9 - 4 2 ; S o s t r a t o s : P P 6 . 1 6 5 5 5 .

Fraser, p p . 3 9 6 - 9 9 ; K o n o n : PP 6 . 1 6 5 4 5 , a n d
Fraser, p p . 4 0 0 - 4 0 1 ; E r a t o s t h e n e s : PP 6 . 1 6 5 1 5 ,

22

A g a t h a r k i d e s : C. M i i l l e r , ed.,

Geographici

v o l . 1 (Paris 1 8 5 5 ) , p p . 1 1 1 -

a n d Fraser, p p . 4 0 2 , 4 1 4 - 1 5 ; A r c h i m e d e s :

Graeci

Minores,

PP 6 . 1 6 5 2 8 , a n d Fraser, p p . 3 9 9 - 4 1 4 ; A p o l l o -

9 5 ; S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 6 - 7 ; Periplus

Maris

Erythraei.

n i o s : PP 6 . 1 6 5 2 5 , a n d Fraser, p p . 3 9 6 , 4 1 5 - 2 2 ;
K t s e b i o s : PP 6 . 1 6 5 4 6 , a n d Fraser, p . 4 3 1 ;

23

P h i l o n : PP 6 . 1 6 5 6 1 , a n d Fraser, p p . 4 2 8 - 3 4 .

P. Cair.

Zen.

( n o t e 4 a b o v e ) , 1, n o . 5 9 1 1 0 ; see

also E . L e i d e r , Der Handel

von

Alexandreia

(Hamburg 1933), pp. 2 6 - 2 7 .

15

D . Delia, " F r o m Romance to Rhetoric: The

A l e x a n d r i a n L i b r a r y i n Classical a n d Islamic
T h o u g h t , " American

Historical

24

V . G r a c e , " A n c i e n t G r e e k W i n e Jar F r a g m e n t s
i n C o l l e c t i o n s i n A l e x a n d r i a , " Year Book

97

Review

American

(1992): 1 4 5 1 - 5 2 .

Philosophical

Association,

of

the

1955:

321-26.
16

D e m e t r i o s : PP 6 . 1 6 7 4 2 ; S t r a t o n : PP 6 . 1 6 7 8 6 ;
E r a t o s t h e n e s , PP 6 . 1 6 5 1 5 , a n d Fraser ( n o t e 3

25

Fraser ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 6 8 ; A . E n k l a a r ,
" L e s h y d r i e s de H a d r a , I I : F o r m e s et a t e l i e r s , "

a b o v e ) , p . 4 8 3 ; S p h a i r o s : PP 6 . 1 6 7 8 8 .

Bulletin
17

Beshaving

61 ( 1 9 8 6 ) : n o s . 43

C o r i n t h o r S i k y o n ) : PP 6 . 1 6 7 0 2 ; K a l l i m a c h o s :

at A l e x a n d r i a a b o u t 2 6 0 B . C . , w i t h d e c o r a t e d

PP 6 . 1 6 5 1 7 ,

pots ceasing by the early second c e n t u r y B . C .

d Fraser ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) ,

p p . 4 5 2 - 5 5 , 7 1 7 - 9 3 ; H e r a k l e i t o s : PP 6 . 1 6 6 8 9 ;

a n d n o n d e c o r a t e d p o t s c o n t i n u i n g t o be ex

H e r m e s i a n a x : PP 6 . 1 6 6 8 5 ; H e r o d a s :

p o r t e d t o A l e x a n d r i a i n t o t h e first c e n t u r y B . C .

PP 6.16691;

18

Antieke

a n d 6 3 . a . C r e t a n H a d r a vessels b e g i n t o a p p e a r

P h i l e m o n : PP 6 . 1 6 7 2 3 ; M a c h o n ( f r o m

T h e o k r i t o s : PP 6.16696;

E n k l a a r dates A l e x a n d r i a n - m a n u f a c t u r e d H a d r a

Hedylos

( f r o m A t h e n s o r S a m o s ) : PP 6 . 1 6 6 8 8 .

w a r e w i t h i n t h e years ca. 2 4 0 t o 1 9 0 B . C .

H e k a t a i o s o f A b d e r a : PP 6 . 1 6 9 1 5 ; T i m o s thenes o f R h o d e s : PP 5 . 1 3 7 9 4 ; L y k o s o f R h e -

See also T . N e r o u t s o s , KEPAMIflN AABAI

ENEIIirPA<J>OI EN T H I A P X A I A I AAEHANAPEIAI ( A t h e n s 1 8 7 5 ) , P- 4
d passim;

g i o n : PP 6 . 1 6 9 3 1 ; T h e o p o m p o s o f C h i o s :

E . B r e c c i a , " L a n e c r o p o l i de l T b r a h i m i e h , " Bul

letin de la Societe

PP 6 . 1 6 9 2 4 ; D e m e t r i o s o f B y z a n t i o n :
PP 6.16910;

Archeologique

d Alexandria
:

9 ( 1 9 0 7 ) : 7 4 - 8 6 . N o t e D i o d o r u s Siculus 2 0 . 8 1

A p o l l o d o r o s of Athens:

PP 6 . 1 6 8 2 2 , a n d F r a s e r ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) : 1 5 3 - 5 8 ,

o n the extensive trade between Rhodes a n d

n o . 1 3 ; H e r m i p p o s o f S m y r n a : PP 6 . 1 6 9 1 8 ;

Alexandria.

S a t y r o s o f K a l l a t i s : PP 6 . 1 6 9 4 8 . R e g r e t t a b l y ,
only the fragments of Kallixeinos survive

26

FGrH

O n E g y p t i a n i m m i g r a t i o n t o A l e x a n d r i a , see
H . B r a u n e r t , Die Binnenwanderung:

( q u o t e d by Athenaeus 1.196a a n d 203c =

zur Sozialgeschichte

i n C, no. 627).

und Kaiserzeit,
19

Z e n o d o t o s o f E p h e s o s : PP 6.16516,

Agyptens

in der

Studien
ptolemder-

Bonner historische Forschungen

26 (Bonn 1964), p p . 7 5 - 8 0 .

a n d Fraser

(note 3 above), p p . 4 5 0 - 5 2 ; A l e x a n d e r the Aet o l i a n : PP 6 . 1 6 5 0 9 , a n d Fraser, p . 4 4 9 ; L y k o -

27

M y p r e l i m i n a r y survey o f the funerary evidence

p h r o n o f C h a l k i s : PP 6 . 1 6 5 1 9 , a n d Fraser,

of Ptolemaic date y i e l d e d the f o l l o w i n g results

p . 4 5 0 ; E r a t o s t h e n e s o f C y r e n e : PP 6 . 1 6 5 1 5 ,

(see also s o l d i e r s discussed at n o t e 3 2 b e l o w ) :

a n d Fraser, p p . 4 5 7 - 5 8 ; E u p h r o n i o s o f C h e r r o n e s o s : PP 6 . 1 6 8 5 3 ; A r i s t o p h a n e s o f B y z a n

O n e M a m e r t i n e : SB ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , 1, n o s . 4 1 7 ^

t i u m : PP 6 . 1 6 5 1 3 , a n d Fraser, p p . 3 0 8 , 4 5 9 - 6 1 ;

(Hadra).

A g a l l i s o f K o r k y r a : PP 6 . 1 6 8 1 4 ; A r i s t a r c h o s
^ Fraser,

Three M a c e d o n i a n s : Breccia (note 6 above),

p p . 6 4 2 - 4 7 . See also B . P. G r e n f e l l a n d

no. 278 (Shatby); A . A d r i a n i , " L a necropole

o f S a m o t h r a c e : PP 6 . 1 6 5 1 2 ,

a n c

49

50

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

d ' E z b e t el M a k h l o u f , " Annuaire

Greco-Romain,

du

Musee

(Alexandria 1940):

1935-1939

Three Thracians: Breccia (note 6 above), n o .

2 5 0 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) ; SB i n , n o . 6 6 7 9 ( H a d r a ) ;
Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

p. 60 no. 78.

Three Thessalians: Breccia (note 6 above),

O n e I s t r i a n : B r o w n , PPM,

p . 2 5 , n o . 1 7 = Brec

n o . 2 4 3 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) a n d 2 7 5 ( S h a t b y ) ; SB 1,

cia (note 6 above), no. 234 ( H a d r a ) .

1 2 1 , n o . 4; C o o k , (note 6 above): 16.

no. 5696 (Hadra).

O n e M a r o n e i t a n : C o o k (note 6 above): 26, n o .
1 2 ( H a d r a ) ; see also J. B i n g e n , "Vases d ' H a d r a

O n e A e t o l i a n : SB 1, n o . 4 0 7 .

et p r o s o p o g r a p h i e p t o l e m a i ' q u e , "
O n e M a l i a n : R . Pagenstecher,
Untersuchungen

iiber

Gestalt

der alexandrinischen
Malereien

Nekropolis:
und

Chronique

43 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 3 8 9 - 9 0 .

d'Egypte

Entwicklung

Grabenlagen

und

[ h e r e a f t e r Pagenstecher,

ihrer
Nekropolis]

One Samothracian: C o o k (note 6 above): 22,

no. 5 (Hadra).

(Leipzig 1919), p. 45, no. 22.

O n e C y p r i o t : Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 292
(Hadra).

One Locrian: ibid., p. 6 1 , no. 82.

T w o B o e o t i a n s : SB 1, n o s . 2 1 0 7 - 2 1 0 8

(Hadra).

F i v e R h o d i a n s : SB 1, n o . 2 1 1 9 ( H a d r a ) ;
J. G . M i l n e , e d . , Catalogue

Three A k a r n i a n s : Breccia (note 6 above), nos.

quites

Egyptiennes

192 a n d 293 ( H a d r a ) ; C o o k (note 6 above),

Inscriptions

general

du Musee

des

Anti

du Caire:

Greek

( O x f o r d 1905), p. 47, no. 27530

( H a d r a ) ; SB i n , n o . 6 6 7 6 ( H a d r a ) ; SB v , n o s .

p p . 2 7 - 2 8 , n o . 16.

7767-68

(Hadra).

Six A t h e n i a n s : SB 1, n o . 4 5 3 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) ; Brec
cia (note 6 above), nos. 205 ( H a d r a ) , 2 1 0 , a n d

O n e M y s i a n : Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 249

2 4 8 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) ; SB v , n o . 7 7 9 3 ( H a d r a ) ; SB

(Ibrahimieh).

v i i i , no. 9863

(Serapeion).
T w o Assians: Breccia (note 6 above),-nos. 2 8 2

O n e M e g a r i a n : Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 2 5 6

( S h a t b y ) a n d 233 = Pagenstecher,

(Ibrahimieh).

p. 59, n o . 74.

O n e A c h a i a n : Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

p. 59,

n o . 73 = B r e c c i a ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) , n o . 283

O n e C h i a n : B r o w n , PPM,

Nekropolis,

p . 62, n o . 45 = C o o k

(note 6 above): 30, no. 22.

(Ibrahimieh).
Six M i l e s i a n s : B r e c c i a ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) , n o . 2 3 6
T w o A r c a d i a n s : Pagenstecher,

Nekropolis,

= Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

p. 48, no. 37

p . 4 7 , n o . 25 = B r e c c i a ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) , n o . 2 4 6

( S h a t b y ) ; B r e c c i a ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) , n o . 2 7 3 = Pa

( I b r a h i m i e h ) ; A d r i a n i (this note), p . 1 2 1 , n o . 7

genstecher, Nekropolis,

( E z b e t el M a k h l o u f ) .

Breccia (note 6 above), nos. 285 ( H a d r a ) a n d

p. 50, n o . 4 2 (Shatby);

2 8 6 = Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,
O n e A r g i v e : Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

p. 59,

p. 6 1 , no. 84;

Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 315.

n o . 70 = Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 232

(Hadra).

One M y l a s i a n : Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 308.

O n e E p i d a u r i a n : SB 1, n o . 2 1 3 0 ( R a m l e h ) .

T w o M a g n e s i a n s : SB i n , n o . 6 2 4 0 = 6 6 8 5 a n d
6683 (Hadra).

Twelve Cretans: Breccia (note 6 above), nos.

1 9 7 - 9 8 , 2 3 0 ( H a d r a ) , 245 a n d 252 (Ibra

O n e B i t h y n i a n : Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 2 3 1

h i m i e h ) , 2 7 6 ( S h a t b y ) ; Pagenstecher,

= Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

Nekropo

p. 48, no. 35.

lis, p . 6 0 , n o . 7 9 ( H a d r a ) ; C o o k ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) :
9 n . 7, 2 1 - 2 2 n o . 4 ( H a d r a ) , 26 n o . 12, 30 n o .

O n e H e r a k l e o t a n : Breccia (note 6 above), n o .

2 1 ; Fraser (note 6 above), p . 145, n o . 9.

299a (Shatby).

T h r e e T h e r a i a n s : SB 1, n o . 2 9 9 ( M e x / G a b b a r i ) ;
B . R . B r o w n , Ptolemaic
and
PPM]

the Alexandrian

Paintings

Style

and

Mosaics

[hereafter B r o w n ,

( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 19 ( I b r a

h i m i e h ) ; C o o k ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) : 16 n . 6 0 .

Four Galatians: Breccia (note 6 above), nos.

1 9 5 , 2 6 8 a = Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,
n o . 7 5 ; B r o w n , PPM,
stecher, Nekropolis,

p. 60,

p . 1 7 , n o . 6 = Pagen
p . 53, n o . 52 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) ;

Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

p. 47, no. 30.

Delia

O n e C e l t : Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

a b o v e ) , n o . 2 3 7 = B r o w n , PPM,

p. 58,

no. 65.

(Shatby).

O n e Pisidian: Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 289

A n E p i r o t : B r o w n , PPM,

p. 26, no. 21

p. 26, n o . 22 ( H a d r a ) .

(Hadra).
Thessalians: Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 242 =
Pagenstecher, Nekropolis

O n e P a m p h y l i a n : SB 1, n o . 1 7 2 4 ( H a d r a ) .

(note 27 above),

p . 5 1 , n o . 45 = B r o w n , PPM,

pp. 2 5 - 2 6 ,

F o u r S y r i a n s : SB 1, n o . 2 1 0 9 ( H a d r a ) ; B r e c c i a

n o . 2 0 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) ; B r o w n , PPM,

(note 6 above), nos. 294 ( H a d r a ) a n d 307;

( I b r a h i m i e h ) ; Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 238

p. 16, no. 4

SB i n , n o . 6 6 8 9 ( H a d r a ) .

Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

O n e Phoenician: Breccia (note 6 above), n o .

Recberches

2 5 1 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) . N o t e also t h e A r a m a i c f u n e r

(Paris 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 0 ) , 1, p . 2 1 7 .

p p . 5 2 - 5 3 , n o . 50

( S h a t b y ) . O n T h e s s a l i a n s , see also M . L a u n e y ,
sur les armees

2 vols.

hellenistiques,

a r y stela o f A q a b i a h f r o m t h e same c e m e t e r y :
B r e c c i a ( n o t e 25 a b o v e ) , p . 4 0 .

A n A e t o l i a n : SB ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , 1, n o . 2 1 1 0
(Hadra).

E l e v e n C y r e n a e a n s : SB 1, n o . 2 0 6 6 ( H a d r a ) ;
SB 1, n o . 1 6 7 6 ( H a d r a ) ; B r e c c i a ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) ,

A k a r n i a n s : SB 1, n o . 2 1 0 4 ( H a d r a ) ; Pagen

n o s . 1 9 9 a n d 2 4 0 = Pagenstecher,

stecher, Nekropolis,

Nekropolis,

p. 5 1 , no. 44.

p p . 3 6 - 3 7 , n o . 6 (Shatby); Breccia (note 6

a b o v e ) , n o s . 2 5 7 ( H a d r a ) , 2 6 6 , a n d 3 0 0 = Pa

A Keian: C o o k (note 6 above): 2 0 - 2 1 , no. 2

genstecher, Nekropolis,

( H a d r a ) . See also L a u n e y , Recberches,

p. 60, no. 81 (Hadra);

1, p . 2 0 5 .

A d r i a n i (this note), p p . 1 2 1 - 2 2 , nos. 5 a n d 13;

SB i n , n o . 6 6 8 0 ( H a d r a ) .

C r e t a n s : SB v , n o . 7 7 9 4 ( A l e x a n d r i a ) ; B r e c c i a
( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) , n o . 1 9 4 = SB 1, n o . 2 1 0 6

28

Polybios 5.37.

( H a d r a ) ; Breccia (note 6 above), n o . 188 =

SB 1, n o . 2 1 0 2 ( H a d r a ) . See also L a u n e y ,

29

O n t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e castra

romano,

e topographici

1, p p . 2 5 0 - 5 1 .

dei

dell'Egitto

nomi

greco-

A R h o d i a n : Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

p. 46,

no. 26 (presumably f r o m Alexandria).

v o l . 1.1 ( M i l a n 1 9 8 8 ) , p . 1 4 8 ; J. Les-

q u i e r , Varmee
Diocletien

Recberches,

Judaicum

4 . 1 1 . 5 . C f . A . C a l d e r i n i , Dizionario
geografici

see

Alexandrina,

S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 1 0 ; J o s e p h u s Bellum

romaine

d'Egypte

d'Auguste

(Cairo 1918), pp. 3 8 9 - 9 0 . Tomb 1

A C o l o p h o n i a n : P. M . Fraser, " I n s c r i p t i o n s
f r o m G r e c o - R o m a n E g y p t , " Berytus

15 ( 1 9 6 4 ) :

at M u s t a f a Pasha, d a t i n g f r o m t h e late t h i r d t o

7 1 , n o . 1 ( p r o b a b l y f r o m A l e x a n d r i a ) . See also

the early second century B . C . , h a d a pediment

L a u n e y , Recberches,

1, p . 4 3 1 .

o n w h i c h cavalrymen were depicted: A . A d r i a n i ,

" L a n e c r o p o l e de M o u s t a f a P a s h a , "
du Musee
1934/1935

Greco-Romain,

Annuaire

1933/1934-

(Alexandria 1936): 1 0 2 - 1 2

B i t h y n i a n s : SB 111, n o . 6 2 4 1 = B r o w n ,

and

1 7 3 - 7 4 ; B r o w n (note 27 above), p p . 5 2 - 5 3 ,

G a l a t i a n s : Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

n o . 3 4 a n e x e m p l a r y s t u d y t h a t has b e c o m e

n o . 25 = B r o w n , PPM,

a l l t h e m o r e v a l u a b l e w i t h t h e passage o f t i m e

d r i a ) ; Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,

since t h i s a n d m a n y o t h e r m o n u m e n t s

( H a d r a ) ; B r o w n , PPM,

recorded

b y the a u t h o r have deteriorated.

Nekropolis,

pp. 1 7 - 1 8 , no. 7

( H a d r a ) ; Pagenstecher, Nekropolis,
n o . 3 1 = B r o w n , PPM,

3I

p. 52, no. 47

p . 16 n o . 3 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) ;

SB 1, n o . 2 1 1 6 = Pagenstecher,

Polybios 5.36.4.

p. 46,

p. 18, n o . 9 (Alexan

p . 4 5 , n o . 23 = B r o w n , PPM,
30

p. 48,

p. 18, no. 8 (Ibra

P o l y b i o s 5.79 a n d 8 2 . A g a t h o k l e s ' a r r a n g e m e n t s

h i m i e h ) ; B r o w n , PPM,

in 206 B . C . indicate that a substantial

h i m i e h ) . See a l s o A . J. R e i n a c h , " L e s G a u l o i s e n

number

pp. 1 6 - 1 7 ,

- 5 (Ibra

o f m e r c e n a r i e s c o n t i n u e d t o be s t a t i o n e d i n

E g y p t e , " Revue

A l e x a n d r i a : Polybios 15.25.3 and

( 1 9 1 1 ) : 3 3 - 7 4 a n d 182; i d e m , "Les Galates

17-18.

des Etudes

Anciennes

d a n s P a r t A l e x a n d r i n e , " Monuments
32

PPM,

p . 2 8 , n o . 2 7 ( G a b b a r i ) . See also SB i v , n o . 7 4 5 6 .

13
et

Me

Macedonians: A . A d r i a n i , "Nouvelles decou-

mories,

Academie

vertes d a n s l a n e c r o p o l e de H a d r a , "

Annuaire

Lettres

18 ( 1 9 1 0 ) , p p . 3 7 - 1 1 6 ; a n d L a u n e y ,

(Alexan

Recberches,

du Musee

Greco-Romain,

1940-1950

d r i a 1 9 5 2 ) : 2 5 - 2 7 = B r o w n , PPM

1, p p .

des Inscriptions

et

Belles-

511-13.

(note 27

above), p . 28, n o . 26 ( H a d r a ) ; Breccia (note 6

A Cyrenaean: Breccia, p. 284 ( I b r a h i m i e h ) . T h e

51

52

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

f u n e r a r y stela o f a R o m a n m e r c e n a r y , S i l v a n u s ,

hence, b y extension, an ethnic n e i g h b o r h o o d :

w a s also u n e a r t h e d at S h a t b y : SB I , n o . 6 7 4 .

f o r t h i s use, see P. Cair.

Zen.

(note 4 above),

no. 59034.7 (Philadelphia 257 B . C . ) .

33

J. L e s q u i e r , Les institutions
gypte

militaires

de

I'E-

(Paris 1 9 1 1 ) , p p . 5 - 1 0 .

sous les Lagides

39

J o s e p h u s Contra

T o m b 1 at A n f u s h y , w h i c h o n c e c o n t a i n e d a

Bellum

Judaicum

p a i n t i n g i n w h i c h t h e deceased w o r e a m i l i t a r y

Tosefta

Sukkah

Apionem

2 . 3 3 - 3 6 ; Josephus

2 . 4 9 5 ; P h i l o In Place.

55;

4.6.

h e l m e t , m a y w e l l have been d e c o r a t e d f o r a n
E g y p t i a n s e r v i n g i n t h i s c o r p s . See G . B o t t i ,

P s . - K a l l i s t h e n e s 1 . 3 1 . 4 ; Caesar Bellum

Civile

3 . 1 1 2 . 2 ; S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 6 ; P l i n y Naturalis

Bulletin

5.62; C a l d e r i n i (note 29 above), p . 3 9 .

de la Societe

Archeologique

d'Alexan-

drie 4 ( 1 9 0 2 ) : 1 7 - 1 8 ; B r o w n , PPM

34

40

" P r e m i e r e v i s i t e a la n e c r o p o l e d ' A n f o u c h y , "

Historia

(note 27

above), pp. 5 3 - 5 4 , no. 35.

41

D e l i a ( n o t e 38 a b o v e ) , p p . 8 1 - 8 2 a n d n . 4 4 .

M y r m i d o n o f A t h e n s : PP 6 . 1 5 2 2 3 ; A n t i g o n o s

42

See n o t e 2 7 a b o v e .

43

Ptolemaic l a w distinguished three official legal

o f M a c e d o n : PP 6 . 1 5 1 7 8 ; K i l l e s o f M a c e d o n :
PP 2 . 2 1 6 4

d 6.14609; N i k a n o r of Macedon:

PP 2 . 2 1 6 9 a n d 6 . 1 4 6 1 6 ; P r a x a g o r a s f r o m

status categories a m o n g subjects: c i t i z e n s o f

C r e t e : PP 6 . 1 5 2 3 4 ; K a l l i k r a t e s o f S a m o s :

G r e e k c i t i e s , s o l d i e r s , a n d e v e r y o n e else. T h e s e

PP 6 . 1 4 6 0 7 ; P a t r o k l o s o f M a c e d o n :

last w e r e r e q u i r e d i n o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t s t o a p

PP 6 . 1 5 0 6 3 ; K a l l i k r a t i d a s o f C y r e n e :

p e n d t o their names p a t r o n y m s , ethnics, a n d

PP 6 . 1 5 2 1 2 ; A g a t h o k l e s o f S a m o s : PP 6 . 1 4 5 7 6 ;

class, i.e., e l i t e s o c i a l status d e s i g n a t i o n s , w h e n

N i k o l a o s o f A e t o l i a : PP 6 . 1 5 2 3 1 ; A n d r o m a c h o s

a p p l i c a b l e : P. M . M e y e r , e d . , Griechische

o f A s p e n d o s : PP 2 . 2 1 5 0 ; P o l y k r a t e s o f A r g o s :

pyrusurkunden

PP 6 . 1 5 2 3 3 ; E c h e k r a t e s o f T h e s s a l y : PP 2 . 2 1 6 1 ;

versitatsbibliothek

der Hamburger

Staats-

Paund

Uni-

(Leipzig-Berlin 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 2 4 ) ,

P h o x i d a s o f M e l e t a : PP 2 . 2 1 8 2 ; E u r y l o c h o s o f

1, n o . 1 6 8 ( t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . ) ; W . M . B r a s h e a r ,

M a g n e s i a : PP 2 . 2 1 6 0 ; S o k r a t e s o f B o e o t i a :

e d . , Agyptische

PP 2 . 2 1 7 8 ; K n o p i a s o f A l l a r i a : PP 2 . 2 1 6 5 ;

Museen

P h i l o n o f K n o s s o s : PP 2 . 2 3 0 1 ; A m m o n i o s o f

no. 2367 (third century B . C . ) . Likewise, the

zu Berlin

Urkunden

aus den

Staatlichen

(Berlin 1980), v o l . 14,

B a r c a : PP 2 . 2 1 4 8 ; D i o n y s o s o f T h r a c e :

a m n e s t y decree o f 1 1 8 B . C . ( B . P. G r e n f e l l ,

PP 2 . 2 1 5 7 ; H i p p o l o c h o s o f T h e s s a l y :

A . S. H u n t , a n d J. G . S m y l y , eds., The

PP 6 . 1 5 2 0 8 ; S k o p a s o f A e t o l i a : PP 6 . 1 5 2 4 1 ;

Papyri,

T h e o d o t o s o f A e t o l i a : PP 6 . 1 5 0 4 5 ; B o l i s f r o m

reaffirmed that Greek courts of l a w

C r e t e : PP 6 . 1 4 7 5 0 ; D o r y m e n e s o f A e t o l i a :

tai) w e r e t o h a n d l e cases i n v o l v i n g G r e e k l i t i

PP 6 . 1 5 1 9 9 ; E u p h r a i n e t o s o f A e t o l i a :

g a n t s , w h i l e E g y p t i a n p a r t i e s w e r e t o seek j u s t i c e

PP

6.15203.

Tebtunis

vol. 1 [London 1902], no. 5.207-20)

i n E g y p t i a n c o u r t s {laokritai).

(chrematis-

See also J. M e l e z e -

M o d r z e j e w s k i , " E n t r e la c i t e et le fisc: L e s t a t u t
35

P o l y b i o s 3 4 . 1 4 i n S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 1 2 . O n t h i s pas

grec d a n s l ' E g y p t e r o m a i n e , " i n

sage, see m y essay, " E g y p t i a n s a n d G r e e k s , "

( V a l e n c i a 1 9 8 5 ) , p . 2 4 3 . S u c h d i s t i n c t i o n s be

Symposion

f o r t h c o m i n g i n F. B . T i c h e n e r a n d R . M o o r t e n ,

c a m e even m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s d u r i n g t h e R o m a n

Mimesis:

The Reciprocal

p e r i o d , w h e n R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p w a s esteemed

the Arts

in Graeco-Roman

Honor

of Peter M. Green

Influence

of Life

Antiquity.
Presented

and

Essays
on His

as t h e h i g h e s t l e g a l s t a t u s , a n d H e l l e n i s m w a s

in

e n d o r s e d as a n e l i t e s o c i a l status d i s t i n c t i o n .

yoth

Nevertheless, the influence o f E g y p t i a n c u l t u r e

Birthday.

o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f mathematics, mechanics,

36

Polybios 15.25.17 and 16.21.8. Lesquier (note

a n d science at A l e x a n d r i a a n d t h e i m p a c t o f

33 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 - 4 ; Fraser ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , v o l .

E g y p t i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d r e l i g i o u s ideas a n d

2, p p . 1 5 2 - 5 3 n . 2 2 4 .

practices o n Greeks a n d R o m a n s i n E g y p t were

substantial although n o t always acknowledged

37

G . L . A v a r n i t a k i s , "Sur quelques inscriptions

by ancient authorities. Indeed, one-dimensional

r e l a t i v e s a u c a n a l d ' A l e x a n d r i e , " Bulletin

cultural interactionthe hellenization of Egyp

ITnstitut

d'Egypte,

de

tians w i t h o u t a corresponding egyptianization

ser. 4.3 ( 1 9 0 2 ) : 2 1 ; see also

of Hellenesis inconceivable w i t h i n the m u l t i

Fraser ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , p . 1 4 9 .

cultural context of Hellenistic and R o m a n

38

Egypt.

P s . - K a l l i s t h e n e s 1.32. See also C a l d e r i n i ( n o t e

29 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 9 - 8 0 , a n d D . D e l i a ,

Alexan

drian

Principate

Citizenship

during

the Roman

44

D . D e l i a , " P o l i t e i a , P o l i t e u m a a n d t h e Jews o f

( A t l a n t a 1 9 9 2 ) , p . 5 2 n . 1 1 . ALJULTJP d e n o t e s a

A l e x a n d r i a " ( f o r t h c o m i n g ) ; see also L a u n e y ,

l a n d i n g place i n a h a r b o r , a haven o r retreat;

Recherches

Kifxr]v

ercupeCas

s i g n i f i e d a place o f f e l l o w s h i p ,

( n o t e 3 2 a b o v e ) , 11, p p . 1 0 7 9 - 8 0 .

Delia

45

T h a t t h i s state o f affairs w a s n o t w h o l e h e a r t e d l y
e n d o r s e d b y A l e x a n d r i a n c i t i z e n s is r e v e a l e d b y
t h e Boule
eds., Papiri

papyrus (G. Vitelli and M . Norsa,

greet e latini,

v o l . 10 [Florence

1 9 3 2 - ] , no. 1160), in w h i c h Alexandrian citi

zens at t h e t i m e o f t h e R o m a n a n n e x a t i o n o f
E g y p t ( 3 0 B . C . ) envisage t h e d u t i e s o f t h e i r
p r o s p e c t i v e c i t y c o u n c i l t o be s c r u t i n y o f e p h e b i c
candidates i n order t o exclude y o u t h s subject t o
t h e p o l l t a x (i.e., a n y o n e l a c k i n g R o m a n c i t i z e n
s h i p o r c i t i z e n s h i p i n a G r e e k c i t y ) , a n d preser
v a t i o n o f the p u r i t y o f the citizen body.

53

This page intentionally left blank

55

City Planning?
Gunter

To Peter Marshall

Fraser

W i t h the Greek f o u n d a t i o n of A l e x a n d r i a i n the year 3 3 1 B . C . a n e w

1

era was d a w n i n g i n the age-old h i s t o r y o f E g y p t . E v e n t u a l l y the k i n g d o m

with gratitude
on the occasion
seventy-fifth

Grimm

of his

birthday

o n the N i l e opened u p t o the M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d , a n d , h e r a l d i n g the

w i n d o f change, a c o m p l e t e l y different type o f c i t y emerged: the R o y a l
C i t y (see f o l d - o u t m a p ) . U n l i k e any polis f a m i l i a r t o the Greeks, this
3

new

c a p i t a l a n d residence o f the M a c e d o n i a n sovereigns was governed

m o r e o r less b y the Ptolemaic rulers alone. I t still developed q u i c k l y i n t o

the true center o f the w h o l e Hellenistic w o r l d a n d became the m a i n f o
cus of trade, arts, a n d sciences w i t h i n a few decades.
A l e x a n d r i a was l a i d o u t o n a n a r r o w , h i l l y cape between the
M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea t o the n o r t h a n d L a k e M a r e o t i s t o the s o u t h , her
shape reminiscent o f an outspread chlamys. T h e so-called H e p t a s t a d i o n ,
a d i k e e x t e n d i n g over seven stades, connected the t o w n a n d the island o f
Pharos, w h i c h gave its name t o its celebrated lighthouse. West o f the
d i k e the Eunostos H a r b o r t o o k f o r m ; east o f i t lay w h a t was t o be called
the Great H a r b o r . T h e s o u t h e r n quarters o f the c i t y were m a i n l y c o m
posed of residential houses b u t also i n c l u d e d the Serapeion, w h i l e the
n o r t h e r n section saw the rise of the r o y a l palaces (the Basileia), the M o u seion, the L i b r a r y , a n d the Paneion (an artificial h i l l w i t h gardens a n d a
sanctuary o f the g o d Pan) as w e l l as the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the theater, the
g y m n a s i o n , temples, p a r k s a n d gardens, a n d also o f the Sema, the b u r y
ing place o f A l e x a n d e r the Great a n d the Ptolemaic kings.
O n l y a few years after Octavian's conquest o f the N i l e me
t r o p o l i s , p r e s u m a b l y sometime between 24 a n d 20 B . C . , the geographer
and

h i s t o r i a n Strabo visited A l e x a n d r i a a n d left us a valuable d e s c r i p t i o n

i n his Teojypa4>Ca (Book 1 7 ) .

Even so, research i n t o ancient A l e x a n d r i a d i d n o t start u n t i l

relatively late i n the nineteenth century. T h e A l e x a n d r i a n s ' general lack
of interest i n the past of their o w n t o w n was o n l y one reason f o r this;
another was the e n o r m o u s changes i n the t o w n ' s p a n o r a m a due t o "a
general subsidence, p r o b a b l y o f a b o u t f o u r metres, w h i c h has t a k e n
m u c h o f the coastal r e g i o n of the ancient c i t y beneath sea level" a n d ag
gravated by the immense b u i l d i n g activities under the successors of
Mohammed Ali.

56

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

As a n o t e w o r t h y e x c e p t i o n , M a h m o u d Bey (El F a l a k i , i.e.,

" T h e E n g i n e e r " ) , a s t r o n o m e r t o the khedive I s m a i l , was c o m m i s s i o n e d
t o excavate a n d catalogue the remains o f ancient A l e x a n d r i a between
1863 a n d 1 8 6 5 . As h i c k w o u l d have i t , the p r o j e c t was f u r t h e r e d by the
m o s t distinguished circles. A p p a r e n t l y the French emperor N a p o l e o n i n
h a d n o t been very h a p p y at h a v i n g t o d o w i t h o u t a g o o d , detailed m a p
of the ancient c i t y w h i l e w o r k i n g o n his m o n u m e n t a l Histoire

de

Jules

Cesar. H e h a d conveyed his regret t o V i c e r o y I s m a i l , w h o i m m e d i a t e l y

t o o k a c t i o n , assigning the w o r k t o M a h m o u d Bey a n d p r o v i d i n g h i m
w i t h a g r o u p o f technical officials a n d t w o h u n d r e d w o r k m e n . A m a n u
script plus seven maps a n d d r a w i n g s , i n c l u d i n g o u r first p l a n o f ancient
A l e x a n d r i a based o n the evidence o f excavations, were c o m p l e t e d by D e
cember 1 8 6 6 a n d sent t o L o u i s N a p o l e o n i n 1 8 6 7 . T h e r e p u b l i c o f let
ters, however, h a d t o w a i t six m o r e years before M a h m o u d Bey's w o r k
was made accessible: i t was p r i n t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d i n Copenhagen o n the
occasion o f an official visit p a i d t o D e n m a r k by the engineer himself o n
behalf o f the E g y p t i a n viceroy i n 1 8 7 2 .

M a h m o u d Bey's results were revised a n d i m p r o v e d by Ferdi

n a n d N o a c k i n accordance w i t h further evidence o f his o w n excavations
d u r i n g 1898 a n d 1 8 9 9 . T h a n k s t o Evaristo Breccia, A c h i l l e A d r i a n i ,
7

a n d others w h o have considerably increased o u r k n o w l e d g e o f the an

cient c i t y , n u m e r o u s investigations f o l l o w e d i n the first h a l f o f this cen
8

t u r y . T h e m o s t substantial c o n t r i b u t i o n yet, the b o o k o n Ptolemaic

9

A l e x a n d r i a , was finally presented i n three volumes by Peter M a r s h a l l

Fraser i n 1 9 7 2 ; this m o n u m e n t a l , e p o c h - m a r k i n g opus o f o u t s t a n d i n g
q u a l i t y has become absolutely indispensable.

10

Based o n a l l the preceding research a n d o n his personal o b

servations, W o l f r a m H o e p f n e r d r e w a n e w c i t y m a p o f early Ptolemaic
Alexandria, published i n 1990.

11

A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , A l e x a n d r i a was d i

v i d e d i n t o a system o f equal rectangles o f 3 1 0 by 277 meters e a c h .

12

One

insula measured 150 by 3 0 0 feet ( w i t h 29.4 c m t o the f o o t ) , a n d the i n

d i v i d u a l a l l o t m e n t s c o n t a i n e d therein h a d a size of 75 by 75 feet, cover
i n g r o u g h l y 4 8 6 square meters each. T h e regular insulae were s u b d i v i d e d
b y streets 50 feet w i d e ( = 14.70 m ) , whereas the m a i n axesone m a j o r
r o a d r u n n i n g e a s t - w e s t a n d , as H o e p f n e r postulates, t w o m o r e leading
n o r t h - s o u t h b r o a d e n e d t o 100 feet ( 2 9 . 4 0 m ) . I f Hoepfner's street
m a p o f Ptolemaic A l e x a n d r i a were correct, there s h o u l d have been a b o u t
fifty residential quarters, each composed of 144 houses. A l l t o l d , the
n u m b e r o f residential houses w o u l d thus have a m o u n t e d t o s o m e t h i n g
l i k e seven t h o u s a n d , a c c o m m o d a t i n g m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 people!
To check these figures, we s h o u l d first o f a l l r e v i e w the loca
t i o n of the c i t y w a l l s . L e t us begin w i t h l i t e r a r y evidence. A r r i a n

1 3

men

t i o n s Alexander's personal role i n the siting o f the m a i n p o i n t s o f the c i t y

( " . . . w h e r e the agora s h o u l d be constructed, a n d h o w m a n y temples
there s h o u l d be, . . . those o f the Greek gods a n d o f E g y p t i a n Isis") a n d

G r i m m

especially i n the course o f the c i t y w a l l . T h e latter is also c o n f i r m e d by

D i o d o r u s : " A l e x a n d e r also l a i d o u t the w a l l s so t h a t they were at once
exceedingly large a n d m a r v e l o u s l y s t r o n g . . . a n d he l a i d o u t the site a n d
traced the streets s k i l l f u l l y . "

1 4

Second, we have some i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m PseudoKallisthenes' Life

of Alexander,*

or strictly speaking, f r o m those sec

t i o n s o f i t t h a t are authentic, t h a t is, of H e l l e n i s t i c o r i g i n . T h e

Life

reports t h a t A l e x a n d e r , i n f o u n d i n g his n e w city, was assisted by t w o

m e n : D e i n o k r a t e s o f Rhodes a n d Kleomenes o f N a u k r a t i s .

1 6

Other

sources c o r r o b o r a t e t h a t D e i n o k r a t e s was indeed the architect o f

Alexandria;

1 7

he seems t o have been the a u t h o r o f the city's first design.

I n v o l v e d i n the business was also Kleomenes, Alexander's g o v e r n o r i n

E g y p t , w h o m P t o l e m y I e l i m i n a t e d i n 323 B . C . Kleomenes was respon
sible f o r the finances i n general a n d the m o n e t a r y system i n p a r t i c u l a r .
We m a y assume considerable b u i l d i n g a c t i v i t y d u r i n g his r e i g n ( 3 3 1 323

B.C.).

A t least the Ptolemaic m i n t was w o r k i n g t h a t early, s t a r t i n g

p r o b a b l y i n 3 3 1 / 3 3 0 or, at the latest, i n 3 2 6 / 3 2 5 .

18

U n f o r t u n a t e l y we

have n o m a t e r i a l p r o o f o f t h a t or o f w h e r e the m i n t was located i n the

n e w c a p i t a l . T h e question arises, however, w h e r e else t o l o o k f o r i t i n
this c o u n t r y w i t h o u t any local t r a d i t i o n i n m i n t i n g a n d coinage. A n d i f
the m i n t was a c t u a l l y established i n A l e x a n d r i a , i t m u s t c e r t a i n l y have
been w e l l p r o t e c t e d f r o m the very b e g i n n i n g .
W h i l e discussing the emperor Vespasian's visit t o the A l e x a n
d r i a n Serapeion a n d the o r i g i n o f the g o d Serapis, Tacitus provides us
w i t h another relevant piece of i n f o r m a t i o n .

19

T h e E g y p t i a n h i g h priests

assured h i m t h a t Ptolemy 1 h a d e q u i p p e d the n e w l y f o u n d e d c i t y w i t h

w a l l s , temples, a n d cults: moenia
w o r d moenia

templaque

refers t o the c i t y enclosure,

20

et religiones

addidit.

I f the

this implies the c o m p l e t i o n o f

the w a l l d u r i n g the r e i g n of Soter. B u t even leaving this p o s s i b i l i t y aside,

i t seems s o m e w h a t h a r d t o believe t h a t A l e x a n d r i a c o u l d have been left
completely exposed between 3 3 1 a n d 323 B . C . A n y h o w , i n the early
t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . the A l e x a n d r i a n c i t y w a l l was definitely there, f o r
K a l l i m a c h o s asked the scholars of the c i t y t o assemble " i n the shrine be
fore the w a l l . "

2 1

I n o u r l i t e r a r y sources we have neither a h i n t i n d i c a t i n g

w h e r e we should assume the c i t y w a l l t o have r u n n o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f its
appearance ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f a reference i n Pseudo-Kallisthenes'
r o m a n t i c account, b u t i n a passage t h a t does n o t have c r e d i b i l i t y ) .

22

Even

Strabo, w r i t i n g a b o u t his visit t o A l e x a n d r i a , does n o t e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n

a c i t y w a l l . H e does, however, use the expression TrepifioXos (enclosure).

23

Let us n o w l o o k f o r archaeological evidence. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,

there is none. I n spite o f M a h m o u d Bey, w h o c l a i m e d t o have discovered
remains o f the Ptolemaic c i t y w a l l at various p o i n t s d u r i n g his excava
t i o n s , there is n o p r o o f t h a t these remains belonged t o the o r i g i n a l c i t y
wall.

2 4

Nevertheless we are still able t o a p p r o x i m a t e the p o s i t i o n o f the

57

58

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

1b

1a

1c

early w a l l s i n the eastern a n d western parts of the t o w n , as Fraser has a l

FIG.

ready p o i n t e d o u t .

H y d r i a , from Shatby. Front. Ca.

2 5

I n accordance w i t h universal Greek practice, a l l

la

3 3 0 - 3 2 0 B . C . Alexandria, Graeco-

b u r i a l areas m u s t have l a i n outside the c i t y w a l l s . I n the eastern p a r t of

Roman M u s e u m 8667. Photo by

A l e x a n d r i a , the n o r t h e r n b u r i a l g r o u n d underneath m o d e r n Shatby is

D . Johannes, courtesy of the D A I ,

generally considered t o be the oldest e x t a n t necropolis. Late A t t i c red-

Cairo, neg. F 2 6 9 3 0 - 2 6 9 3 2 .

figured w a r e clearly indicates such an early d a t e .

26

W h a t we c a n n o t t e l l

FIG.

lb

exactly is w h e n the Shatby necropolis was eventually a b a n d o n e d . B u t

Side view of hydria, figure i a .

seen i n the l i g h t o f recent research, the t h e o r y o f its end i n the late f o u r t h

Photo by D . Johannes, courtesy

c e n t u r y B . C . l o o k s very u n l i k e l y i n d e e d ;
over a considerably longer p e r i o d .

27

i t seems t o have been i n use

of the D A I , Cairo, neg. F

26935-26937.

2 8

I n any event, the fact t h a t s i m i l a r late A t t i c red-figured w a r e

FIG.

I c

Back view of hydria, figure i a .

of an even earlier date has come t o l i g h t i n the r e g i o n o f m o d e r n H a d r a ,

Photo by D . Johannes, courtesy

s o u t h o f Shatby, seems t o have passed largely u n n o t i c e d . O n the w h o l e ,

of the D A I , Cairo, neg. F

the t o m b s o f H a d r a are dated t o the second h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C .

a n d t o the earlier p a r t o f the s e c o n d ,

29

a l t h o u g h there is e n o u g h evidence

of b u r i a l a c t i v i t y h a v i n g started i n this r e g i o n as early as the late f o u r t h

century. T w o A t t i c h y d r i a i of the second h a l f of the f o u r t h century were
f o u n d d u r i n g the last decade of the nineteenth century. O n e specimen
(figs, i a - c ) ,

3 0

datable between 3 3 0 a n d 3 2 0 B . C . , shows d a n c i n g w o m e n ,

a flute player, a w i n g e d Eros, a n d palmettes b e l o w the handles. T h e sec

o n d one, o f the same date a n d u n t i l n o w u n p u b l i s h e d , is decorated w i t h
a w o m a n ' s head (fig. 2 ) .

3 1

A pelike, again o f A t t i c o r i g i n (figs. 3a, b ) ,

3 2

s h o w i n g a p i l l a r , a discus, a n d three y o u t h s f r a m e d by k y m a t i a a n d
w e a r i n g h i m a t i a , was even m a n u f a c t u r e d before the m i d d l e o f the f o u r t h
century. T w o o f these vessels were p u b l i s h e d w i t h complete disregard f o r
their o b v i o u s value i n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the t o p o g r a p h y o f ancient
A l e x a n d r i a . A b e a u t i f u l faience vessel o f the early t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . , de
p i c t i n g a statuette, three masks o f the g o d Bes, a n d bands o f o r n a m e n t a l
m o t i f s as w e l l as animals, was f o u n d i n another t o m b at H a d r a together
w i t h five coins o f P t o l e m y 1 (figs. 4a, b ) .

3 3

26933-26934.

Grimm

FIG.

3a

3b

H y d r i a , from Shatby. Ca. 3 3 0 - 3 2 0

B . C . Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
M u s e u m 8668. Photo by
D . Johannes, courtesy of the D A I ,
Cairo, neg. F 2 6 9 2 1 - 2 6 9 2 3 .
FIG.

3a

Pelike, from Shatby. Front. Ca.

360 B . C . Alexandria, GraecoR o m a n M u s e u m 8669. Photo by
D . Johannes, courtesy of the D A I ,
Cairo, neg. F 2 6 9 2 4 - 2 6 9 2 6 .
FIG.

3b

Back of pelike, figure 3 a. Photo by

D . Johannes, courtesy of the D A I ,
Cairo, neg. F 2 6 9 2 7 - 2 6 9 2 9 .
FIG.

4a

Faiance vessel, from H a d r a . Early

t h i r d century B . C . Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 19462.
Photos by D . Johannes, D A I ,
Istanbul.
FIG.

4b

V i e w of vessel from H a d r a ,
figure 4a.

4a

4b

59

60

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Alabaster tomb in the Latin

Cemetery, Alexandria. T h i r d
century B . C . Photo by D . Johannes,
courtesy of the D A I , Cairo, neg. F
7033-7034.

FIG.

Stag-hunt mosaic, from Shatby.

Ca. 3 0 0 - 2 5 0 B . C . Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 21643.
Photo by D . Johannes, courtesy of
the D A I , Cairo, neg. F 17445.

T h e p o s i t i o n s o f these b u r i a l places ( H a d r a a n d Shatby) p r o

vide us w i t h w e l c o m e clues c o n c e r n i n g the t o p o g r a p h y extra muros.

On

the other h a n d , there is n o reason at a l l t o regard the so-called Alabaster

T o m b i n the L a t i n Cemetery (fig. 5) as being inside the area enclosed by
the c i t y w a l l . Breccia's p r o p o s i t i o n that the Alabaster T o m b s h o u l d be
identified w i t h the N e m e s e i o n , f o u n d e d by Julius Caesar t o h o n o r Pompey, has r i g h t l y been rejected by A d r i a n i .

3 4

T h e Alabaster T o m b was i n

deed p a r t o f a t o m b .
Supposing t h a t this m u s t have been b u i l t outside the c i t y w a l l ,
w e can deduce t h a t the w a l l s h o u l d have r u n i m m e d i a t e l y west o f i t . T h e
stag-hunt mosaic o f the first h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . (fig. 6 ) ,

3 5

show

i n g three h u n t i n g erotes s u r r o u n d e d by a border o f animals, proves that

the residential quarters o f A l e x a n d r i a c a n n o t have been far away. We
m a y therefore assume w i t h some confidence t h a t the f o u n d a t i o n s of the
eastern w a l l , r u n n i n g f r o m n o r t h t o s o u t h , lay somewhere between the
stag-hunt mosaic house a n d the Alabaster T o m b .
Strabo m e n t i o n s o n l y the western necropolis o f A l e x a n d r i a ,
w h i c h i n his day served as the m a i n b u r i a l place. H i s i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t
b e y o n d the canal "there is o n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f the c i t y a n d t h e n y o u
come t o the s u b u r b N e k r o p o l i s " is o f extreme i m p o r t a n c e , f o r the
3 6

western cemetery was surely situated b e y o n d the c i t y w a l l , a n d the

course o f the canal i n question was, at least p a r t l y , m o r e o r less t h a t o f
the m o d e r n M a h m o u d i y a C a n a l .

Grimm

FIG.

Kantharos, from Gabbari. Ca.

2 5 0 - 2 2 5 B . C . Alexandria, GraecoR o m a n M u s e u m 8512. Photo by
D . Johannes, courtesy of the D A I ,
Cairo, neg. F 2 6 4 6 8 - 2 6 4 6 9 .
FIG.

Kantharos, from the Athenian

art market. Ca. 2 5 0 - 2 2 5 B . C .
Heidelberg, Originalsammlung der
Universitat 2O. Archaologisches
Institut der Universitat Heidelberg,
neg. N.s. 882

FIG.

D.

9a

"Plaquette" vase, from M i n e t

el-Bassal. Front. Ca. 3 0 0 - 2 5 0 B . C .
Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
M u s e u m 2 1 5 4 1 . Photo by
D . Johannes, courtesy of the
D A I , Cairo, neg. F 11704.
FIG.

9b

Side view of "plaquette" vase,

figure 9a. Photo by D . Johannes,
courtesy of the D A I , Cairo, neg. F
11707.

9b

9a

T h e archaeological evidence leaves n o d o u b t t h a t the G a b b a r i

a n d M a f r u s a regions, together w i t h the w h o l e d i s t r i c t east o f t h e m u p t o
the o u t l e t o f the M a h m o u d i y a C a n a l i n t o the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea ( M i n e t
el-Bassal), were used as necropoleis f r o m the first h a l f o f the t h i r d cen
t u r y B . C . o n w a r d . T h i s is attested by A t t i c West Slope w a r e o f a b o u t
2 5 0 B . C . o r slightly later, such as, f o r e x a m p l e , a k a n t h a r o s f r o m G a b
b a r i (preserved i n A l e x a n d r i a ) decorated w i t h a c h e c k e r b o a r d p a t t e r n
a n d concentric squares (fig. 7 ) .

3 7

A close b u t s o m e w h a t squatter p a r a l l e l

(fig. 8), n o w i n H e i d e l b e r g , comes f r o m the A t h e n i a n a r t m a r k e t .

3 8

F u r t h e r m o r e we k n o w o f a " p l a q u e t t e " vase f r o m M i n e t el-Bassal

(figs. 9a, b) s h o w i n g a figure o f the seated H e r a k l e s , a seated w o m a n , t w o
f i g h t i n g y o u t h s , one o f t h e m o n horseback, a n d Jason w i t h the d r a g o n .

3 9

61

62

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

I Oa

Black-glazed amphora, from

Fort Saleh, Mafrusa. Front. Ca.
3 0 0 - 2 5 0 B . C . Alexandria, GraecoRoman M u s e u m 2 7 8 1 1 . Photo by
D . Johannes, courtesy of the D A I ,
Cairo, neg. F 12806.
FIG.

I Ob

Side view of black-glazed

amphora, figure 10a. Photo by
D . Johannes, courtesy of the D A I ,
Cairo, neg. F 12811.

A related a m p h o r a was f o u n d at F o r t Saleh, M a f r u s a (figs, i o a , b ) ,

4 0

but

b o t h vessels c a n n o t yet be dated any m o r e precisely t h a n r o u g h l y t o the

first h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C .

4 1

There is n o A t t i c red-figured w a r e at

a l l , a n d there is n o i n d i c a t i o n o f any b u r i a l a c t i v i t y before the first h a l f

of the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . T h i s hints o f a t i m e lag between the f o u n d a t i o n
of the eastern a n d t h a t o f the western w a l l . T h e eastern area o f A l e x a n
d r i a was f o r p r a c t i c a l reasons the first t o need g o o d p r o t e c t i o n . A t the
end o f the f o u r t h century, any enemy w o u l d have t r i e d t o a p p r o a c h
A l e x a n d r i a f r o m the east, as Perdikkas d i d .

4 2

I n s u m m a r y , w h e n Strabo visited A l e x a n d r i a , he m u s t have

seen the Ptolemaic c i t y w a l l i n whatever c o n d i t i o n w h e r e i t h a d
been i n the late f o u r t h a n d early t h i r d centuries. I n the western p a r t o f
A l e x a n d r i a he n o t i c e d a large b u r i a l area, b e y o n d the c i t y w a l l . I n the
eastern p a r t o f the t o w n , however, the s i t u a t i o n was c o m p l e t e l y different.
T h e course o f the c i t y w a l l d i d n o t seem t o matter a n y m o r e , as people,
especially the Jewish p o p u l a t i o n , were l i v i n g i n a n d a m o n g the t o m b s
a n d graveyards.

43

P r o b a b l y the eastern c i t y w a l l h a d been extended d u r

i n g the Ptolemaic p e r i o d , a n d the o l d p a r t o f i t was just being i g n o r e d ,

by the people, a n d b y Strabo.
I n any case, the p o s i t i o n o f the early eastern (city) w a l l clearly
indicates t h a t , at least d u r i n g the late f o u r t h a n d t h i r d centuries, the l a n d
a l l o t t e d f o r exclusively residential purposes, t h a t is, those quarters de
v o i d o f any official architecture reflected i n Strabo's account a n d m i r
r o r e d b y archaeological evidence, m u s t have been considerably smaller
t h a n alleged. I n c i d e n t a l l y , H o e p f n e r

4 4

himself reduced the n u m b e r of

fifty residential quarters displayed o n his m a p t o t h i r t y - f i v e , i n his o w n

Grimm

FIG.

II

The Serapeion seen from the

northwest. I n the foreground,
remains of older building; to the
left, parts of the temple of
Euergetes I. Photo by D . Johannes,
courtesy of the D A I , Cairo, neg. F
14700-14701.

c o m m e n t s o n i t , assuming t h a t the t o t a l n u m b e r o f i n h a b i t a n t s r a n g e d
somewhere between 7 5 , 0 0 0 a n d 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 . B u t even these l o w e r figures
m u s t be f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h e d by r o u g h l y t w e n t y percent, f o r the w h o l e re
g i o n east o f R ' 2 (see f o l d - o u t m a p ) u n d o u b t e d l y served as a cemetery
already by the end o f the f o u r t h century.
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the c i t y w a l l was p r e s u m a b l y begun u n
der Kleomenes a n d o n l y a c c o m p l i s h e d i n the t i m e o f P t o l e m y 1, w h i l e the
H e p t a s t a d i o n "was c a r r i e d o u t either by Kleomenes o r P t o l e m y S o t e r . "
T h e famous l i g h t h o u s e ,

46

45

the Pharos, was p r o b a b l y b u i l t o w i n g t o

P t o l e m y Soter's o w n p l a n a n d i n i t i a t i v e , o r i t "was b u i l t i n the reigns o f

Soter a n d o f Philadelphos, o r i n t h a t o f the latter a l o n e . "

4 7

P t o l e m y 11 i n his t u r n c o n t r i b u t e d a z o o l o g i c a l g a r d e n ,

and

48

he h i m s e l f o r possibly his predecessor, P t o l e m y 1 Soter, b u i l t a s m a l l

t e m p l e f o r the w o r s h i p o f Serapis i n the southwest section o f the c i t y o n
a n a r t i f i c i a l h i l l raised over b e d r o c k (fig. 1 1 a n d f o l d - o u t m a p ) . O n l y a
few traces o f i t can be recognized u n d e r n e a t h the later s t r u c t u r e s .

49

The

l o c a t i o n o f this shrine i n R h a k o t i s , t h a t is, i n the o n l y q u a r t e r w i t h i n

A l e x a n d r i a ' s city w a l l s t h a t was a p p a r e n t l y being i n h a b i t e d by native
Egyptians before the f o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a i n 3 3 1 B . C . , was c e r t a i n l y
n o r a n d o m choice. W h i c h place c o u l d indeed have been m o r e a p p r o
priate f o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new, a r t i f i c i a l l y c o m p o s e d d e i t y l i k e Se
rapis, w h o was, after a l l , m e a n t t o p r o v i d e the scope f o r the
c o n c e p t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l fusion o f Egypt's o l d a n d n e w sovereigns?

63

64

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

12

G o l d foundation plaque, from the

Serapeion. H . : 5.9 cm; L . : 17.3
cm. Ca. 2 4 6 - 2 2 1 B . C . Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman M u s e u m P 8357.
Photo by D . Johannes, D A I ,
Istanbul.

FIG.

13

Temple of Serapis, reconstructed

as a templum

in antis. D r a w i n g by

Michael Sabottka.
FIG.

14

Temple of Serapis, reconstructed

as a prostylos

tetrastylos.

by Michael Sabottka.

I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e n , t h a t P t o l e m y i n chose precisely the

same l o c a l i t y f o r ancient A l e x a n d r i a ' s m o s t celebrated m a i n sanctuary,
namely, the Serapeion. B u t famous t h o u g h i t was, h a r d l y a n y t h i n g o f i t
o r o f its t r a n s f o r m e d successor f r o m R o m a n i m p e r i a l times has r e m a i n e d .
Today, the scanty visible proofs o f its f o r m e r splendor have been reduced
t o a few o v e r g r o w n f o u n d a t i o n trenches: a v i e w f r o m the n o r t h w e s t
m a y help t o illustrate its present c o n d i t i o n (see f i g . n ) .
Fortunately, however, between 1943

d 9 4 5 thirty founda
x

t i o n deposits were unearthed i n pits designed as receptacles f o r this

special purpose. T h e y came t o l i g h t f r o m beneath the southeast a n d
southwest corners o f the Ptolemaic enclosure w a l l a n d the southeast cor
ner o f the temple p r o p e r . T h e y c o n t a i n e d f o u n d a t i o n plaques, s m a l l i n
scribed tablets o f glass, faience, a n d m u d b r i c k , a n d m e t a l sheets of g o l d ,
silver, a n d bronze. T h e i r Greek a n d h i e r o g l y p h i c i n s c r i p t i o n s certify the
d e d i c a t i o n o f the temple a n d o f a sacred enclosure t o the g o d Serapis by
P t o l e m y 111 Euergetes a n d A r s i n o e 111 (fig. 1 2 ) .

50

Drawing

Grimm

FIG.

15

G o l d foundation plaque, from the

sanctuary of Harpokrates. H . : 5.1
cm; L . : 10.9 cm. Ca. 2 2 2 / 2 2 1 205/204 B . C . Alexandria, GraecoRoman M u s e u m 10035. Photo
by D . Johannes, D A I , Istanbul.

Some years ago, M i c h a e l S a b o t t k a

managed t o retrieve the

51

a p p r o x i m a t e o u t l i n e o f the c o m p l e x a n d presented us w i t h m o r e t h a n a
vague idea o f its o r i g i n a l appearance. U s i n g a l l the data he c o u l d possi
bly e x t r a c t f r o m the size, p o s i t i o n , a n d arrangement of each single
t r e n c h , he reconstructed the p l a n , w h i c h consisted of either a templum
antis (fig. 1 3 )

5 2

or a prostylos

tetrastylos

(fig. 1 4 ) .

53

in

T h e relatively s m a l l

temple can have been n o longer t h a n 22 m a n d n o w i d e r t h a n 12 m . To

its eastern w a l l , a s m a l l sanctuary of H a r p o k r a t e s was attached d u r i n g
the r e i g n of P t o l e m y i v , " b y c o m m a n d of the gods Isis a n d Serapis," as
again attested o n f o u n d a t i o n plaques (fig. 1 5 ) .

54

Ptolemy i v also instigated the b u i l d i n g of the Sema, t h a t is,

the m a u s o l e u m o f A l e x a n d e r , the founder o f the city, a n d o f the Ptole
maic k i n g s .

55

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , however, we have n o clue either t o its exact

l o c a t i o n w i t h i n the Basileia o r t o its design. I a m sorry t o a d d t h a t the

same is true o f the once w i d e l y r e n o w n e d M o u s e i o n c o n t a i n i n g a c o u r t
a n d an exedra, o f the grave of Cleopatra a n d M a r k A n t o n y , a n d o f the
so-called T i m o n e i o n ; i n the last case we d o at least k n o w o f its p o s i t i o n
(see f o l d - o u t m a p ) .

5 6

I t was b u i l t by A n t o n y after his defeat at A c t i u m

( 3 1 B . C . ) a n d n a m e d by h i m after the legendary m i s a n t h r o p i s t T i m o n of

Athens, w h o h a d , i n the t i m e o f Perikles, f o u n d himself exposed t o the
same sort of unkindness f r o m his contemporaries t h a t A n t o n y h a d t o go
t h r o u g h i n his a w k w a r d predicament preceding his death. P l u t a r c h , i n
the Life

of Antony,

tells the story:

A n d n o w A n t o n y forsook the city and the society of his friends

and built for himself a dwelling i n the sea at Pharos by t h r o w i n g
a mole out into the water. Here he lived i n exile from men and
declared that he was contentedly imitating the life of T i m o n ,
since, indeed, his experience had been like Timon's; for he h i m
self also had been wronged and treated w i t h ingratitude by his
friends and therefore hated and distrusted all m a n k i n d . . . .
He forsook that dwelling of his and the sea, w h i c h he called
Timoneum.

65

66

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

I n the case o f the " C a e s a r e u m " ( " K a i s a r e i o n , " "Sebasteion,"

"Augusteum"),

5 7

w i t h its large-scale p a r k s , p o r t i c o s , p r o p y l a i a , a n d

libraries, we d o k n o w o f its dimensions a n d o f its p o s i t i o n near the

" G r e a t H a r b o r " (see f o l d - o u t m a p ) , thanks t o "Cleopatra's

Needles."

For i n the year 13/12 B . C Augustus h a d these t w o obelisks removed f r o m

H e l i o p o l i s t o A l e x a n d r i a , w h e r e they were reerected i n f r o n t of the Cae
sareum. O n e o f t h e m w e n t t o L o n d o n i n 1 8 7 7 ; the other, w i t h its i m
p o r t a n t i n s c r i p t i o n s , a r r i v e d i n N e w York's C e n t r a l Park i n 1 8 7 9 .

58

What

h a d m o s t p r o b a b l y been c o n t r i v e d a n d b u i l t f o r the c u l t o f Caesar a n d

M a r k A n t o n y eventually t u r n e d o u t t o be the center o f A l e x a n d r i a ' s w o r
ship o f A u g u s t u s .

59

A c c o r d i n g t o Strabo, a quarter o r even a t h i r d o f the w h o l e

c i t y was " r o y a l t e r r i t o r y , " a n d this Basileia o f r o u g h l y 1,600 m i n d i
ameter m u s t have presented herself basically as a spacious landscape o f
p a r k s a n d pleasure gardens w i t h scattered sanctuaries, palaces, r o y a l
b u i l d i n g s , shrines, a n d profane architecture g r a d u a l l y s p r i n g i n g u p here
and there.

60

Something l i k e consistent c i t y p l a n n i n g is n o w h e r e manifest.

Every Ptolemaic k i n g was o b v i o u s l y free t o choose whatever a n d w h e r
ever he w a n t e d t o b u i l d , a n d due t o the immense p r o p o r t i o n s o f A l e x a n
dria's parks a n d gardens, b u i l d i n g l a n d was a m p l y available. T h i s again
is affirmed by Strabo: " A n d the c i t y has very fine p u b l i c sanctuaries a n d
' T h e Palaces,' w h i c h f o r m a quarter o r even a t h i r d o f the entire enclo
sure. For each o f the kings added some a d o r n m e n t t o the p u b l i c dedica
tions a n d also added p r i v a t e l y further residential blocks t o those already
existing."

61

T h i s is further c o n f i r m e d by D i o d o r o s : " A n d n o t o n l y

A l e x a n d e r b u t those w h o after h i m r u l e d E g y p t d o w n t o o u r o w n t i m e
w i t h few exceptions have enlarged this [i.e., A l e x a n d r i a ] w i t h lavish
additions."

6 2

Some o f the projects were n o t even considered w o r t h

finish

i n g , as is possibly demonstrated by a huge b u i l d i n g site w i t h m a n y differ

ent c o m p o u n d s , abandoned i n the early second c e n t u r y B . C . , r i g h t i n the
heart o f the c i t y ( f o l d - o u t m a p : Temple o f Poseidon?). H o e p f n e r , t h i n k
i ng o f a n e w fashion, n o w suggests " t h a t the unfinished b u i l d i n g s were
l o o k e d at as a w e l c o m e e n r i c h m e n t of the p a r k l a n d a n d that the predilec
t i o n f o r the inchoate, i n c l u d i n g unfinished architecture, evolved exactly
i n this p e r i o d . "

6 3

T h i s fascinating h y p o t h e s i s

64

seems t o be s u p p o r t e d

by a r e m a r k a b l e object f r o m V a r a p o d i o (Tresilico) near Reggio d i Cala

bria

6 5

(fig. 16), n o w k e p t i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m o f Reggio. T h e c i r c u

lar tortoiseshell b o x l i d was allegedly discovered a r o u n d 1924 i n a t o m b

FIG.

16

t h a t was said also t o have p r o d u c e d H e l l e n i s t i c pottery. T h e t o p o f the

L i d of a tobacco box. Nineteenth

l i d is decorated w i t h g o l d - a n d electrum-leaf inlays f o r m i n g a landscape

century. Reconstructed by Ulrike

s i m i l a r t o those k n o w n f r o m Pompeian w a l l paintings; the side bears a

frieze o f h o v e r i n g butterflies. T h e whereabouts given as its finding place

Denis after E. Galli, Rivista

Istituto
dell'Arte

d'Archeologia

del R.

e Storia

6 (1937): 37, fig. 7.

Grimm

h a d been n o t e d by archaeologists already i n 1904 w h e n excavations i n

the v i c i n i t y uncovered several t o m b s o f H e l l e n i s t i c date, one o f t h e m c o n
taining

6 6

p o t t e r y , g o l d earrings, a n d a since-famous gold-glass b o w l .

A c c o r d i n g t o M i c h a e l Pfrommer's investigations, the e a r r i n g s ,

68

6 7

which

end i n antelopes' heads, were made a b o u t 2 0 0 B . C . , a type l i n k e d t o the

H e l l e n i s t i c East. T h i s provides us w i t h i m p o r t a n t clues c o n c e r n i n g b o t h
the date a n d the landscape w h e r e the gold-glass b o w l was m a n u f a c t u r e d .
I t c o u l d also have helped t o assign the tortoiseshell l i d t o its p r o p e r place
i n t i m e a n d area o f o r i g i n . I n the m e a n t i m e , however, i t t u r n e d o u t t h a t
the object i n q u e s t i o n came f r o m someone's p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y (and n o t
f r o m a t o m b ) , a n d several colleagues f r o m I t a l y recognized i t f o r w h a t
i t , i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , really is: the l i d o f a t o b a c c o b o x f r o m the nine
teenth c e n t u r y .

69

I n s u m m a r y , the shape o f the city, the course o f her w a l l s , the

system o f her streets, a n d c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s such as the agora a n d
the p o s i t i o n o f a few temples were fixed b y her f o u n d e r , A l e x a n d e r the
Great. I t was n o t foreseen i n w h a t w a y the n e w r o y a l c i t y w o u l d u n f o l d
and develop.

70

D e t a i l e d , farsighted, o r consequential c i t y p l a n n i n g

s h o u l d therefore n o t be r e c k o n e d w i t h , as i t a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t exist.
University of Trier
T R I E R ,

G E R M A N Y

67

68

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Notes

T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n t h e u r b a n de

Memoire,

v e l o p m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a under the Ptolemaic

i n D e n m a r k , see Memoire,

kings represent a p a r t i a l result o f the author's

w r i t t e n o n S e p t e m b e r 6, 1 8 7 2 , i n C o p e n h a g e n ) .

m o r e extensive c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the

T h e engineer's s c h o l a r l y a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d his

zur Topographie

des antiken

Bildlexikon
which

Alexandria,

p p . 1 2 9 - 3 0 ; f o r M a h m o u d Bey's stay
p. 131

(addendum,

m a p o f t h e N i l e m e t r o p o l i s c a m e t o o late t o

w i l l be p u b l i s h e d b y t h e G e r m a n A r c h a e o l o g i

be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n N a p o l e o n ' s

cal I n s t i t u t e i n B e r l i n . T h e p r o j e c t w a s s u p

de Jules

Cesar.

p o r t e d i n m a n y ways by the C a i r o b r a n c h o f the

(Guerre

des Gaules),

German Archaeological Institute ( D A I Cairo). I

1 8 6 6 , ends w i t h Caesar's c r o s s i n g t h e R u b i c o n

Histoire

T h e s e c o n d a n d last v o l u m e
w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n Paris i n

w i s h t o express m y g r a t i t u d e t o its f o r m e r d i r e c

i n 4 9 B . C . T h e r e m a i n i n g p e r i o d u n t i l Caesar's

t o r , W . K a i s e r , a n d t o his successor, R . Stadel-

death, a n d consequently the A l e x a n d r i a n w a r o f

m a n n . T h a n k s are d u e also t o m y f r i e n d D i e t e r

4 8 / 4 7 , c o u l d n o t be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n b y

J o h a n n e s , p h o t o g r a p h e r at t h e D A I C a i r o u n t i l

the French emperor, w h o died i n 1873.

early 1993,

t n a d e t h e negatives o f t h e p h o

t o g r a p h s r e p r o d u c e d i n figures 1 - 7 ,

U n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t m a n y copies o f M a h

9-12,

m o u d Bey's p i o n e e r i n g studies seem t o h a v e a p

a n d 1 5 . T h e s e , l i k e t h e c o m p l e t e set o f n e w p h o
t o g r a p h y for the above-mentioned

peared i n p r i n t ; their accessibility m a y have

dictionary,

been t o o l i m i t e d f o r t h e p u b l i c t o realize f u l l y

are p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a r c h i v e o f t h e F o r s c h u n g s -

the scholarly profile o f this learned m a n , w h o

z e n t r u m G r i e c h i s c h - R o m i s c h e s A g y p t e n at U n i

h a d been b r o u g h t u p a n d e d u c a t e d i n Paris. R e

versity of Trier.

g a r d i n g t h i s d r a w b a c k , his a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f a
G e r m a n s u m m a r y o f his r e s u l t s , g r a n t e d i n 1 8 7 2

P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

to H e i n r i c h K i e p e r t i n Berlin, l o o k s a l l the m o r e

vol. 1

Alexandria,

( O x f o r d 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 4; v o l . 2, p . 3 n . 9

i m p o r t a n t ( M a h m o u d Bey's m a p o f A l e x a n d r i a

(hereafter

a b b r e v i a t e d " F r a s e r , 1" a n d " F r a s e r , 11");

w a s also m a d e a v a i l a b l e f o r Baedeker's

R . S. B a g n a l l , " T h e D a t a o f t h e F o u n d a t i o n o f

fubrer

A l e x a n d r i a , " American

cf. n o t e 7 b e l o w ) : " Z u r T o p o g r a p h i e des a l i e n

tory

Journal

of Ancient

His

A l e x a n d r i a . N a c h M a h m u d Beg's E n t d e c k u n -

4 (1979): 4 6 - 4 9

g e n . . . , " Zeitschrift
3

Reise-

a n d its F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s ;

der Gesellschaft

fur

Erdkunde

nach N i k o p o l i s : Stadtebau u n d Stadtbilder hel-

K i e p e r t ' s m a p , r e p r o d u c e d o n p i . 5 o f his w o r k

l e n i s t i s c h e r Z e i t , " i n Akten
tional

Kongresses

Berlin

1988

des xm.

fur Klassische

zu Berlin

7 ( 1 8 7 2 ) : 3 3 7 - 5 9 , p i . 5.

W . Hoepfner, " V o n Alexandria uber Pergamon

Interna

( o n a scale o f 1 : 2 0 , 0 0 0 as o p p o s e d t o M a h

Archaologie,

m o u d Bey's 1 : 1 0 , 0 0 0 ) , focuses o n t h e a n c i e n t
c i t y , l e a v i n g its m o d e r n state o u t o f a c c o u n t .

(Mainz 1990), pp. 2 7 5 - 7 8 .

D u r i n g a stay i n A l e x a n d r i a ( M a r c h 1 8 7 0 ) ,
4

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 1 - 3 7 ; Fraser, m

K i e p e r t h a d the o p p o r t u n i t y t o acquaint himself

(note 2 above), pp.

w i t h the l a y o u t o f the t o w n a n d the p r o b l e m s

119-20.

r a i s e d b y i t . H i s v e r s i o n o f M a h m o u d Bey's p l a n
5

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 8 - 9 ; i d e m , " A l e x

differs f r o m its m o d e l i n t h a t t h e c o l u m n s d i s

andria from M o h a m m e d A l i to Gamal A b d a l

c o v e r e d a n d t h e r o a d sections e x p l o r e d b y " T h e

N a s s e r , " i n Alexandrien:

E n g i n e e r " have been i n d i c a t e d .

dreier

Jahrtausende

mediterranen

Kulturbegegnungen

im Schmelztiegel

einer

Aegyptiaca Treveren-

Grofistadt,

sia. T r i e r e r S t u d i e n z u m

griechisch-romischen

F. N o a c k , " N e u e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n i n A l e x a n
d r i a , " Mitteilungen
gischen

Agypten, vol. 1 (Mainz 1981), pp. 6 3 - 7 4 .

Instituts,

des Deutschen
Athenische

Abteilung

Archaolo25

(1900): 2 1 5 - 7 9 , pis. 9 - 1 1 . Noack's i m p o r t a n t

6

Memoire
bourgs

sur Vantique
et environs

sondages,

Alexandrie,

decouverts

nivellements

et autres

(Copenhagen 1872); A . Adriani,

d'arte

dell'Egitto

greco-romano

ses

par les

investigations were carried o u t exactly a h u n

fau
fouilles,

recherches

. . .

Repertorio
C, v o l . 1

d r e d years after t h e first c r e d i t a b l e i n v e n t o r y o f

A l e x a n d r i a ' s v i s i b l e a n c i e n t r e m a i n s h a d been
d r a w n up by a group of most remarkable schol
ars ( " C o m m i s s i o n des sciences et des a r t s " ) ,

( P a l e r m o 1 9 6 6 ) , p p . 5 5 - 5 7 , n o . 6; v o l . 2

w h o m N a p o l e o n the Great h a d a p p o i n t e d t o

( P a l e r m o 1 9 6 3 ) , p i . 3, fig. 6 a n d p i . 4 , fig. 7

w o r k i n t h e w a k e o f his a r m y i n 1 7 9 8 a n d

(hereafter a b b r e v i a t e d " A d r i a n i , 1" a n d

(for m a p s o f t h e c i t y r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h i s F r e n c h

1799

" A d r i a n i , 11"); Fraser, ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 13

survey, cf. Fraser, 1 [ n o t e 2 a b o v e ] , p i . 1 [ f r o n t i s

n . 3 1 . F o r b o t h m a p s o f a n c i e n t A l e x a n d r i a , cf.

p i e c e ] , a n d p i . 2 [ f o l l o w i n g p . 2 0 ] ; Fraser,

Grimm

[ n o t e 2 a b o v e ] , p . 2 0 n . 3 4 [cf. p . 13 n . 3 1 1 ] ;

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f D e i n o k r a t e s ' l a y o u t of the city,

cf. also t h e m a p o n p p . 1 1 2 - 1 3 , i n M o r s i Saad

t h o u g h the u n p r o v e n course of the city w a l l was

E l - D i n et a l . , Alexandria:

t a k e n o v e r f r o m M a h m o u d Bey ( n o t e 6 a b o v e )

tory

The Site and the

His

[ N e w Y o r k 1 9 9 3 ] ) . N o a c k himself was a

m e m b e r o f the so-called Sieglin E x p e d i t i o n , a

a n d K i e p e r t ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) . G o i n g b a c k t o these
t w o , I have f u r t h e r s k e t c h e d i n t h e t w o b r i d g e s

t e a m a s s e m b l e d a n d sent t o A l e x a n d r i a t o c l a r

o f t h e H e p t a s t a d i o n (cf. S t r a b o 1 7 . 1 . 6 ; Caesar,

ify certain unsettled t o p o g r a p h i c a l questions

Bellum

that h a d arisen w h i l e a n e w m a p of the E g y p

nades e x t e n d i n g a l o n g s i d e b o t h m a i n r o a d s

Alexandrinum

1 9 ) as w e l l as t h e c o l o n

tian metropolis was being d r a w n i n Berlin. The

( " C a n o p i c S t r e e t " a n d "Palace S t r e e t " ) , w h i c h

mission was financed by Ernst (von) Sieglin, an

are i n d i c a t e d o n K i e p e r t ' s m a p b u t h a d i n d e e d ,

i n d u s t r i a l i s t f r o m S t u t t g a r t , o n b e h a l f o f his

at least p a r t l y , b e e n d i s c o v e r e d a l r e a d y b y

b r o t h e r , W i l h e l m S i e g l i n , w h o i n t h o s e days

M a h m o u d Bey ( f o r t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , cf.

h e l d t h e c h a i r o f g e o g r a p h y (as t h e successor o f

H . L a u t e r , Die Architektur

H e i n r i c h K i e p e r t [ n o t e 6 a b o v e ] ) at U n i v e r s i t y

[ D a r m s t a d t 1 9 8 6 ] , p p . 8 0 - 8 2 ) . As the c o l o n

des

Hellenismus

of Berlin. A second c a m p a i g n i n w h i c h N o a c k

nade o f "Palace Street," a c c o r d i n g t o Kiepert's

was supposed t o partake, scheduled for the

m a p , a l m o s t came u p t o the c i t y w a l l , I have

winter of 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 0 ,

f u r t h e r a d d e d several r e s i d e n t i a l q u a r t e r s i n t h e

n a

c ! t o be c a n c e l e d o n

account of a plague epidemic i n A l e x a n d r i a . A f

southeastern region. O n the other h a n d the

terwards N o a c k was a p p o i n t e d t o the chair of

c o u r s e o f t h e e a s t e r n w a l l has b e e n a l t e r e d ,

classical a r c h a e o l o g y at Jena a n d hence h a d t o

thereby r e d u c i n g the n u m b e r of residential

d i s c o n t i n u e his w o r k f o r t h e S i e g l i n E x p e d i t i o n

quarters. F u r t h e r m o r e i t appeared useful t o

a l t o g e t h e r . W . Sieglin's n e w m a p o f A l e x a n d r i a

sketch i n the early necropoleis i n the eastern

was eventually reproduced i n the t h i r d e d i t i o n

a n d w e s t e r n areas o f A l e x a n d r i a (cf. Fraser, 1

of Baedeker's p o p u l a r traveler's guide

gypten:

Handbuch

Unter-Aegypten
Halbinsel

fur Reisende.
bis zum

Fayum

[ n o t e 2 a b o v e ] , m a p f o l l o w i n g p . 8) a n d t o m a r k

(Ae-

Erster

Theil:

und die

Sinai-

o u t the p o s i t i o n s o f the Alabaster T o m b , the re

c e n t l y f o u n d m o s a i c s (see n o t e 35 b e l o w ) , a n d
the house w i t h the stag-hunt mosaic. D u r i n g

[ L e i p z i g 1 8 9 4 ] , f o l l o w i n g p . 8 ) , re

p l a c i n g the one t h a t h a d been d r a w n a c c o r d i n g

the first c e n t u r y B.c.(?) the t o w n e x p a n d e d c o n

t o M a h m o u d Bey's m a p o f t h e c i t y i n t h e t w o

s i d e r a b l y t o w a r d t h e east, a n d " C a n o p i c S t r e e t "

e a r l i e r e d i t i o n s (see first e d . [ L e i p z i g 1 8 7 7 ] ,

seems t o h a v e been e x t e n d e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y .

f o l l o w i n g p . 2 2 4 ) . Sieglin's m a p h a d been p u b

A n e n t h u s i a s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f these c o l o n n a d e d

lished i n 1893: A d r i a n i , 1 (note 6 above),

m a i n r o a d s is p r e s e r v e d i n A c h i l l e s Tatius's

p p . 5 3 - 5 5 , n o s . 4 - 5 ; A d r i a n i , 11 p i . 2 , figs.

n o v e l Clitophon

4 - 5 . T h e r e is a n o t h e r , m o r e e x t e n s i v e m a p

s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . (cf. H . H e i n e n , " A l e x a n -

and Leucippe

(5.1) o f the later

by Sieglin i n the G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m of

drien: Weltstadt u n d Residenz," i n

A l e x a n d r i a , s h o w i n g the c o l u m n s discovered

[ n o t e 5 a b o v e ] , p p . 5 - 6 ) ; P. M . Fraser, " B y z a n

a n d t h e r o a d sections e x p l o r e d b y M a h m o u d

t i n e A l e x a n d r i a : D e c l i n e a n d F a l l , " Bulletin

Bey, t o o . E . B r e c c i a , Alexandrea

la Societe

ad

Aegyptum

romaines
fouilles

tardives
Polonaises

d'Alexandrie
a Kom

habitations

a la lumiere

el-Dikka,

d'Alexandrie

de

(Alexan

d r i a n Studies i n M e m o r i a m D a o u d A b d u

( B e r g a m o 1 9 2 2 ) , fig. 2 5 ; A d r i a n i , 1 ( n o t e 6
a b o v e ) , p . 5 5 ; M . R o d z i e w i c z , Les

Archeologique

Alexandrien

des

Alexandrie,

D a o u d ) 45 ( 1 9 9 3 ) : 9 3 . Achilles Tatius (Loeb

Classical L i b r a r y ) , w i t h an English t r a n s l a t i o n
b y S. Gaselee ( L o n d o n 1 9 1 7 ) , p p . 2 3 7 - 3 8 : " A f
ter a v o y a g e l a s t i n g f o r t h r e e d a y s , w e a r r i v e d at

v o l . 3 ( W a r s a w 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 3 1 7 , p i . 2.

A l e x a n d r i a . I e n t e r e d i t b y t h e S u n G a t e , as i t is
8

Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 4 - 1 6 n . 3 1 .

called, a n d was i n s t a n t l y struck by the s p l e n d i d

A d r i a n i ' s m a p s h o w i n g t h e area o f t h e " B a s i -

delight. F r o m the Sun Gate t o the M o o n

l e i a " w i t h a synopsis of the w h e r e a b o u t s o f a l l

these are t h e g u a r d i a n d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e e n

i t e m i z e d d i s c o v e r i e s p r o v e d p a r t i c u l a r l y rele

trancesled a straight double r o w of columns,

b e a u t y o f t h e c i t y , w h i c h filled m y eyes w i t h
Gate

vant: "Saggio d i una pianta archeologica d i

a b o u t t h e m i d d l e o f w h i c h lies t h e o p e n p a r t o f

A l e s s a n d r i a , " Annuario

t h e t o w n , a n d i n i t so m a n y streets t h a t w a l k i n g

Romano

del Museo

Greco-

1 ( A l e x a n d r i a 1934): 5 6 - 9 6 , nos. 1 -

121.

in t h e m y o u w o u l d fancy yourself a b r o a d w h i l e
s t i l l at h o m e . G o i n g a f e w h u n d r e d y a r d s f u r
t h e r , I c a m e t o t h e q u a r t e r c a l l e d after A l e x a n
der, w h e r e I s a w a s e c o n d t o w n ; t h e s p l e n d o u r

10

See n o t e 2 a b o v e .

I I

H o e p f n e r ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 7 5 - 7 8 , f i g . 2; cf.

o f c o l u m n s i n t e r s e c t e d b y a n o t h e r as l o n g at

also figs. 1 , 3. T h e p l a n p r e s e n t e d here ( f o l d - o u t

r i g h t angles. I t r i e d t o cast m y eyes d o w n every

m a p ) g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w s H o e p f n e r ' s i m p o r t a n t re

street, b u t m y gaze w a s s t i l l u n s a t i s f i e d , a n d I

of this was cut i n t o squares, for there was a r o w

69

70

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

c o u l d n o t g r a s p a l l t h e b e a u t y o f t h e s p o t at

h i s p r e j u d g i n g N o a c k ' s w o r k even a y e a r b e f o r e

o n c e ; s o m e p a r t s I saw, s o m e I w a s o n t h e p o i n t

t h e r e s u l t s w e r e p u b l i s h e d b y t h e l a t t e r ; cf.

o f seeing, s o m e I e a r n e s t l y d e s i r e d t o see, s o m e I

D . G . H o g a r t h a n d R . C . B o s a n q u e t , Journal

c o u l d n o t pass b y ; t h a t w h i c h I a c t u a l l y s a w

Hellenic

of

19 ( 1 8 9 9 ) : 3 2 6 .

Studies

k e p t m y gaze fixed, w h i l e t h a t w h i c h I e x p e c t e d
t o see w o u l d d r a g i t o n t o t h e n e x t . I e x p l o r e d

13

t h e r e f o r e e v e r y street, a n d at last, m y v i s i o n u n

3 . 1 . 5 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 3;

Anab.

Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 n . 3.

satisfied, e x c l a i m e d i n w e a r i n e s s , ' A h , m y eyes,

w e are b e a t e n . ' T w o t h i n g s s t r u c k m e as espe

14

17.52.. Diodorus

of Sicily

(Loeb Classical L i

cially strange a n d e x t r a o r d i n a r y i t was i m p o s

brary), w i t h an English translation by C. Brad

sible t o d e c i d e w h i c h w a s t h e greatest, t h e size

f o r d Welles, v o l . 8 ( L o n d o n 1963), p. 267;

o f t h e p l a c e o r its b e a u t y , t h e c i t y i t s e l f o r its i n

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 4 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2

habitants; for the f o r m e r was larger t h a n a c o n

a b o v e ) , p p . 2 - 3 n . 6.

tinent, the latter o u t n u m b e r e d a w h o l e n a t i o n .

L o o k i n g at t h e c i t y , I d o u b t e d w h e t h e r a n y race

15

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 4 - 6 .

o f m e n c o u l d ever fill i t ; l o o k i n g at t h e i n h a b i
t a n t s , I w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r a n y c i t y c o u l d ever

16

be f o u n d l a r g e e n o u g h t o h o l d t h e m a l l . T h e

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 4 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2
above), p. 4 n . 1 1 .

b a l a n c e seemed e x a c t l y e v e n . " O u r s l i g h t l y
m o d i f i e d p l a n ( f o l d - o u t m a p ) w a s d r a w n after

17

Hoepfner's reconstruction by Ulrike Denis,

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 4 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2
above), p . 4 n . 12 a n d p . 10 n . 2 4 ; B . R . B r o w n ,

d r a u g h t s w o m a n at t h e A r c h a e o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e

" D e i n o k r a t e s a n d A l e x a n d r i a , " The Bulletin

of Trier University.

the American

Society

of Papyrologists

of

15

(1978): 3 9 - 4 2 12

H o e p f n e r ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 7 5 - 7 8 , figs. 1 ,
3. F o r t h e p r o b l e m s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e

18

P t o l e m a i c r o a d s y s t e m a n d t h e c i t y gates, cf. t h e

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 7; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2
above), p . 10 n . 2 5 .

d i s c u s s i o n b y Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 3 1 4 ; Fraser, ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 6 - 3 0 n n . 6 4 -

19

69. H i s rather pessimistic p o i n t o f v i e w ( " a n d

Hist.

4 . 8 3 . 1 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 2 ;

Fraser, n ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 25 n . 5 5 .

t h e w h o l e n e t w o r k o f streets t r a c e d b y h i m [ i . e . ,
M a h m o u d B e y ] is best i g n o r e d " ) is n o t a f f i r m e d

20

This conclusion looks likely but n o t altogether

b y Hoepfner's considerations. Fraser o b v i o u s l y

c o m p e l l i n g , as t h e t e r m moenia

does n o t p u t m u c h c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e results o f

c i t y w a l l s as w e l l as t o a n y o t h e r t y p e o f

Noack's excavations carried o u t i n 1898 and

f o r t i f i c a t i o n . T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t Caesar

can apply to

1 8 9 9 (see n o t e 7 a b o v e ) , w h i c h h a d p r i n c i p a l l y

(Bellum

c o r r o b o r a t e d M a h m o u d Bey's street s y s t e m .

regia,

H i s c o m m e n t a p p e a r s r a t h e r t o be i n f l u e n c e d

arx,

b y D . G . H o g a r t h ' s o p i n i o n expressed i n 1 8 9 5

some m i n o r f o r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n the Basileia o f

( D . G . H o g a r t h a n d E . F. B e n s o n , " R e p o r t o n

A l e x a n d r i a ( I owe this suggestion t o m y friend

civile

3 . 1 1 2 ) calls a s m a l l e r p a r t o f t h e

a p a r t connected w i t h the Great H a r b o r ,

t h e t e r m moenia

here m i g h t also refer t o

Prospects o f Research i n A l e x a n d r i a , w i t h N o t e

a n d colleague H e i n z H e i n e n , D e p a r t m e n t o f

o n Excavations i n A l e x a n d r i a n Cemeteries,"

A n c i e n t H i s t o r y at U n i v e r s i t y o f T r i e r ) .

Egypt
port

Exploration

Fund:

Archaeological

Re

1 8 9 4 - 1 8 9 5 [ L o n d o n 1 8 9 5 ] : p . 17 n . 1 ) .

21

H o g a r t h h a d d r a w n quite an unfavorable pic

Fr. 1 9 1 , lines 9 - 1 1 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) ,

p . 1 2 ; Fraser, n ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 25 n . 5 6 .

t u r e o f M a h m o u d Bey's a c h i e v e m e n t w i t h o u t
investigating the matter himself. " I a m g l a d ,

22

therefore, that I can avoid basing any of m y

2 . 2 8 : TLX7] TTvpyous V/ULr)KOLS Kal /uLTapaCoi$;

Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 2 6 n . 6 3 .

o w n w o r k o n h i s . I feel t h e greatest u n c e r t a i n t y
as t o h i s r e c t a n g u l a r m a p o f t h e c i t y . " N o a c k ,

23

h o w e v e r , v e r i f i e d t h e a l l e g e d street l a y o u t o n l y a

1 7 . 1 . 8 - 1 0 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 1 ;
Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 25 n . 5 3 .

f e w years l a t e r b y d i g g i n g d o w n t o t h e b e d r o c k
at m a n y p o i n t s i n t h e r o y a l q u a r t e r , w h e r e he

24

M a h m o u d Bey ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 2 - 1 8 ;

c o u l d c l e a r l y see t h a t t h e P t o l e m a i c streets r a n

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 3 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2

exactly underneath the medieval a n d R o m a n

above), p. 26 n . 63.

ones m a p p e d o u t b y M a h m o u d Bey, a l b e i t o n a
m u c h deeper l e v e l . ( F o r t h e w i d t h s o f t h e H e l

25

F o r t h e size a n d d i m e n s i o n s o f P t o l e m a i c

l e n i s t i c streets, cf. H o e p f n e r [ n o t e 3 a b o v e ] ,

A l e x a n d r i a , see Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) ,

p . 2 7 5 . ) S o m e c a u t i o n seems a d v i s a b l e c o n c e r n

pp. 2 6 - 2 7 n . 64.

i n g H o g a r t h ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , as is suggested b y

G r i m m

26

E . B r e c c i a , La necropoli

( M a i n z 1 9 8 5 ) , p p . 1 0 3 - 1 0 , n o . 2, pis. C, 4, 7a,

Catalogue

di Sciatbi,

G e n e r a l des A n t i q u i t e s E g y p t i e n n e s , M u s e e

1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 b , c. T h i s p a r t o f t h e t o w n h a d a p p a r

d'Alexandrie, vol. i (Cairo 1912), pp. 4 9 - 5 0 ,

e n t l y been t h e site o f p o m p o u s m a n s i o n s b e l o n g

nos. 9 1 - 9 2 , fig. 36; i b i d . , v o l . 2, pis. 4 7 - 4 8 ,

i n g t o l e a d i n g p e r s o n a l i t i e s at t h e A l e x a n d r i a n

nos 7 1 - 7 4 .

court. O n l y very recently (1993), w h i l e prepar

i n g the f o u n d a t i o n w a l l s of the n e w A l e x a n

27

H . A . T h o m p s o n , Hesperia

d r i a n l i b r a r y i n Shatby, w e r e t w o m o r e m o s a i c s

3 (1934): 315 n . 1

a n d 3 4 8 n . 1 . A d r i a n i a n d also ( b u t m o r e re

of the early second century B . C . discovered near

s e r v e d l y ) Fraser h a d a l r e a d y e x p r e s s e d t h e i r

the house w i t h the stag-hunt mosaic ( I o w e this

doubts concerning any exclusive early d a t i n g

piece o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o m y f r i e n d a n d c o l l e a g u e

i n t o t h e late f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . : Fraser, 1 ( n o t e

W . A . D a s z e w s k i ) ; see D . S a i d , Bulletin

de

2 a b o v e ) , p . 3 2 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 103

stitut

94

n. 240.

(1994): 3 7 7 - 8 0 , color illustrations o n pp. 487

Frangais

d'Archeologie

Orientale

iTn-

( A , B) a n d 4 8 9 ( C , D ) .
28

W . D . E. C o u l s o n , " C h a t b y
Journal

of Egyptian

Reconsidered,"

national

Kongresses

gie, Berlin

1988

73 ( 1 9 8 7 ) :

Archaeology

2 3 4 - 3 6 ; S. I . R o t r o f f , i n Akten

des xm.

36

fur Klassische

1 7 . 1 . 1 0 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 3 ; Fraser,
11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 2 6 n . 6 1 ; J. Fedak's r e m a r k

Inter

(Monumental

Archaolo-

Study

( M a i n z 1990), pp. 174,

to Early

177-78.

Tombs

in Selected
Imperial

of the Hellenistic

Tombs

from

Age:

the

Pre-Classical
Supplementary

Era, Phoenix,

v o l u m e 27 [ T o r o n t o 1 9 9 0 ] , p . 129), "the west

29

ern necropolis of Gabbari, Wardian, Mafrusa,

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 ; Fraser, 11
(note 2 above), p p . 1 0 4 - 5

a n d M e x c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e i n t o use f r o m

M9 5-

t h e l a t e r s e c o n d c e n t u r y o n w a r d , " is o f c o u r s e
30

c o r r e c t . B u t t h i s is o n l y h a l f t h e t r u t h .

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 8667

( f o u n d i n 1 8 9 6 ; H . : 25 c m ) ; C . C l a i r m o n t ,
"Greek Pottery f r o m the N e a r East,"

Berytus

37

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 8512

1 1 ( 1 9 5 5 ) : 1 2 4 , n o . 2 3 2 , p i . 2 8 . 1 a , b ; J. D . Beaz-

( f o u n d b e t w e e n 1 8 9 0 a n d 1 9 0 0 ; H . : 13.5 c m ) ;

ley, Attic

C . W a t z i n g e r , Mitteilungen

Red-figure

2 n d ed. ( O x

Vase-painters,

Archaologischen

ford 1963), p. 1455.

Instituts,

des

Deutschen

Athenische

Abteilung

2 6 ( 1 9 0 1 ) : 7 6 - 7 7 , n o . 2 1 ; R . Pagenstecher, Die
3I

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 8668

Gefajle

( f o u n d i n 1 8 9 9 ; H . : 16.5 c m ; f o o t r e s t o r e d ) .

i n D i e griechisch-agyptische S a m m l u n g Ernst

in Stein

und

Ton,

Knochenschnitzereien,

P u b l i c a t i o n p e r m i s s i o n was g r a n t e d by Youssef

v o n Sieglin, v o l . 2, p a r t 3 (Leipzig 1 9 1 3 ) , p . 18,

el-Gheriani.

f i g . 2 4 . T h e f o l l o w i n g references are d u e t o
M i c h a e l P f r o m m e r , w h o s e k i n d readiness t o

32

A l e x a n d r i a , Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 8669

help I gratefully acknowledge: W i t h the excep

(found i n 1895; H . : 20 c m ) ; C l a i r m o n t (note 30

t i o n of the b u t slightly differing p r o p o r t i o n s of

above), p. 123, n o . 225, p i . 27.2a, b.

n e c k a n d b o d y , o u r W e s t Slope k a n t h a r o s

from

G a b b a r i - A l e x a n d r i a finds a v e r y close a n a l o g y
33

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 19462;

i n n o r t h e r n P o n t i c O l b i a (St. P e t e r s b u r g , H e r

G . G r i m m , " O r i e n t u n d O k z i d e n t i n der K u n s t

mitage O l 4355: T. N . Knipovic,

A l e x a n d r i e n s , " i n Alexandrien

archeologija

(note 5 above),

Sovetskaja

1 1 [ 1 9 4 9 ] : 2 7 4 , 2 8 2 , figs. 3, 4 ) . A l

p p . 1 9 , 2 0 n . 4 2 , p i . 17a ( w i t h f u r t h e r l i t . ) ;

t h o u g h t h e G a b b a r i vessel is n o t d a t a b l e b y ar

R . S. B i a n c h i , Cleopatra's

the

c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s at t h e m o m e n t , t h e c l e a r l y

e x h . cat. ( T h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m

e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l i e r stages o f t y p o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p

Ptolemies,

Egypt:

Age of

ment of our type provide a well-founded termi

1988), p. 226, ad no. 118.

nus p o s t q u e r n . F o r a n e a r l i e r e x a m p l e w i t h
34

A d r i a n i , 1 (note 6 above), p p . 1 4 0 - 4 3 , n o . 89,

s q u a t a n d r o u n d e d b o d y , see B . A . Sparkes a n d

a n d 2 3 0 , s.v. N e m e s e i o n ; A d r i a n i , 11 ( n o t e 6

L . T a l c o t t , Black

a b o v e ) , p i s . 6 1 - 6 3 , % - 2 . 1 1 - 1 8 ; Fraser, 1

The Athenian

( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 3 4 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) ,

n o . 7 2 1 , p i . 2 9 (ca. 3 2 5 - 3 1 0 ) . S t i l l less a d

p. 108 n . 2 6 3 .

v a n c e d t h a n t h e A l e x a n d r i a n vessel is a k a n

and Plain

Agora

v o l . 12 of

Pottery,

(Princeton 1970), p. 287,

tharos w i t h rotellae-decorated handles f r o m

35

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 21643;

W . A . D a s z e w s k i , Corpus

of Mosaics

from

Egypt,

v o l . 1 , Hellenistic

Period,

Aegyptiaca Treverensia. Trierer Studien

and Early

Roman

z u m griechisch-romischen Agypten, v o l . 3

K a l y m n o s , n o w i n Brussels, M u s e e s R o y a u x
A 1 7 1 7 : G . K o p c k e , Mitteilungen
Archaologischen

Instituts,

des

Athenische

Deutschen
Abteilung

7 9 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 5 3 , Beilage n o . 4 4 . 6 ; M . P f r o m
m e r , Studien

zu alexandrinischer

und

grofi-

71

72

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

griechischer

Toreutik

friihhellenistischer

Zeit,

41

N e w e v i d e n c e o n " p l a q u e t t e " vases a n d t h e i r

Archaologische Forschungen 16 (Berlin 1987),

c h r o n o l o g y is p r o m i s e d b y t h e f o r t h c o m i n g d i s

p . 1 7 6 n . 1 2 4 5 (first h a l f o f t h i r d c e n t u r y ) . O u r

sertation o f M a r t h a Aeissen ( B o n n ) . F o r p r o v i

k a n t h a r o s is n o t o n l y f a r m o r e slender a n d its

s i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n , see G . G r i m m , i n

b o d y deeper, i t is a l r e a d y d e c o r a t e d w i t h t y p i c a l

Pharaonen,

W e s t Slope m o t i f s ( c o n c e n t r i c a l r e c t a n g l e s a n d

dam, and Hildesheim 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 7 9 ) , no. 107

c h e c k e r b o a r d p a t t e r n ) . F o r t h e rise o f these

w i t h i l l . a n d n o . 109 w i t h i l l . ; Andreassi (note

m o t i f s a m o n g A t t i c p a r a l l e l s , see T h o m p s o n

39 above), p p . 2 1 - 2 9 , pis. 5 - 6 ; K . Parlasca,

( n o t e 2 7 a b o v e ) , p . 3 4 9 , n o . C 1 1 , fig. 3 0 . I f w e

Orientalistische

b a l a n c e t h e e v i d e n c e , i t is h a r d l y p o s s i b l e t h a t

4 5 3 n . 3; D o h r n ( n o t e 3 9 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 7 -

79 (1984):

Literaturzeitung

o u r k a n t h a r o s predates the m i d d l e of the t h i r d

1 0 6 , pis. 6 2 - 7 5 ; K . Parlasca, i n A . C a m b i -

century.

t o g l o u a n d E . G . D . R o b i n s o n , eds.,
Art

38

Gotter,

e x h . cat. (Essen, M u n i c h , R o t t e r

in the Nicholson

Museum,

Sydney

Classical
(Mainz

1995), p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 , pis. 6 2 - 6 4 .

O r i g i n a l s a m m l u n g der U n i v e r s i t a t H e i d e l b e r g
H 20; Watzinger (note 37 above), p . 77 n . 1;
Pagenstecher ( n o t e 3 7 a b o v e ) , p . 1 8 , fig. 25 left;
R . H a m p e a n d H . G r o p e n g i e E e r , Aus
Sammlung

des Archdologiscben

Universitat

Heidelberg

42

Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 3 1 n . 7 9 .

43

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 1 - 3 2 ; Fraser, 11

der

Instituts

der

(Mainz 1967), pp. 79,

(note 2 above), p . 102 n . 236.

1 1 2 , p i . 33 (the p h o t o g r a p h w a s k i n d l y p r o

39

vided by T. Holscher).

44

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Museum 21541

45

( f o u n d i n 1 9 2 3 ; H . : 4 4 c m ) ; E . B r e c c i a , Le
Musee

Greco-Romain

Trendall

of Arthur

46

Dale

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 7 - 2 0 ; Fraser, 11
(note 2 above), p p . 4 2 - 5 4 n n . 9 4 - 1 2 4 .

( S y d n e y 1 9 7 9 ) , p . 28 n . 3 3 . T . D o h r n ,

Mitteilungen
Instituts,

in Honour

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 2 1 ; Fraser, n ( n o t e 2
above), pp. 5 6 - 5 7 n n . 1 2 9 - 3 2 .

(Bergamo

1925-1931

1 9 3 2 ) : 3 4 - 3 5 , p i . 2 4 , figs. 8 9 , 9 0 ; G . A n dreassi, i n Studies

H o e p f n e r (note 3 above), p p . 2 7 6 - 7 8 .

des Deutschen
Rbmische

Abteilung

Arch'dologiscben

47

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 3 6 .

48

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 5 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2

92 (1985): 98,

100, 104 ( " B . C . 3 1 0 / 3 0 5 - 2 7 5 " ) . The a m p h o r a

w a s d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e e a s t e r n m o s t area o f t h e

above), p. 30 n . 76.

western necropolis, a r e g i o n near the outlet o f

t h e c a n a l i n t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ( r u e des

49

G . G r i m m , " Z u m P t o l e m a e r a l t a r aus d e m

Soeurs), w h i c h w a s p a r t l y b u i l t o v e r b y c o n

a l e x a n d r i n i s c h e n S a r a p e i o n , " i n Alessandria

s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e " S o c i e t e de Pressage et de

mondo

hellenistico-romano:

D e p o t s . " T h e cinerary u r n was f o u n d intact i n

Achille

Adriani,

a b u r i a l n i c h e a n d b r o k e o n l y w h i l e b e i n g "res

p i . 8; D a s z e w s k i ( n o t e 35 a b o v e ) , p . 1 1 4 , n o . 8,

c u e d . " O t h e r n i c h e s i n t h e same t o m b c o n t a i n e d

p i . 16; M . Sabottka, "Das Serapeum i n A l e x a n

t h r e e b r o k e n vases o f t h e H a d r a t y p e . A b l a c k -

dria: Untersuchungen zur Architektur u n d

Studi

in onore

e il
di

vol. 1 (Rome 1983), pp. 7 0 - 7 3 ,

s l i p h y d r i a "avec des d e c o r a t i o n s en c o u l e u r

B a u g e s c h i c h t e des H e i l i g t u m s v o n d e r f r i i h e n

b l a n c h e s u p e r p o s e e , les anses . . . t r a v a i l l e e s

p t o l e m a i s c h e n Z e i t bis z u r Z e r s t o r u n g 3 9 1 n .

c o m m e des c o r d e s , p o u r v u e s de m a s q u e s p l a s -

C h r . , " v o l . 1 (diss., T e c h n i s c h e U n i v e r s i t a t , Ber

t i q u e s a u p o i n t d ' a t t a c h e sur l ' e p a u l e " w a s ac

l i n 1 9 8 5 ) , p p . 3 0 - 5 5 ; i b i d . , v o l . 2, p p . 5 8 - 7 0

q u i r e d i n 1923 by a certain M r . M i l l s , then

n n . 1 - 8 7 ; i b i d . , v o l . 3, figs. 4 - 7 ; i b i d . , v o l . 4 ,

director o f the c o m p a n y m e n t i o n e d before; i t

p i s . 8 - 1 9 . A n e a r l i e r d a t i n g o f t h e first b u i l d

has been m i s s i n g ever since.

i n g i n t o t h e r e i g n o f P t o l e m y 1 is suggested b y

A c c o r d i n g t o the i n v e n t o r y o f the m u

S a b o t t k a ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t its a x i s deviates

s e u m , these finds w e r e m a d e i n M a y 1 9 2 3 . T h i s

4 t o 5 degrees f r o m t h e r e g u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n o f

s t a t e m e n t is also s u p p o r t e d b y t h e o r d e r o f i n

the Ptolemaic r o a d n e t w o r k ( v o l . 1, p p . 30,

v e n t o r y n u m b e r s ; Breccia's e r r o n e o u s

reference

t o t h e y e a r 1 9 3 0 as t h e d a t e o f t h e d i s c o v e r y
s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be d e l e t e d .

53 55), w h e r e a s t h e l a t e r t e m p l e o f Serapis
e r e c t e d b y Euergetes a l i g n s e x a c t l y w i t h t h e
street l a y o u t . A p r o b a b l e r e a s o n f o r t h i s d e v i a
t i o n c o u l d lie i n the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n the earli

40

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Museum 27811

est stage o f A l e x a n d r i a ' s u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t t h e

(found i n February 1965 by D r . H e n r i R i a d ; H . :

r o a d n e t w o r k h a d n o t y e t been e x p a n s i v e

39 c m ; m i n o r restorations). Permission t o p u b

e n o u g h t o cover the southwestern quarters o f

l i s h i t has been g r a n t e d b y H . R i a d .

the t o w n . For the l o c a t i o n o f the temple i n the

q u a r t e r o f R h a k o t i s , see Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2

Grimm

i n g p . 1 3 2 . T h i s a l l o w s us t o a p p r o x i m a t e t h e

a b o v e ) , p p . 5 - 6 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) ,

dimensions of the "Caesareum," w h i c h m u s t

pp. 6 - 9 n n . 1 5 - 2 0 and 22.

have t a k e n u p a l m o s t a c o m p l e t e insula,
50

thus

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Museum P 8357;

h a r d l y leaving enough r o o m for the sundial i n

G r i m m (note 4 1 above), no. 9 2 w i t h i l l .

t h e F o r u m I u l i u m ( F o r u m A u g u s t i , Sebaste
A g o r a ) . Geza A l f o l d y ( n o t e 5 6 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 8 -

5I

T h e i m p o r t a n t s t i l l - u n p u b l i s h e d results a c h i e v e d

4 9 , figs. 1 1 , 1 2 , has suggested l o c a t i n g i t i n t h i s

by M . S a b o t t k a ( n o t e 4 9 a b o v e ) have c e r t a i n l y

area, w h i c h i n n o w a y d e t r a c t s f r o m his b r i l

c l e a r e d a n d c h a n g e d o u r p i c t u r e o f t h e Serapis

l i a n t d e d u c t i o n t h a t the s o - c a l l e d O b e l i s k o f

s a n c t u a r y i n A l e x a n d r i a (cf. t h e r e c e n t discus

G a l l u s o n t h e Piazza d i San P i e t r o i n R o m e is

s i o n b y P. Pensabene, " E l e m e n t i a r c h i t e t t o n i c i

v e r y l i k e l y o n c e t o have f o r m e d p a r t o f a s u n

di Alessandria e d i altri siti Egiziani," i n

d i a l t h a t C l e o p a t r a v n erected i n A l e x a n d r i a

tories d'Arte

delVEgitto

Reper

a n d t h a t served as m o d e l f o r A u g u s t u s ' s s u n d i a l

serie C ,

Greco-Romano,

on the C a m p u s M a r t i u s (Alfoldy, p p . 5 5 - 6 7 ) .

v o l . 3 [ R o m e 1 9 9 3 ] , PP- 195 2.03, based o n a

level o f k n o w l e d g e p r i o r t o S a b o t t k a ' s

research).
58

52

S a b o t t k a , 1 ( n o t e 4 9 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 6 6 - 6 7 ; Sa

E . I v e r s e n , Obelisks

in Exile,

Obelisks

and England

Egypt:

54

The

(Copenhagen

Skyscrapers

of

of the Past ( N e w Y o r k

1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 1 7 6 - 8 2 , figs. 4 7 - 5 0 ; A l f o l d y ( n o t e

S a b o t t k a , 1 ( n o t e 4 9 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 6 7 - 6 8 ; Sa
b o t t k a , i n ( n o t e 4 9 a b o v e ) , figs. 3 i d , 3 2 a , b ,

5 6 a b o v e ) , p . 43 n . 7 8 a n d p . 52 n . 1 0 0 ( w i t h

33a.

further lit.).

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m P 10035;

59

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 2 4 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2

G r i m m ( n o t e 4 1 a b o v e ) , n o . 93 w i t h i l l .

above), pp. 6 8 - 7 0 n n . 1 5 5 - 6 3 ; H . H e i n e n ,

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 5 - 1 7 ; Fraser, 11

H . T e m p o r i n i , e d . , Aufstieg

(note 2 above), pp. 3 0 - 4 2 n n . 7 7 - 9 2 .

romischen

"Die
55

v o l . 2,

1 9 7 2 ) , p p . 9 o f f . ; L . H a b a c h i , The Obelisks

b o t t k a , i n ( n o t e 4 9 a b o v e ) , figs. 3 i a - c a n d 3 3 b .
53

of Istanbul

A n f a n g e des r o m i s c h e n K a i s e r k u l t e s , " i n
und Niedergang

der

Welt 18,5 ( B e r l i n 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 3 1 5 2 . -

5556

M o u s e i o n : Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 5 ;
Fraser, n ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 0 - 3 1 n . 7 7 .

60

See n o t e 6 1 b e l o w . H o e p f n e r ' s s t a t e m e n t ( n o t e 3

Grave of Cleopatra v n and M a r k A n t o n y :

a b o v e , p . 2 7 7 ) t h a t a q u a r t e r o r a fifth o f t h e

Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 3 - 3 4 n . 8 1 ; T i -

c i t y h a d been " r o y a l t e r r i t o r y " is c e r t a i n l y a p

m o n e i o n : P l u t a r c h Life

plicable t o the s i t u a t i o n neither before Strabo's

of Antony

69 a n d 7 1

(Loeb Classical L i b r a r y ) , w i t h an English trans

v i s i t n o r i n his d a y a n d r a t h e r m o r e l i k e l y t o be

lation by Bernadotte Perrin, v o l . 9 ( L o n d o n

t r u e f o r t h e I m p e r i a l age o n l y .

1920), p p . 2 9 7 , 3 0 1 ; A d r i a n i , 1 (note 6 above),

p . 2 5 5 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 2 4 ; Fraser, 11
(note 2 above), p. 66 n . 153; G . A l f o l d y ,

Der

Obelisk

hi-

auf dem Petersplatz

storisches

Monument

in Rom:

der Antike,

Ein

Sitzungs-

61

1 7 . 1 . 8 ; Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 4 ; Fraser, 11
(note 2 above), p . 30 n . 70.

62

1 7 . 5 2 ; B r a d f o r d W e l l e s ( n o t e 14 a b o v e ) , p . 2 6 9 .

63

H o e p f n e r (note 3 above), p . 277.

64

F o r t h e same p h e n o m e n o n i n m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s ,

b e r i c h t e d e r H e i d e l b e r g e r A k a d e m i e der
Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische
Klasse, n o . 2 ( H e i d e l b e r g 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 4 6 .
57

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 2 4 ; Fraser, 11 ( n o t e 2

see R . Z i m m e r m a n n , Kunstliche

a b o v e ) , p p . 6 8 - 7 0 n n . 1 5 5 - 6 3 ; cf. also K . T u -

dien zu ihrer

chelt, " Z u m P r o b l e m 'Kaisareion-Sebasteion'.

1989).

Bedeutung

Ruinen:

und Form

Stu-

(Wiesbaden

E i n e Frage z u d e n A n f a n g e n des r o m i s c h e n
K a i s e r k u l t e s , " Istanbuler

Mitteilungen

31

65

E. G a l l i , "Riflessi d i p i t t u r a alessandrina i n Ca

( 1 9 8 1 ) : 1 6 7 - 8 6 . I n 1 8 7 4 massive f o u n d a t i o n

l a b r i a , " Rivista

del R. Istituto

blocks o f b o t h limestone a n d sandstone (mea

Storia

6 ( 1 9 3 7 ) : 3 2 f f . , figs. 7, 8, 9 , 1 1

dell'Arte

d'Archeologia

s u r i n g 3 . 5 0 m a n d 2 . 5 0 m across, r e s p e c t i v e l y )

and p i . 1 (color reconstruction); D . B. Harden,

were discovered immediately south of " C l e o

Journal

of Glass

Studies

10 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 33.

patra's Needles." These blocks h a d doubtlessly

s u p p o r t e d the largest p a r t o f the
at o n e t i m e ; cf. T . N e r o u t s o s ,
Alexandrie:
graphique

Etude

archeologique

"Caesareum"
L'ancienne
et

topo-

(Paris 1 8 8 8 ) , p p . i o f f . , m a p f o l l o w

66

H a r d e n ( n o t e 65 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 , n o s . a - j
(with further lit.); M . Pfrommer,
chungen

zur Chronologie

stischen

Goldschmucks,

friih-

und

Untersuhochhelleni-

Istanbuler Forschungen

73

74

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

3 7 ( T u b i n g e n 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 2 3 7 , a d n o . F K 63
(with further lit.).
67

H a r d e n ( n o t e 65 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 , n o . 4 , figs.
3 1 - 3 2 ( w i t h further lit.); P f r o m m e r (note 66
a b o v e ) , p . 2 3 7 n . 1 8 0 1 ( w i t h f u r t h e r l i t . ) . See
also U . H a u s m a n n , Griechische

Weihreliefs

( B e r l i n i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 8 1 - 8 2 , fig. 5 1 ( p r o b a b l y
A l e x a n d r i a n , first h a l f s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . ) .
68

G a l l i ( n o t e 65 a b o v e ) , f i g . 1 0 ; P f r o m m e r ( n o t e
66 above), p . 169 ( O R 22), p . 237, no. F K 63,
pis. 3 0 , 4 5 . A r e a o f o r i g i n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
the antelope-head earrings: P f r o m m e r , p p . 1 7 1 7 2 , fig. 3 1 .

69

I n f o r m a t i o n k i n d l y p r o v i d e d by D r . Elena L a t tanzi (Soprintendenza archeologica della Cala

bria, Reggio C ) .

70

Fraser, 1 ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 3 6 ; H o e p f n e r ( n o t e
3 above), p . 277.

75

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A l e x a n d r i a is the first Greek t o w n t o become the base of a Greek m o n a r

chy i n E g y p t . H e r d o u b l e character as a t r a d i t i o n a l c i t y a n d the c a p i t a l
of a k i n g d o m gives her a special character, t h a t of a t o w n i n w h i c h the
p o w e r n o longer comes f r o m the citizens a n d t h a t m u s t i n v e n t a n e w re
l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the p o p u l a t i o n , based o n a u t h o r i t y b u t also o n care f o r
this p o p u l a t i o n . T h e native m o n a r c h y r e m a i n e d isolated, a n d i n t e r n a
t i o n a l dynastic prestige was reserved f o r Greeks a n d M a c e d o n i a n s . T h e
c o u r t , the festivals, a n d the m o n u m e n t s were the instruments of the deli
cate balance between Egyptians, o n the one h a n d , a n d Greeks a n d M a c e
donians, o n the other, realized under P t o l e m y n , w h i c h made A l e x a n d r i a
the center o f a n e w w o r l d (see Strabo 1 7 . 1 . 6 - 1 2 , w h i c h gives a very de
t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t o w n as i t was a b o u t 25 B . C . ) . We have n o t i m e
to d w e l l o n this fascinating t e x t , w h i c h describes the d i s t r i c t o f the
palaces, the Basileia w i t h the r o y a l gardens, the M o u s e i o n , the L i b r a r y ,
a n d the Sema, w h i c h P t o l e m y i v considered the grave o f A l e x a n d e r the
Great, a n d w h i c h was also the grave o f the first Ptolemies.
W h a t was m o s t r e m a r k a b l e was the Serapeion, the sanctuary
t h a t became the biggest o f the t o w n . I t was i n the n e w t o w n , N e a p o l i s ,
w h e r e the agora, the t r i b u n a l s , the theater, the boule, a n d maybe the
g y m n a s i u m h a d been erected. B u t i t lacked an i m p o r t a n t d i v i n i t y , w h i c h
was unusual since i t was n o t far f r o m the civic center, a n d m o s t Greek
cities h a d sanctuaries i n such an area. T h e vast sanctuary of Serapis was
b u i l t m u c h further s o u t h , o n a h i l l o v e r l o o k i n g the d i s t r i c t t h a t k e p t the
ancient E g y p t i a n name, R h a k o t i s . Some scholars t h i n k t h a t the Serapeion
was p e r p e t u a t i n g an older, local c u l t . B u t this is n o t p r o v e d . T h e f o r m o f
this sanctuary a n d the c u l t of Serapis, as w e l l as the place w h e r e the
temple was b u i l t , c o u l d merely indicate the w i l l of the first Ptolemies t o
u n d e r l i n e a s y m b o l i c c o n t i n u i t y w i t h E g y p t i a n heritage.
Paradoxically, very l i t t l e is k n o w n a b o u t the Egyptians i n
A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g the t h i r d century. O n the other h a n d we k n o w m u c h
a b o u t the Celtic mercenaries because o f t h e i r m a n y t o m b s i n the t h i r d
a n d second centuries i n A l e x a n d r i a . T h i s is also the case o f the Jews,
who

perhaps were established by A l e x a n d e r the Great himself b u t i n any

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FIG.

Statue of Serapis, from the

Faiyum. Sycamore w o o d . Roman
period. Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum.

case c o n s t i t u t e d a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m u n i t y f r o m the t i m e o f P t o l e m y v i
a n d were g r o u p e d i n one d i s t r i c t at the end o f the Ptolemaic era.
I w i l l n o t speak o f the E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h the p h a r a o h s . I t is very difficult t o t r y t o summarize the significance
of the cults i n H e l l e n i s t i c E g y p t . T h e l e i t m o t i f o f the E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n is
i n fact the passage f r o m life t o death a n d the question of w h a t happens
i n the other w o r l d . I t is n o t everyday life t h a t concerns E g y p t b u t the u n
c e r t a i n t y o f w h a t happens after death. For the Egyptians i t seems t o be
the same life b u t i n another f o r m , m o r e s p i r i t u a l i z e d . M u m m i f i c a t i o n ,
the b u i l d i n g o f the t o m b s , the d e c o r a t i o n o f the t o m b s w i t h statues, re
liefs, stelae, a n d g i f t s f r o m a simple p o t t o the m o s t beautiful g o l d
a n d the c u l t offerings i n the t o m b s a n d temples a l l suggest t h a t after
physical death there is a c o n t i n u a t i o n of life.
T h r o u g h art, we have i n some w a y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the future,
of an eternal, m o r e b e a u t i f u l existence. E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n deals w i t h the
same p r o b l e m as a l l religions: w h a t is the c o n t a c t between m a n a n d g o d .
T h e gods have t h e i r plans, a n d m a n answers gods w i t h prayers a n d offer
ings. B u t i n E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n , n o t every m a n is a l l o w e d i n t o the v i c i n i t y
of the g o d , b u t o n l y the k i n g , the p h a r a o h , a n d his priest. T h i s attitude is

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certainly one t h a t lasted m a n y thousands o f years. D u r i n g the p e r i o d

t h a t interests usthe H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d of the Ptolemiesthe n e w lead
ers, Greeks w h o n o w r u l e d the l a n d of the N i l e a n d were l i v i n g i n the
m o s t beautiful city, A l e x a n d r i a , t r i e d t o understand the p o w e r o f G o d
a n d his omnipresence. T h e y also t r i e d t o find a f o r m t h a t suited E g y p
tians as w e l l as Greeks. T h e y d i d i t w i t h success, a n d they f o u n d a name,
Serapis, the n e w artistic c r e a t i o n of the n e w p h a r a o h , P t o l e m y I Soter.
T h e creation was a b r i l l i a n t idea t h a t t r i e d t o u n i f y the ethnic, c u l t u r a l ,
a n d social differences between the o l d a n d the n e w leaders of E g y p t .
We k n o w t h a t f o r hundreds o f years, Greeks a n d Egyptians
h a d been i n c o n t a c t a n d t h a t they already h a d the same beliefs a b o u t
some deities. W i t h the f o u n d a t i o n i n a b o u t 6 2 0 B . C . of N a u k r a t i s , a
Greek c o l o n y t h a t became extremely prosperous, a n d even before t h a t
t i m e , contacts were m a i n t a i n e d . I t is e n o u g h t o read H e r o d o t o s ( m i d d l e
of the fifth century) t o see h o w close the parallels were between some
E g y p t i a n a n d some Greek gods.
Serapis is the hellenized f o r m of O s o r - H a p i , whose c u l t was
established i n M e m p h i s i n the late p e r i o d a n d w h o was i n fact the b u l l
A p i s (see R i a d fig. i above), w h o , after his death, became an O s i r i s , as
d i d a l l w h o d i e d . T h i s g o d , w h o at first was l i t t l e k n o w n except i n M e m
phis, was represented as a h y b r i d , w i t h the b o d y o f a m u m m i f i e d m a n
a n d a bull's head, c a r r y i n g the solar disk between his h o r n s . B u t the g o d
w h o appeared t o P t o l e m y h a d the aspect o f an o l d , i m p o s i n g m a n w i t h a
beard (fig. i ) , h o l d i n g a scepter, w i t h the d o g Kerberos seated at his side.
T h i s image, w h i c h w o u l d be the i c o n o g r a p h y o f Serapis f o r the c o m i n g
centuries, has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h the o l d E g y p t i a n i c o n o g r a p h y .
Yet Serapis presented aspects t h a t l i n k e d h i m t o his E g y p t i a n
past. H e is a g o d of the dead, a sort o f d o u b l e o f O s i r i s , a n d l i k e h i m , a
g o d of f e r t i l i t y : he wears a modius

o n his head (see R i a d fig. 3 above).

B u t he is also a healing g o d , a n d this is a n e w element, f o r the Egyptians

h a d n o gods w i t h such a specialty. Serapis became closely l i n k e d t o the
r o y a l couple o f the Ptolemies a n d t h e i r wives i n a l l sorts o f prayers.
T h e great Temple o f Serapis i n A l e x a n d r i a , w i t h its precious
f o u n d a t i o n deposits l a i d by the first Ptolemies, attests, especially after
Ptolemy 111 ( 2 4 6 - 2 2 1 ) , t o official i n t e r v e n t i o n of r o y a l p o w e r d u r i n g the
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the temple. T h e archaeological e x p l o r a t i o n o n this site
has been very difficult: T h e site has been altered m a n y times, a n d i t has
been d i s t u r b e d .
I n fact, m a n y sources t e n d t o identify Serapis w i t h Hades, the
Greek g o d of the dead, a n d the advisors o f the k i n g persuaded h i m t h a t
Hades-Pluto was the Greek name f o r the E g y p t i a n name Serapis.
F r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n by Rufinus o f A q u i l e i a we can get an
idea of the splendor o f the Serapeion, its immense esplanade s u r r o u n d e d
by w a l l s , w i t h exedras, r o o m s f o r priests, a n d taller b u i l d i n g s w h e r e the

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guardians a n d priests lived together. I n the center o f this vast ensemble

the temple rose w i t h ornate c o l u m n s a n d an exterior b u i l t o f m a r b l e .
T h e Serapeion's g l o r y was immense, a n d its d e s t r u c t i o n by the Christians
i n A . D . 392 was felt i n a l l E g y p t as a scandal a n d a cause f o r m o u r n i n g .
D u r i n g the first century B . C . there was n o conflict between the
different cults t h a t coexisted i n A l e x a n d r i a . I t has been t h o u g h t t h a t the
c u l t o f Serapis, so m u c h favored by the Ptolemies, h a d one o b j e c t i v e t o
u n i f y the different elements o f the p o p u l a t i o n s l i v i n g i n Egypt. B u t this is
o n l y a guess. I n the t h i r d century B . C . the Greeks played a m a j o r role i n
society a n d h a d privileges. I n t e r m a r r i a g e was f o r b i d d e n i n N a u k r a t i s
a n d p r o b a b l y also i n A l e x a n d r i a . T h e kings w a n t e d t o preserve a p r i v i
leged p o s i t i o n f o r the Greeks, a n d so i t is i m p r o b a b l e t h a t they w o u l d
have t r i e d t o achieve religious i n t e g r a t i o n , w h i c h they refused elsewhere.
T h e c u l t o f Serapis concerned the r o y a l c o u r t , the Greek p o p u l a t i o n of
A l e x a n d r i a , except i n M e m p h i s , where the c u l t was assimilated t o the
c u l t o f A p i s . O n e s h o u l d consider Serapis n o t as a g o d u n i f y i n g different
p o p u l a t i o n s b u t as the g o d o f A l e x a n d r i a , as the g o d o f a polis t h a t pa
t r o n i z e d the n e w dynasty o f the Ptolemies a n d its p o w e r .
M e m p h i s is m o r e interesting t h a n A l e x a n d r i a f r o m the p o i n t
of v i e w o f the i n t e g r a t i o n of Greeks a n d Egyptians. I n M e m p h i s d u r i n g
the second century B . C . , Greeks a n d Egyptians were b o t h serving the g o d
whose official name was Serapis b u t also A p i s (he was w o r s h i p e d i n the
shape o f a b u l l l i v i n g i n a sacred p r e c i n c t ) . There, i n M e m p h i s , the inte
g r a t i o n was a fact, a n d the believers recognized their g o d i n his different
shapes. T h i r d - c e n t u r y A l e x a n d r i a , w i t h its culture a n d r e l i g i o n , was
above a l l a Greek t o w n . B u t some o f the E g y p t i a n gods there were al
ready w e l l k n o w n t o the Greeks a n d belonged also t o their universe:
A t h e n a was N e i t h , A p h r o d i t e was H a t h o r , a n d so f o r t h . A n d i t was i n
A l e x a n d r i a t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n c o m b i n e d w i t h Greek artistic tech
niques a n d modes o f expression, g i v i n g the E g y p t i a n gods a different a n d
often m o r e c o m p l e x image. T h i s supposes n o t o n l y w o r k f r o m the artists
w h o c o m b i n e d Greek a n d E g y p t i a n elements b u t also m e n t a l , p h i l o s o p h
i c a l , a n d sometimes t h e o l o g i c a l reflection, as we can see i n P l u t a r c h , for
instance. I n fact, we c a n n o t speak o f a m i x e d Graeco-Egyptian r e l i g i o n
o r c i v i l i z a t i o n b u t o f m u t u a l influences, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the c u l t o f Serapis,
w h o became universally k n o w n , w i t h his very Greek image as Hades
o r P l o u t o n . L i k e h i m , Isis was also represented, b u t m o r e often under a
hellenized aspect, invented i n A l e x a n d r i a , a n d n o t under her t r a d i t i o n a l ,
E g y p t i a n aspect.
Nevertheless, an i m p o r t a n t Jewish c o m m u n i t y i n A l e x a n d r i a
was also influenced by the Greeks, b u t there were conflicts between
Greeks a n d Jews s t a r t i n g i n the t h i r d century, n o t o n l y for religious rea
sons, b u t f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r fiscal ones. H o w e v e r , the extension of
C h r i s t i a n i t y i n the t h i r d a n d f o u r t h centuries was also one of the causes;

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FIG.

Head of Alexander the Great.

Granite. First century B.C.
Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
Museum 3x42.

the conflicts became m o r e a n d m o r e v i o l e n t , a n d E g y p t i a n r e l i g i o n itself

w o u l d vanish.
T h i s is n o t the place t o go i n t o greater d e t a i l a b o u t the differ
ent elements t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d A l e x a n d r i a n r e l i g i o n . L e t us remember o n l y
t h a t m a n y Greek d i v i n i t i e s were w o r s h i p e d b u t t h a t Isis a n d Serapis
p l a y e d the m a j o r r o l e : T h e Ptolemies h a d a d o p t e d t h e m , a n d the rulers
were b o t h p h a r a o h s a n d k i n g s . We m u s t also n o t forget the i m p o r t a n c e
of the festivals attached t o a n u m b e r o f these cults. I n a p a m p h l e t w r i t t e n
p r o b a b l y under the emperor T r a j a n , D i o n o f Prusa r e p r o a c h e d the
A l e x a n d r i a n s f o r passing t h e i r t i m e w i t h w h a t he called " t r i v i a l enter
t a i n m e n t s , " such as d a n c i n g , music, a n d horse r a c i n g . H e c o m p a r e d
t h e m t o maenads a n d satyrs, t h e i r life being just a k o m o s , a n d n o t an
agreeable one b u t a savage one: people d a n c i n g , singing, a n d p o u r i n g
b l o o d . Yet under the first Ptolemies, the artistic performances were n o t
c o m p a r a b l e t o those m e n t i o n e d by D i o n o f Prusa.
A few o f these festivals m u s t be m e n t i o n e d , especially the
great procession o f P t o l e m y Philadelphos. I t was described at the end
of the first c e n t u r y B . C . by K a l l i x e i n o s o f Rhodes a n d m e n t i o n e d by
A t h e n a i o s o f N a u k r a t i s , a later E g y p t i a n w r i t e r f r o m the t h i r d c e n t u r y
A . D . w h o was r e c a l l i n g the f o r m e r splendor o f his n o w - r u i n e d c o u n t r y .
I n fact this festival was p r o b a b l y the P t o l e m a i a , celebrated first i n h o n o r
of P t o l e m y Soter, between 2 7 9 / 2 7 8 a n d 2 7 1 / 2 7 0 B . C . , a c e l e b r a t i o n c o n
sidered equal t o the O l y m p i c Games i n Greece. Three dates are g i v e n ,
the i n a u g u r a t i o n 2 7 9 / 2 7 8 , the Penteteris o f 2 7 1 / 2 7 0 , a n d also 2 7 5 / 2 7 4 .
These dates are n o t i m p o r t a n t i n themselves. W h a t is i m p o r
t a n t is t h a t the c e l e b r a t i o n c o m m e m o r a t e d the a d m i s s i o n o f P t o l e m y i n t o
O l y m p o s , w h e r e he j o i n e d A l e x a n d e r the Great. Therefore, the D i o n y s i a c
p a r t o f the festival o c c u p i e d the p r i m a r y place, f o r the g o d D i o n y s o s was

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considered t o be an ancestor o f the dynasty. I n the second c e n t u r y B . C .

Satyros h a d w r i t t e n a treatise assuming t h a t t h r o u g h his m o t h e r , A r s i noe, P t o l e m y i was a descendant o f B o r k o s , the b r o t h e r o f the k i n g o f
M a c e d o n i a , A l e x a n d e r the Philhellene, descendant himself, like P h i l i p
a n d A l e x a n d e r , f r o m Temenos, son o f H y l l o s , son o f Herakles a n d
D e i a n e i r a , herself the daughter o f D i o n y s o s . T h i s c o m p l i c a t e d genealogy
p a r t i a l l y explains h o w the great procession was organized: i n the D i o nysiac procession there were statues o f kings, namely the h i s t o r i c or
m y t h i c a l ancestors o f A l e x a n d e r the Great (fig. 2) a n d P t o l e m y 1.
T h e Ptolemaia was n o t easy t o organize. M a n y representa
tives o f Greek states were i n v i t e d , as were artists. Athenaeus
phistae

Deipnoso-

5 . 1 9 4 - 9 5 is p a r t i c u l a r l y interesting o n this p o i n t . I n i t we learn

t h a t soldiers, artists, a n d foreign delegations were sheltered under tents,

the m o s t b e a u t i f u l o f these being t h a t of the official banquet. T h e proces
sion began w i t h the section dedicated t o the parents o f the k i n g s , f o l
l o w e d by the procession o f " a l l the gods," a n d finally that of the evening
star. A great n u m b e r o f animals were sacrificed, a n d o n another day
there was c e r t a i n l y a m i l i t a r y parade o f i n f a n t r y a n d horsemen.
D i o n y s o s appeared first as the founder o f the dynasty b u t also
as the g o d w h o presided over a l l d r a m a t i c contests, w h e r e actors, poets,
musicians, a n d singers were c o m p e t i n g . A n u m b e r o f persons were dis
guised as satyrs a n d sileni, a n d the statue of the g o d was c a r r i e d o n a
c h a r i o t w i t h f o u r wheels: a r o u n d i t were a l l the c u l t officers, the priests,
the priestesses, the t h i a s o i , the n e w initiates, a l l sorts o f maenads ( M a c e
d o n i a n , T h r a c i a n , a n d L y d i a n ) . T h e y were a l l c r o w n e d w i t h wreaths o f
serpents a n d h e l d serpents and daggers i n t h e i r hands. T h i s was the be
g i n n i n g o f the secret procession, w h i c h ended w i t h the a p p a r i t i o n of t w o
emblemata:

a gilded thyrsos 135 feet l o n g , a n d a p h a l l o s , also g i l d e d ,

180 feet l o n g , o n t o p o f w h i c h was a star. M y t h o l o g i c a l scenes illus

t r a t e d the gods' aspects; a mechanical figure dressed as N y s a , the god's
nurse, s t o o d i n her seat, p o u r e d a l i b a t i o n , a n d sat d o w n again. O t h e r
chariots c a r r i e d a d d i t i o n a l m y t h o l o g i c a l scenes: the cave where D i o n y s o s
as an i n f a n t h a d been nursed by H e r m e s a n d the n y m p h s , a n d the altar
of Rhea w h e r e D i o n y s o s a n d Priapos h a d f o u n d refuge f r o m H e r a .
Some chariots glorified D i o n y s o s as the g o d o f w i n e . O n e car
r i e d an immense winepress, where a chorus o f fifty satyrs w i t h flute play
ers pressed w i n e grapes w h i l e singing; a silenus was w a t c h i n g t h e m .
A n o t h e r c h a r i o t c a r r i e d a gigantic s k i n (this t i m e n o t a g o a t s k i n b u t a
p a n t h e r s k i n ) f r o m w h i c h w i n e d r i p p e d ; 120 satyrs a n d sileni filled g o l d
vases f r o m i t . O n a t h i r d c h a r i o t a huge, beautifully decorated krater of
silver was c a r r i e d . I n this procession o l d a n d y o u n g m e n c a r r i e d precious
objects f r o m the pharaoh's s t o r e r o o m : the objects were meant n o t o n l y
t o h o n o r the g o d b u t also t o p r o m p t a d m i r a t i o n f r o m the c r o w d . A cho
rus o f six h u n d r e d singers a n d three h u n d r e d musicians p l a y i n g k i t h a r a s

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accompanied the procession, w i n e was d i s t r i b u t e d , a n d f r o m the cave o f

the n y m p h s pigeons and other birds were released. Those w h o h a d the
privilege o f being seated i n the s t a d i u m c o u l d d r i n k sweet w i n e served
by y o u n g m e n .
T h i s procession t o D i o n y s o s was preceded by V i c t o r i e s w i t h
gilded w i n g s w h o h e l d t h y m i a t e r i a w i t h g i l d e d leaves. T h e n came alle
gories o f the year a n d the seasons, and i n the procession i n h o n o r of
D i o n y s o s a pompe

depicted the t r i u m p h a l r e t u r n of the g o d f r o m I n d i a .

A c h a r i o t w i t h f o u r wheels bore the figure o f the v i c t o r i o u s g o d s i t t i n g

o n the back o f an elephant. H i s a r m y f o l l o w e d : five h u n d r e d y o u n g girls;
120 satyrs; five squadrons of asses m o u n t e d by sileni; elephants; chariots
d r a w n by horses, by camels, a n d by a l l sorts of other animals f r o m the
forest a n d desert. Some later sarcophagi s h o w us this imagery.
T h e n came the prisoners a n d the b o o t y ; w o m e n i n chariots;
camels; E t h i o p i a n s c a r r y i n g g o l d , ebony, a n d elephant tusks; f o l l o w e d by
the hunters w i t h their dogs, the bird-catchers w i t h cages f u l l o f birds,
a n d finally, exotic animals.
T h e last: c h a r i o t i n the procession c a r r i e d the religious a n d
p o l i t i c a l message: the statues of A l e x a n d e r the Great a n d P t o l e m y 1 or
P t o l e m y 11 w i t h c r o w n s of i v y o n their heads. N e a r P t o l e m y 1 were
figures of Arete a n d C o r i n t h a n d a procession of w o m e n d e p i c t i n g the
cities t h a t P t o l e m y h a d liberated d u r i n g the t i m e of A l e x a n d e r the Great
a n d h a d k e p t independent. T h u s , the M a c e d o n i a n dynasty o f E g y p t
was p r o c l a i m i n g its p h i l h e l l e n i s m . O t h e r gods f o l l o w e d : Zeus was

first,

a n d A l e x a n d e r closed the procession o n a c h a r i o t d r a w n by elephants;

at his side were A t h e n a a n d N i k e . T h i s is o n l y a short resume o f A t h e naeus's t e x t , w h i c h is very l o n g , a n d i t is strange t h a t we never find any
m e n t i o n o f Herakles.
I w i l l n o t elaborate o n another festival, t h a t of Demeter, the
T h e s m o p h o r i a , i n w h i c h Demeter is assimilated t o Isis. B u t I w i l l deal
briefly w i t h the festival i n h o n o r o f the c u l t of A d o n i s , w h i c h was

firmly

r o o t e d i n A l e x a n d r i a , c o m i n g f r o m nearby countries, such as Phoenicia

a n d C y p r u s . T h e best d e s c r i p t i o n o f this feast is a p o e m by T h e o k r i t o s ,
Idylls

15 ( 2 7 8 - 2 7 0

B.C.).

I t evokes an a n n u a l celebration o f the c u l t o f

A d o n i s organized inside the palace w a l l s by Queen A r s i n o e n . There was

perhaps n o t o n l y a religious festival organized by the queen b u t also a
m i l i t a r y parade organized by the k i n g . T h e queen gave this feast t o t h a n k
A p h r o d i t e for h a v i n g deified Queen Berenike, the w i f e of P t o l e m y 1
Soter, a n d A d o n i s , the d i v i n e spouse o f A p h r o d i t e , w h o was protectress
of b o t h Berenike a n d A r s i n o e 11. T h i s festival h a d a different sense t h a n
the usual one; i t was n o t celebrating a m y t h c o n c e r n i n g i m m o r t a l i t y .
T h e o k r i t o s ' s Idylls

is a short, c o m i c piece o f verse i n w h i c h

t w o y o u n g girls f r o m Syracuse are v i s i t i n g the palace o n the first day of

the festival t o A d o n i s ; i t tells us n o t h i n g a b o u t the gardens o f A d o n i s .

81

82

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

O n e o f the y o u n g girls is called P r a x i n o a ; w i t h her friend G o r g o a n d t w o

servants she goes t o the palace a n d meets m a n y soldiers. T h e husbands
of the t w o girls d o n o t p l a y any great role; one of t h e m is o n l y h u n g r y
a n d awaits his l u n c h . As usual d u r i n g a feast i n h o n o r o f A d o n i s , the
w o m e n h a d a c e r t a i n l i b e r t y a n d c o u l d visit the palace. Inside, i n the en
t r y r o o m , pictures i l l u s t r a t e d episodes i n the legend of A d o n i s . A statue
of the g o d depicted h i m l y i n g o n a bed o f silver. A female singer f r o m
A r g o s sang i n h o n o r o f A d o n i s , describing the k l i s m o s o n w h i c h the g o d
was l y i n g , under a green b o w e r where little erotes were flying f r o m one
b r a n c h t o another. O n the ends o f the k l i s m o s were representations o f
the eagle c a r r y i n g off Ganymede, also an apotheosis. A l l a r o u n d were a l l
sorts of offerings: fruits, flowers, alabastra w i t h Syrian perfumes, a n d
sweets. N a t u r a l l y , there was m u c h singing. T h e songs m u s t have h a d a
religious m e a n i n g a n d a n n o u n c e d the ceremony o f the second day.
As these examples show, the cults o f the Ptolemies were
s u m p t u o u s . T h e c o u r t w a n t e d the G r a e c o - R o m a n p o p u l a t i o n o f A l e x a n
d r i a a n d the Egyptians t o share i n the c u l t activity. T h e exercise o f the
p o w e r t o establish a c u l t seems t o be a sign o f d i v i n e nature. T h i s
process started i n Greece i n the f o u r t h century, a n d especially i n M a c e
d o n i a . As s o o n as A l e x a n d e r d i e d , Ptolemy, the first satrap o f E g y p t , d i
verted this b o d y f r o m M a c e d o n i a t o A l e x a n d r i a . H e b u i l t a magnificent
t o m b , the Sema, f o r A l e x a n d e r a n d i n s t i t u t e d a c u l t i n his h o n o r as
f o u n d e r o f the c i t y (we d o n o t k n o w i f the Sema is preserved o r where
i t lies). I n a b o u t 2 8 0 , P t o l e m y 11 deified his parents, P t o l e m y 1 a n d
Berenike. H e t h e n i n s t i t u t e d his o w n c u l t , associated w i t h the c u l t of his
w i f e , A r s i n o e 11, w h o d i e d i n 2 7 0 . T h e y were t h e n called "the gods'
b r o t h e r a n d sister" (fig. 3).
T h i s dynastic c u l t w o u l d continue t o associate the l i v i n g k i n g
w i t h his deceased ancestors. I t w o u l d be a c u l t celebrated i n the Greek

FIG.

Octadrachm w i t h double portraits

of Ptolemy i and Berenike I (ob
verse), Ptolemy n and Arsinoe n

way, by priests a n d priestesses of Greek o r i g i n . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u a l of

(reverse). T h i r d century B . C .

Greek r e l i g i o n was preserved, w i t h sacrifices, v i c t i m s , a n d l i b a t i o n s . O n e

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman

c o u l d suppose t h a t this i d e o l o g y came f r o m the t r a d i t i o n s i n E g y p t , i n

w h i c h the p h a r a o h was son a n d successor o f the gods. H e r e the Greek
ideal o f arete (virtue) revealed the d i v i n e nature o f the ruler, w h o was the
e m b o d i m e n t o f justice, generosity, m i l i t a r y courage, a n d so o n . T h e
t h u n d e r b o l t o f Zeus a n d the c o r n u c o p i a , s y m b o l of prosperity, frequently
appear o n the coins. Perhaps i t is this r o y a l c u l t t h a t was the real i n s t r u
m e n t o f u n i f i c a t i o n for a p o p u l a t i o n o f very different o r i g i n s . T h e r o y a l
c u l t therefore h a d t w o levels: one Greek, especially i n A l e x a n d r i a , a n d
one E g y p t i a n i n other sanctuaries o f the c o u n t r y , a n d yet they d o n o t
c o n t r a d i c t each other.
We have already spoken of Serapis a n d the role he played.
B u t other E g y p t i a n gods were as i m p o r t a n t , especially Isis (fig. 4 ) , w h o
h a d several temples i n A l e x a n d r i a , one at Cape Lochias, another o n the

M u s e u m 25018.

Kahil

FIG.

Statue of Isis, f r o m Ras el-Soda

(Alexandria). M a r b l e . Ca. A . D .
1 4 0 - 1 5 0 . Alexandria, GraecoR o m a n Museum 25783.

island o f Pharos. She was the protectress o f mariners a n d o f n a v i g a t i o n .

H e r c u l t was extremely i m p o r t a n t i n A l e x a n d r i a already i n the t i m e o f
A l e x a n d e r the Great. A r r i a n mentions that A l e x a n d e r the Great erected
a temple i n h o n o r of Isis the E g y p t i a n . I n the Hellenistic p e r i o d Isis was
certainly one of the m o s t p o p u l a r divinities o f E g y p t , a universal goddess.
Before the f o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a she already h a d a temple i n Piraeus.
She was identified by the Greeks w i t h Demeter, a n d her image was
m o s t l y a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c . B u t she was also often identified w i t h A p h r o
dite. I t was d u r i n g the Ptolemaic p e r i o d i n A l e x a n d r i a that the E g y p t i a n
gods often got a n e w l o o k . T h e Isis f r o m A l e x a n d r i a w o r e a dress o f
E g y p t i a n o r i g i n b u t i n a Greek fashion. She h a d n o w i g , her h a i r was
floating

or c u r l e d . She c o u l d be completely nude a n d reminds us t h e n o f

an o r i e n t a l i z i n g A p h r o d i t e . H e r attributes, the sistron,

the discus, a n d

the situla, were b o r r o w e d f r o m an E g y p t i a n repertoire b u t c o r r e s p o n d e d

n o w t o a Greek s y m b o l i s m .

83

84

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Statue of Euthenia. M a r b l e .
Ca. A . D . 1 6 0 - 1 8 0 . Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 24124.

W e c o u l d say the same o f the N i l e , w h i c h was n o w depicted

i n the G r a e c o - R o m a n t r a d i t i o n , n o longer the E g y p t i a n , a n d o f E u t h e n i a
(fig. 5), w h o depicted abundance a n d f e r t i l i t y . T h e Egyptians i n A l e x a n
d r i a q u i c k l y g o t used t o the n e w l o o k o f t h e i r o l d gods, b u t i n the c o u n
t r y i t t o o k m u c h longer, a n d i t was o n l y u n d e r the R o m a n s t h a t these
images were spread w i d e l y , p r o b a b l y because of the coinage.
Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae
PARIS

85

Body and Machine: Interactions between

Medicine, Mechanics, and Philosophy in
Early Alexandria
Heinrich

von

Staden

A t different h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t s o f e x c e p t i o n a l c u l t u r a l efflorescence,
science plays s t r i k i n g l y divergent roles. T h e o r e t i c a l l y i n c l i n e d , o r i g i n a l
"research" scientists represent a m o r e conspicuous strand i n the intellec
t u a l t e x t u r e of early A l e x a n d r i a t h a n , f o r example, o f Periklean Athens
or of A u g u s t a n R o m e (despite the b r i l l i a n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l , a r c h i t e c t u r a l ,
a n d general c u l t u r a l v i r t u o s i t y o f Athens a n d R o m e ) . Scientists were, of
course, active i n m a n y Greek cities t h r o u g h o u t the H e l l e n i s t i c epoch,
i n c l u d i n g Syracuse, Athens, Rhodes, K o s , Pergamon, Smyrna, Ephesos,
L a o d i c e a - a d - L y c u m , a n d A n t i o c h , b u t a t h i c k t e x t u r e of scientific activ
1

i t y is a p a r t i c u l a r l y distinctive feature o f A l e x a n d r i a n c u l t u r e i n the t h i r d

century B . C . H o w m a n y other ancient Greek cities c o u l d , w i t h i n a single
century, c o u n t E u c l i d , A r i s t a r c h o s o f Samos, A r c h i m e d e s o f Syracuse,
2

K o n o n o f Samos, Dositheos, Eratosthenes o f C y r e n e , a n d A p o l l o n i o s o f

5

Perge a m o n g its resident (or closely associated) m a t h e m a t i c a l scientists?

6

A n d h o w m a n y cities c o u l d , simultaneously, c l a i m b r i l l i a n t mechanicians

such as K t e s i b i o s , his p u p i l P h i l o n o f B y z a n t i u m , a n d D i o n y s o s of
7

A l e x a n d r i a a m o n g its t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t o r s , n o t t o m e n t i o n , a m o n g
9

its physicians, b o t h H e r o p h i l o s (the first person t o c o n d u c t systematic

scientific dissections o f h u m a n c a d a v e r s )
fluential E m p i r i c i s t " s c h o o l " ?

10

a n d the founders o f the i n

11

Collectively, these a n d other figures m a k e f o r an e x c e p t i o n a l

c e n t u r y of scientific a c t i v i t y w i t h i n a single city. N o t o n l y is the n u m b e r
of innovative scientists i n A l e x a n d r i a n o t e w o r t h y , however, b u t so are
the interactions between different branches of science a n d the hetero
geneity o f r i v a l p o i n t s o f v i e w advocated by Greek scientists associated
w i t h the city. I t is i n these contexts, t o o , t h a t one s h o u l d locate t w o
new, f u n d a m e n t a l l y divergent, r i v a l scientific models o f the h u m a n b o d y
developed i n the t h i r d century B . C . by the Greek pioneers o f systematic
h u m a n dissection.
T h e e x c e p t i o n a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f factors that, f o r the first a n d
last t i m e i n a n t i q u i t y , p e r m i t t e d systematic scientific h u m a n dissection
a n d systematic v i v i s e c t o r y e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n o n c o n d e m n e d c r i m i n a l s
1 2

i n the early t h i r d century B . C . needs n o renewed rehearsal here (see note

86

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

10 above). B u t i t s h o u l d perhaps be underscored again t h a t any m o n o causal e x p l a n a t o r y hypothesis is l i k e l y t o be inadequate. Instead, o n o u r

h o r i z o n o f e x p l a n a t i o n we have t o accommodate a v a r i e t y o f interactive
factors, i n c l u d i n g the t h i c k t e x t u r e o f scientific a c t i v i t y i n A l e x a n d r i a ;
the attested r o y a l s u p p o r t o f this a c t i v i t y ; the c u l t u r a l a m b i t i o n s o f early
H e l l e n i s t i c rulers; the r e l a t i o n o f c u l t u r e t o p o l i t i c a l p o w e r ; the Ptolemies'
o w n v i o l a t i o n s o f Greek taboos; an i n t e l l e c t u a l e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h
b o l d , erudite e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n coexisted w i t h conservative t r a d i t i o n ; the
impressive example o f A r i s t o t l e ' s scientifically p r o d u c t i v e dissections a n d
vivisections o f animals (never o f humans) i n the previous century; the
p h i l o s o p h i c a l secularization o f the corpse by A r i s t o t l e a n d the Stoics (the
latter classified i t a m o n g the aSiacfropa, t h a t is, things t h a t are m o r a l l y
" i n d i f f e r e n t " ) ; a n d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x p r o p r i a t i n g the age-old E g y p t i a n
practice o f m u m m i f i c a t i o n as a " l e g i t i m a t i n g " precedent a n d as p r o o f
t h a t a cadaver m a y be opened w i t h i m p u n i t y ( a l t h o u g h n o respectable
h i s t o r i a n o f science has confused religious

mummification w i t h

system

dissection; the m o t i v a t i o n s , methods, contexts, aims, a n d

atic scientific

results of these t w o k i n d s of a c t i v i t y were quite different). O u t of the sys

tematic h u m a n dissections made possible by these a n d perhaps by other
interactive factors arose t w o r i v a l models o f the b o d y a r t i c u l a t e d m o s t
clearly b y H e r o p h i l o s a n d Erasistratos. I t u r n first t o H e r o p h i l o s , t h e n
t o Erasistratos.
HerophiDos
To the vast n e w w o r l d opened u p b y the founder o f their city, A l e x a n
drians i n various d o m a i n s responded w i t h extremes o f c u l t u r a l smallness
a n d bigness, o n the one h a n d e x p l o r i n g a n d creating the m i n i a t u r e , o n
the other h a n d e m b r a c i n g the g i g a n t i s m t h a t became a conspicuous fea
t u r e o f H e l l e n i s t i c siege technology, o f sculpture, o f architecture, o f ship
b u i l d i n g , o f ostentatious v i c t o r y games, o f religious processions, a n d so
o n . T h e K a l l i m a c h e a n poetics of smallness, the m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n of me
chanical t e c h n o l o g y b y Ktesibios a n d others, a n d m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n i n the
decorative arts a l l belong t o the " c u l t u r e of smallness." So does a note
w o r t h y feature o f H e r o p h i l o s ' s m o d e l o f the b o d y w h a t one m i g h t call
his " m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n o f a n a t o m y . "
H e r o p h i l o s was n o t satisfied w i t h describing o n l y larger
bones, organs, vessels, a n d muscles; rather, he carefully differentiated
a m o n g h u m a n parts barely distinguishable b y the n a k e d eye, a n d i n the
process he created a n e w n o m e n c l a t u r e f o r the b o d y a detailed n e w
language o f the b o d y t h a t extensively deploys v i v i d metaphors d r a w n
f r o m A l e x a n d r i a n a r t i f a c t u a l c u l t u r e , such as the P h a r o s .

13

T h r o u g h his

repeated, m e t i c u l o u s dissections H e r o p h i l o s n o t o n l y discovered the

existence o f nerves b u t also accurately described the paths o f at least
seven pairs o f c r a n i a l nerves a n d recognized the difference between m o t o r

von

Staden

a n d sensory nerves. H e distinguished between the ventricles o f the b r a i n ,

a n d he carefully differentiated between f o u r membranes of the eye, be
s t o w i n g u p o n subsequent n o m e n c l a t u r e the terms cornea a n d

retina.*

H e also discovered the heart valves, the systematic a n a t o m i c a l distinc

t i o n between arteries a n d veins, a n d numerous other smaller features o f
the vascular system.
T h e m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n o f a n a t o m y was, o f course, n o t H e r o p h i los's o n l y a n a t o m i c a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t . H e also offered the first accurate
d e s c r i p t i o n of the h u m a n liver, c o n d u c t e d the first i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the
pancreas, and p r o v i d e d a descriptive a n d f u n c t i o n a l a n a t o m y of the
r e p r o d u c t i v e parts that was n o t i m p r o v e d u p o n f o r c e n t u r i e s .

15

Further

m o r e , he demystified the w o m b by discovering the ovaries a n d the Fal

l o p i a n tubes, by establishing the a n a t o m i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y of a w a n d e r i n g
w o m b t h a t causes hysterical suffocation, a n d by a b a n d o n i n g the t r a d i
t i o n a l idealater revived by the i n f l u e n t i a l G a l e n o f a b i c a m e r a l uterus
( w i t h a c o l d left chamber f o r the gestation o f the female fetus a n d a h o t
r i g h t chamber f o r the gestation o f the m a l e ) .

16

B u t m a n y o f his greatest

advances lay precisely i n the e x p l o r a t i o n o f m i n u t e parts u n k n o w n t o

or p o o r l y recognized b y t h e H i p p o c r a t i c s , A r i s t o t l e , D i o k l e s , Praxagoras, a n d other precursors.
A second conspicuous feature of H e r o p h i l o s ' s version of the
b o d y is t h a t i t is a " d y n a m i c " m o d e l t h a t deploys, inter alia, p r i n c i p l e s
t h a t display affinities w i t h theories o f m a g n e t i s m . I n the e x t a n t remains
of his w r i t i n g s H e r o p h i l o s d i d n o t m a k e e x p l i c i t the similarities between
his t h e o r y of " f a c u l t i e s " o r capacities (SvvdfieLs) a n d m a g n e t i s m , b u t
Galen later d i d s o ,

17

possibly d r a w i n g o n Stoic sources (this w o u l d n o t

be s u r p r i s i n g , since several of H e r o p h i l o s ' s views have m u c h i n c o m m o n

w i t h Stoic theories). I n p a r t i c u l a r , H e r o p h i l o s seems t o have believed
t h a t the b o d y is a m a t e r i a l c o n t i n u u m t h a t harbors n o v o i d , a n d t h a t i n
visible, innate capacities or faculties c o n t r o l a n d regulate a l l b o d i l y func
t i o n s , often by a t t r a c t i n g or p u l l i n g various f o r m s o f m a t t e r l i q u i d s ,
solids, a i r t h r o u g h ducts a n d other spaces i n the b o d y t o w a r d their ap
p r o p r i a t e destinations. These innate faculties are t h o r o u g h l y secularized;
n o c l a i m o f d i v i n e design o r d i v i n e force is made f o r t h e m .
T h u s an invisible, innate faculty ( " v i t a l dynamis"}),

extend

i n g f r o m the heart t h r o u g h o u t the w a l l s of the arteries, m a i n t a i n s pulsa

t i o n i n the f o r m o f simultaneous d i l a t a t i o n a n d c o n t r a c t i o n o f the heart
a n d o f a l l arteries. T h i s dynamis

thereby pulls or " a t t r a c t s " a m i x t u r e o f

b l o o d a n d p n e u m a (the latter u l t i m a t e l y derived f r o m respiration) f r o m

the heart t h r o u g h the entire b o d y v i a the a r t e r i a l s y s t e m .

18

Blood (with

o u t pneuma) apparently is s i m i l a r l y m o v e d t h r o u g h the veins, w h i l e

p n e u m a b y means o f w h i c h at least some sensory a n d v o l u n t a r y m o t o r
a c t i v i t y is c o n d u c t e d i s m o v e d t h r o u g h the nerve d u c t s .

19

Innate facul

ties likewise seem t o govern the movements a n d p r o p o r t i o n a l relations

87

88

HELLENISTIC

A L E X A N D R I A

of the t r a d i t i o n a l h u m o r s . O t h e r m o t i v e faculties apparently reside i n

the muscles, the lungs, the digestive organs, a n d so o n . A c c o r d i n g t o
H e r o p h i l o s , r e s p i r a t i o n , f o r example, is due t o a special capacity o r fac
u l t y t h a t displays itself as the lungs' n a t u r a l tendency t o dilate a n d c o n
t r a c t . A l l b o d i l y matter, i n fact, seems t o be regulated by such faculties.
H e r o p h i l o s e x p l i c i t l y says, for example, t h a t the uterus "is w o v e n f r o m
the same things as the other parts a n d is regulated by the same faculties"
(VTTO

rcov ai)70)v 8vvaiJL(ov) t h a t govern the rest o f b o d i l y matter

(vXag).

20

A l l the body's n a t u r a l processes a n d m o t i o n s , v o l u n t a r y a n d i n v o l u n t a r y ,

like a l l its materials, therefore are regulated or managed
by nature-given capacities o r faculties o r powers (dwapLELs)

(diOLKeladai)
capable o f

m o v i n g matter t h r o u g h b o d i l y ducts a n d spaces, especially by means

of m a g n e t l i k e a t t r a c t i o n .
A t h i r d n o t e w o r t h y feature o f H e r o p h i l o s ' s d y n a m i c , magnetic
m o d e l o f the b o d y is his tendency t o q u a n t i f y or t o mathematicize aspects
of b o t h the e x t e r i o r a n d the i n t e r i o r o f the body, i n c l u d i n g its i n t e r n a l
m o t i o n s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w t h a t Greek science, u n l i k e m o d e r n science,
was largely q u a l i t a t i v e rather t h a n q u a n t i t a t i v e i n nature has been s h o w n
by Geoffrey L l o y d a n d others t o be i n need o f significant q u a l i f i c a t i o n .

21

I n c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t respects H e r o p h i l o s ' s m a t h e m a t i c i z i n g aspirations

go b e y o n d those o f earlier Greeks. U n l i k e the H i p p o c r a t i c s , H e r o p h i l o s
tries t o extend precise measurement b e y o n d p h a r m a c o l o g y , stages i n the
e m b r y o , a n d the periodicities t h a t appear i n physical disorders such as
fevers. A n d u n l i k e Polykleitos's Canon,

w i t h its measurement of fixed

p r o p o r t i o n a l i t i e s , its " n o n n a t u r a l i s t i c " jmeaop, its ayppierpCa^ a n d its

Kara

TO TTapadetypxx

11

H e r o p h i l o s extends the process o f measuring

i n t o s m a l l i n t e r i o r structures o f the b o d y a n d i n t o i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r n a l
p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d p a t h o l o g i c a l processes.
A l t h o u g h H e r o p h i l o s uses q u a n t i f i c a t i o n t o define generalizable b o d i l y laws, as h a d the H i p p o c r a t i c s a n d Polykleitos, he leaves
ample r o o m f o r i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b i l i t y a m o n g h u m a n bodies ( i n this re
spect, t o o , f o l l o w i n g some H i p p o c r a t i c s ) a s does m u c h o f Hellenistic
art. H i s version o f the b o d y is inspired neither by an aestheticizing mathem a t i c i s m n o r by a m a t h e m a t i c i z i n g aestheticism, b u t by the a s p i r a t i o n
t o define precisely as m a n y n a t u r a l structures a n d processes i n the b o d y
as possible, w h i l e recognizing t h a t n o t a l l b o d i l y features w i l l s u b m i t t o
q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o r generalization.
H i s attempts t o measure b o d i l y processes are perhaps also t o
be u n d e r s t o o d i n the c o n t e x t o f the renewed, m o r e extensive preoccupa
t i o n w i t h scientific measurement i n the t h i r d century B . C . Eratosthenes'
On the Measurement
and Distances

of the Earth

(see note 5), Aristarchos's On the Sizes

of the Sun and the Moon,

ment of the Circle,

A r c h i m e d e s ' On the

Measure

a n d Erasistratos's q u a n t i t a t i v e experiments are a m o n g

the m a n y manifestations of this interest. I cite o n l y t w o brief examples

von

Staden

of H e r o p h i l o s ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n this r i c h l y attested d i m e n s i o n o f early

A l e x a n d r i a n sciencepulse r h y t h m s a n d the healing o f w o u n d s .

23

Perhaps p r o m p t e d i n p a r t by the native E g y p t i a n concept,

k n o w n f r o m p h a r a o n i c m e d i c a l p a p y r i , o f " c o u n t i n g " the body's ves
sels,

24

H e r o p h i l o s became the first t o develop an elaborate q u a n t i t a t i v e

t h e o r y of the pulse. To measure differences a m o n g the pulses o f people

at different stages of life, he d r e w o n precise m u s i c a l u n i t s , i n c l u d i n g
the TTpcbrosxpovos

( " p r i m a r y t i m e u n i t " ) a n d the akoyos

("irrational

u n i t " ) , possibly b o r r o w e d i n p a r t f r o m A r i s t o x e n o s o f Taras's

of Rhythm.

15

Elements

T h e p r i m a r y differentiae o f pulse types, he argues, are

r h y t h m , speed, size, a n d vehemence o r s t r e n g t h a l l e m i n e n t l y q u a n t i f i

able. R h y t h m , w h i c h he defines as "a m o t i o n h a v i n g a defined r e g u l a t i o n
i n t i m e , " is central t o his classification o f n o r m a l , healthy pulses accord
i n g t o h u m a n stages o f life. We a l l pass f r o m a n a t u r a l l y p y r r h i c pulse
r h y t h m (--) i n infancy t h r o u g h a t r o c h a i c pulse (-) i n adolescence t o a
spondaic p r i m e o f life ( - - ) , a n d eventually o n t o an i a m b i c pulse r h y t h m
(--) i n o l d age.

26

Nature's music i n o u r arteries hence displays m a t h e m a t

ically f o r m u l a b l e p r o p o r t i o n s o f such absolute r e g u l a r i t y t h a t deviations,

a n d hence illness, can be determined by exact measurement. T h i s also
holds true of the other pulse differentiae, n o t a b l y o f speed or frequency.
To measure the pulse H e r o p h i l o s constructed a p o r t a b l e clep
sydra t h a t c o u l d be precisely c a l i b r a t e d t o fit the age-group o f each pa
tient. T h e device was used t o measure the d e v i a t i o n of the frequency

of

the patient's pulse r h y t h m s f r o m n o r m a l frequency a n d thus t o measure,

i n p a r t i c u l a r , the patient's b o d y temperature or fever, since H e r o p h i l o s
h e l d pulse frequency t o be a correlate of b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e .

27

Herophi

los's device was perhaps i n s p i r e d i n p a r t by the r i c h native E g y p t i a n t r a

d i t i o n of t i m e - m e a s u r i n g devices, such as a famous alabaster clepsydra
of the second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . , a n d i n p a r t by the sophisticated refine
m e n t o f w a t e r - c l o c k t e c h n o l o g y by c o n t e m p o r a r y A l e x a n d r i a n m e c h a n i
cians such as K t e s i b i o s .

28

A m o n g the mechanical devices invented by Ktesibios is an

intricate a u t o m a t i c water c l o c k , w h i c h , u n l i k e the s u n d i a l , operated
equally precisely by n i g h t a n d by day, i n summer a n d i n w i n t e r .

2 9

Particu

l a r l y interesting i n o u r c o n t e x t is the clock's mechanical seasonal ad

j u s t a b i l i t y . T h e p r i n c i p l e of an adjustable t i m i n g device was h a r d l y n e w ;
some o f the p h a r a o n i c a n d Greek precursors of Ktesibios's device also
c o u l d accommodate seasonable variations (see notes 2 8 - 3 0 ) . B u t Ktesi
bios's mechanisms f o r ensuring a regular f l o w a n d f o r adjusting this f l o w
seasonably were apparently sufficiently novel a n d s t r i k i n g t o have d r a w n
the a t t e n t i o n o f V i t r u v i u s a n d his source(s). I n p a r t i c u l a r , Ktesibios's
c l o c k c o u l d be adjusted easily by a series of wedges t o a c c o m m o d a t e
s h o r t e n i n g or lengthening of the days i n different m o n t h s o f the c h a n g i n g
seasons. T h e same p r i n c i p l e o f easy a d j u s t a b i l i t y t o seasons centrally
30

89

90

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

i n f o r m s H e r o p h i l o s ' s p o r t a b l e t i m i n g d e v i c e a l t h o u g h here i t is n o t the

seasons of the year b u t the seasons of life, the rjAiKCai of his patients,
t h a t call f o r q u a n t i f y i n g adjustment. T h e similarities s h o u l d n o t be
pressed t o o far, b u t i n b o t h cases the mechanical a d j u s t a b i l i t y o f a t i m
ing device t o a c c o m m o d a t e r e g u l a r l y o c c u r r i n g , quantifiable
w i t h i n a larger order o f measurable

changes

regularity is central t o the efficacy

of the measuring device.

A second example illustrates the diversity of contexts i n w h i c h
H e r o p h i l o s m a t h e m a t i c i z e d the body. R e s p o n d i n g t o the question w h y
r o u n d w o u n d s heal w i t h m o r e difficulty t h a n others, H e r o p h i l o s , accord
ing t o Cassius, "accounts f o r the cause by g i v i n g a geometric demonstra
t i o n " [yecofierpLKT] aTrodeigis) o f the surface area o f c i r c u l a r shapes i n
r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r diameter a n d circumference.

31

T h e question was w e l l

k n o w n t o the Greeks, b u t H e r o p h i l o s seems t o have been the first t o ad

dress i t by means o f m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o o f . T h i s effort, a n d others like i t ,
of course s h o u l d n o t be m i s t a k e n f o r a " g e o m e t r i c " c o n c e p t i o n of the
b o d y as a w h o l e ; H e r o p h i l o s ' s version o f the b o d y is far t o o d y n a m i c i n
ternally, t o o m i n u t e l y detailed, t o o i n d i v i d u a l l y variable, a n d t o o p r o v i
sional (see b e l o w ) t o accommodate overall p a r a d i g m a t i c n o t i o n s such
as Polykleitos's c a n o n o r the famous quadratum.

Rather, his geometric

p r o o f here reflects his a s p i r a t i o n t o deal w i t h a l l b o d i l y phenomena, large

a n d s m a l l , n o r m a l a n d a b n o r m a l , w i t h as m u c h p r e c i s i o n as possible, a n d
t o achieve such p r e c i s i o n by m a t h e m a t i c a l or other q u a n t i t a t i v e means
whenever possible.
These examples of H e r o p h i l o s ' s interactions w i t h geometry,
w i t h the m a t h e m a t i c a l features o f Aristoxenos's m u s i c a l theory, a n d w i t h
a flexible E g y p t i a n - A l e x a n d r i a n t e c h n o l o g y o f precise measurement illus
trate the extent t o w h i c h his new, d y n a m i c - m a g n e t i c version o f the body,
m i n u t e l y detailed anatomically, regulated by incessantly active innate
powers t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y also p u l l r a t h e r t h a n merely p u s h m a t t e r
t h r o u g h i t w i t h meticulous regularity and precision,

32

is also projected

as m a t h e m a t i c a l l y a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y verifiable.
A f o u r t h n o t e w o r t h y feature o f H e r o p h i l o s ' s version of the
b o d y s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d : his insistence o n its p r o v i s i o n a l i t y . For
all his precise f o r m u l a t i o n s o f regularities i n q u a n t i t a t i v e terms, he argues
t h a t a l l causal t h e o r y a n d hence a l l explanations o f b o d i l y functions o r
d y s f u n c t i o n s m u s t have a merely h y p o t h e t i c a l status; cause c a n n o t be
k n o w n or a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n t y b u t o n l y ex h y p o t h e s i .

33

Experience

(i/uL7rLpCa) is i m p o r t a n t t o H e r o p h i l o s , a n d he believes t h a t we have n o

choice b u t t o begin w i t h the surface w o r l d o f phenomena: " L e t the ap
pearances {4>aiv6fjieva) be stated first even i f they are n o t

first."

34

B u t the

g o o d scientist, t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d how the b o d y w o r k s , w i l l also have

to investigate why things w o r k the w a y they d o . T h i s w i l l m a k e i t neces
sary t o engage i n inferences f r o m the visible t o the invisible and hence

von

Staden

i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of theories, n o t a b l y of causal theories (for example,

a b o u t invisible faculties t h a t regulate the b o d y ) . I t is i n this causal do
m a i n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t H e r o p h i l o s insists o n the h y p o t h e t i c a l nature o f
his version of the body. I t is i m p o r t a n t n o t t o mistake this epistemological stance f o r t h a t of H e l l e n i s t i c skepticism. H e r o p h i l o s ' s h y p o t h e t i c a l i s m does n o t e n t a i l suspension o f a l l j u d g m e n t . H i s m i n u t e a n a t o m i c a l
investigations, his t h e o r y o f faculties, a n d his efforts at q u a n t i f i c a t i o n i l
lustrate t h a t his a i m is n o t skeptical epoche,

a n d t h a t he is n o t r e l u c t a n t

t o c o n s t r u c t theories. Rather, he welds his impressively detailed observa

tions t o a b o l d insight i n t o the p r o v i s i o n a l i t y o f their e x p l a n a t i o n , n o
m a t t e r h o w precisely m a t h e m a t i c i z e d these explanations m i g h t b e .

35

Erasistratos
W h e t h e r Erasistratos, the a u t h o r o f the m a j o r r i v a l Greek version of the
h u m a n b o d y i n the early H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , ever p r a c t i c e d i n A l e x a n d r i a ,
is c o n t r o v e r s i a l . Geoffrey L l o y d a n d m o s t m o d e r n scholars believe t h a t
he d i d , at least for a substantial p e r i o d of t i m e , whereas Peter Fraser has
revived the v i e w t h a t o n l y Seleucid connections are attested for Erasis
tratos.

36

I t is a p i t y t h a t many, t h o u g h n o t a l l , scholars have felt o b l i g e d

t o choose between A l e x a n d r i a a n d A n t i o c h . There is i n fact evidence

t h a t n o t o n l y Erasistratos b u t also several of his relatives, p u p i l s , a n d as
sociates were active as physicians b o t h i n Seleucid A n t i o c h a n d i n Ptole
maic A l e x a n d r i a .

3 7

O n e neglected, albeit p r o b l e m a t i c , ancient source,

Saint Augustine's acquaintance V i n d i c i a n , claims t h a t Erasistratos, l i k e

H e r o p h i l o s , c o n d u c t e d p a t h o l o g i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s " m Alexandria"

by

means o f dissecting h u m a n cadavers; a n d another, Caelius A u r e l i a n u s ,

refers t o a remedy t h a t Erasistratos sent o r p r o m i s e d t o send t o one o f
the Ptolemies (Ptolemaeo

regi promittens).

38

T h e m o b i l i t y o f the H e l

lenistic scientific c o m m u n i t y is w e l l attested, a n d ancient sources allude

t o Erasistratos's presence n o t o n l y i n A n t i o c h a n d A l e x a n d r i a b u t also
i n Keos, Athens, K n i d o s , K o s , a n d other l o c a l i t i e s . M o r e p e r t i n e n t for
39

present purposes is that, wherever he c o n d u c t e d his investigations, Era

sistratos's theories s h o w close i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h A l e x a n d r i a n science.
F o u r related features o f Erasistratos's m o d e l of the b o d y are n o t e w o r t h y
i n this c o n t e x t .
First, Erasistratos refines a n d extends H e r o p h i l o s ' s a n a t o m i
cal and p h y s i o l o g i c a l discoveries, f o r example, by m a k i n g an even clearer
d i s t i n c t i o n between m o t o r nerves a n d sensory nerves, by specifying m o r e
precisely the o r i g i n o f the nerves i n the b r a i n as w e l l as the nervous c o n
nections between the b r a i n a n d the spine, a n d by d e m o n s t r a t i n g the func
t i o n o f the heart valves.

40

I n a d d i t i o n , he seems t o have been the first t o

e x t e n d the systematic use o f h u m a n dissection t o p a t h o l o g y a n d t o deploy

e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n regularly i n order t o verify his p h y s i o l o g i c a l theories.

41

Second, epistemologically less reticent t h a n H e r o p h i l o s , Era-

91

92

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

sistratos distinguishes between the c o n j e c t u r a l , or stochastic, branches of

medicine (therapeutics, semiotics) a n d its scientific branches (etiology,
physiology).

42

For the latter Erasistratos claims certainty, a n d i n this c o n

t e x t he tries t o develop a m o r e comprehensive systematic m o d e l o f a l l

m a j o r b o d i l y functions as interdependent, interactive processes. Respira
t i o n , appetite, digestion, maintenance o f b o d y temperature, sensation,
m u s c u l a r activity, the nervous system, p u l s a t i o n , a n d the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
b l o o d a n d p n e u m a by the vascular system a l l are depicted as interdepen
dent parts o f a u n i t a r y system.

43

A b a n d o n i n g the H e r o p h i l e a n m o d e l o f

m a t e r i a l processes regulated by invisible innate faculties (Swa/ueus),

and

likewise j e t t i s o n i n g the t h e o r y of the f o u r h u m o r s , Erasistratos instead

uses his " m i n i a t u r e " a n a t o m i c a l k n o w l e d g e t o develop a m o r e mechanis
tic version o f the body.
A c c o r d i n g t o Erasistratos, the b o d y consists o f p a r t i c u l a t e o r
corpuscular matter, w h i c h always acts i n accordance w i t h the p r i n c i p l e
t h a t m a t t e r w i l l r u s h i n t o any space t h a t is being e m p t i e d (rj rrpbs TO
Kevovpuevov aKoXovdta).

44

Erasistratos, i n other w o r d s , denies the possi

b i l i t y o f any c o n t i n u o u s or massed v o i d . B u t he acknowledges the dis

t i n c t i o n between massed v o i d a n d disseminate o r dispersed v o i d .

4 5

The

latter is n o t the c o n t i n u o u s v o i d postulated by Epicurus a n d other a t o m ists b u t the i n t e r s t i t i a l v o i d perhaps accepted by Erasistratos under the
influence o f his older c o n t e m p o r a r y , the Peripatetic Strato o f L a m p s a k o s
(d. 2 6 9 / 2 6 8

B.C.),

a t u t o r of P t o l e m y 11 Philadelphos. I n Strato's v i e w

v o i d exists, b u t o n l y i n the three-dimensional interstices between i m p e r

fectly fitting particles o f m a t t e r p a r t i c l e s o f w h i c h a l l objects, animate
a n d i n a n i m a t e , are composedsince matter w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y r u s h i n
t o fill any larger, m o r e c o n t i n u o u s , massed v o i d .

4 6

Wherever Strato m i g h t

belong i n Erasistratos's i n t e l l e c t u a l genealogy, i t seems clear t h a t Erasis

tratos shares these general principles a n d t h a t , characteristically, he per
f o r m s a simple e x p e r i m e n t t o illustrate t h e m . I t is s t r i k i n g t h a t a s i m i l a r
e x p e r i m e n t is f o u n d b o t h i n early A l e x a n d r i a n mechanics a n d i n Peri
patetic w r i t e r s .

4 7

T h i r d , o n this m a t e r i a l basis, Erasistratos consistently applies

principles t h a t also appear i n A l e x a n d r i a n mechanics, n o t a b l y i n pneu
matics, h y d r a u l i c s , a n d hydrostatics. H e r o p h i l o s h a d confidently b r o u g h t
mechanical meansa measuring d e v i c e t o the b o d y surface t o measure
nature's music i n the body, b u t Erasistratos n o w places n a t u r a l " m a
chines" inside the body. Indeed, the b o d y is a machine according t o the
Erasistratean version: a perpetual nature-given a u t o m a t o n . There is n o
need f o r h i d d e n invisible faculties (Swa/meis), he believes; a l l p h y s i o l o g i
cal processes are explicable i n terms o f the m a t e r i a l properties a n d struc
tures o f the parts o f a mechanistically o p e r a t i n g body. Yet, as w i l l be
s h o w n below, Erasistratos preserves a teleological perspective by depict-

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ing m o s t of these parts as being purposive, t h a t is, as serving o r effecting

an identifiable f u n c t i o n o r end. H e depicts the body, i n effect, as an au
t o n o m o u s machine w i t h i n w h i c h m a n y interrelated, smaller machines
w i t h m o s t l y purposive parts are c o n t i n u o u s l y operative. A n a t u r a l au
t o m a t o n i n perpetual m o t i o n f o r the d u r a t i o n of h u m a n life, the h u m a n
b o d y keeps mechanically d i s t r i b u t i n g b l o o d f r o m the heart a n d liver
t h r o u g h the veins, v i t a l p n e u m a f r o m the heart t h r o u g h the arteries, a n d
psychic p n e u m a f r o m the b r a i n t h r o u g h the nerves, a l l i n accordance
w i t h irpog

TO KPOVJULPOP

aKokovSCa (matter " f o l l o w i n g t o w a r d t h a t

w h i c h is being e m p t i e d " ) ,

48

a n d a l l w i t h o u t p r o m p t i n g by any e x t e r n a l

agency o r by invisible i n t e r n a l faculties. A closer l o o k at one of these

purposive parts w i t h i n the " b o d y m a c h i n e " m i g h t offer a useful i l l u s t r a
t i o n of Erasistratos's reasoning.
A m a j o r " s u b m a c h i n e " w i t h i n the larger b o d y machine is the
heart, w h i c h Erasistratos depicts as an a u t o m a t i c , d o u b l e - a c t i o n , suction-and-force p u m p or, t o use his o w n m e t a p h o r , bellows. T h i s cardiac
b e l l o w s - p u m p is e q u i p p e d w i t h superbly f u n c t i o n a l valves t h a t ensure
the i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y of the f l o w b o t h of w h a t rushes i n t o its t w o chambers
and of what it pumps o u t .

4 9

T h e parallels between Erasistratos's m o d e l

of the heart a n d central features o f the n e w A l e x a n d r i a n mechanical

t e c h n o l o g y are s t r i k i n g . I offer o n l y one example: the w a t e r p u m p i n
vented by Ktesibios d u r i n g Erasistratos's l i f e t i m e .
1.

50

L i k e Erasistratos's version o f the heart, Ktesibios's w a t e r

p u m p has t w o chambers.

2.

B o t h the cardiac p u m p a n d the water p u m p are e q u i p p e d

w i t h valves t o ensure the i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y o f the flow. As V i t r u vius says of Ktesibios's p u m p , " i n this chamber there are cir
cular valves [tfsses] placed i n the upper orifices [ " n o s t r i l s " ] o f
the tubes w i t h an accurate fitting. A n d these valves, by clos
ing u p the apertures o f the orifices [ " n o s t r i l s " ] , d o n o t p e r m i t
t h a t w h i c h has been pressed i n t o the chamber by means o f air
to r e t u r n . "

3.

5 1

As i n Erasistratos's m o d e l o f the heart, so i n Ktesibios's p u m p

there are f o u r sets of valves, t w o c o n t r o l l i n g i n t a k e a n d t w o
r e g u l a t i n g o u t f l o w f r o m the t w o chambers.

4.

F u r t h e r m o r e , Ktesibios uses valves t o ensure the i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y

of the f l o w of either l i q u i d or air ( b o t h here a n d i n several
of his other machines). Erasistratos l i k e w i s e describes the
heart valves as ensuring the u n i d i r e c t i o n a l f l o w o f either air
{TTvevfjia,

breath) or l i q u i d ( b l o o d ) : t w o sets o f cardiac valves,

he says, c o n t r o l the f l o w of p n e u m a (respectively into the left

93

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HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

chamber of the heart f r o m the lungs a n d out of this left c h a m

ber i n t o the a o r t a ) , w h i l e t w o other valve sets ensure u n i d i r e c
t i o n a l flow o f b l o o d i n t o a n d f r o m the r i g h t cardiac chamber.
5.

Ktesibios's water p u m p has f o r k e d pipes (fistulae

furcillae),

a n d Erasistratos's vascular system is s i m i l a r l y dependent o n

f o r k i n g vessels.
6.

B o t h Erasistratos's version o f the heart a n d Ktesibios's p u m p

centrally depend o n the p r i n c i p l e o f an intermediate valved
chamber (medius

catinus,

see note 50). T h e Erasistratean

heart serves as a d o u b l e intermediate chamber, o n the one

h a n d , f o r b l o o d between the vena cava ( c o m i n g f r o m the
liver) a n d the p u l m o n a r y vessels t h a t c a r r y b l o o d t o the lungs,
a n d , o n the other h a n d , f o r p n e u m a between the lungs a n d
the a o r t a .
7.

52

Just as Ktesibios's water p u m p is constructed w i t h t w i n c y l i n

ders (modioli

gemelli)

s i t t i n g i n a r o u n d space, so Erasis

tratos's heart is a t w o - c h a m b e r e d machine t h a t sits i n a larger

r o u n d i s h space, the t h o r a x .
8.

5 3

As compression a n d e x p a n s i o n alternate i n each chamber of

Ktesibios's water p u m p , so c o n t r a c t i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y alter
nates w i t h d i l a t a t i o n i n Erasistratos's cardiac b e l l o w s - p u m p .

9.

M o r e fundamentally, the mechanical principles are s i m i l a r i n

the t w o cases: p r o p u l s i o n o f matter i n t o a c o n t i g u o u s space
by compression or c o n t r a c t i o n a n d d r a w i n g i n o f c o n t i g u o u s
matter by e x p a n s i o n o r d i l a t a t i o n , based o n the r e c o g n i t i o n
t h a t c o n t i n u o u s a s opposed t o d i s s e m i n a t e v o i d does n o t
exist n a t u r a l l y . (It s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d , however, t h a t
Erasistratos i n his e x t a n t remains e x p l i c i t l y applies the t h e o r y
of i n t e r s t i t i a l v o i d o n l y t o the m o v e m e n t of l i q u i d s t h r o u g h
the body, n o t t o the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f air.)
As always, s i m i l a r i t y s h o u l d n o t be m i s t a k e n f o r identity, n o r

does affinity necessarily e n t a i l influence. B u t the parallels between Erasis

tratos's m o d e l o f the heart a n d Ktesibios's water p u m p are numerous,
n o n t r i v i a l , a n d n o n m a r g i n a l . W h e t h e r Erasistratos b o r r o w e d f r o m Ktesi
bios o r Ktesibios f r o m Erasistratos, o r neither f r o m either, is unclear,
b u t i t is evident t h a t Erasistratos's version o f the b o d y has m u c h i n c o m
m o n w i t h early A l e x a n d r i a n technology. F u r t h e r m o r e , f o r whatever
reasons, b o t h Erasistratos a n d some early A l e x a n d r i a n mechanicians,
such as Ktesibios a n d P h i l o n o f B y z a n t i u m , developed versions o f " m a
chines"Erasistratos t o e x p l a i n n a t u r a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes, the
others t o e x p l o r e n e w t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t h a d at least some

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elements i n c o m m o n w i t h Strato's t h e o r y o f v o i d a n d o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t
ter.

54

I t also is s t r i k i n g t h a t later A l e x a n d r i a n w r i t e r s o n mechanics, such

as H e r o n , p r o b a b l y d r a w i n g o n early H e l l e n i s t i c sources, i n v o k e m e d i c a l
i n s t r u m e n t s a n d m e d i c a l practices i n s u p p o r t o f t h e i r views o n i n t e r s t i
tial void and on pneumatics.

H e r o n ' s elaborate d e s c r i p t i o n o f the de

55

sign o f m e d i c a l devices t h a t d e p l o y his p n e u m a t i c p r i n c i p l e s , such as a

c u p p i n g t o o l (oLKva)

t h a t does n o t require heating a n d a syringe f o r

d r a w i n g off pus {'?TVOVAK6<;,

"pus p u l l e r " ) ,

5 6

f u r t h e r illustrates the i n t e r

a c t i o n between H e l l e n i s t i c m e d i c i n e a n d m e c h a n i c a l technology.
F o u r t h , ever since a n t i q u i t y the conspicuously mechanistic
features o f m a n y o f Erasistratos's p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d p a t h o l o g i c a l e x p l a
nations have tended t o obscure a n o t h e r m a j o r feature o f his v e r s i o n o f
the b o d y : teleology. I n some o f his extensive anti-Erasistratean p o l e m i c s ,
G a l e n suggests t h a t Erasistratos's t e l e o l o g i c a l statements were merely
r h e t o r i c a l , h y p o c r i t i c a l , Peripatetic w i n d o w dressing, a n d t h a t they were
b l a t a n t l y c o n t r a d i c t e d by Erasistratos himself, f o r e x a m p l e , w h e n the
latter fails t o specify a f u n c t i o n f o r the spleen, the o m e n t u m , the r e n a l
arteries, a n d y e l l o w b i l e .

57

B u t the ancient evidence offers n o c o m p e l l i n g

reason t o accept Galen's j u d g m e n t . Indeed, Galen's o w n reports leave

l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t Erasistratos u n e q u i v o c a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d a t e l e o l o g i c a l ap
p r o a c h t o the b o d y : "Erasistratos h i m s e l f supposed t h a t nature (4>vatg) is
capable o f f o r e t h o u g h t {TrpovorjriKrj)
techne

(rexvLKrj)"

f o r the l i v i n g being a n d capable o f

a n d "Erasistratos seems t o have s o u n d sense, since he

t h i n k s t h a t a l l parts o f the b o d y are b o t h w e l l placed (KaXfjg

a n d w e l l shaped (8ia7r\a6drjvai)
'capable o f techne'

(re;^/^)."

5 8

n o t h i n g w i t h o u t reason (aXoycos),
this";

5 9

TeOfjvai)

by n a t u r e , . . . a n d he calls nature
Similarly, G a l e n r e p o r t s , " n a t u r e does
f o r he [Erasistratos] h i m s e l f says

" u p t o the p o i n t w h e r e he [Erasistratos] sings a h y m n t o nature

as being capable o f techne,

I [ G a l e n ] , t o o , recognize the o p i n i o n s o f the

Peripatos" (and, adds G a l e n , Erasistratos's f o l l o w e r s also c l a i m t h a t he

associated w i t h the P e r i p a t o s ) ;

60

" o n l y one [ o p i n i o n a b o u t n a t u r e ] w i l l

be f o u n d t o be the same f o r Erasistratos a n d f o r those a u t h o r s [sc. the

Peripatetics], n a m e l y t h a t nature makes a l l things f o r the sake o f some
thing and nothing i n v a i n . "

6 1

P l u t a r c h (or pseudo-Plutarch) seems t o

allude t o this f u n d a m e n t a l feature o f Erasistratos's c o n c e p t i o n o f n a t u r a l

beings: " F o r , everywhere nature {(pvaug) is exact [aKpiprjs),
techne

(4>L\6TXVO<;),

superfluity (aTrepirros),
(pOJTTLKOV)."

w i t h o u t deficiency (aveAAiTrrjs),

fond of

and w i t h o u t

h a v i n g , as Erasistratos says, n o t h i n g t a w d r y

6 2

I t is significant t h a t Erasistratos emphasizes n o t o n l y nature's

purposiveness, p r o v i d e n t i a l i t y , a n d aesthetically (KaAcog) d i r e c t e d a c c o m
plishments b u t also its craftsmanship (<\>vcrig TexviKrj,
Techne

(fyiXorexvog).

has a r i c h p h i l o s o p h i c a l h i s t o r y as a p a r a d i g m o f p u r p o s i v e o r

g o a l - d i r e c t e d a c t i v i t y , a n d hence Greek p h i l o s o p h e r s often use

techne

95

96

HELLENISTIC

A L E X A N D R I A

a n d its cognates t o refer t o teleological processes, also i n c o s m o l o g i c a l

contexts.

63

Erasistratos's Stoic c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a l l ardent teleologists

describe nature (c^vatg) as a "fire capable of tecbne

(irvp

TexyiKov),

w h i c h m e t h o d i c a l l y proceeds t o w a r d the creation o f the w o r l d " o r as

"fire e n d o w e d w i t h tecbne"
the pneuma
tecbne"

(irvp evrexvov),

a n d they s i m i l a r l y refer t o

o f w h i c h the entire universe is c o n s t i t u t e d as " e n d o w e d w i t h

[Trvevpua evrexvov)

o r as " t e c b n e - l i k e " (rex^oecdeg,

cally p u r p o s i v e l y d e s i g n i n g " ? ) .

64

i.e., " a r t i s t i

A n d a b o u t the goal-directed nature o f

t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f tecbne the Stoics leave n o d o u b t : a c c o r d i n g t o a p o p

ular d e f i n i t i o n by Z e n o o f C i t i u m , "tecbne

is a system (avcrrrj/uia) c o m

posed o f c o g n i t i o n s unified by practice w i t h a v i e w t o some goal (reAos)

useful for things i n l i f e . "
a n d craft, pbysis

6 5

Indeed, at times the Stoics describe nature

a n d tecbne, i n i d e n t i c a l terms, as "a d i s p o s i t i o n (eis,

" t e n o r " ) t h a t effects a l l things m e t h o d i c a l l y . " F u r t h e r m o r e , a n u m b e r

66

of Greek philosophers described tecbne &s i m i t a t i n g nature ( i n a stronger,

m o r e comprehensive sense t h a n the topos " a r t imitates l i f e " ) .
between Erasistratos's c o n c e p t i o n o f pbysis

The link

6 7

as a lover o f tecbne (or as ca

pable o f i t ) a n d his teleological reading o f n a t u r a l organisms is therefore

best u n d e r s t o o d i n the c o n t e x t o f such p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n s .
These t r a d i t i o n a l affinities between pbysis

a n d tecbne m a y

also, i n p a r t , have i n f o r m e d Erasistratos's c o m b i n a t i o n o f mechanism

a n d teleology: his v i e w seems t o be that, just as tecbne proceeds i n a me
t h o d i c a l , goal-directed fashion t o the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f mechanical de
vices, so nature m e t h o d i c a l l y (re)produces purposively s t r u c t u r e d n a t u r a l
machines, i n c l u d i n g the h u m a n body. B u t equally i m p o r t a n t for under
standing the nature a n d l i m i t s o f Erasistratos's teleological c o m m i t m e n t s
are the models o f teleological e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t prevailed i n the Peripatos
i n the late f o u r t h a n d early t h i r d centuries B . C .
Aristotle's version of teleology, like Erasistratos's (and u n l i k e
Plato's, the Stoics', a n d Galen's), is e x p l i c i t l y l i m i t e d : according t o A r i s
t o t l e , n o t e v e r y t h i n g has a final cause, n o t even i n nature. T h i s holds n o t
o n l y f o r events t h a t A r i s t o t l e classifies as chance o r c o i n c i d e n t a l occur
rences b u t also i n cases o f systematic failures or o f specieswide traits t h a t
c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d i n teleological terms. I n farts of Animals,

for ex

ample, A r i s t o t l e remarks:
It is likely that the gall (xoXij), when it is present i n the area
of the liver, is a residue and not for the sake of anything (oif\
eveKOL TLPOS).

For although nature sometimes makes use even

of residues, one should not o n this account seek purpose

TWOS,

" f o r the sake of w h a t , " "final cause") i n all things

(eveKa
(iravra).

Rather, while some things are of such a nature [sc. purposive],

many others occur as a result of these by necessity.
Similarly, elsewhere i n Parts of Animals

68

A r i s t o t l e n o t o n l y calls the

g r o w t h o f h o r n s i n certain animals useless (axpiqo-rov) b u t even adds

von

t h a t , i n such cases, h o r n s " d o m o r e h a r m t h a n g o o d . "

6 9

Staden

Moreover, Aris

t o t l e offers p u r e l y mechanistic explanations o f the g r o w t h a n d shedding

of h o r n s . A r i s t o t l e m i g h t be famous for his refrain " N a t u r e makes n o t h
ing i n v a i n , " b u t he does n o t believe i t as literally, comprehensively, a n d
absolutely as Galen d i d . A r i s t o t l e ' s w o r l d , l i k e Erasistratos's, has its
share of things t h a t serve n o identifiable final purpose, a l t h o u g h some
m i g h t be the necessary b y - p r o d u c t s of processes t h a t themselves exist f o r
the sake o f s o m e t h i n g .
Aristotle's successor T h e o p h r a s t o s , w i t h w h o m ancient
sources associate Erasistratos d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y (see note 74 b e l o w ) ,
w e n t even further, f u n d a m e n t a l l y q u e s t i o n i n g the scope o f t e l e o l o g i c a l
e x p l a n a t i o n even w h i l e affirming his basic c o m m i t m e n t t o i t . I n his
physics,

Meta

f o r example, Theophrastos argues t h a t w e m u s t accept c e r t a i n

l i m i t s t o purposiveness (TO k'veKa

TOV) i n nature a n d t h a t w e m u s t n o t

p o s i t either purposiveness or a tendency t o w a r d the best t o exist i n a l l

cases (iwl

TTOLVTCOV)

w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n (a7rAd>g).

70

Indeed, he says,

m a n y n a t u r a l things either exist i n animals " i n v a i n , as i t w e r e " (TO. jmev

cbaTTep [JLQLToctet)) such as nipples i n males o r h a i r i n c e r t a i n places, or are
such as t o have an unspecifiable purpose

(TLVOS

eveKa).

There is m u c h i n

nature, Theophrastos adds, t h a t neither obeys n o r receives the g o o d ;

even the n a t u r a l placement of c e r t a i n b o d i l y organs, such as the w i n d
pipe, is p o o r . N a t u r e s i m p l y does n o t always d o w h a t is best a m o n g the
possibilities f o r each o r g a n , n o r does i t i n v a r i a b l y m a k e a structure the
way

i t is because i t thereby is

honorable."

7 1

" m o r e w o r t h y , valuable o r

TL/ULUDTEPOV,

F u r t h e r m o r e , Theophrastos's v i e w entails t h a t neither the

universality o f a t r a i t w i t h i n a species n o r the r e g u l a r i t y o f its r e p r o d u c

t i o n is sufficient t o establish t h a t s o m e t h i n g exists f o r the sake o f some
end. A n d , like A r i s t o t l e a n d Erasistratos, T h e o p h r a s t o s

accommodates

mechanistic explanations w i t h i n his larger teleological a p p r o a c h .

72

All

three seem t o believe t h a t one can coherently h o l d t h a t , i n c e r t a i n cases,

once nature has assembled matter i n a purposive way, n a t u r a l

mecha

nisms w i l l i n e l u c t a b l y p r o d u c e the results w e observe.

As i n d i c a t e d above, the ancient evidence suggests t h a t Erasis
tratos m a y have h a d personal o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o become acquainted w i t h
the Peripatetics' c i r c u m s c r i b e d teleology. Strato's presence i n A l e x a n d r i a
(in the p e r i o d before he succeeded T h e o p h r a s t o s as head o f the L y c e u m
in Athens i n a b o u t 288 B . C . ) is attested,

73

a n d the e x p l i c i t ancient evi

dence o f Erasistratos's connections w i t h Peripatetics, i n c l u d i n g T h e o

phrastos, is accepted as v a l i d by m o s t m o d e r n scholars. As suggested
above, A r i s t o t l e ' s scientific dissections a n d vivisections o f a n i m a l s
never of h u m a n s p e r h a p s also p r o v i d e d a p o i n t o f reference f o r A l e x
andrian dissection.

74

Erasistratos's c o m b i n a t i o n of (a) mechanistic p r i n c i p l e s s i m i

lar t o those used by the mechanical t e c h n o l o g y o f his t i m e , a n d (b) l i m
ited teleological e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t finds n o specifiable f u n c t i o n s f o r

97

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HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

c e r t a i n organs a n d substances, m i g h t have seemed an outrageous c o n t r a

d i c t i o n t o Galen, w h o h e l d a m o r e P l a t o n i c a l l y c o l o r e d belief i n the ab
solute, comprehensive, directed purposiveness o f nature. B u t relocated
w i t h i n the i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t e x t s o f his o w n times, Erasistratos's p o s i t i o n
is h i s t o r i c a l l y plausible a n d coherent. H e tries t o r e i n i n teleology w i t h
o u t a b a n d o n i n g i t , t o recognize nature's p r o v i d e n t i a l craftsmanship i n
the b o d y w i t h o u t m a k i n g overstated claims f o r i t , a n d t o analyze the
largely well-designed b o d i l y machines t h r o u g h w h i c h nature effects some
of its discernible purposes. These efforts render h i m an i n t r i g u i n g p a r t i c i
p a n t i n a lively debate t h a t s t i r r e d m a n y a f o u r t h - a n d t h i r d - c e n t u r y - B . c .
t h i n k e r a debate t h a t , despite Galen's p o l e m i c a l efforts t o render i t
7 5

obsolete, is n o t over yet.

Erasistratos's c o m b i n a t i o n o f a teleological a n d a mechanistic
version o f the b o d y therefore offers a f u r t h e r e x a m p l e o f the interactive
n a t u r e o f the early H e l l e n i s t i c scientific c o m m u n i t y , n o t a b l y , i n this case,
of i n t e r a c t i o n between m e d i c i n e , mechanics, a n d p h i l o s o p h y . Such ex
change m a y have been p a r t l y s t i m u l a t e d , o r at least f a c i l i t a t e d , by i n s t i
t u t i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l features o f scientific life i n A l e x a n d r i a , such as the
M o u s e i o n a n d m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l r o y a l p a t r o n a g e , even i f , as suggested
above, Erasistratos was active i n o t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c cities, t o o .

7 6

T h e t w o versions o f the b o d y presented above n o t o n l y illus

trate some resonances between A l e x a n d r i a n medicine a n d other branches
of A l e x a n d r i a n c u l t u r e ; they also illustrate the r i c h A l e x a n d r i a n c o m p e t i
t i o n between r i v a l scientific theories, r i v a l m e t h o d s , divergent epistemol o g i c a l postures, a n d diverse r h e t o r i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s .

77

I t is a c o m p l e x ,

r i c h , p r o d u c t i v e scientific a g o n i n the m o s t v i b r a n t o f Greek t r a d i t i o n s ,

yet i t is a c c o m m o d a t e d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , n o t i n democratic Athens b u t i n
an a u t o c r a t i c n e w state i n A f r i c a w i t h M a c e d o n i a n rulers.
Yale University
N E W

H A V E N ,

C O N N E C T I C U T

von

Staden

Notes

2 vols. (Leipzig 1890-1893);

T h e H e l l e n i s t i c scientific c o m m u n i t y w a s m o

Graece

b i l e , b u t i t is a t t e s t e d t h a t , a t least f o r c e r t a i n

T . L . H e a t h , e d . , t r a n s l . , Apollonius

exstant,

p e r i o d s o f t i m e , A r c h i m e d e s w o r k e d i n Syra

Treatise

cuse; T h e o p h r a s t o s , E r a t o s t h e n e s , a n d S t r a t o i n

G . J. T o o m e r , e d . , t r a n s l . , c o m m . ,

A t h e n s ( b u t t h e l a t t e r t w o also i n A l e x a n d r i a ) ;

Conies

Dionysos the A l e x a n d r i a n and the astronomer

the Lost

on Conic

to vii: The Arabic

Greek

Original

ofPerga,

( C a m b r i d g e 1896);

Sections

Apollonius,

Translation

of

in the Version

of

Hipparchos o f Nicaea i n Rhodes; Praxagoras

the Banu Musa ( N e w Y o r k 1990); B . L . v a n

and m a n y subsequent doctors i n Kos. Pergamon

der W a e r d e n , Erwachende

a n d R h o d e s w e r e k n o w n centers o f m a t h e m a t

(Basel 1956), p p . 3 9 5 - 4 3 6 ; O . N e u g e b a u e r ,

Wissenschaft

ics, S m y r n a b e c a m e f a m o u s f o r its s c h o o l o f

" A p o l l o n i o s - S t u d i e n , " Quellen

E r a s i s t r a t e a n p h y s i c i a n s , a n d M e n K a r o u (near

Geschichte

Laodicea-ad-Lycum) f o r its school o f H e r o -

215-54.

und Studien

zur

A b t . B , 2 (1932):

der Mathematik,

p h i l e a n d o c t o r s . A p o l l o n i o s o f Perge w a s i n
E p h e s o s f o r a t least s o m e t i m e a n d m a i n t a i n e d
active contact w i t h

Pergamon.

See V i t r u v i u s De architectura

9.8.2-7, 10.7-

8; A t h e n a e u s Deipnosophistae

4.i74b-e,

n . 4 9 7 b - e ; A . G . D r a c h m a n n , The
2

F o r E u c l i d ' s c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h A l e x a n d r i a , see

Technology

P r o c l u s , In primum

Study

comment.,

Euclidis
in Euclidis

Elementa,

of the Literary

i d e m , Ktesibios,

Elementorum

Ancient

1, i n J. L . H e i b e r g , e d . , rev. E . S. S t a m a -

t i s , Euclidis

and Roman

Mechanical

Antiquity:

(Copenhagen

Sources

1963), p p . 10, 156, 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 1 9 2 - 9 3 , 2 0 2 - 3 ;

e d . G . F r i e d l e i n ( L e i p z i g 1873),

p . 6 8 . 1 0 - 2 0 ; Scholia
librum

Elementorum

of Greek

Philon

and Heron:

(Copenhagen

Pneumatics

A Study

in

1948).

v o l . 5 . 1 ( L e i p z i g 1977),

p . 4 0 . 2 3 - 2 5 ; P a p p u s , Collectiones

7.35 ( H e i

H . D i e l s a n d E . S c h r a m m , Philons

Belopoiika,

A b h a n d l u n g e n der preussischen A k a d e m i e

b e r g p . 678).

der W i s s e n s c h a f t e n , B e r l i n , p h i l . - h i s t . K L , 16
3

Aristarchos perhaps studied i n A l e x a n d r i a w i t h

(1918); i d e m , Exzerpte

S t r a t o o f L a m p s a k o s ( t h e P e r i p a t e t i c ) : see S t o -

B. VII und via, A b h a n d l u n g e n d e r p r e u s s i s c h e n

baeus Eclogae

A k a d e m i e der Wissenschaften, Berlin, phil.-hist.

1.16.1; D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s

philosophorum

Vitae

Mechanik

K l . , 12 (1919); R . Schoene, Philonis

5.58.

cae Syntaxis
4

aus Philons

libri

quartus

Mechani(Berlin

et quintus

O n A r c h i m e d e s ' A l e x a n d r i a n a s s o c i a t i o n s , see

1893); C . de V a u x , " L e l i v r e des a p p a r e i l s

D i o d o r o s o f S i c i l y Bibliotheca

p n e u m a t i q u e s et des m a c h i n e s h y d r a u l i q u e s

5.37.3.

historica

F o r A r c h i m e d e s ' e x t a n t prefaces a d d r e s s e d t o

de P h i l o n de B y z a n c e , " Notices

A l e x a n d r i a n m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , see J. L . H e i b e r g ,

(1903): 2 7 - 2 3 5 ; D r a c h m a n n ( n o t e 7 a b o v e ) ;

e d . , rev. E . S. S t a m a t i s , Archimedis

E . W . M a r s d e n , Greek

opera

om

nia, 3 v o l s . ( S t u t t g a r t 1972), e.g., v o l . 1, p p . 2 - 4

Technical

Treatises

38

et extraits

and Roman

Artillery:

( O x f o r d 1971), p p . 1 0 5 - 8 4 ;

(to Dositheos), 168-70 (to Dositheos, w i t h

i d e m , Greek

m e n t i o n o f K o n o n ) , 246 ( t o D o s i t h e o s ) ; v o l . 2,

Development

p p . 2, 2 6 2 - 6 6 ( t o D o s i t h e o s , b u t b o t h w i t h

3^-37, 39-42. 61-62, 75-76, 89-91, 1 1 3 E ,

m e n t i o n o f K o n o n ) , 4 2 6 - 3 0 a n d 528 ( b o t h t o

117, I 2 4 f . , 1 9 9 - 2 0 6 .

and Roman

Artillery:

Historical

( O x f o r d 1969), p p . 3 - 6 , 2 5 - 2 6 ,

Eratosthenes).
9
5

O n D i o n y s o s ' s r e p e a t i n g c a t a p u l t , p r o b a b l y de

B e t t e r k n o w n t o s o m e as a n A l e x a n d r i a n l i b r a r

signed a n d b u i l t i n R h o d e s , see P h i l o n o f B y z a n

i a n , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , a n d p o e t , E r a t o s t h e n e s also

t i u m Belopoeica

was a scientist. F o r his famous a t t e m p t t o mea

[ n o t e 8 a b o v e ] , c h a p s . 5 1 - 6 0 ) ; M a r s d e n , Ar

sure t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e e a r t h , see
medis

Caelestia,

Cleo-

ed. R. T o d d (Leipzig 1990),

tillery:

Technical

73-77 ( = Diels a n d Schramm

Treatises

(note 8 above),

p p . 1 4 6 - 5 2 , 1 7 7 - 8 4 , esp. D i a g r a m 9 ( p . 179);

1.7 ( p p . 3 3 - 3 7 , w i t h f u r t h e r useful refs. t o a n

H . D i e l s , Antike

cient accounts o f Eratosthenes' measurements;

1924), p p . 1 0 4 - 6 ; M a r s d e n , Artillery:

see also i b i d . , p p . x x i i i - x x v , f o r r e l e v a n t m o d

cal ( n o t e 8 a b o v e ) , p p . 89, 94; J. G . L a n d e l s ,

ern lit.).

Engineering

Technik,

in the Ancient

3rd e d . ( L e i p z i g

World

Histori

(London

1978), p p . 1 2 3 - 2 6 , w i t h fig. 44. I t is n o t clear

6

I n i t s field, A p o l l o n i o s ' s Conies

E u c l i d ' s Elements

became w h a t

w e r e i n basic g e o m e t r y . See

J. L . H e i b e r g , e d . , Apollonii

Pergaei

quae

w h e t h e r B i t o n ' s f a m o u s treatise, On the

struction
Catapults

of Instruments

for Warfare

( M a r s d e n , Artillery:

Con

and of

Technical

Trea-

99

100

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

p p . 6 1 - 1 0 3 ) , addressed t o a K i n g A t t a l o s ,

tises,

13

G a l e n , De anatomicis

10.7

administrationibus

b e l o n g s t o t h e t h i r d o r s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . (i.e.,

(vol. 2, p . 5 1 S i m o n ; p . 56 D u c k w o r t h ) =

w h e t h e r its addressee is A t t a l o s 1 o f P e r g a m o n

Heroph.

( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , f r . 9 2 (cf. f r . 7 9 ) .

o r A t t a l o s 11 o r 111), b u t i n a n y case t h e r e seems

t o be l i t t l e , i f a n y t h i n g , t h a t c o n n e c t s i t
t o A l e x a n d r i a . M a r s d e n , Artillery:
p . 6, a n d Artillery:

Treatises,

directly

14

Technical

retina

argues t h a t B i t o n ' s treatise w a s w r i t t e n a b o u t

240

and

are d e r i v e d f r o m L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n s o f

Herophilos's Greek terms.

B.C.

15
10

( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 3 8 f f . , esp.

1 5 5 - 6 1 , 1 9 5 - 2 0 8 . O u r t e r m s cornea

p . 3,

Historical,

See Heroph.

See L . E d e l s t e i n , Ancient

(Baltimore

Medicine

See Heroph.

(note 10 above), p p . 1 6 1 - 7 7 ,

182-86, 200-27.

1967), pp. 2 4 7 - 3 0 1 ; idem, "The Development

o f G r e e k A n a t o m y , " Bulletin

of the History

of

16

3 (1935): 2 3 5 - 4 8 ^ . Kudlien, " A n -

Medicine

2 1 4 - 2 0 , 2 9 6 - 9 9 , 3 6 5 - 7 2 . Herophilos's identi

tike A n a t o m i e u n d menschlicher L e i c h n a m , "

f i c a t i o n o f t h e b r o a d l i g a m e n t s (Heroph.

9 7 ( 1 9 6 9 ) : 7 8 - 9 4 ; I . G a r o f a l o , ed.,

Hermes
Erasistrati

H . v o n Staden,

The Art of Medicine

in Early

o f t h e u t e r u s t h a t pass f r o m t h e side o f t h e

Herophilus:

bridge 1989), pp. 1 3 8 - 5 3 , 1 8 7 - 8 9

uterus t o the w a l l s of the pelvis, p r o b a b l y was

(Cam

Alexandria

c r u c i a l t o his a p p a r e n t a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e

(hereafter

idea o f a w a n d e r i n g w o m b , i n a s m u c h as t h e

i d e m , " T h e D i s c o v e r y o f the B o d y :

Heroph.);

frr.

1 1 4 , 6 1 ) , i.e., t w o b i l a m i n a t e l a t e r a l l i g a m e n t s

(Pisa 1 9 8 8 ) , p p . 2 0 - 2 9

fragmenta

(hereafter Erasist.);

(note 10 above), p p . 1 6 7 - 6 9 , 1 8 3 - 8 6 ,

Heroph.

b r o a d ligaments help t o h o l d the uterus i n

H u m a n Dissection a n d Its C u l t u r a l Contexts i n

p l a c e . ( B e t w e e n t h e t w o layers o f e a c h l i g a m e n t

A n c i e n t G r e e c e , " The Yale Journal

also pass t h e F a l l o p i a n t u b e s d i s c o v e r e d b y

of

Biology

65 ( 1 9 9 2 ) : 2 2 3 - 4 1 . See also

and Medicine

H e r o p h i l o s a n d s o m e b l o o d vessels.)

notes 36, 38, 4 1 below.

17
I I

See K . D e i c h g r a b e r , Die griechische

Empiriker-

2 n d e d . ( B e r l i n 1 9 6 5 ) ; o n P h i l i n o s as

schule,

f o u n d e r , p p . 1 6 3 - 6 4 , 2 5 4 - 5 5 . Celsus
cina,

(Medi-

E m p i r i c i s t school, w h i l e Pliny the Elder

naturalibus

1.14, 3.15 ( v o l . 2 , p p . 4 4 - 5 6 ,

2 0 6 - 1 4 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ; Galenus,

(Natu-

Scripta

3 v o l s . , e d . J. M a r q u a r d t [ v o l . 1 ] ,

minora,

I . M u l l e r [ v o l . 2 ] , a n d G . H e l m r e i c h [ v o l . 3]

29.5) claims that it started w i t h

ralis historia

12

facultatibus

o f the

omnium)

to attack atomistic

e x p l a n a t i o n s o f m a g n e t i s m i n De

p r o o e m i u m 1 0 ) , h o w e v e r , seems t o m a k e

S e r a p i o n t h e f o u n d e r (primus

See, f o r e x a m p l e , Galen's use o f " a t t r a c t i v e

f a c u l t y " (eXKTLKrj Svvafus)

[ L e i p z i g 1 8 8 4 - 1 8 9 3 ] , h e r e a f t e r Scripta

minora,

A k r o n o f A g r i g e n t u m i n Sicily. See n o t e 7 7

v o l . 3, p p . 1 3 3 - 4 2 , 2 5 1 - 5 7 H e l m r e i c h ) ; Ad

below.

Pisonem

de theriaca

De locis

affectis

Celsus Medicina

prooemium 23-26

in Librum

De sectis

Galeni

6 3 b , p . 1 8 8 ) ; A g n e l l u s o f R a v e n n a ( ? ) , In

Galeni

2 3 , a d c a p . 5 (Arethusa

comm.

Mono

18

See H . v o n S t a d e n , " C a r d i o v a s c u l a r Puzzles i n

E r a s i s t r a t u s a n d H e r o p h i l u s , " i n xxxi.

p p . 1 8 8 - 8 9 ) . B o t h H e r o p h i l o s a n d Erasistratos

gresso

c o n t i n u e d t o dissect a n d v i v i s e c t a n i m a l s as w e l l :

Bologna,

G a l e n De anatomicis

Heroph.

Claudii

Galeni

Opera

omnia,

6.8, i n

frr. 4 9 A ,

5 2 ) ; i d e m , De placitis

Platonis

7.3 ( v o l . 5, p . 6 0 9 K . ; Corpus
Graecorum
natura

sanguis

et

19

teries
Erasist.

and the

arteriis

(note 10 above), p p . 2 4 7 - 7 3 ;

p h a s i s o n f a c u l t i e s as a n e x p l a n a t o r y m e c h a
n i s m : see Heroph.,

p p . 3 3 1 (fr. 1 5 6 ) , 4 6 9 - 7 0

(fr. 2 8 4 ) , 5 2 6 .

Ar

[Princeton 1984], pp. 162, 1 7 9 - 8 0 =

fr. 4 7 ) .

Heroph.

C h r y s e r m o s o f A l e x a n d r i a are a m o n g l a t e r

5.2 a n d 8.4, 5

on Respiration

(Bologna 1989), pp. 6 8 1 - 8 7 ;

( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 3 0 (fr. 5 7 ) ,

Herophileans w h o continued Herophilos's em

( v o l . 4 , p p . 7 1 8 , 7 3 3 - 3 5 K . ; D . J. F u r l e y a n d
J. S. W i l k i e , Galen

Medicina,

notes 2 1 - 2 2 below. D e m e t r i o s o f A p a m e a a n d

Medicorum

f r . 4 2 A ) ; i d e m , An in

contineatur

Con-

della

145a, 155, 164, 184.18, 19).

[hereafter C M G ] , 5.4.1.2, p . 4 4 6

D e L a c y = Erasist.

1988

di Storia

fr. 60), a n d

7 . 1 6 ( v o l . 2 , p p . 6 4 6 - 4 9 K . = Erasist.
Hippocratis

Internazionale

p p . 2 4 2 - 4 3 , 2 6 2 - 8 8 , 3 2 2 - 6 1 (esp. f r r . 1 4 4 ,

ed. C. G . K i i h n

(Leipzig 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 3 3 [hereafter K i i h n ' s e d i t i o n

= K . ] ) , v o l . 2 , p . 5 7 0 ( = Heroph.

quaes-

Aristotelicum,

i n part, rely o n Theophrastos.

fr. 63c,

administrationibus

2.23 (Supplementum

v o l . 2, p a r t 2, p p . 7 2 - 7 4 Bruns), w h i c h m i g h t ,

a d c a p . 5,
fr.

De sectis

tiones

Com-

5 r a 3 5 ~ 4 2 ( p p . 5 7 - 5 8 P r i t c h e t t = Heroph.

g r a p h s 8 [ i 9 8 i ] , p . 9 2 = Heroph.

see A l e x a n d e r o f A p h r o d i s i a s , Naturales

[note

10 a b o v e ] , fr. 1 7 A ) ; J o h n o f A l e x a n d r i a
mentaria

ancient d o x o g r a p h y of theories of magnetism,

(Heroph.

[ n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ] f r . 6 3 a , p . 1 8 7 ; Erasist.

3 (vol. 14, pp. 2 2 4 - 2 5 K . ) ;

1.7 ( v o l . 8, p . 6 6 K . ) . F o r a n

20

Heroph.

( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 6 5 (fr. 1 9 3 ) ,

3 1 8 - 2 2 (frr. 1 4 1 , i 4 3 a - c ) , 2 5 5 - 6 2 , 297, 3 1 1 ;

von

cf. also p p . 4 6 5 - 6 7 , 4 6 9 - 7 0 ( f r r . 2 8 0 , 2 8 4 :

Festschrift

zur 4 9 . Versammlung

l a t e r H e r o p h i l e a n s a n d Stoics o n f a c u l t i e s ) .

Philologen

und Scbulmdnner

Staden

deutscher
(Basel 1 9 0 7 ) ,

p p . 4 4 8 - 7 2 , o n p . 4 6 3 ( = Heroph.
21

G . E . R . L l o y d , The Revolutions

of

(Berkeley 1 9 8 7 ) , chap. 5 ( " M e a s u r e m e n t

Heroph.,

p p . 2 8 2 - 8 3 , 3 9 2 , a n d , o n pulse frequency a n d

and

M y s t i f i c a t i o n " ) . C f . P. P e l l e g r i n , " Q u a n t i t e et

fever, p p . 2 8 3 - 8 5 , 3 0 2 - 4 , 3 3 6 , 3 3 9 , 3 5 4 - 5 6

biologie dans l ' a n t i q u i t e , " i n D . G o u r e v i t c h ,

(fr. 1 8 3 ) , 3 7 7 - 7 8 ( f r r . 2 1 1 , 2 1 5 ) , 3 8 0 - 8 3

e d . , Maladie

(frr. 2 i 7 a - b , 2 2 2 ) .

tualisation.

et maladies:
Melanges

Histoire

et

en I'honneur

concep

de

Mirko

E c o l e P r a t i q u e des H a u t e s E t u d e s , i v

Grmek,

28

s e c t i o n , Sciences h i s t o r i q u e s et p h i l o l o g i q u e s , V :
Hautes

etudes

medievales

70

et modernes,

O n p h a r a o n i c w a t e r c l o c k s a n d t i m i n g devices,
see O . N e u g e b a u e r a n d R . A . P a r k e r ,
Astronomical

(Geneva 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 1 5 1 - 6 9 .

Egyptian

v o l . 3 (Providence, R . I . ,

Texts,

1969), pp. 1 2 - 1 4 ( w i t h p i . 2), 42, 47, 60, 152;

L . B o r c h a r d t , Die dgyptische

22

[note 10

a b o v e ] , f r . 1 8 2 , p p . 3 5 3 - 5 4 ) . See also

Wisdom

Zeitmessung

See G . V . L e f t w i c h , " A n c i e n t C o n c e p t i o n s o f

( B e r l i n 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 6 f f . , 6 o f f . O n K t e s i b i o s , see

the B o d y and the C a n o n o f P o l y k l e i t o s " (Ph.D.

notes 2 9 - 3 0 , 5 0 - 5 1 below. O n ancient clocks,

diss., P r i n c e t o n U n i v . , 1 9 8 7 ) .

see also D i e l s , Antike

(note 9 above),

Technik

pp. 1 5 5 - 2 3 2 ; A . Rehm, " H o r o l o g i u m , " in

23

For reflections o f H e r o p h i l o s ' s interest i n mea

Paulys

s u r e m e n t (size, w e i g h t , v o l u m e , etc.) a n d q u a n

Altertumswissenschaft,

t i f i c a t i o n , see n o t e s 2 6 - 3 0 b e l o w , a n d

clocks); C. R. Tittel, " H e r o n ( 5 ) , "

2 0 9 - 1 1 (frr. 96, 9 8 a - b , 99, i o o a - b ) , 297,

Real-Encyclopadie,

3 0 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 2 4 - 2 . 5 (fr. 1 4 6 ) , 3 4 4 - ^ 1 , 365

c o l s . 9 9 2 - 1 0 8 0 , esp. 1 0 5 2 - 5 4 ; D r a c h m a n n ,
p p . i 6 f f . ; M . C . P. S c h m i d t , Die
der antiken

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , see also i b i d . , p . 3 2 6

Agypter,

and Heron

der Medizin

29

V i t r u v i u s De architectura

7 vols, i n 9 (Berlin 1 9 5 4 - 1 9 6 2 ) ,

horologiorum

ex aqua

. . .

conparationes

explicuit,

9 . 8 . 4 ) suggests t h a t he is s i n g l i n g o u t f o r de

S m i t h p a p y r u s , Case 1 ) .

s c r i p t i o n o n l y o n e o f several K t e s i b i a n w a t e r
c l o c k s . T h e merkhet,

C f . L . P e a r s o n , e d . , Aristoxenus,

century B . C . ) , apparently invented by A m e n -

{Elem..

e m h e t ( c o u r t a s t r o n o m e r t o A m e n h o t e p 1), also

2 . 2 0 - 2 2 , 25), 2 2 - 2 7 ,

2 8 , 3 2 - 3 5 , 5 4 - 5 5 , 6 1 , 6 4 - 7 0 ; Heroph.

or alabaster, water c l o c k

f r o m the reign o f A m e n h o t e p i n (fourteenth

Elementa

(Oxford 1990), pp. 6 - 9

2 . 1 0 - 1 2 ) , 1 2 - 1 7 {Elem.

is s a i d t o h a v e been d e s i g n e d t o m a r k t h e h o u r s

(note

1 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 7 3 - 8 5 (esp. 2 7 8 - 8 0 ) , 3 5 6 ,

o f t h e n i g h t at a n y season (see n o t e 28 a b o v e ) .

392-93.

I n the f o u r t h century B . C . Aeneias "the Tacti

c i a n " {How
172, i n V . Rose,

Quaestiones

medicinales

dota

et Graecolatina,

Graeca

fr. 1 7 2 ; see Heroph.,

to Survive

under

Siege

22.24-25)

l i k e w i s e describes a c l e p s y d r a t h a t is a d j u s t a b l e

F o r t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f r h y t h m , see p s . - S o r a n u s

1 8 7 0 ) , p . 2 6 5 = Heroph.

f o r t h e seasonal l e n g t h e n i n g a n d s h o r t e n i n g o f

Anec-

n i g h t s . A n i g h t c l o c k (cbpokoyiov

v o l . 2 (Berlin

A t h e n a e u s Deipnosophistae

p p . 2 7 3 , 2 7 6 - 8 3 . O n the

4.174c; H . Diels,

p u l s e at d i f f e r e n t stages o f l i f e , see R u f u s o f

" U b e r P l a t o n s N a c h t u h r , " Sitzungsberichte

Ephesos(?), Synopsis

preussischen

de pulsibus

4, i n C. D a -

(Paris 1 8 7 9 ) , p p . 2 2 3 - 2 5 = Heroph.,

Berlin,

der

phil.-hist. K l .

(1915), pp. 8 2 4 - 3 0 .

d'Ephese

5 1 (fr. 1 7 7 ) . O n p u l s e r h y t h m , see also

Heroph.,

vehemence,

pp. 2 7 3 - 7 5 , 2 8 4 - 8 6 , 3 2 7 - 2 8 , 352.-54,

30

V i t r u v i u s De architectura
aut in columna
in diem

singulis
F o r H e r o p h i l o s ' s c l e p s y d r a , see M a r c e l l i n u s
1 1 , i n H . Schone, " M a r k e l l i n o s '

Pulslehre: Ein Griechisches A n e k d o t o n , "

egrediens

totum.

cuneorum
diebus

9 . 8 . 6 : In his

aut parastatica

tur, quas sigillum

nificat

crescentias

356-59-

De pulsibus

Akademie,

pp. 3 5 0 -

PP- 3 3 5 - 3 8 , 3 4 0 - 4 2 , 3 4 ^ - 4 9 , 3 5 4 - 6 i ,
3 9 1 - 9 3 ; o n p u l s e speed, size, a n d

of

vvKTepivov)

t h e c l e p s y d r a t y p e is also a s c r i b e d t o P l a t o : see

(note 10 above),

r e m b e r g a n d C . E . R u e l l e , eds., Rufus

27

9 . 8 . 4 - 7 , esp. 9 . 8 . 6 .

V i t r u v i u s ' s use o f t h e p l u r a l (Ctesibius

der

v o l . 4 . 1 , p p . 1 (Ebers p a p y r u s ) , 1 7 2 ( E d w i n

Rhythmica

Entstehung

(Leipzig 1912); Landels

Wasseruhr

(note 9 above), p p . 1 8 8 - 8 9 .

See, e.g., H . G r a p o w , H . v o n D e i n e s , a n d
alten

Philon

(note 7 above),

Ktesibios,

(frr. 2 5 5 , 2 5 7 - 5 9 ) . B u t for an example of

quali

Paulys

v o l . 8.1 ( S t u t t g a r t 1 9 1 2 ) ,

(fr. 1 9 3 ) , 375 ( f r r . 2 0 6 , 2 0 7 ) , 3 9 1 - 9 3 . 4 2 . 1 - 2 4

W . W e s t e n d o r f , Grundriss

26

classischen

1913), cols. 2 4 1 6 - 3 3 (2428ff. o n water

Heroph.

(fr. 1 4 9 . 5 - 7 ) ; cf. i b i d . , p . 1 9 .

25

der

v o l . 8.2 ( S t u t t g a r t

(note 10 above), p p . 1 8 2 - 8 7 (frr. 6 o a - 6 3 a ) ,

tative

24

Real-Encyclopadie

autem
describun-

ab imo uirgula

Quarum
adiectus

et mensibus

horae
breuitates

sigaut

aut exemptus

perficere

cogit:

in
"In

these [ c l o c k s ] t h e h o u r s are d r a w n e i t h e r o n a
c o l u m n o r o n a p i l a s t e r , a n d a figurine ascend
i n g f r o m the b o t t o m indicates w i t h a r o d the

101

102

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

h o u r s f o r a w h o l e day. A n d t h e a d d i t i o n o r

f r r . 5 2 - 5 3 . C f . i b i d . , p p . 1 1 5 - 3 7 ; R . J. H a n k i n -

r e m o v a l o f w e d g e s forces i t t o effect t h e s h o r t

s o n , " S a y i n g t h e P h e n o m e n a , " Phronesis

nesses o r increases o f [ t h e d u r a t i o n ] o n i n d i v i d

(1990):

35

194-215.

ual days a n d i n i n d i v i d u a l m o n t h s . " I n 9.8.7

V i t r u v i u s describes a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h i s " w e d g e
m e t h o d " t h a t m a y be closer t o p h a r a o n i c

35

and

H e r o p h i l o s ' s p o s i t i o n reflects t h e g r o w i n g G r e e k
concern w i t h theories of scientific m e t h o d i n the

o t h e r predecessors (see n o t e s 2 7 - 2 9 a b o v e ) . F o r

t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . T h e E m p i r i c i s t s seem t o have

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f K t e s i b i o s ' s w a t e r c l o c k , see

been t h e first g r o u p w h o s e a d h e r e n t s d e f i n e d

D i e l s , Antike

themselves i n terms o f a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n d

(note 9 above), p p . 2 0 4 -

Technik

1 1 ( f i g . 7 1 ) ; J. S o u b i r a n , Vitruve,
ture,

De

ix (Paris 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 2 7 2 - 8 7

livre

f u r t h e r l i t . ) ; F. G r a n g e r , e d . , Vitruvius

Varchitec

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l m o d e l {ijuLTretpCa a n d its s u b

(with

d i v i s i o n s ) r a t h e r t h a n after a f o u n d i n g f a t h e r

on

Archi

( H i p p o c r a t i c , S o c r a t i c ) o r after a p l a c e o r s t r u c

vol. 2 (London 1934), p i . N ; Rehm

tecture,

t u r e (Academy, Stoa, L y c e u m , Kepos). T h i s

( n o t e 28 a b o v e ) , c o l s . 2 4 2 9 - 3 1 . See also
W . S c h m i d t , e d . , Heronis
1: Pneumatica

Alexandri

n o m e n c l a t i v e m o v e , t o o , reflects t h e i n c r e a s i n g

opera,

col.

p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h m e t h o d . See J. B a r n e s et a l . ,

(Leipzig 1899),

et automata

pp. 4 5 6 - 5 7 ( H e r o n , f r o m Proclus),

eds., Science

506-7

lenistic

and Speculation:

Theory

Studies

( f r o m P a p p u s ) ; T i t t e l ( n o t e 28 a b o v e ) , esp.

R . J. H a n k i n s o n , e d . , Method,

cols. 1 0 5 2 - 5 4 (on Heron's lost w o r k o n water

Metaphysics:

Studies

c l o c k s , w h i c h reflects at least s o m e t e c h n i c a l

cient

= Apeiron

concerns similar to Ktesibios's); D . R. H i l l ,

(note 10 above), p p .

Arabic

Science

in

Hel

(Cambridge 1982);

and Practice

Medicine

and

in the Philosophy

of

22.2 (1988);

An

Heroph.

115-37.

( A l e p p o 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 1 3 ; cf.

Water-clocks

i d e m , On the Construction

of

Water-clocks

36

(London 1976).

G . E. R. L l o y d , " A N o t e o n Erasistratus of
C e o s , " Journal

of Hellenic

95 (1975):

Studies

1 7 2 - 7 5 ; P. M . Fraser, " T h e C a r e e r o f E r a s i s t r a
31

Cassius I a t r o s o p h i s t a Problemata
e d . , Physici

et medici

Graeci

t u s , " Rendiconti

1 , i n J. I d e l e r ,

( B e r l i n 1 8 4 1 ) , p . 1 4 4 = Heroph.

Classe

Lombardo,

5 1 8 - 3 7 ; W . D . S m i t h , The Hippocratic

(note 10

Tradi

( I t h a c a , N . Y . , 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 1 9 0 , 1 9 5 . See

a b o v e ) , f r . 2 3 6 ( p p . 4 1 1 - 1 2 ) . Cassius s t a r t s o u t

tion

by a t t r i b u t i n g this v i e w t o "the

also R . F u c h s , " L e b t e E r a s i s t r a t o s i n A l e x a n

(Heroph.

Herophileans"

d r i a ? " Rheinisches

f r . 2 3 6 . 2 ) , b u t he t h e n p r o c e e d s t o

N . F . 52 ( 1 8 9 7 ) :

Museum,

identify the v i e w w i t h H e r o p h i l o s himself

3 7 7 - 9 0 ; F. S u s e m i h l , " C h r y s i p p u s v o n K n i d o s
N . F . 56

(fr. 2 3 6 . 1 3 ) . See also J. J o u a n n a , " P o u r q u o i les

u n d E r a s i s t r a t o s , " Rheinisches

plaies c i r c u l a i r e s guerissent-elles d i f f i c i l e m e n t ?

( 1 9 0 1 ) : 3 1 3 - 1 8 ; R. H e l m , " U b e r die Lebenszeit

U n n o u v e a u t e m o i g n a g e i n e d i t (Scorialensis

der A r z t e N i k i a s , E r a s i s t r a t o s , M e t r o d o r u n d

F i n 1 2 , f o l . 4 2 0 V ) , " i n Maladie

et

C h r y s i p p o s , " Hermes

maladies

(note 2 1 above), p p . 9 5 - 1 0 8 .
O n p u l l i n g (eXKecv, efyeXKeiv,
natura

sanguis

schaft,

VS. pushing

OXKTJ)

(TrejjLireiv, aTrcoBelv, e t c . ) , see, e.g., G a l e n

in arteriis

29 ( 1 8 9 4 ) : 1 6 1 - 7 0 ;

System

in Ancient

Greek

and the
Medicine

1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 7 7 - 7 8 ; Erasist.

[ n o t e 1 2 a b o v e ] , p . 1 7 6 = Heroph.

pp. 1 7 - 2 2 .

[note 10

a b o v e ] , f r . 1 4 5 a ) ; i d e m , De pulsuum
4 . 6 ( v o l . 8, p . 7 3 3 K . = Heroph.
H . D i e l s , e d . , Doxographi
p . 6 3 9 ( = Heroph.
cita 4 . 2 2 (Moralia

37

(note 10 above),

I a m i n c l i n e d t o agree w i t h P. G r e e n ,
to Actium

103, in
(Berlin 1879),

Graeci

Vascular
(Oxford

differentiis

fr. 144);

philosopha

Real-

Altertumswissen-

v o l . 6.1 (Stuttgart 1907), c o l . 335;

C . R . S. H a r r i s , The Heart

An

8 (vol. 4,

contineatur

der classischen

p. 7 3 2 K . [note 12 above]; Furley a n d W i l k i e

p s . - G a l e n De historia

Museum,

M . W e l l m a n n , " E r a s i s t r a t o s ( 2 ) , " Paulys

Encyclopddie

32

del Istituto

d i l e t t e r e e scienze m o r a l i e s t o r i c h e , 103 ( 1 9 6 9 ) :

vol. 1

minores,

fr. 143c); ps.-Plutarch

Pla-

(Berkeley 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 4 9 0 :

Alexander
"Erasistra

tus w o r k e d i n A n t i o c h as w e l l as A l e x a n d r i a "
( a l t h o u g h m y assessment o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l v a l u e
of the evidence concerning Erasistratos a n d

903F-904B).

S t r a t o n i k e has b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x a n d re
33

G a l e n De procatarcticis

causis

1 6 . 1 9 7 - 2 0 4 ( C M G [ n o t e 1 2 a b o v e ] , Suppl.
p p . 4 1 - 4 2 B a r d o n g ) = Heroph.

served t h a n Green's a n d Fraser's, as w i l l be

13.162-64,
2,

s h o w n e l s e w h e r e ) . See Suda,

E . 2 8 9 6 , s.v.

t r a t u s (11, p p . 4 0 2 - 3 A d l e r ) ; G e o r g i u s

(note 10

Ecloga

above), frr. 58, 59a.

chronographica

520.13-17 (Olymp.

1 3 0 . 2 ; p . 3 3 0 M o s s h a m m e r ) ; Scholia
34

A n o n y m u s Londinensis 2 1 . 1 8 - 3 2 =
(note 10 above), fr. 50a; Galen
medendi
= Heroph.

Heroph.

a d Idyll,

Heroph.

3 8 ; A p p i a n Historia

in

The-

x i (p. 240 Wendel); Valerius

M a x i m u s , 5.7. e x t . 1 ; P l u t a r c h , Vit.

Methodus

2.5 ( v o l . 1 0 , p . 1 0 7 K . [ n o t e 1 2 a b o v e ]
f r . 5 0 b ) . O n e x p e r i e n c e , see

ocritum,

Erasis

Syncellus

romana:

Syriac.

Demetrius
59-61,

3 0 8 - 2 7 . A m o n g E r a s i s t r a t o s ' s associates a n d

von

relatives, the Erasistratean A p o l l o p h a n e s , w h o

41

Staden

O n p a t h o l o g i c a l d i s s e c t i o n , see C a e l i u s A u r e

is i d e n t i f i e d as b e i n g f r o m Seleucia, b e c a m e a n

l i a n u s Tardae

advisor and probably a personal physician to

[note 10 above], fr. 2 5 1 ; V i n d i c i a n

5.8.111 =

A n t i o c h o s i n ( P o l y b i o s 5.56 a n d 5 . 5 8 ) , w h e r e a s

p r a e f . 2 (see n o t e 38 a b o v e ) . O n E r a s i s t r a t o s ' s

Apollonios from Egyptian Memphis, a pupil of

e x p e r i m e n t s , see H a r r i s ( n o t e 3 6 a b o v e ) ,

E r a s i s t r a t o s ' s close associate S t r a t o (the d o c t o r ,

p p . 2 2 4 , 3 7 8 - 8 8 ; H . v o n Staden, " E x p e r i m e n t

n o t the Peripatetic), appears t o have been active

and Experience i n Hellenistic M e d i c i n e , "

i n t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s p h e r e . A p o l l o n i o s seems

letin

passiones

of the Institute

of Classical

Erasist.
Gynaecia

Bul

22

Studies

t o be t h e first f o l l o w e r o f E r a s i s t r a t o s t o have

( 1 9 7 5 ) : 1 7 8 - 9 9 ; Furley a n d W i l k i e (note 12

defined the pulsea characteristically A l e x a n

above), p p . 4 7 - 5 7 (by W i l k i e ) .

d r i a n u n d e r t a k i n g : see G a l e n De pulsuum

dif-

4 . 2 a n d 4 . 1 7 ( v o l . 8, p p . 7 1 9 , 7 5 9 - 6 1

ferentiis

K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ) ; Heroph.

42

(note 10 above),

P s . - G a l e n Introductio

5 (vol. 14,

siue medicus

p . 6 8 4 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ) .

pp. 2 6 7 - 8 8 , 3 2 2 - 6 1 , 4 4 6 - 4 9 , 462.-65,
5 6 0 - 6 3 . Erasistratos's brother, K l e o p h a n t o s ,

43

p e r h a p s p r a c t i c e d i n A l e x a n d r i a : G a l e n In
Hippocratis
(vol.

Epidemiarum

1 7 A , p . 6 0 3 K . ; CMG

37;

2.4

111 comment.

See F u r l e y a n d W i l k i e ( n o t e 1 2 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 6 Erasist.

(note 10 above), p p . 3 1 - 4 6 ; v o n

S t a d e n ( n o t e 18 a b o v e ) ; H a r r i s ( n o t e 3 6 a b o v e ) ,

[note 12 above],

pp. 1 9 5 - 2 3 2 .

5.10.2.1, p. 77.20 Wenkebach); on Kleophantos's f a m i l y c o n n e c t i o n , see R u f u s o f E p h e s o s

De

renum

et uesicae

berg and Ruelle [note 26 above], p. 32;

3.1,

44

4.1 (Darem-

affectionibus

See, e.g., G a l e n De anatomicis

CMG

p . 1 2 8 . 5 Sideras). T h e i r f a t h e r , K l e o m b r o -

a b o v e ] , esp. 6 4 9 . 1 7 = Erasist.

[note 10 a b o v e ] ,

fr. 4 9 A ) ; G a l e n De naturalibus

facultatibus

t o s , m i g h t have been i n A n t i o c h as t h e p h y s i

I . 1 6 , 2 . 1 ( v o l . 2 , p p . 6 0 - 6 7 , 75 K . ; Scripta

c i a n o f Seleukos 1 N i k a t o r (cf. P l i n y

nora

historia

Naturalis

7 . 1 2 3 a n d 2 9 . 5 ) , as w a s m a i n t a i n e d o n

Geschichte der M e d i c i n i m A l t e r t u m , "

purgantium

Hermes

mi

[ n o t e 1 7 a b o v e ] , v o l . 3, p p . 1 4 5 - 5 0 ,

H e l m r e i c h = Erasist.

less t h a n secure g r o u n d s b y M . W e l l m a n n , " Z u r

155

frr. 74, 136); Galen

medicamentorum

I I , p . 3 2 8 K . = Erasist.

De

2 (vol.

facultate

f r . 9 3 ) ; G a l e n An

in

35 ( 1 9 0 0 ) : 3 4 9 - 8 4 (esp. p p . 3 8 0 - 8 2 ; cf. also

arteriis

p p . 3 7 1 , 3 8 2 on K l e o p h a n t o s ) . C h r y s i p p o s , a

p. 7 0 9 K . ; F u r l e y a n d W i l k i e [note 12 above],

son of Erasistratos's K n i d i a n teacher C h r y s i p

p . 1 5 0 = Erasist.

pos, apparently became a personal physician t o

differentiis

one o f the Ptolemies (Diogenes Laertius 7.186).

sanguis

V i n d i c i a n Gynaecia

p r a e f . 2 ( = Heroph.

1 0 a b o v e ] , f r r . 5 a n d 6 4 = Erasist.
5 . 2 . 5 0 ( = Erasist.

frr.

[note

2 (vol. 4,

contineatur

f r . 1 0 9 ) ; G a l e n De

pulsuum

4 . 2 ( v o l . 8, p . 7 0 3 K . =
sectione

Erasist.

aduersus

3 (vol. 1 1 , pp. 1 5 3 - 5 6 K . =

EraErasist.

1 9 8 , 2 1 2 ) . See a l s o n o t e 4 9 b e l o w .

[note 10

a b o v e ] , f r . 1 7 B ) ; C a e l i u s A u r e l i a n u s Tardae
siones

natura

fr. 1 1 0 ) ; G a l e n De uenae
sistratum

38

administra-

7.16 ( v o l . 2, p p . 6 4 8 - 4 9 K . [note 12

tionibus

pas-

fr. 267).

45

E r a s i s t r a t o s a n d his f o l l o w e r s d i s t i n g u i s h be
t w e e n " m a s s e d v o i d " (KEVOV

ddpoov,

KEVOS

dOpocog TO7TO<;), i.e., t h e " e m p t y " t h a t is " l a r g e ,

39

Suda,

E . 2 8 9 6 , s.v. E r a s i s t r a t o s (11, p p . 4 0 2 - 3

A d l e r ) ; W e l l m a n n (note 37 above), p p . 370,

3 8 0 - 8 2 ; S t r a b o 9 . 5 . 6 ; P l i n y , Naturalis
2 9 . 5 ; Sextus E m p i r i c u s Aduersus

clear, p e r c e p t i b l e o r e v i d e n t " [KEVOV

o~a(f>Es, aladrjTov,

historia
mathematicos

pEja,

o n the one h a n d ,

and, o n the other h a n d , the " e m p t y " or " v o i d "

t h a t " i s i n t h e state o f b e i n g d i s p e r s e d
Traprai)

S t e p h a n u s o f B y z a n t i u m Ethnica,

p . 335

t h r o u g h o u t b o d i e s " : G a l e n De naturalibus

M e i n e k e ; S t o b a e u s Anthologium

3.7.57 (p. 325

cultatibus

(vol.

siue medicus

14, p . 683 K . [note 12 above]).

71-71

[ n o t e 2 6 a b o v e ] , p p . 1 8 4 - 8 5 ) = Erasist.
et Platonis
(vol.

(note
Hippocratis

6 . 6 . 4 - 1 1 , 6.6.19, 7 . 3 . 6 - 1 3 ,

5, p p . 5 4 8 - 5 0 , 5 5 2 , 6 0 2 - 4 ,

K . [ n o t e 1 2 a b o v e ] = CMG

7.8.12

646-47

[ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ,

5.4.1.2, p p . 396, 398, 4 4 0 - 4 2 , 4 7 6 De Lacy) =

Erasist.

f r r . 2 0 1 , 2 8 9 , 4 2 A . See also n o t e s 4 2 ,

47 below.

minora

fa

95-99

[ n o t e 17

a b o v e ] , v o l . 3, p p . 1 5 5 - 5 6 , 1 7 0 - 7 3 H e l m r e i c h

(Daremberg and Ruelle

1 0 a b o v e ) , f r . 3 9 ; G a l e n De placitis

fipaxv)

2 . 1 , 2.6 ( v o l . 2 , p p . 7 5 - 7 6 ,

K . [ n o t e 1 2 a b o v e ] ; Scripta
= Erasist.

R u f u s ( ? ) , Anat.

at s h o r t i n t e r v a l s (Kara

(trapicr-

1 . 2 5 8 ; D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s 5.57 a n d 7 . 1 8 6 ;

H e n s e ) ; p s . - G a l e n Introductio

40

ivapyEs),

[note 10 above], f r r . 9 5 , 9 6 , 1 3 6 ,

138, 147); A n o n y m u s Londinensis 26.48c,

2 7 . 6 - 7 , 2 5 - 3 9 . KEVOV

ddpoov,

for "massed" or

" c o n t i n u o u s v o i d " (as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h

i n a t e " o r i n t e r s t i t i a l v o i d , StEairappivov
irapEarrappiEvov

KEVOV),

"dissem
or

apparently became a

t e c h n i c a l e x p r e s s i o n , also i n m e c h a n i c s ; i t is
conspicuous, for example, i n the p r o o e m i u m t o
H e r o n ' s Pneumatica

1 (1, p p . 4 . 3 - 4 ,

6.12-14,

8.22, 1 6 . 2 0 - 2 6 , 2 6 . 2 3 - 2 8 . 1 1 Schmidt; 104.29,

109.13, 112.14, 115.18, 116.4 Gottschalk) and

103

104

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

i n Pneum.

1.2 (1, p . 3 6 . 1 0 - 1 1 S c h m i d t ) , 1.4 (1,

p . 4 6 . 3 - 4 S c h m i d t ) . See also n o t e s 4 6 ,

f r r . 8 4 , 1 0 3 - 4 ) ; G a l e n De locis

55-56

( v o l . 8, p . 3 1 6 K . = Erasist.

b e l o w . H . D i e l s , " U b e r das p h y s i k a l i s c h e S y s t e m
des S t r a t o , " Sitzungsberichte

der Akademie

der

7 5 , 4 8 2 , 502 K . ; Furley a n d W i l k i e [note 12

a b o v e ] , p p . 8 2 - 8 4 , 9 4 , 1 2 0 = Erasist.

p p . 1 0 1 - 2 7 , esp. p p . 1 0 5 - 1 7 ( r e p r . i n D i e l s ,

1 0 8 , 1 1 2 ) ; C a e l i u s A u r e l i a n u s Celeres

Kleine

2 . 3 4 . 1 8 0 ( = Erasist.

Berlin,

Schriften

zur Geschichte

der

antiken

ed. W . B u r k e r t [ H i l d e s h e i m 1 9 6 9 I ,

Philosophie,

suum

passiones

fr. 183); Galen

Depul-

4 . 1 7 ( v o l . 8, p . 7 5 9 K . =

differentiis

Era

sist. f r . 2 0 5 ) ; G a l e n De placitis

influenced b o t h Erasistratos and A l e x a n d r i a n

Platonis

m e c h a n i c i a n s , b u t D i e l s m a d e o v e r c o n f i d e n t use

[note 12 above], 5.4.1.2, p . 3 9 6 D e L a c y =

o f H e r o n t o r e c o n s t r u c t S t r a t o . See L . R e p i c i ,

Erasist.

e Vanima:

Saggi su Stratone

di

50

Straton

von

v o l . 5,

des Aristoteles,

CMG

fr. 201).

de Ctesibica

aquam

(Basel 1 9 5 0 ) , f r r . 5 4 -

Lampsakos

et

6 . 6 . 4 - 1 1 ( v o l . 5, p p . 5 4 8 - 5 0 K . ;

V i t r u v i u s De architectura
nunc

See F. W e h r l i , Die Schule

Hippocratis

Lamp-

(Turin 1988), pp. 8 5 - 9 0 .

saco

educit,

in radicibus

quae

monstrare.

modioli

fiunt

tantes,

T h e o r y i n Heraclides of Pontus,"

R o s e ) ] figura similiter

Mnemosyne,

10.7.1:

machina

67; Diels (note 45 above); I . M . L o n i e , " M e d i c a l

habentes

fistulas

Insequitur

in

altitudinem

Ea sit ex aere.

Cuius

gemelli

dis-

furcillae

paulum

(del.

[sunt

cohaerentes,

in

medium

4 t h ser. 18 ( 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 1 2 6 - 4 3 ; . B . G o t t -

catinum

schalk, "Strato o f Lampsacus: Some Texts,"

give a n i n d i c a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e m a c h i n e o f

Proceedings

K t e s i b i o s , w h i c h raises w a t e r t o a h e i g h t . I t

sophical

of the Leeds

Society

Literary

of Pontus

Philo

Theory

(Cambridge 1989), pp.

See G a l e n De naturalibus

H e l m r e i c h ; Erasist.

h a v i n g [ o u t l e t ] t u b e s i n t h e f o r m o f a f o r k ; these

of

t u b e s are a t t a c h e d t o t h e m [ i . e . , t o e a c h o f t h e
cylinders] i n a similar way, a n d the tubes c o n

149-60.

verge i n a m a i n c h a m b e r [vessel] i n t h e m i d d l e . "

5I

2.1

facultatibus

[ n o t e 17 a b o v e ] , v o l . 3, p p .

minora

s h o u l d be o f b r o n z e . I n its base [ " r o o t s " ] are

Cosmic

(vol. 2, p p . 7 5 - 7 6 K . [note 12 above];

" N o w we proceed to

concurrentes:

made t w i n cylinders, a small distance apart,

( O x f o r d 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 9,

of Bithynia

1 2 - 1 4 , 49? 5 6 , 5 8 - 5 9 ; D . J. F u r l e y ,
Problems

127-

( O x f o r d 1980),

p . 1 4 3 ; J. T . V a l l a n c e , The Lost
Asclepiades

and

1 1 ( 1 9 6 5 ) : 9 5 - 1 8 2 , esp.

4 1 ; i d e m , Heraclides

47

frr. 106,

p p . 2 3 9 - 6 5 ) , argued that Strato o f Lampsakos

La natura

46

De

2 . 1 , 2 . 1 0 , 5.1 ( v o l . 4 , p p . 4 7 4 -

usu respirationis

phil.-hist. K l . (1893),

Wissenschaften,

5.3

affectis

fr. 105); Galen

Scripta

I b i d . : In quo
naribus

155-56

locati;

[note 10 above], f r r . 9 5 ,

catino

fistularum

fiunt

asses in

coagmentatione

qui praeobturantes

patiuntur

superioribus
subtili

foramina

( a d d . R o s e ) > quod

<redire

con-

narium

136): Erasistratos submerged a tube i n water,

catinum

e m p t i e d o u t the air i n i t , a n d observed the c o n

tus: spiritu

tiguous p o r t i o n of water immediately m o v i n g

a s i m i l a r d e v i c e , see H e r o n Pneumatica

i n t o t h e space f r o m w h i c h t h e a i r h a d been

(1, p p . 1 3 0 - 3 6 S c h m i d t , w i t h fig. 2 9 ; cf. 1,

r e m o v e d . See also P h i l o n o f B y z a n t i u m De
geniis

(the c o d i c e s r e a d

in
spiri-

is F r a G i o c o n d o ' s e m e n d a t i o n ) . F o r
1.28

p p . x x x i i i , x x x v w i t h fig. 2 9 a ) .

in-

3 and 6 (in W . Schmidt,

spiritualibus

Heronis

est expressum

non

spiritu

Alexandrini

52

v o l . 1 [Leipzig

Opera,

1899], pp. 4 6 2 - 6 4 , 4 7 0 - 7 2 ) ; Heron

Pneumat-

ica 1.2 a n d 1.4 (1, p p . 3 6 , 4 2 - 4 6 S c h m i d t ) ;

T h e m i s t i u s In Aristotelis

De caelo paraphr.

See, e.g., G a l e n De placitis

a b o v e ] ; CMG

4.5,

Plato

[note 10 above], fr. 2 0 1 ) .

C f . Erasist.,

p l i c i u s In Aristotelis

4 0 , 4 4 , 49 above.

comment.

et

[note 12 above], 5.4.1.2, p . 3 9 6

D e L a c y = Erasist.

ad 3 i 2 b 5 ~ i 4 (p. 2 4 1 . 1 3 - 2 7 Landauer); SimDe caelo

Hippocratis

nis 6 . 6 . 4 - 1 1 ( v o l . 5, p p . 5 4 8 - 5 0 K . [ n o t e 1 2

4.5, ad

p p . 2 3 - 2 6 , 3 6 - 4 3 . See a l s o n o t e s

3 i 2 b 2 (p. 7 2 3 . 1 8 - 3 6 H e i b e r g ) .
48

lar P u z z l e s " ( n o t e 18 a b o v e ) .
49

53

V i t r u v i u s 1 0 . 7 . 1 - 3 . See n o t e s 5 0 - 5 1 a b o v e .

54

See n o t e s 4 5 - 4 6 a b o v e .

See n o t e s 4 4 a n d 4 9 ; v o n S t a d e n , " C a r d i o v a s c u

See n o t e s 4 0 a n d 4 3 - 4 4 a b o v e , a n d G a l e n
in arteriis

natura

sanguis

An

8.4-5

contineatur

(vol. 4, p p . 7 3 3 - 3 4 K . [note 12 above]; Furley

a n d W i l k i e [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] , p p . 1 7 8 - 8 0 =
[ n o t e 1 2 a b o v e ] , f r . 5 1 ) ; G a l e n De

sist.
micis

administrationibus

p p . 6 2 4 , 6 4 6 K . = Erasist.
De

usu partium

Era

anato-

7 . 1 1 , 7.16 ( v o l . 2,
frr. 202, 52); Galen

6 . 1 2 , 7.8 ( v o l . 3, p p . 4 6 5 ,

5 3 7 - 4 0 K . ; i , p. 339 Helmreich =

Erasist.

55

H e r o n Pneumatica

p r o o e m i u m , v o l . 1,

pp. 8.23-10.13,

16.10-16, 20.24-25,

25 S c h m i d t . C f . P h i l o n o f B y z a n t i u m
nica Syntaxis

26.23Mecha-

4.60 (p. 7 7 . 2 8 - 3 2 Thevenot

p. 1 5 2 . 1 8 - 2 0 Marsden) o n Ktesibios, and

7-8.111.72-73 (p. 9 6 . 1 5 - 2 6 Thevenot

pp. 6 5 - 6 6 Diels and Schramm, 1919 [note 8

a b o v e ] ) . See n o t e s 4 5 , 5 6 .

von

56

H e r o n Pneumatica

2. 1 7 - 1 8 (1, p p .

xographi

250-54

tiones

Schmidt).

p. 618); ps.-Galen

Graeci ,
x

medicae

Staden

Defini-

9 5 ( v o l . 1 9 , p . 3 7 9 K . ; SVF,

v o l . 2, f r . 113 3 ) ; C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a
57

G a l e n De naturalibus

( v o l . 2, p p . 7 8 , 9 1 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ;
minora

Stro-

5 . 1 4 . 1 0 0 . 4 ( S V F , v o l . 2 , f r . 1 1 3 4 ) . See

mateis

2 . 2 , 2.4

facultatibus

also SVF, v o l . 2, f r r . 1 1 3 5 - 3 9 .

Scripta

[ n o t e 17 a b o v e ] , v o l . 3, p p . 1 5 7 , 1 6 7

H e l m r e i c h ) ; Erasist.

65

( n o t e 10 a b o v e ) , f r . 8 1 .

O l y m p i o d o r o s In Platonis

1 2 . 1 ; for

Gorgiam

p a r a l l e l passages, see SVF ( n o t e 6 4 a b o v e ) ,

58

G a l e n De naturalibus

minora

[ n o t e 17 a b o v e ] , v o l . 3, p p . 1 5 7 , 1 5 9 - 6 0 H e l m
r e i c h ) ; Erasist.

v o l . 1, fr. 7 3 .

2 . 2 , 3 ( v o l . 2,

facultatibus

p p . 7 8 , 8 1 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ; Scripta

66

SVF ( n o t e 6 4 a b o v e ) , v o l . 1 , f r . 7 3 .

( n o t e 10 a b o v e ) , f r . 7 9 . See a l s o

G a l e n De venae

sectione

adversus

Erasistratum

4 ( v o l . 1 1 , p p . 1 5 7 - 5 8 K . = Erasist.

67

fr. 80):

E . g . , A r i s t o t l e Meteorologica
2.2.194321-22

Physica

" Y o u [ E r a s i s t r a t o s ] m a r v e l at n a t u r e as b e i n g at

i d e m , Poetica

o n c e c a p a b l e o f techne

i d e m , Protrepticus

t h o u g h t (irpovoriTiKiq)

and of fore

(TEXVLKTJ)

for l i v i n g beings."

G a l e n De usu partium

[ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ; 1, p . 2 3 1 H e l m r e i c h =

L i t t r e ; CMG
3

60

G a l e n De naturalibus

[note

minora

68

17 a b o v e ] , v o l . 3, p . 165 H e l m r e i c h ) .
G a l e n De naturalibus

8Joly/Byl).

A r i s t o t l e De partibus

69

Ibid., 3.2.66338-11.

70

T h e o p h m s t o s Metaphysics

[note

minora

17 a b o v e ] , v o l . 3, p . 1 6 7 H e l m r e i c h =

Erasist.

Theophrastus,

Quaestiones
= Erasist.
63

3 {Moralia

prolis

7 . 1 (Moralia

convivales

Metaphysics

(Leiden 1933),

phraste,

Metaphysique

Theo-

(Psris 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 2 ,

74-88.

698B-D)

fr. 114.

E . g . , P l a t o Timaeus

h i m , is a c r a f t s m a n u s i n g techne
u n i v e r s e (Srjjmuwpydg,

t o create the

2933, 4 i 7 > 4

7 5 b 7 ~ 8 ; pur)Xctvaop,ai,

I C

4 5'

T h e o p h m s t o s Metaphysics

9.1-4.10321-1232.

72

See, e.g., A r i s t o t l e De partibus

animalium

2 . i 4 - i 5 . 6 5 8 a n - b 2 6 ; J. G . L e n n o x , " T h e o
phrastus o n the L i m i t s of Teleology," i n

W . W . F o r t e n b a u g h , e d . , Theophrastus

3 4 C I , 3763, 40C2,

4 5 b 6 , 7 0 C 4 , 7 3 C 2 , 7 4 b 4 , 7 7 a 3 ; see also
/jLTqxavcbvTai

71
33<Ji; here t h e c o s m i c d e m i

u r g e h i m s e l f , l i k e t h e lesser g o d s w h o assist

T4 VU
X

i n a n a n a l o g y , 5oe6). F u r t h e r m o r e ,

Eresus:

On His Life

and

Work,

of

Rutgers Univer

sity Studies i n C l a s s i c s l H u m s n i t i e s , v o l . 2

t h e u n i v e r s e itself, l i k e the n a t u r e o f a l l its p a r t s ,

(New Brunswick, N.J., 1985), pp.

is " t e c h n i c a l l y c r a f t e d "

J. C o o p e r , " A r i s t o t l e o n N a t u r a l T e l e o l o g y , "

(8e87]/nLovpyrj/jivrj

(frvcris, 8oe4; ovpavdg

76d5~6), and

its e l e m e n t s behave l i k e c r a f t s m e n (777, 4 0 c 1 - 2 ;

Language

and Logos

(Ith3C3, N . Y . , 1 9 8 2 ) ,

p p . 1 9 7 - 2 2 2 ; J. C o o p e r , " H y p o t h e t i c s l N e c e s
s i t y 3nd N s t u r s i T e l e o l o g y , " i n A . G o t t h e l f 3nd

TTvp, 5 9 3 5 - 6 ; cf. 4 7 3 6 , 4 6 e 4 ) .

J. G . L e n n o x , eds., Philosophical
H . v o n A r n i m , e d . , Stoicorum
menta

(hereafter SVF),

143-63;

i n M . C . N u s s b a u m 3nd M . S c h o f i e l d , eds.,

SeSrj/uuovpyrj/uLevos,

3 1 3 2 - 4 ; Sep/uut Srjjuuovpyrjdev,

64

see

pp. 4 8 5 - 5 8 7 ; A. Lsks snd G. W . Most,

495C)

( n o t e 10 a b o v e ) , f r . 8 3 . See i d e m ,

= Erasist.

9.2.1131-16;

3lso 4 . 2 . 7 3 1 9 - 2 2 . C f . M s r l e i n v s n R 3 3 l t e ,

[ n o t e 10 a b o v e ] , f r . 8 1 ) .
P l u t a r c h ( P ) , De amore

4.2.677312-

animalium

19.

2.4 ( v o l . 2,

facultatibus

p . 9 1 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ; Scripta

62

1.11-16 ( v i , pp. 4 8 6 - 9 0

[ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] , 1.2.4, p p . 1 3 4 -

2 . 3 , 4 ( v o l . 2,

facultatibus

p . 88 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ; Scripta

61

4.1.735; idem,

2.18.2 Cf. the H i p p o c m t i c

plantarum

treatise On Regimen

Erasist.

[ n o t e 10 a b o v e ] , f r . 8 2 ) .

i448b2o-27;

f r r . 1 3 - 1 4 Ross; p s . - A r i s t o t l e

6 0 ; i d e m , Metaphysics

De causis

4 . 1 5 ( v o l . 3, p . 3 1 5 K .

2.8.199311-20;

4 . i 4 4 8 b 4 ~ 9 and

5 . 3 9 6 b n - i 2 ; T h e o p h r a s t o s De

De mundo
lapidus

59

4 . 3 . 3 8 ^ 6 ; idem,

and

veterum

frag-

4 vols. (Leipzig 1 9 0 3 -

1 9 2 4 ) , v o l . 2, f r . 1 0 2 7 ( A e t i u s Placita

1.7.33);

totle's

Biology

Issues

in

Aris

(Csmbridge 1987), pp. 2 4 3 - 7 4 ;

A . Gotthelf, "Aristotle's Conception of Finsl

C a u s a l i t y , " Review

of Metaphysics

30 (1976):

D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s 7 . 1 5 6 (SVF, v o l . 2, f r . 7 7 4 ) ;

2 2 6 - 5 4 ( r e p r i n t e d i n Philosophical

C i c e r o De natura

[above, this note], p p . 2 0 4 - 4 2 ) ; D . M . Balme,

deorum

fr. 1 7 1 ) ; G a l e n Methodus

2 . 5 7 (SVF, v o l . 1 ,
medendi

1.2 ( v o l . 10,

"Teleology a n d Necessity," i n

Issues
Philosophical

[above, this n o t e ] , p p . 2 7 5 - 9 0 ; W . K u l l -

p p . 1 5 - 1 6 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] = S V F , vol.. 2,

Issues

fr. 4 1 1 ) ; p s . - G a l e n Historia

m a n n , "Different Concepts of Final Csuse i n

philosopha

6 and 8

( v o l . 1 9 , p p . 2 4 6 , 2 5 2 K . [ n o t e 12 a b o v e ] ;

Do-

A r i s t o t l e , " i n A . G o t t h e l f , e d . , Aristotle

on

105

106

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Nature

and Living

(Pittsburgh 1985),

Things

B o d y " ( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , esp. p . 2 3 1 . C o n n e c

p p . 1 6 9 - 7 5 ; G . W . M o s t , " T h e Relative Date

o f T h e o p h r a s t u s ' Metaphysics,"

tions between the Ptolemaic r o y a l c o u r t a n d

i n W . W . For-

t e n b a u g h a n d R . W . S h a r p i e s , eds.,

s o m e e a r l y A l e x a n d r i a n scientists are w e l l at

Theophras-

tested: k i n g s gave H e r o p h i l o s a n d E r a s i s t r a t o s

R u t g e r s U n i v e r s i t y Studies i n

tean Studies,

condemned criminals for vivisectory experimen

Classical H u m a n i t i e s , v o l . 3 ( N e w B r u n s w i c k ,

t a t i o n (Celsus Medicina

N.J., 1988), pp. 2 2 4 - 3 3 ;

centes

homines

a regibus

uiuos

inciderint;

Erasist.

Teleologie

- K u l l m a n n , Die

in der aristotelischen

Sit-

Biologie,

z u n g s b e r i c h t e der H e i d e l b e r g e r A k a d e m i e der
Wissenschaften,

fr. 1 7 A ; Heroph.

phil.-hist. K l . , vol. 2 (1979);

[note 10 above],

fr. 63a). Erasistratos pre

s c r i b e d a p l a s t e r f o r a K i n g P t o l e m y w h o suf

sache' b e i A r i s t o t e l e s , " Berichte

passiones

zur

Wissen-

5 (1982): 2 5 - 3 9 ; G. Wohrle,
Methode

in seinen

5 . 2 . 5 0 = Erasist.

Tardae

fr. 267). A n d the

son o f Erasistratos's teacher C h r y s i p p o s became

botanischen

a Ptolemaic c o u r t physician (Diogenes Laertius

(Amsterdam 1985), pp. 9 0 - 9 4 ;

Schriften

no-

acceptos

fered f r o m g o u t (Caelius A u r e l i a n u s

Theophrasts

7 . 1 8 6 ) , as d i d H e r o p h i l o s ' s p u p i l A n d r e a s

L . Repici, " L i m i t s of Teleology i n Theophras

( P o l y b i u s 5 . 8 1 . 1 - 7 ; see Heroph.,

t u s ' Metaphysics?"

One A p o l l o n i o s dedicated a sundial to Ptolemy

Archiv

fur Geschichte

der

72 (1990): 1 8 2 - 2 1 3 .

Philosophie

P h i l a d e l p h o s (Orientis
Selectae

pp. 4 7 2 - 7 5 ) .

Graeci

Inscriptiones

2 4 ; see D i e l s , Antike

Technik

[note 9

above], p p . 1 7 6 - 7 8 ) , and Ktesibios dedicated a

Diogenes Laertius 5.58: Strato received eighty

t a l e n t s f o r t u t o r i n g P h i l a d e l p h o s . See n o t e s 3

famous r h y t o n w i t h an automatically operating

a n d 4 6 a b o v e ; P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

trumpet i n honor of Arsinoe Philadelphos i n

Alexan

t h e t e m p l e at C a p e Z e p h y r i o n : H e d y l u s , i n

v o l . 1 ( O x f o r d 1972), pp. 114, 3 1 1 , 322,

dria,

4 2 7 - 2 8 ; Green (note 37 above), p p . 86, 88,

A t h e n a e u s Deipnosophistae

494,

A . S. F. G o w , The

611-12.

Epigrams
74

ex carcere

i d e m , " W e s e n u n d B e d e u t u n g der ' Z w e c k s u r schaftsgeschichte

73

p r o o e m i u m 2 3 : qui

fr. 7 . See a l s o P l i n y Naturalis

29.5

Hellenistic

( C a m b r i d g e 1 9 6 5 ) , v o l . 1,11.

1843-

t h i r d century B . C . Philon of B y z a n t i u m claims

(note 10 above),
historia

9 . 4 9 7 D - E ; cf.
Anthology:

52, a n d v o l . 2, p p . 2 9 2 - 9 3 . A n d i n the later

O n T h e o p h r a s t o s a n d E r a s i s t r a t o s , see D i o
genes L a e r t i u s 5.57 = Erasist.

Greek

t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f ar

Erasist.

f r . 8; Sextus E m p i r i c u s Adversus

mathe-

tillery owes m u c h t o the systematic a p p l i c a t i o n

maticos

1.258 = Erasist.

natu-

of the p r i n c i p l e o f c a l i b r a t i o n , w h i c h "the

ralibus

facultatibus

1 2 a b o v e ] ; Scripta

f r . 5; G a l e n De

minora

since t h e y o b t a i n e d , f o r t h e first t i m e , a b u n d a n t

[ n o t e 17 a b o v e ] ,

v o l . 3, p . 1 6 6 H e l m r e i c h = Erasist.

p r o d u c t i o n f u n d s (

f r . 6 ) . See

tory

a n d techne-friendly

"Erasistratus,

S t u d e n t o f T h e o p h r a s t u s ? " Bulletin

of the

poeica

His

[ = Mechanica

kings"

()
Syntaxis,

thanks
()
(Belo-

B o o k 4 ] , p . 50

T h e v e n o t = p . 1 0 8 M a r s d e n ) . Fraser ( n o t e 73

59 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 5 1 5 - 1 7 .

of Medicine

to the p r o v i s i o n made by a m b i t i o u s

Green (note 37 above), p . 4 9 4 ; b u t for a m o r e

s k e p t i c a l v i e w , cf. J. S c a r b o r o u g h ,

tech-

i n A l e x a n d r i a have succeeded i n d o i n g

nitai

2.5 ( v o l . 2 , p . 9 0 K . [ n o t e

a b o v e ) , v o l . 1 , c h a p . 6, a n d p p . 3 7 1 , 4 4 6 .
75

See n o t e s 6 3 - 7 2 a b o v e a n d , e.g., P l a t o ' s c r i t i

c i s m o f A n a x a g o r a s , Phaedo

Aris

^ybS-^^dz;

Scientists o f t h i s p e r i o d also d i s p l a y d i s p a r a t e
m o r a l sensibilities. T h e E m p i r i c i s t s , f o r ex

ateleological m e c h a n i s m , also i n b i o l o g i c a l c o n

a m p l e , r e j e c t e d v i v i s e c t i o n as i m m o r a l a n d sci

t e x t s (e.g., A r i s t o t l e De generatione

entifically worthless (and they likewise spurned

animalium

2 . 6 . 7 4 2 b i 7 - 2 5 , 5 . 8 . 7 8 8 b 8 - 2 9 ; cf. A r i s t o t l e De
caelo

3 . 4 . 3 0 3 3 3 ^ 8 ; A r i s t o t l e De

et corruptione
Metaphysica

generatione

1.8.324^35-326b6; Aristotle
A . 4 . 9 8 5 b 4 ~ 2 2 ) . For Epicurus's

a t e l e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s , see, e.g., Letter

Herodotus

73-74,

Letter

to Pythocles

to

88, and

L u c r e t i u s 4 . 8 2 3 - 5 7 , 5 . 1 5 6 - 2 3 4 . F o r Stoic tele
o l o g y , see n o t e s 6 4 - 6 6 a b o v e a n d , e.g.,

SVF

(note 64 above), v o l . 2, frr. 1 0 2 1 , 1 1 5 2 , 1163,

1 1 6 9 - 7 0 , 1 1 7 2 ; SVF, v o l . 3, f r r . 3 7 1 , 6 1 6 .
76

77

totle's n u m e r o u s criticisms o f D e m o k r i t o s ' s

N o e v i d e n c e e x p l i c i t l y c o n n e c t s e i t h e r Erasis
tratos or H e r o p h i l o s w i t h the A l e x a n d r i a n
M o u s e i o n as s u c h . B u t p a t r o n a g e c a n t a k e
m a n y f o r m s : see Heroph.

(note 10 above),

p p . 2 6 - 3 0 , a n d v o n Staden, " D i s c o v e r y o f the

d i s s e c t i o n as h a v i n g n o c l i n i c a l v a l u e ) . See C e l
sus Medicina

prooemium 40-44;

Deichgraber

( n o t e 1 1 a b o v e ) , f r . 2 4 (esp. p . 1 0 5 . 2 3 - 2 9 ) ,
frr.

66-70.

Arts of Hellenistic Alexandria:

Greek and Egyptian Contributions

This page intentionally left blank

109

Alexandria and the Origins of

Baroque Architecture
Judith

McKenzie

I t has generally been assumed t h a t the architecture of Ptolemaic A l e x a n

d r i a has been lost b e y o n d recall. Sufficient of i t i n fact survives, however,
t o suggest t h a t there was a classical architecture t h a t was d i s t i n c t l y
A l e x a n d r i a n a n d t h a t this includes the earliest s u r v i v i n g baroque a r c h i
tecture. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t can be s h o w n t h a t this architecture is reflected
i n the architecture at Petra a n d i n Second Style P o m p e i a n w a l l p a i n t i n g .
Finally, i t can be suggested t h a t there is a largely unrecognized c o n t i n u i t y
of t r a d i t i o n of i t .
T h i s paper is l i m i t e d t o a discussion o f o u r k n o w l e d g e o f the
classical architecture o f A l e x a n d r i a , based o n the l i t t l e - k n o w n archaeo
logical remains f o u n d i n A l e x a n d r i a itself. I t w i l l focus o n the style of ar
chitecture, n o t the t o p o g r a p h y , except f o r i n i t i a l b r i e f c o m m e n t s o n the
Ptolemaic c i t y l a y o u t based o n a detailed r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f the r e c o r d o f
the archaeological evidence. T h u s , i t touches o n o n l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f
m y broader study of the architecture of A l e x a n d r i a , a p p r o x i m a t e l y f r o m
3 0 0 B . C . t o A . D . 7 0 0 , w h i c h concentrates o n the m o n u m e n t a l architec
ture of the c i t y a n d the rest o f E g y p t a n d also considers the t o p o g r a p h i
cal development o f the city. T h i s larger study is based o n the evidence
p r o v i d e d by archaeological remains a n d t e x t u a l sources.
T h e t e x t u a l sources p r o v i d e m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n is usu
ally realized a b o u t the development o f the t o p o g r a p h y o f the c i t y r i g h t
t h r o u g h t o the Byzantine p e r i o d , w h i l e the archaeological remains give
a p i c t u r e o f w h a t the architecture l o o k e d l i k e , at a level o f d e t a i l n o t gen
erally p r o v i d e d b y the w r i t t e n sources. For a complete p i c t u r e , one needs
the c o m b i n a t i o n o f t e x t u a l a n d archaeological evidence. I n c o n f i n i n g
ourselves t o the latter i n this paper, we g a i n o n l y a glimpse o f the
whole picture.
Ptolemaic G r i d Plan
T h e m o d e r n v i s i t o r t o A l e x a n d r i a always remarks o n h o w few traces
apparently survive of this famous ancient city. H e visits the site of the
Temple o f Serapis a n d discovers o n l y "Pompey's P i l l a r , " the sole c o l u m n
i n the c i t y t h a t has survived standing t h r o u g h centuries o f earthquakes.
H e finds F o r t K a i t Bey m a r k i n g the site o f the lighthouse, the Pharos,

NO

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Plan of Alexandria made by

M a h m o u d Bey i n 1866. F r o m
M . El Falaki, Memoire
I'antique

sur
(Copenhagen

Alexandrie

1872), reproduced in G. Jondet,

Atlas historique
Ports d'Alexandrie

de la Ville et des
(Cairo 1921),

p i . 37.

FIG.

Detail of M a h m o u d Bey's plan of

Alexandria showing surviving
paving and columns i n 1866
("12a" equals 330 m , cf. fig. 4).
D r a w i n g by the author, based on
H . Kiepert, " Z u r Topographie der
alten Alexandria: N a c h M a h m u d
Begs Entdeckungen,"
der Gesellschaft

Zeitschrift

fur Erdkunde

zu

Berlin 7 (1872): 3 3 7 - 4 9 , pi- 5,

map opposite page 384.

a n d discovers t h a t n o other trace o f i t remains. Even the site o f the

entrance t o the Caesareum, the Temple o f Caesar, is n o longer m a r k e d
by "Cleopatra's Needles." Instead, the t o u r i s t can find t h e m at h o m e ,
one o n the Thames E m b a n k m e n t i n L o n d o n , the other i n C e n t r a l Park i n
N e w Y o r k , t o w h e r e they were r e m o v e d late i n the nineteenth century.
F r o m the n i n t h t h r o u g h the fifteenth c e n t u r y the ancient ar
c h i t e c t u r a l remains of the c i t y were m e t h o d i c a l l y r e m o v e d f o r reuse i n
other b u i l d i n g s , such as the mosques o f C a i r o a n d even o f I s t a n b u l .

McKenzie

FIG.

T h i s process was assisted b y the earthquakes, w h i c h were p a r t i c u l a r l y

Plan of Alexandria made by

H . Salt i n 1806. F r o m G. Valentia,
Voyages and Travels to
Ceylon,

India,

the Red Sea, Abyssinia

Egypt in the Years

and

1802-1806,

v o l . 4 (London 1811), first fold-

destructive i n the t h i r t e e n t h a n d f o u r t e e n t h centuries.

T h u s , few remains o f the ancient b u i l d i n g s were still s t a n d i n g

by the late eighteenth c e n t u r y w h e n E u r o p e a n interest i n the t o w n began
t o develop. Traces o f the l a y o u t o f the ancient c i t y were, however, still

out map. Courtesy of The N e w

visible. By 1 8 8 0 m o s t o f these traces h a d been b u i l t over o r destroyed by

York Public Library.

the m o d e r n city, b u t before this happened, they h a d been recorded i n

m o r e d e t a i l t h a n is usually appreciated.
I n 1 8 6 6 a n A r a b surveyor, M a h m o u d Bey, recorded the re
mains o f the g r i d p l a n (fig. i ) .

H o w e v e r , his p l a n , a n d even its o r i e n

t a t i o n , were disbelieved by the E n g l i s h archaeologist D a v i d George

H o g a r t h , w h o has been f o l l o w e d b y other scholars w r i t i n g i n E n g l i s h .

T h e p l a n p u b l i s h e d by R i c h a r d A l l a n T o m l i n s o n was an excellent reflec

t i o n o f h o w l i t t l e E n g l i s h scholars t h o u g h t was k n o w n a b o u t the p l a n .

T h e i r c o n t i n e n t a l colleagues were slightly less skeptical o f M a h m o u d

Bey's w o r k .

I f one reads the t e x t t h a t M a h m o u d Bey p u b l i s h e d i n F r e n c h

i n 1 8 7 2 t o a c c o m p a n y his p l a n , however, one discovers t h a t he was very
careful t o r e c o r d w h e r e c o l u m n s o r p a v i n g s u r v i v e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , he
a c k n o w l e d g e d (quite c o r r e c t l y ) t h a t those he was r e c o r d i n g were R o m a n
rather t h a n P t o l e m a i c . These are visible o n v a r i o u s G e r m a n copies o f
7

M a h m o u d Bey's p l a n , such as those o f K i e p e r t (fig. 2) a n d Sieglin.

I t has n o t p r e v i o u s l y been recognized t h a t c o n f i r m a t i o n o f the

accuracy o f M a h m o u d Bey's r e c o r d o f the archaeological evidence is t o
be f o u n d i n the m a p made b y H e n r y Salt i n 1 8 0 6 (fig. 3 ) . T h i s p l a n was
9

made over h a l f a c e n t u r y before M a h m o u d Bey's a n d shows street lines

III

112

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Plan of the Ptolemaic Serapeion,

Alexandria ("a" equals 27.5 m ,
or 1/12 X 330 m ) . D r a w i n g by
the author, based on details of
A . Rowe and B. R. Rees, "The
Great Serapeum of Alexandria,"
Bulletin

of the John

Rylands

Library,

Manchester

39.2 (1957):

4 8 5 - 5 2 0 , plan opposite page 492.

existing w h e r e M a h m o u d Bey later recorded t h e m . F u r t h e r m o r e , Salt's

p l a n confirms M a h m o u d Bey's i n t e r a x i a l g r i d w i d t h o f 3 3 0 m . T h i s is
the distance between the center line of each o f the m a i n n o r t h - s o u t h
streets. T h i s d i m e n s i o n is three times the average used i n the Seleucid
cities of S y r i a .

10

I t is notable t h a t traces of the p l a n have survived i n

A l e x a n d r i a t h r o u g h the R o m a n , Byzantine, a n d Islamic periods, just as

they d i d i n Syria.
M o s t o f the s u r v i v i n g R o m a n remains, such as those uncov
ered at K o m el D i k k a ,

1 1

are b u i l t o n the same o r i e n t a t i o n as this g r i d as

are m o s t Ptolemaic ones, i n c l u d i n g n o t a b l y the Serapeion. T h e h i p p o

d r o m e a d j o i n i n g i t , whose existence was recorded by the N a p o l e o n i c
e x p e d i t i o n as w e l l as by H e n r y Salt, was also b u i l t o n this same o r i e n t a
tion.

1 2

T h i s structure, called the L a g e i o n after the father o f P t o l e m y 1,

was situated southwest o f Pompey's Pillar. A l t h o u g h i t was as large as

the Circus M a x i m u s i n R o m e , by the end o f the nineteenth c e n t u r y i t
h a d disappeared under h o u s i n g .
T h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f the Serapeion, o r Temple o f Serapis b u i l t
by P t o l e m y i n a b o u t 2 4 6 - 2 2 2 B . C . , have survived. T h e y are clearly
m a r k e d a n d r e l i a b l y dated because P t o l e m y left f o u n d a t i o n plaques i n
holes at the corners inscribed b o t h i n Greek a n d i n E g y p t i a n h i e r o -

McKenzie

FIG.

Ptolemaic architectural fragments

in the Graeco-Roman Museum i n
Alexandria as they appeared ca.
192.0. From E. Breccia,
ad Aegyptum

Alexandria

(Bergamo 1922),

fig. 103.

glyphs.

13

O n e x a m i n i n g the p l a n f r o m Rowe's excavations, w h i c h were

done i n the 1940s a n d 1950s, i t becomes apparent n o t o n l y t h a t the

t e m p l e a n d its enclosure were l a i d o u t o n the same o r i e n t a t i o n as the
g r i d b u t also t h a t the gross u n i t o f t h e i r p l a n , 2 7 . 5 0 m , is e x a c t l y onet w e l f t h o f the i n t e r a x i a l g r i d w i d t h recorded by M a h m o u d Bey a n d Salt
(see figs. 2, 4 ) . T h i s w o u l d t e n d t o c o n f i r m the Ptolemaic o r i g i n o f the
basic g r i d a n d its o r i e n t a t i o n . T h e use o f a s u b d i v i s i o n o f the street g r i d
dimensions a n d the same o r i e n t a t i o n as o n the Serapeion, w h i c h is r e l i
ably dated t o P t o l e m y i n , suggest t h a t the basic dimensions a n d o r i e n t a
t i o n o f the street g r i d recorded by M a h m o u d Bey h a d a Ptolemaic o r i g i n .
T h e y were t h e n preserved i n the R o m a n g r i d , w h i c h he recorded.
W h a t the A r c h i t e c t u r e along T h e s e Streets L o o k e d Like
We n o w come t o w h a t the architecture a l o n g these streets a n d inside the
c o l o n n a d e d courts off t h e m l o o k e d l i k e . Some o f this a r c h i t e c t u r e , par
t i c u l a r l y i n the early t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . , was s i m i l a r t o t h a t at other H e l
lenistic sites, such as the fragments r e p u b l i s h e d by W o l f r a m H o e p f n e r ,
f r o m a b u i l d i n g i n the palace a r e a .

14

F r a g m e n t s in t h e M u s e u m . T h i s paper w i l l concentrate o n the

fragments i n the G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m i n A l e x a n d r i a , w h i c h indicate
t h a t a classical architecture developed t h a t was d i s t i n c t i v e l y A l e x a n d r i a n .
There are over one h u n d r e d p u b l i s h e d a r c h i t e c t u r a l fragments
preserved i n the m u s e u m t h a t were still o n display i n 1 9 8 2 (fig. 5). M a n y
of these can be s h o w n t o date t o the Ptolemaic p e r i o d . M o s t o f t h e m
were n o longer o n display by 1 9 9 2 , however, despite the fact t h a t they
give the best available i n d i c a t i o n , at a general level, o f the a r c h i t e c t u r a l
details t h a t m i g h t have been used o n Ptolemaic structures, such as the
colonnades o f the ancient M o u s e i o n o r L i b r a r y .

113

114

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

7a

7b

7c

FIG.

Epidauran Corinthian capital.

FIGS.

7a-c

Corinthian capital types.

a: Type Alexandrian capital;
b: Type n Alexandrian capital;
c: Type i n Alexandrian capital.
FIG.

Roman " n o r m a l " Corinthian

capital.

FIG.

9a

Type Alexandrian capital, from

the Chantier Finney. Ca. second
century B . C . Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum. From A . A d r i a n i ,
Annuaire

du Musee

greco-romain,

I 9 3 5 - I 9 3 9 , pl- 5
FIG.

9b

Type Alexandrian capital, from

9a

9b

9c

the Chantier Finney. Ca. second

century B . C . Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum. From A . A d r i a n i ,

F r o m the fragments i n the G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m i t is

possible, first, t o define specific details o f capitals and cornice types as
distinctively A l e x a n d r i a n a n d , second, t o determine t h a t the earliest
examples o f various n e w baroque s t r u c t u r a l features, such as halfpediments a n d curved entablatures, survive f r o m Ptolemaic A l e x a n d r i a .
M o s t o f these fragments were loose finds, a l t h o u g h one i m
p o r t a n t g r o u p , f r o m the " C h a n t i e r Finney," was f o u n d together a n d ap
pears t o come f r o m one b u i l d i n g . I r e p r o d u c e d the published pieces i n
The Architecture

Since t h e n , Pensabene's large v o l u m e has

ofPetra.*

appeared, w h i c h gives m a n y m o r e examples, reflecting the r e m a r k a b l e

consistency o f the evidence.

16

T h e basis f o r the c h r o n o l o g y o f the t o m b s i n A l e x a n d r i a

has been given elsewhere.

17

Suffice i t t o say t h a t w h e n the t o m b s are

re-examined i n detail, i t becomes clear t h a t w h i l e m o s t of t h e m c a n n o t

Annuaire

du Musee

greco-romain,

1935-1939, pl. 16.1.

FIG.

9c

Type i n Alexandrian capital, from

the Chantier Finney. Ca. second
century B . C . Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum. From A . A d r i a n i ,
Annuaire

du Musee

I 9 3 5 - I 9 3 9 , pl- 17-4-

greco-romain,

McKenzie

FIG.

10

Type i v Alexandrian capital.

1 0

FIG. 11
Type IV Alexandrian capita. Ca.

Type i v Alexandrian capital. Ca.

second century B . C . Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman M u s e u m . From
K . Ronczewski, "Kapitelle des El
Hasne i n Petra,"
Anzeiger,
FIG.

Archaologischer

1932, 3 7 - 9 0 , fig. 22.

12

Acanthus c o l u m n base, from the

Chantier Finney. Ca. second
century B . C . Alexandria, GraecoR o m a n M u s e u m . From A . A d r i a n i ,
Annuaire

du Musee

I I

I 2

greco-romain,

I935-I939, pl- 16.6.

r e l i a b l y be dated t o w i t h i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y a q u a r t e r o f a century, i t is
generally clear w h e t h e r they are Ptolemaic o r R o m a n , d a t i n g t o the t h i r d
o r second c e n t u r y B . C . rather t h a n the first c e n t u r y A . D .
For e x a m p l e , T o m b 2 at M u s t a f a Pasha is dated t o a b o u t the
second c e n t u r y B . C . , based o n the evidence o f the coins, p o t t e r y , a n d
epigraphy. T o m b s 1 a n d 3 at M u s t a f a Pasha are close t o i t i n date. Based
o n a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h these, the g r o u p o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l fragments f r o m
the C h a n t i e r Finney, w h i c h was i n the area o f the palace quarter, m a y be
dated t o a b o u t the second c e n t u r y

B.C.

1 8

Capitals. T h e C o r i n t h i a n capitals s u r v i v i n g i n A l e x a n d r i a
f r o m the Ptolemaic p e r i o d f a l l i n t o a n u m b e r o f d i s t i n c t types. T h e first
three are related t o t h a t used o n the T h o l o s at E p i d a u r o s . L i k e i t (fig. 6 ) ,
the A l e x a n d r i a n ones have the helices s p r i n g i n g d i r e c t l y f r o m the c o l l a r
of acanthus leaves (fig. 7 a - c ) . By c o n t r a s t , the R o m a n " n o r m a l " C o
r i n t h i a n c a p i t a l is characterized b y the sheath called a c a u l i c u l u s , f r o m
w h i c h the helices a n d corner volutes s p r i n g together (fig. 8).
T h e A l e x a n d r i a n C o r i n t h i a n capitals were classified by R o n
czewski.

19

T y p e 1, w h i c h has the helices facing each o t h e r ,

20

includes

some examples f r o m the C h a n t i e r Finney b u i l d i n g (see figs. 7a, 9 a ) . I t

also h a d examples o f Type o n w h i c h the helices are back t o b a c k
(see figs. 7 b , 9 b ) . O n Type 111 the helices are again back t o b a c k

2 2

21

but

s p r i n g f r o m f u r t h e r a p a r t , as seen o n the C h a n t i e r F i n n e y examples (see

figs. 7c, 9c).
T y p e i v capitals are characterized by the lack o f a c o l l a r o f
acanthus leaves a n d b y the corner volutes c o n t i n u i n g i n t o spirals back
t o back i n place o f the helices.

23

Some examples o f this type are c o n t e m

p o r a r y w i t h the examples o f the other types f r o m the C h a n t i e r Finney

(figs. 10, 11).
A l s o s u p p o r t i n g one o f the capitals f r o m this b u i l d i n g was an
acanthus c o l u m n base (fig. 1 2 ) . These were c o m m o n i n A l e x a n d r i a
are f o u n d later at other sites i n the eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

2 4

and

115

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

13

15

14

Cornices. T h e capitals f r o m the C h a n t i e r Finney b u i l d i n g sup

p o r t e d cornices w i t h the d i s t i n c t i v e l y n a r r o w , flat g r o o v e d m o d i l l i o n s
a n d square h o l l o w m o d i l l i o n s (figs. 13, 14). M a n y o f these m o d i l l i o n

FIG.

I 3

Underside of m o d i l l i o n cornice of
Alexandrian Corinthian order.

cornices survive i n A l e x a n d r i a . By contrast, a t y p i c a l R o m a n cornice

FIG.

does n o t have these p l a i n m o d i l l i o n s b u t is m o r e ornate (fig. 15). These

Fragment of m o d i l l i o n cornice

2 5

m o d i l l i o n types are d i s t i n c t i v e t o the architecture o f A l e x a n d r i a a n d are

f o u n d o n l y at sites influenced by i t . T h e y have a l o n g c o n t i n u i t y i n

14

block, from the Chantier Finney.

Ca. second century B . C . Alexan
dria, Graeco-Roman Museum.
From A . A d r i a n i , Annuaire

E g y p t , as is s h o w n below.
Mew B a r o q u e S t r u c t u r a l Features. T h e fragments i n the

Musee greco-romain,
p l . 15.5.

G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m also include the earliest s u r v i v i n g examples

of b a r o q u e f o r m s of pediments a n d entablatures. I t s h o u l d first be ex
p l a i n e d w h a t is m e a n t b y " b a r o q u e " i n this c o n t e x t . T h e n o r m a l ancient

FIG.

15

Roman Corinthian order.

Greek m e t h o d o f b u i l d i n g , used o n the Greek temples such as the Par

t h e n o n i n A t h e n s , i n v o l v e d a p o s t - a n d - l i n t e l system o f straight stone
o r t i m b e r beams w i t h a t r i a n g u l a r p e d i m e n t (fig. 16). By contrast,
" b a r o q u e " architecture involves b r e a k i n g away f r o m this system. T h e
architecture is treated as a facade, a n d n e w s t r u c t u r a l elements are i n
t r o d u c e d , such as the half-pediments f r a m i n g the c i r c u l a r structure de
p i c t e d i n the H o u s e o f the L a b y r i n t h i n P o m p e i i a n d carved o n the
K h a s n e h at Petra (figs. 1 7 - 1 9 ) .
T h e first stage i n the development of b a r o q u e architecture is
the a t t a c h m e n t o f pilasters o r c o l u m n s t o a w a l l ; the w a l l is treated as a
facade. T h i s began i n Greece by the fifth c e n t u r y

B.C.

2 6

T h e develop

m e n t t h a t appears t o have o c c u r r e d i n A l e x a n d r i a is the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

the b a r o q u e f o r m s o f pediments a n d e n t a b l a t u r e s .

27

These include the

h a l f - p e d i m e n t , segmental p e d i m e n t (fig. 2 0 ) , a n d c u r v e d entablature.

FIG.

16

Triangular pediment.

du

1935-1939,

McKenzie

FIG.

17

Broken pediment consisting of t w o

half-pediments of single pitch.
FIG.

18

Roman w a l l painting from the

House of the L a b y r i n t h , Pompeii.
First century B.C.

I 8

FIG.

19

The Khasneh, Petra.

F I G .

2 0

F I G . 20
Segmental
pediment.

I 9

20

117

118

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

T h e earliest s u r v i v i n g examples o f these are i n the G r a e c o - R o m a n M u

FIG.

2 1

Half-pediment. Hellenistic.

seum i n A l e x a n d r i a . T h e h a l f - p e d i m e n t a n d curved entablature illus

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman

t r a t e d here (figs. 2 1 - 2 3 ) b o t h have a H e l l e n i s t i c date, based o n t h e i r

Museum. F r o m P. Pensabene,

l o n g , n a r r o w dentils. N o t e the distinctive A l e x a n d r i a n m o d i l l i o n s , w h i c h

"Lastre di chiusura d i loculi con

naiskoi Egizi e stele funerarie con

never occur i n R o m a n architecture. T h e segmental p e d i m e n t i l l u s t r a t e d

ritratto del Museo d i Alessandria,"

is f r o m C h a m b e r 2 o f T o m b 2 at Anfushy, w h i c h is p r o b a b l y late H e l

in Alessandria

lenistic (fig. 2 4 ) .

ellenistico-romano:
di A. Adriani,

H a n s L a u t e r has suggested t h a t the s t i m u l a t i o n f o r b r e a k i n g

e il mondo
Studi in onore

v o l . (Rome 1983),

pp. 9 1 - 1 1 9 , figs. 8, 9.

away f r o m the r i g i d p o s t - a n d - l i n t e l system was p r o v i d e d b y l o c a l Egyp

tian influence.

28

For e x a m p l e , the curved shape f o r m e d b y the b e n d i n g o f

canes w o u l d result i n a segmental p e d i m e n t rather t h a n a t r i a n g u l a r one.

A s i m i l a r E g y p t i a n o r i g i n can be suggested f o r the acanthus c o l u m n base.
T h e distinctively A l e x a n d r i a n architecture is observed at other
sites influenced b y i t . O f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e is I r a q a l - A m i r i n J o r d a n ,
f i r m l y dated t o the early second c e n t u r y B . C . T h e recent f u l l p u b l i c a t i o n

FIG.

22

Half-pediment. Hellenistic.
Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
Museum. F r o m H . von Hesberg,
" L o sviluppo delPordine corinzio
i n eta tardo-republicano," i n
decoratif

LArt

a Rome: A la fin de la

Republique

et au debut du

Princi-

of i t confirms the existence by this date of a distinctively A l e x a n d r i a n ar

pat, table ronde, Rome 1 0 - 1 1

chitecture, i n c l u d i n g even the use o f the Ptolemaic c u b i t as its basic u n i t

M a y 1979 (Rome 1981), pp. 1 9 -

of d e s i g n .

29

I t has A l e x a n d r i a n decorative details, such as C o r i n t h i a n

c a p i t a l types, as w e l l as acanthus c o l u m n bases.

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Khasneh at Petra a n d the a r c h i
tecture depicted i n Second Style Pompeian w a l l p a i n t i n g has l o n g been a
m y s t e r y (see figs. 18, 19). T h i s is because the w a l l paintings are dated t o
the first c e n t u r y B . C . , w h e n there is n o c o n t e m p o r a r y R o m a n baroque
architecture. T h e c h r o n o l o g y o f the Khasneh at Petra has, however, n o w
been slightly c l a r i f i e d ,

30

c o n f i r m i n g t h a t i t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n t e m p o r a r y

w i t h the w a l l p a i n t i n g s . T h e y are i n fact b o t h a reflection o f the architec

ture of A l e x a n d r i a .

31

T h e w a l l p a i n t i n g s include decorative details, such

as the h o l l o w m o d i l l i o n s , w h i c h are never used i n R o m a n a r c h i t e c t u r e .

32

3 3 , % 35

McKenzie

FIG.

23

Vertically curved entablature.

Hellenistic. Alexandria, GraecoRoman M u s e u m . From R Pensabene, "Lastre d i chiusura di loculi
con naiskoi Egizi e stele funerarie
con ritratto del Museo di Alessan
d r i a , " i n Alessandria
ellenistico-romano:
di A. Adriani,

e il mondo
Studi in onore

vol. i (Rome 1983),

pp. 91-119, figs. 3, 4.

FIG.

24

Segmental pediment, from Tomb 2,

Anfushy, Alexandria. From
A . A d r i a n i , Annuaire
greco-romain,

FIG.

du Musee

1 9 4 0 - 1 9 5 0 , fig. 40.

25

The M a r k e t Gate, Miletos. Second

century A . D . Berlin, Pergamon
Museum.

By contrast, w h e n the R o m a n s started using b a r o q u e struc

t u r a l features, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the second c e n t u r y A . D . , they d i d n o t use
the A l e x a n d r i a n decorative details o f c a p i t a l a n d cornice types, b u t t h e i r
o w n . T h e b e s t - k n o w n examples o f R o m a n b a r o q u e architecture have
survived i n T u r k e y , f r o m the early second c e n t u r y A . D . , such as the M a r
k e t Gate f r o m M i l e t o s , w h i c h has a b r o k e n p e d i m e n t ; i t is n o w i n the
Pergamon M u s e u m i n B e r l i n (fig. 2 5 ) . T h e L i b r a r y o f Celsus at Ephesos
has segmental p e d i m e n t s .

33

B o t h structures consist o f an a r t i c u l a t e d fa

cade, w i t h the entablatures b r o k e n f o r w a r d , as earlier seen o n the facade

119

120

ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

26a

Broken-pediment niche head, from

House 9, M a r i n a el-Alamein.
F r o m W . Daszewski et ah, Marina
el-Alamein:

Archaeological

Background
Problems,

and

Conservation

v o l . i (Warsaw r 9 9 i ) ,

p . 26, fig. 1 1 .
FIG.

26b

Broken-pediment niche head, from

House 9, M a r i n a el-Alamein.
From W . Daszewski et al., Marina
el-Alamein:

Archaeological

Background
Problems,

and

front cover.

of the K h a s n e h at Petra. T h e Temple o f H a d r i a n at Ephesos has an

arched e n t a b l a t u r e .

34

N o t e the o r d i n a r y R o m a n c a p i t a l a n d cornice types

o n these examples.
CoontDimyDty o f ADexairocllnaim Amchotectuire
M e a n w h i l e , at sites under the influence o f A l e x a n d r i a there is a s t r o n g
c o n t i n u i t y o f its architecture. T h e Palazzo delle C o l o n n e at Ptolemais i n
L i b y a has A l e x a n d r i a n C o r i n t h i a n c a p i t a l types as w e l l as b r o k e n p e d i
ments decorated w i t h A l e x a n d r i a n flat g r o o v e d m o d i l l i o n s .

35

Similarly, at

Cyrene i n L i b y a i n the first c e n t u r y A . D . A l e x a n d r i a n C o r i n t h i a n c a p i t a l

types were u s e d .

36

I n C y p r u s the A l e x a n d r i a n influence is visible i n the

Hellenistic a n d early R o m a n capitals a n d c o r n i c e s .

37

A t M a r i n a e l - A l a m e i n , near the site o f the W o r l d W a r n

battle a b o u t a h u n d r e d k m west o f A l e x a n d r i a , there has recently been
m u c h b u i l d i n g activity, d u r i n g w h i c h a very i m p o r t a n t niche head was
uncovered (figs. 26a, b ) . I t consists of a b r o k e n p e d i m e n t f r a m i n g a
c o n c h a n d is decorated w i t h square h o l l o w a n d flat g r o o v e d m o d i l l i o n s .
I t has been suggested t h a t i t is dated t o the first century

A.D.

3 8

D i s t i n c t i v e l y A l e x a n d r i a n architecture continues i n E g y p t i n t o
the late antique a n d early C h r i s t i a n periods i n the so-called C o p t i c a r c h i
tecture o f the E g y p t i a n Christians. These b r o k e n - p e d i m e n t niche heads
d o n o t survive outside E g y p t after the R o m a n p e r i o d .
M a n y examples o f these niche heads are f o u n d at the sites
a l o n g the N i l e (fig. 2 7 ) . Examples decorated w i t h square h o l l o w o r flat
g r o o v e d m o d i l l i o n s survive at A h n a s , O x y r h y n c h u s , A s h m u n e i n , a n d i n
situ i n the l i t t l e - k n o w n c h u r c h at D e i r e z - Z a w i a h . Such niche heads even
survived at B a w i t a n d S a q q a r a .

39

These niche heads were also carved as far s o u t h as Sohag o n

the so-called W h i t e M o n a s t e r y ,

40

w h i c h was the m a i n c h u r c h o f the

m o n a s t e r y c o m p l e x . M y detailed, first-hand e x a m i n a t i o n o f the c h u r c h

structure reveals t h a t the niche heads were made f o r i t a n d c o n t e m p o -

Conservation

v o l . 1 (Warsaw 1991),

McKenzie

FIG.

27

Broken-pediment niche head,

from Egypt. Late antique. Berlin,
M u s e u m fur Spatantike und
Byzantinische Kunst.

FIG.

28

M o d i l l i o n cornice from the W h i t e

Monastery at Sohag. Ca. A . D . 440.

r a r y w i t h the m o d i l l i o n cornice (fig. 2 8 ) , w h i c h runs a r o u n d the inside o f

the b u i l d i n g i n situ above the i n s c r i b e d l i n t e l , w h i c h is dated t o a b o u t
A . D . 440.

4 1

T h e c h u r c h was b u i l t by the E g y p t i a n a b b o t Shenute, w h o

w e n t t o the C o u n c i l o f Ephesos w i t h C y r i l o f A l e x a n d r i a . T h e n o t i c e a b l y
A l e x a n d r i a n a n d classical influence o n this architecture accords w i t h re
cent, m o r e detailed reevaluations o f the w r i t i n g s o f Shenute, w h i c h c o n
t a i n a greater k n o w l e d g e o f Greek c u l t u r e t h a n has p r e v i o u s l y been
appreciated.

42

O n C o p t i c b u i l d i n g s f u r t h e r s o u t h , such as the churches at

D e n d e r a a n d L u x o r , the flat g r o o v e d m o d i l l i o n s survive i n t o the fifth o r
s i x t h century.
T h e c o n t i n u i t y o f the d i s t i n c t i v e l y A l e x a n d r i a n classical a r c h i
tecture at these sites clearly has serious i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the h i s t o r y o f
the d e v e l o p m e n t o f early C h r i s t i a n architecture i n E g y p t . I t suggests
t h a t the so-called C o p t i c architecture perhaps m o r e d i r e c t l y reflects the
late a n t i q u e and early C h r i s t i a n architecture o f A l e x a n d r i a t h a n has
been recognized, a n d perhaps there is n o t the a m o u n t o f influence f r o m
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t h a t is usually assumed. I t is o n l y n o w since the charac
teristic features o f the Ptolemaic classical architecture o f A l e x a n d r i a
have been defined t h a t i t has been possible t o ascertain the strength o f
its c o n t i n u i t y .
Just as there is a c o n t i n u i t y o f the d i s t i n c t i v e l y A l e x a n d r i a n
architecture i n E g y p t itself, so there is also a c o n t i n u i t y o f the d e p i c t i o n
of i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the east. T h e b r o k e n - p e d i m e n t niche head f r o m
M a r i n a e l - A l a m e i n c o n f i r m s the a l l u s i o n t h a t s i m i l a r structures m a k e
t o A l e x a n d r i a , for e x a m p l e , the i v o r y f r o m the s i x t h o r seventh cen
t u r y A . D . t h a t is n o w i n M i l a n a n d depicts Saint M e n a s , whose shrine
was at A b u M e n a s west o f A l e x a n d r i a . T h i s m o t i f is also used o n the
4 3

121

122

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

s i x t h - c e n t u r y Rossana Gospels t o frame Saint M a r k , w h o is credited

w i t h evangelizing A l e x a n d r i a .

4 4

T h e d e p i c t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o t i f s occurs par
t i c u l a r l y o n gospel m a n u s c r i p t s , such as those o f the A r m e n i a n , Syriac,
a n d E t h i o p i a n churches, w h e r e the c i r c u l a r structure is related t o t h a t i n
the P o m p e i a n w a l l p a i n t i n g s , w i t h the tent r o o f c r o w n e d b y a c a p i t a l .

45

T h e M o n o p h y s i t e churches, independent o f influence f r o m C o n s t a n t i

n o p l e , appear t o have p r o v i d e d the c o n t a c t f o r this c o n t i n u i t y .
I n the e i g h t h century, Islamic w a l l mosaics i n the Great
M o s q u e i n Damascus depict the t w o - s t o r e y b u i l d i n g w i t h half-pediments.
A l t h o u g h m u c h later t h a n the R o m a n w a l l p a i n t i n g s , the scenes i n the
Great M o s q u e bear a r e m a r k a b l e s i m i l a r i t y n o t o n l y i n details b u t
also i n the types o f scenesto the w a l l p a i n t i n g s , such as the r o o m f r o m
Boscoreale near P o m p e i i , n o w i n the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m i n N e w
Y o r k . I n b o t h , the same types o f scenes are c o m b i n e d : m o n u m e n t a l ar
chitecture, cityscapes, a n d garden scenes.

46

T h e strength o f c o n t i n u i t y o f the architecture o f A l e x a n d r i a

a n d o f its d e p i c t i o n i n the east w o u l d suggest t h a t A l e x a n d r i a perhaps
r e m a i n e d m o r e active a r t i s t i c a l l y t h a n is generally assumed. T h i s is cer
t a i n l y suggested b y the Byzantine texts p e r t a i n i n g t o c h u r c h b u i l d i n g i n
the f o u r t h a n d fifth centuries, w h i c h I have recently been a n a l y z i n g i n de
tail.

4 7

F u r t h e r m o r e , the spectacular D i o n y s o s tapestry o f the f o u r t h cen

t u r y A . D . c o n f i r m s the p i c t u r e given by the textiles recently i l l u s t r a t e d b y

Rutschowscaya t h a t H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e , w h i c h began i n E g y p t w i t h the
f o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a , h a d a s t r o n g c o n t i n u i t y a l o n g the N i l e .

4 8

Before c o n c l u d i n g , i t is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h a t i n the later ar

chitecture o f the Renaissance a n d Baroque periods (Baroque w i t h an u p
percase JB), the b a r o q u e s t r u c t u r a l elements t h a t h a d first been used i n
Ptolemaic A l e x a n d r i a were again used, as they h a d been by the R o m a n s .
For e x a m p l e , o n the Basilica o f Saint Peter i n R o m e , the segmental p e d i
ments are used, the earliest examples o f w h i c h survive i n A l e x a n d r i a .
T h u s , the a r c h i t e c t u r a l fragments once displayed i n the
G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m i n A l e x a n d r i a are the earliest reflection o f the
lost architecture o f Ptolemaic A l e x a n d r i a : the inventive source f r o m
w h i c h are derived b o t h early a n d later b a r o q u e architecture. These frag
ments are also the m o s t accurate i n d i c a t i o n at a general level o f w h a t the
a r c h i t e c t u r a l decorative details o f specific Ptolemaic b u i l d i n g s m i g h t
have been l i k e , such as the colonnades o f the M o u s e i o n o r the L i b r a r y .
The University of Sydney
S Y D N EY,

A U S T R A L I A

McKenzie

Notes

E . g . , M o s q u e o f S u l e y m a n i y e : J. M . R o g e r s ,

esp. 2 6 9 . Seleucid b l o c k sizes: T o m l i n s o n ( n o t e

" T h e Stones o f S u l e y m a n i y e , "

5 above), p. 228.

Journal

of Middle

7 1 - 8 6 , esp.

East

International
14 ( 1 9 8 2 ) :

Studies

I I

75-79-

Polish excavations w i t h g r i d m a r k e d : B. T k a
czow, "Badania nad 'mapa archeologiczna'

P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

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vol. 1 (Ox

Alexandria,

Starcizytna

f o r d 1 9 7 2 ) , p . 8..

Aleksandria

w badaniach

polskich

( W a r s a w 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 4 7 - 5 7 , fig. 4 . R o d z i e w i c z
3

M . el F a l a k i , Memoire

sur Vantique

(note 8 above), p. 19, p l a n 1; i d e m , " L e debat

Alexandrie

sur la t o p o g r a p h i e de la v i l l e a n t i q u e , " i n R . I I -

(Copenhagen 1872).

b e r t , e d . , Alexandrie
4

D . G . H o g a r t h a n d E . F. B e n s o n ,

Revue

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tract from
Egypt

the Archaeological

Exploration

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Medi-

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Fund

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P-

e il

mondo

vol. 1 (Rome 1983), pp. 5 4 -

ellenistico-romano,

p p . 1 7 - 1 8 . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t H o g a r t h d i d
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6 9 , esp. 6 3 ; W . K o l a t a j , Imperial

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el-Dikka

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1992).

m i r a l B l o o m f i e l d . Fraser ( n o t e 2 a b o v e ) , p . 1 3 .
12
5

R . A . T o m l i n s o n , From

Mycenae

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The

Evolution

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M . S a i n t - G e n i s , i n Description

5 (Paris), p p . 3 2 8 - 3 7 , p i . 3 9 . A , fig. 2; V a l e n t i a

Constan

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City

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Ernst

Sieglin:

K6m-esch-Schukdfa,
6

E . g . , A . A d r i a n i , Repertorio

d'arte

von

1 9 - 2 0 , p i . X ; J. H . H u m p h r e y , Roman

dell'Egitto

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greco-romano

Die Nekropole

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(London 1986), pp.

1963-

Circuses

505-13.

1 9 6 6 ) , fig. 1; B. T k a c z o w , r e p r o d u c e d i n
I3

P. Pensabene, " E l e m e n t i d i A r c h i t e t t u r a A l e s s a n d r i n a , " Studi

[ 1 9 9 1 ] ) : 2 9 - 8 5 , fig. 8 2 ; W . H o e p f n e r
E . - L . S c h w a n d n e r , Haus
schen

Griechenland

und

Stadt

d'Alexandrie

and

im

A . R o w e , " N e w E x c a v a t i o n s at ' P o m p e y ' s P i l

l a r , ' " Bulletin

28 ( 1 9 8 4 - 1 9 8 5

miscellanei

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ery of the Famous

klassi-

rapis

( M u n i c h 1994), pp. 2 3 5 -

royale

d'archeologie

35 ( 1 9 4 2 ) : 1 2 4 - 6 1 ; i d e m ,
Temple

Discov

and Enclosure

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Se

supplement aux Annales d u

at Alexandria,

Service des A n t i q u i t e s de I ' E g y p t e , c a h i e r n o . 2

5 6 . See also n o t e 1 1 b e l o w .

( C a i r o 1 9 4 6 ) ; A . R o w e a n d B . R . Rees, " T h e
7

El Falaki (note 3 above), pp. 1 8 - 2 3 ,

G r e a t S e r a p e u m o f A l e x a n d r i a , " Bulletin

27.

John
8

Rylands

Library,

Manchester

H . K i e p e r t , " Z u r T o p o g r a p h i e der a l t e n A l e x a n

4 8 5 - 5 2 0 , plan opp. p. 492. M . Sabottka,

S e r a p e u m i n A l e x a n d r i a " ( P h . D . diss., B e r l i n ,

Berlin

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fiir Erdkunde

d z i e w i c z , Les Habitations
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romains

Technische Universitat, 1 9 8 5 ) .

zu
14

W . H o e p f n e r , Zwei

tuts, Athenische A b t e i l u n g , Beiheft 1 ( 1 9 7 1 ) ;

L . B o r c h a r d t , " V o n einer

the Red

and

Travels

Sea, Abyssinia

and

India,

Ceylon,

Egypt

in the Years 1802-1806,

de Geogr.

B a u s t e l l e , " Bulletin

to

d'archeologie

alexandrinischen

de la Societe

royale

8 (1905):

d'Alexandrie

1-6.

vol. 4 (London

1 8 1 1 ) ; r e p r o d u c e d i n G . J o n d e t , Atlas
de la Ville et des Ports

Mit

Ptolemaierbauten,

t e i l u n g e n des D e u t s c h e n A r c h a o l o g i s c h e n I n s t i -

tardives

(Warsaw 1984), p. 365.

H . Salt, i n G . V a l e n t i a , Voyages

Sultan,

"Das

7 ( 1 8 7 2 ) : 3 3 7 - 4 9 , P P - P- 3^4* p i - 5

m a p ; Sieglin's m a p is r e p r o d u c e d i n M . R o -

d'Alexandrie,

bistorique
Mem.

15

Soc.

J. S. M c K e n z i e , The Architecture
f o r d 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 6 9 - 7 5 , pis-

of Petra

(Ox

199-2,18.

2 (Cairo 1921), p i . 28.

16

10

the

d r i a : N a c h M a h m u d Begs E n t d e c k u n g e n , "
Zeitschrift

of

39.2 (1957):

P. Pensabene, Elementi

architettonici

di

Ales

sandria

R o m a n Syria: Some N e w Considerations,"

e x c e l l e n t s u m m a r y o f t h i s is g i v e n i n Pensabene

Damaszener

Mitteilungen

1 (1983):

269-77,

e di altri siti Egiziani

(Rome 1993). A n

A v e r a g e : F. E . Peters, " C i t y P l a n n i n g i n G r e c o -

(note 6 above).

123

124

ARTS

OF

17

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p . 6 3 - 6 9 , 7 8 .

36

G. R. H . W r i g h t , "Architectural Fragments
f r o m t h e P e r i s t y l e , " i n J. H . H u m p h r e y , e d . ,

18

Apollonia:

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p . 6 9 .

pp.
19

K . R o n c z e w s k i , " L e s c h a p i t e a u x c o r i n t h i e n s et
varies d u musee g r e c o - r o m a i n
Bulletin

de la Societe

(1927):

royale

d'Alexandrie,"

37

d'archeologie

A t p r e s e n t t h e s u b j e c t o f a D . P h i l , thesis b y
P i p p a V a n d e r s t a r at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O x f o r d .

s u p p l e m e n t d u fascicule 2 2

d'Alexandrie,
3-36.

38

W . D a s z e w s k i et a l . , Marina
chaeological

20

(Tripoli 1976),

The Port of Cyrene

189-223.

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 0 - 7 2 , p i s .

Problems,

i 9 9 ~ 2 0 3 d ; Pensabene ( n o t e 1 6 a b o v e ) , p i s . 2 6 ,

26-27.

Background

el-Alamein:

and

Ar

Conservation

vol. 1 (Warsaw 1991), pp. 23,

2 7 , 28 e x c l u d i n g n o . 1 9 6 , p i . 2 9 .
39
21

E . g . , A h n a s : U . M o n n e r e t de V i l l a r d , La

2 0 4 ; Pensabene ( n o t e 1 6 a b o v e ) , p i . 3 7 e x c l u d

O x y r h y n c h u s : E . B r e c c i a , Le Musee

ing nos. 2 7 4 - 7 5 ,

romain

277.

Scul-

( M i l a n 1 9 2 3 ) , figs. 9 , 4 8 B ;

tura ad Ahnas

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p . 7 2 , p i s . 2 0 3 c -

d'Alexandrie

greco(Bergamo

1931-1932

1933), p i . 47.124; Ashmunein: A . Wace,

22

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p . 7 2 , p i s . 2 0 5 -

A . M e g a w , a n d T . Skeat, Hermopolis

2 0 6 b ; Pensabene ( n o t e 16 a b o v e ) , p i . 35 e x c l u d

Ashmunein

i n g n o . 2 5 7 , p i . 36 nos.

D e i r e z - Z a w i a h : F. D u f e y , " U n g r o u p e de c i n q

263-68.

Magna:

( A l e x a n d r i a 1 9 5 9 ) , p i s . 2 5 . 2 , 3;

s o m m e t s - d e - n i c h e s c u l p t e s : Eglise d ' A b b a
23

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 2 - 7 3 , p i . 2 0 7 ;

A t h a n a s i o s el A p o s t o l o s a D e i r e z - Z a w i a h , " i n

Pensabene ( n o t e 1 6 a b o v e ) , p i s . 3 9 - 4 1 .

M . R a s s a r t - D e b e r g h a n d J. Ries, eds., Actes

iv

24

Congres

Copte

du

vol. 1 (Louvain 1992),

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p . 7 3 , p i . 2 0 8 ; Pen

p p . 6 9 - 7 7 ; B a w i t : G . D u t h u i t , La

sabene ( n o t e 16 a b o v e ) , p i . 8 7 .

Copte

Sculpture

(Paris 1 9 3 1 ) , p i . 3 6 b ; S a q q a r a : J. E . Q u i -

b e l l , Excavations
25

1988,

at Saqqara

in,

1907-1908

(Cairo 1909), p i . 37.2.

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 3 - 7 4 , p i s . 2 1 1 1 4 ; Pensabene ( n o t e 1 6 a b o v e ) , p i s . 9 2 - 9 9 , 1 0 1 .
40

26

M . L y t t e l t o n , Baroque

Architecture

in

Niches

sculpte

du

Convent

( C a i r o 1 9 7 6 ) , niches nos.

et frises

8 - 1 0 , 34, 42.

( L o n d o n 1974), p. 38.

Antiquity

P. A k e r m a n n , Le Decor
Blanc:

Classical

41

Basis f o r d a t e o f i n s c r i b e d l i n t e l , see M o n n e r e t

27

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p . 8 7 - 9 2 .

28

H . Lauter, "Ptolemais i n Libyen: Ein Beitrag

has been l i t t l e d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t t h e d a t e o f

z u r B a u k u n s t A l e x a n d r i a s , " Jahrbuch

the lintel, b u t considerable v a r i a t i o n i n the

de V i l l a r d ( n o t e 39 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 2 . T h e r e

Deutschen

Arch'dologiscben

Instituts

des

dates g i v e n t o t h e n i c h e heads f r o m t h e f i f t h t o

86 ( 1 9 7 1 ) :

the seventh century A . D .

1 4 9 - 7 8 , esp. 1 7 2 .
29

E . W i l l et a l . , Iraq
biade

Hyrcan

al-Amir:

Le chateau

du

to-

42

H . N . T a k l a , St. Shenouda
His

(Paris 1 9 9 1 ) ; M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15

Life

and Times

the

Archimandrite:

(Los Angeles 1987),

pp. 8 - 1 2 ; T. O r l a n d i , "Coptic Literature," i n

above), p . 7 7 , pis. 223c, d.

B . A . P e a r s o n a n d J. E . G o e h r i n g , eds.,
Roots

30

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p .

33-53.

31

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p . 8 5 - 1 0 1 .

32

M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p . 9 4 , p i . 2 2 7 a .

of Egyptian

The

(Philadelphia

Christianity

1 9 8 6 ) : 5 1 - 8 1 , esp. 6 9 .
43

K . W e i t z m a n n , " T h e Ivories o f the So-called

G r a d o C h a i r , " Dumbarton

Oaks

Papers

26

( 1 9 7 2 ) : 4 3 - 9 1 , p i . 5.
33

L y t t e l t o n (note 26 above), p i . 1 9 1 .

34

L y t t e l t o n (note 26 above), p i . 179.

35

G . Pesce, i7 "Palazzo
maide

di Cirenaica

delle

Colonne"

in

44

I b i d . , p i . 18.

45

P. U n d e r w o o d , " T h e F o u n t a i n o f L i f e , "

Tole-

barton

( R o m e 1950); Lauter (note

Oaks

Papers

Dum

5 (1950): 4 3 - 1 3 8 , pis. 3 4 -

38, 53-54-

28 a b o v e ) ; M c K e n z i e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 5 77, pis.

219-233.

46

K . A . C . C r e s w e l l , Early

Muslim

Architecture,

McKenzie

2 n d edn., v o l . i ( O x f o r d 1969); R. L i n g ,
man
47

Painting

Ro

(Cambridge 1991), fig. 27.

T h i s w i l l be p u b l i s h e d , a l o n g w i t h d e t a i l e d
v e r s i o n s o f a l l o f t h e aspects c o v e r e d i n t h i s
p a p e r , i n The Architecture

of

Alexandria

(forthcoming).
48

M . - H . R u t s c h o w s c a y a , Coptic

Fabrics

1990), pp. 8 2 - 1 1 8 . G. Bowersock,

in Late

Antiquity

(Paris
Hellenism

(Ann A r b o r 1990), pp. 5 1 - 6 9 ,

discusses n o t o n l y t h e t a p e s t r y a n d its i m p l i c a
t i o n s b u t also l i t e r a t u r e i n E g y p t .

125

This page intentionally left blank

127

From the Double Crown to the Double Pediment

John

Onians

We are used t o seeing the Pantheon (fig. i ) as a R o m a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

a Greek t r a d i t i o n , b u t i t m a y be just as a p p r o p r i a t e t o see some o f w h a t
we t h i n k o f as essentially R o m a n i n this b u i l d i n g as essentially E g y p t i a n .
T h i s paper proposes t h a t an E g y p t i a n architecture was developed i n the
N i l e Valley i n the Ptolemaic p e r i o d i n conscious o p p o s i t i o n t o the i m
p o r t e d Greek t r a d i t i o n , a n d that i t was there ready t o be used f o r s i m i l a r
purposes by the country's n e w conquerors, the R o m a n s . I t also argues
t h a t the p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l f r a m e w o r k t h a t a l l o w e d the E g y p
tians t o develop their n e w anti-Greek style was deeply embedded i n the
E g y p t i a n m i n d since the first dynasties. T h e basic p r o p o s i t i o n of this
paper, a l l u d e d t o i n the h i e r o g l y p h i c o f the t i t l e , is t h a t the a l t e r n a t i n g
p e d i m e n t d e c o r a t i o n of the Pantheon i n t e r i o r is a direct descendant of
the Pharaoh's d o u b l e c r o w n . T h e attitudes t o geography, history, art,
a n d u l t i m a t e l y t o c u l t u r e t h a t a l l o w e d the f o r m u l a t i o n a n d development
of this t r a d i t i o n i n E g y p t a n d its inheritance by the R o m a n s were n o t
o n l y alien t o Greek views b u t c o n s t i t u t e d a c r i t i q u e of Greek c u l t u r e a n d
an i l l u s t r a t i o n of some o f its f u n d a m e n t a l l i m i t a t i o n s .
T h i s a r g u m e n t m a y n o t please everyone. We like t o p r i d e o u r
selves o n being heirs t o a distinctively Greek t r a d i t i o n and are especially
p r o u d o f the w a y o u r great i n t e l l e c t u a l i n s t i t u t i o n s are based o n theirs.
N o w h e r e is this m o r e true t h a n i n the G e t t y M u s e u m , w h i c h can c l a i m
an unusually direct descent t h r o u g h the V i l l a dei P a p i r i f r o m the M o u seion a n d L i b r a r y at A l e x a n d r i a . I t is certainly f r o m the scholars of the
M o u s e i o n t h a t the West i n h e r i t e d its confidence t h a t i t h a d l i t t l e t o learn
f r o m non-Greeks. Yet the M o u s e i o n a n d L i b r a r y themselves can o n l y be
e x p l a i n e d as conscious i m i t a t i o n s by the Greek invaders of E g y p t i a n i n
s t i t u t i o n s . I n the Greek w o r l d there was n o t r a d i t i o n of b u i l d i n g s hous
i n g c o m m u n i t i e s o f scholars w o r k i n g o n large collections o f texts. I n
E g y p t every great temple h a d its staff of priests a n d its papyrus l i b r a r y .
Greece may, i n the schools of the Sophists a n d philosophers, p r o v i d e the
m o d e l f o r the Western teaching i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t the u l t i m a t e m o d e l f o r
the great Western research i n s t i t u t i o n s is E g y p t i a n .
Such a p o i n t o f v i e w is difficult f o r us t o accept. I t is h a r d f o r
us t o t u r n the c l o c k back a n d open o u r m i n d s t o E g y p t , t o v i e w i t n o t

128

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Interior of the Pantheon,

Rome. Ca. A . D . 120. Photo by
N . Batcock.

just as the Greeks a n d R o m a n s d i d , t h a t is, as a granary, a reservoir o f

taxes, a source o f exotic flora a n d fauna, a n d a l a n d of mysterious r u i n s .
T h e Greeks believed i n one c u l t u r a l system, theirs, w i t h themselves at the
center. T h e i r m o d e l f o r c u l t u r e was the single m i n d , w h e t h e r i t was the
m i n d o f the i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n o r the one divine m i n d t h a t r u l e d the u n i
verse. P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y they were monotheists, a n d they were also u n i c u l turalists. T h e Greeks d i d n o t like there being t w o of a n y t h i n g . T h e Greek
state was t y p i c a l l y r u l e d b y a single l e a d e r w h e t h e r k i n g , t y r a n t , or
strategosor

b y a single class, be i t the n o b i l i t y o r the demos.

I n the

balance between the sexes, m e n were superior t o w o m e n , w h o were t y p i

cally regarded as defective males. Few Greeks c o u l d speak t w o l a n
guages, w h i c h is w h y the o n l y P t o l e m y w h o c o u l d speak E g y p t i a n was
the l a s t C l e o p a t r a . T h e Greeks also h a d o n l y one type o f p e d i m e n t , the
t r i a n g u l a r one.
T h e R o m a n s , o n the other h a n d , t h o u g h t i n terms of t w o s ,
a n d this is w h e r e this i n q u i r y begins. N o t o n l y d i d the R o m a n s have t w o
types o f pediments, the t r i a n g u l a r a n d the segmental, they also were
h a p p y t o have t w o o f m o s t things. Indeed, t h e i r c u l t u r e was f o u n d e d o n
the i m p o r t a n c e o f d u a l i s m . T h e i r state was r u l e d by t w o consuls. I n the

FIG.

Pharaonic crowns: Upper Egypt,

Lower Egypt, and double (after
Emery).

 i as

h o m e , m a n a n d w o m a n h a d considerable equality. M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , i n
the field o f c u l t u r e , R o m a n s were h a p p y t o speak n o t o n l y their o w n l a n
guage, L a t i n , b u t Greek as w e l l . I n a l l this n o t o n l y were the R o m a n s the
opposite o f the Greeks b u t they were also just like the Egyptians. T h e
Egyptians a c k n o w l e d g e d dualities i n m a n y areas a n d above a l l i n b o t h
r e l i g i o n a n d p o l i t i c s . I n religious terms the Egyptians recognized t w o
w o r l d s , t h a t o f the l i v i n g a n d t h a t o f the dead, a n d they gave expression
t o this d i v i s i o n in cities o f the l i v i n g t o the east of the N i l e a n d cities o f
the dead t o the west. I n p o l i t i c s , t o o , the E g y p t i a n p h a r a o h was the r u l e r
of t w o lands, U p p e r E g y p t a n d L o w e r E g y p t , a n d t h a t d o u b l e k i n g d o m
was i n some measure reflected i n the pharaoh's m a r r i a g e often w i t h a sis
ter, w h o was i n m a n y ways his equal. W o m e n figure p r o m i n e n t l y i n state
reliefs, b o t h as spouses a n d as partners, a n d E g y p t i a n t o m b s are f u l l o f
statues of s y m m e t r i c a l couples. M o r e prosaically, the Egyptians also rec
ognized t w o equal r o o f silhouettes, the c u r v e d a n d the flat.
W h a t is the core o f the E g y p t i a n interest i n duality? T h e an
swer is h i n t e d at i n the d o u b l e c r o w n (fig. 2 ) . W o r n by the p h a r a o h f o r
nearly three t h o u s a n d years, the d o u b l e c r o w n was emblematic o f the
FIG.

d o u b l e k i n g d o m , t h a t o f the D e l t a , L o w e r E g y p t , a n d t h a t o f the N i l e

Hieroglyph w i t h shrine of Upper

Valley, U p p e r E g y p t . H i s t o r i c a l l y i t was o n the u n i o n o f those k i n g d o m s

Egypt.

t h a t the strength of the E g y p t i a n state was f o u n d e d . A l t h o u g h w h a t hap

pened i n reality was t h a t one dynasty, a n d perhaps even one race, c o n
quered another, f r o m the earliest times r i t u a l s a n d apparatus o f the state
made visible a c o n t i n u i t y o f the t w o i n s t i t u t i o n s . M o s t i m p o r t a n t was
the sacred r i t u a l o f the Heb-Sed at w h i c h the p h a r a o h r a n between t w o
shrines representing the capitals o f the t w o k i n g d o m s . T h e t w o k i n g
doms were also represented m o r e w i d e l y t h r o u g h t w o shrines of care
fully distinguished f o r m s . T h e shrine o f U p p e r E g y p t has an essentially
flat t o p b u t w i t h a strangely a s y m m e t r i c a l c u r v e d c o p i n g t h a t appears
o r i g i n a l l y t o have represented the line o f the back o f an a n i m a l (fig. 3).
T h e shrine o f L o w e r E g y p t is c o m p l e t e l y s y m m e t r i c a l a n d has a t o p t h a t
is m u c h m o r e steeply a n d s y m m e t r i c a l l y c u r v e d as i f i t represents an
arched r o o f (fig. 4 ) . T h i s o r i g i n is c o n f i r m e d by some representations o f
the shrine t h a t s h o w i t s u r m o u n t e d b y w h a t l o o k s l i k e a d o m e o r v a u l t .
Parallel t o the d i s t i n c t i o n between the t w o shrines is a difference of m a
t e r i a l a n d t e c h n o l o g y between the a r c h i t e c t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s of the t w o
k i n g d o m s . U p p e r E g y p t is r i c h i n stone a n d r a p i d l y became the center o f
the w o r l d ' s first great t r a d i t i o n of stone architecture. M o r e o v e r , i t d i d
this so early t h a t the s t r u c t u r a l types t h a t developed therethe w a l l s ,
lintels, copings, a n d so o n a r e p a l p a b l y masonic i n character. As a re

FIG.

Hieroglyph w i t h shrine of Lower

Egypt.

sult, the system o f h o r i z o n t a l c o u r s i n g r i s i n g t o h o r i z o n t a l lintels span

n i n g d o o r s a n d h o r i z o n t a l slabs spanning roofs a c q u i r e d its o w n
integrity. T h e b u i l d i n g s t h a t resulted were t y p i c a l l y flat r o o f e d a n d h a d
the profile a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n t h a t w e consider t y p i c a l l y E g y p t i a n . I n
L o w e r E g y p t , b y contrast, w h e r e stone was n o t available locally, b u t

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reeds, p a l m t r u n k s , a n d sun-dried b r i c k were, the architecture r a p i d l y

acquired a

flexibility

o f vocabulary, w i t h c u r v e d roofs covered w i t h reed

mats a n d b r i c k vaults a n d domes p r o d u c i n g quite different f o r m s a n d

c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . T h e t w o shrines n a t u r a l l y became emblematic o f the t w o
k i n g d o m s because they a l l u d e d t h r o u g h t h e i r different architectures t o
their different geographies.
A n o t h e r w a y i n w h i c h the geographical d i s t i n c t i o n between
the t w o k i n g d o m s c o u l d be characterized was by vegetation. T h e pa
p y r u s , w h i c h g r e w i n p r o f u s i o n i n the D e l t a , r a p i d l y became the e m b l e m
of L o w e r E g y p t , a n d the lotus o r w a t e r l i l y t h a t of U p p e r E g y p t (fig. 5).
I t is i n this guise t h a t each b l o o m decorates one o f the great square piers
t h a t c a r r i e d the r o o f o f a h a l l o f T h u t m o s i s 111 i n the great temple at K a r n a k . T h a t t o the s o u t h is decorated w i t h gigantic l o t u s , t h a t t o the n o r t h
by gigantic p a p y r u s . W h a t makes this p a i r i n g m o r e r e m a r k a b l e is t h a t i t
is associated w i t h the i n s c r i p t i o n s o n the S i x t h P y l o n o n the a p p r o a c h t o
the temple: the p y l o n is covered w i t h cartouches c o n s t i t u t i n g geographi

FIG. 5

cal lists. These are d i v i d e d so t h a t those o n the n o r t h e r n h a l f of the p y

Hieroglyphs w i t h lotus and

l o n are the names o f c o m m u n i t i e s n o r t h of E g y p t , i n the Levant, w h i l e

papyrus plants representing Upper

those o n the s o u t h e r n h a l f are those o f c o m m u n i t i e s s o u t h o f E g y p t , i n

Egypt and Lower Egypt.

N u b i a . T h e t w o emblematic plants are evidently p a r t of a larger m a p

p i n g enterprise.
T h e c o n n e c t i o n between the piers a n d the geographical lists
r e m i n d s us t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l t o the E g y p t i a n w a y of t h i n k i n g was the
ideographic system o f h i e r o g l y p h i c characters. T h e h i e r o g l y p h i c script
changed m u c h t h r o u g h o u t its history, b u t i t always preserved the p o w e r ,
w h i c h i t derived f r o m its o r i g i n s , of c a p t u r i n g i n images references n o t
just t o things b u t also t o concepts. T h i s resource ensured t h a t differenti
ated pictures, w h e t h e r o f the c r o w n s , shrines, o r plants, c o u l d represent
the f u n d a m e n t a l difference between the t w o k i n g d o m s . T h e richness o f
the system is expressed i n the w a y t h a t each p a i r a r t i c u l a t e d another type
of difference. W h i l e the t w o c r o w n s a r t i c u l a t e d a difference o f h i s t o r y
a n d o f p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y , the t w o shrines a l l u d e d t o differences o f geology
a n d c l i m a t e , a n d the t w o plants a l l u d e d t o s i m i l a r differences o f h y d r o g
raphy. T h e d o m i n a n t r o l e o f h i e r o g l y p h i c i m a g e r y i n E g y p t i a n a r t a n d
c u l t u r e m e a n t t h a t a l l members o f the p o p u l a t i o n , n o t just those w h o
k n e w the f u l l language system, w o u l d have been m u c h m o r e alert t o the
m e a n i n g o f a r t t h a n i n other cultures.
I n a c u l t u r e i n w h i c h the highest social a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l ex
pression t o o k the f o r m of images of things, i t was inevitable t h a t images
of things generally, a n d even things themselves, w o u l d have an excep
t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e . T h i s h a d a p a r t i c u l a r significance f o r architecture. I f
v a r i a t i o n i n the representation of a shrine c o u l d represent a difference of
reference t o geography a n d c u l t u r e , i t was inevitable t h a t any differences
of a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m w o u l d have been liable t o a reading i n broader

Onians

FIG.

Detail of N a r m e r Palette. Early

t h i r d m i l l e n n i u m B . C . Cairo, The
Egyptian M u s e u m .

terms. T h e same w o u l d have been t r u e o f p l a n t s . T h e m e a n i n g o f the l o

tus a n d p a p y r u s i n the script was t h a t t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n i n another c o n
t e x t , such as i n the piers o f T h u t m o s i s i n , c o u l d refer t o the p r i m a r y
g e o g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o n o f the N i l e V a l l e y a n d u l t i m a t e l y by e x t e n s i o n o f
the w h o l e w o r l d . Indeed, the tendency t o see m e a n i n g i n representational
f o r m led t o f o r m a l resemblances being far m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n i n o t h e r
cultures, so t h a t , f o r e x a m p l e , the resemblance between the S o u t h e r n
C r o w n a n d a rnace head so evident o n the N a r m e r Palette (fig. 6) effec
tively leads t o the c r o w n a n d thus the k i n g h i m s e l f a c q u i r i n g the p r i n c i
p a l a t t r i b u t e o f the mace, t h a t is, its effectiveness i n s k u l l c r u s h i n g . I t is
t e m p t i n g t o suggest t h a t the c r o w n m a y have been given this shape i n
order t o invest i t w i t h t h a t m e a n i n g .
I n a l l this there c o u l d h a r d l y be a greater c o n t r a s t w i t h the
Greeks, f o r w h o m script a n d a r t r a p i d l y became l i t t l e m o r e t h a n t r a n scriptive systems. Greek letters served p r i n c i p a l l y as a n o t a t i o n f o r a se
quence o f s o u n d s m u c h as a m o d e r n d i g i t a l a u d i o system provides a
t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f m u s i c w h i l e a r t essentially d i d the same f o r v i s u a l real
ity. Greek a r t developed progressively as a n o t a t i o n f o r w h a t was seen
u n t i l i t a l m o s t m a t c h e d the directness o f w r i t i n g as a n o t a t i o n f o r w h a t
was heard. A s c u l p t o r w h o carved b o t h figures a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s was
w o r k i n g i n the same m o d e i n b o t h activities. T h e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l i t y o f
his a p p r o a c h was just one aspect o f the single-mindedness n o t e d earlier.
I t m i g h t be t h o u g h t t h a t the Greek use o f v a r i a n t f o r m s , such
as different letter f o r m s f o r D o r i c a n d I o n i c dialects o r different architec
t u r a l f o r m s f o r D o r i c a n d I o n i c b u i l d i n g s , constitutes some p a r a l l e l t o
the E g y p t i a n d u a l i s m , b u t these differences were u n d e r s t o o d above a l l as
m a r g i n a l v a r i a t i o n s o f nature a n d c u s t o m w i t h i n a single p o p u l a t i o n
rather t h a n as the representation o f t w o separate w o r l d s . I o n i c c u l t u r e

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was seen basically as o n l y a v a r i a n t o f D o r i c . Since the Ionians were

t h o u g h t o f as m o r e f e m i n i n e a n d the D o r i a n s as m o r e masculine, this
p r o d u c e d a p a r a l l e l w i t h the field o f sex difference. I n general, the differ
ences w i t h i n the Greek t r a d i t i o n were seen as t r i v i a l c o m p a r e d t o the
absolute d i v i d e between Greeks a n d the rest o f the w o r l d .
T h e i n t e g r a t i o n a n d coherence o f the Greek a p p r o a c h m e a n t
t h a t i t c o u l d be t a k e n over m o r e o r less i n its e n t i r e t y by outsiders. I t
c o u l d be a d o p t e d v o l u n t a r i l y b y neighbors, such as the M a c e d o n i a n s o f
Alexander's generation. I t c o u l d equally be i m p o s e d t o some extent by
the same M a c e d o n i a n s o n those they conquered. A Greek e d u c a t i o n gave
one a Greek m i n d , a Greek physical t r a i n i n g gave one a Greek body. I t
was as Greeks t h a t the M a c e d o n i a n s w e n t t o E g y p t , a n d i t was t h r o u g h
members o f the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n w h o v o l u n t a r i l y o r i n v o l u n t a r i l y became
t o some extent Greek t h a t the M a c e d o n i a n s a d m i n i s t e r e d the t e r r i t o r y .
T h e degree t o w h i c h the Greeks were seen as outsiders a n d ,
indeed, t h o u g h t o f themselves as such is w e l l expressed i n the n o t i o n t h a t
the p l a n of A l e x a n d r i a , the N i l e k i n g d o m ' s n e w c a p i t a l , corresponded t o
the shape o f a M a c e d o n i a n c l o a k , a rectangle w i t h r o u n d e d corners.
L i k e a g a r m e n t t h r o w n d o w n o n a field, the c i t y was an alien a r t i f a c t i n
the E g y p t i a n landscape, a n d i t is t e m p t i n g t o t h i n k t h a t i t was the h i e r o g l y p h i c a l l y o r i e n t e d Egyptians w h o read i t t h a t way. W i t h i n the c i t y the
M a c e d o n i a n s lived o u t Greek lives i n Greek b u i l d i n g s s u r r o u n d e d b y
Greek artifacts. O u t s i d e , o n the other h a n d , the strength o f E g y p t i a n c u l
t u r e r e q u i r e d t h a t they n o t o n l y tolerate b u t also s u p p o r t the m a i n t e
nance o f l o c a l r i t u a l a n d artistic t r a d i t i o n s . T h e Egyptians w h o m o v e d t o
A l e x a n d r i a w o u l d have been w e l l prepared t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h t h e i r
newest oppressors. T h e rivalries o f the predynastic p e r i o d h a d been suc
ceeded b y the u n c e r t a i n balance o f the u n i t e d c r o w n s a n d t h a t i n t u r n by
a l t e r n a t i n g periods o f self-rule a n d e x t e r n a l d o m i n a t i o n by the H y k s o s ,
the Assyrians, a n d the Persians. H a b i t u a t e d t o being conquered, the
Egyptians were equally used t o recovering their independence f r o m i n
vaders, w h o t y p i c a l l y a l l o w e d themselves t o be c u l t u r a l l y absorbed by
their subjects. T h i s at least was true u n t i l the a r r i v a l o f the Greeks f o r
w h o m , as w e saw, there was i n a sense o n l y one c u l t u r e , their o w n . A d
m i t t e d l y the Greeks w e n t o n c o n s t r u c t i n g temples a n d c o m m i s s i o n i n g
sculptures a n d p a i n t i n g s i n t r a d i t i o n a l style f o r the use of the native p o p
u l a t i o n , b u t f o r themselves they preferred t h e i r o w n f o r m s .
A f t e r the first conquest, however, the Egyptians soon started
t o assert t h e i r i d e n t i t y n o t just i n U p p e r E g y p t , w h e r e the Greeks h a r d l y
made an i m p a c t c u l t u r a l l y , b u t at the n e w c a p i t a l . T h i s is m o s t evident i n
the cemeteries. D u r i n g the second c e n t u r y B . C . E g y p t i a n - t y p e burials i n
creasingly r i v a l e d Greek cremations, a n d soon the local p o p u l a t i o n , f o l
l o w i n g m i l l e n n i a - o l d practice, established its o w n c i t y o f the dead t o the
west of the c i t y of the l i v i n g , leaving the Greeks i n the east. Increasingly,
t o o , the f o r m s o f E g y p t i a n sculpture a n d architecture reasserted t h e m -

 i a s

FIG.

Interior of Tomb 2, Anfushy,

Alexandria. Second century B . C .
FIG.

Shrine. Second century B . C .

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
Museum.

selves. T h e t r a d i t i o n a l Greek t o m b facade was opened u p , as was usual

i n E g y p t i a n architecture, t o p r o d u c e a c o m p l e x m i x t u r e of p o r t a l s , l o w
w a l l s , w i n d o w s , a n d half- a n d f u l l c o l u m n s . M o r e significantly, some
f o r m s are used w i t h a n e w assertiveness, a n d none perhaps so forcefully
as the segmental p e d i m e n t (fig. 7 ) . T h i s shape h a d , as n o t e d , a l o n g his
t o r y i n L o w e r E g y p t as a f o r m expressing t h a t area's separate architec
t u r a l i d e n t i t y a n d c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . N o w i t reappeared opposed n o t t o
the flat-roof stone architecture o f U p p e r E g y p t b u t t o the t r i a n g u l a r p e d i
m e n t o f the Greeks. I n its d y n a m i c curve i t n o w seems t o express d i r e c t l y
the energies of a people a n x i o u s t o t h r o w off oppression by those c o n
strained by the triangle's geometry. A l o n g w i t h the surging c o l u m n s o f
b u d d i n g lotus a n d papyrus, the huge curved cornices, a n d the c r o w n i n g
r o w s o f uraei, the c u r v e d p e d i m e n t gave architecture a v i t a l energy i t
never h a d before (fig. 8). T h i s is almost certainly because the Egyptians
h a d never before seen their c u l t u r e so clearly opposed t o s o m e t h i n g as
stiff a n d h a r d as the Greek a r c h i t e c t u r a l vocabulary.
T h e Greeks were n o t insensitive t o this challenge. As i n the
establishment of the M o u s e i o n a n d L i b r a r y a n d i n so m a n y other areas,
the Ptolemies hastened n o t t o i m i t a t e their subjects b u t t o adapt their
o w n c u l t u r e so t h a t i t c o u l d c l a i m s i m i l a r properties. I t was thus perhaps
i n a n e w awareness o f the p o w e r o f organic f o r m s t h a t they were the
leaders i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the C o r i n t h i a n order o n the e x t e r i o r of
b u i l d i n g s such as the A r s i n o e i o n a n d P r o p y l a i a at Samothrace. I f we
k n e w m o r e of their architecture i n A l e x a n d r i a , we m i g h t be able t o c o n
firm w h a t is suggested by the first t e x t u a l reference t o the f o r m i n a t e x t
of K a l l i x e i n o s , preserved by Athenaeus, t h a t i t was a favorite f o r m i n
t h a t city. K a l l i x e i n o s tells h o w the order was used i n P t o l e m y iv's cele
brated N i l e barge, the thalamegos.

There i t was h a r m o n i o u s l y p a i r e d

w i t h a flowery E g y p t i a n c o l u m n a r f o r m w i t h whose v i t a l i t y i t m i g h t have

FIG.

Reconstruction of tent of
Ptolemy 11. T h i r d century B . C .
(after Studnizcka).

seemed c o n t a m i n a t e d . A s i m i l a r v i t a l i z a t i o n o f architecture was evident

1

i n P t o l e m y n's festival tent w i t h its thyrsus-like c o l u m n s (fig. 9 ) , its hang

ings, a n d its raised clerestory.
M u c h o f the architecture o f L o w e r E g y p t h a d always been i n -

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spired b y b u i l d i n g s i n t e m p o r a r y materials, a n d n o w at last the Greek

t r a d i t i o n was infused w i t h the same f l e x i b i l i t y a n d freedom. W h e t h e r o r
n o t the Palazzo delle C o l o n n e at Ptolemais is Ptolemaic a n d dates f r o m
the early first c e n t u r y B . C . , the c o m p l e x i t y a n d diversity o f its f o r m s cer
t a i n l y reflect E g y p t i a n values. As others have suggested, the b r o k e n
2

p e d i m e n t f o u n d there a n d elsewhere a l m o s t certainly goes back t o the

b r o k e n lintels of fifteen h u n d r e d years earlier. T h e Egyptians, w h o h a d
3

l o n g ago b r o k e n architecture u p i n t o its elements t o use as h i e r o g l y p h s ,

h a d n o p r o b l e m s e x p l o i t i n g h a l f - c o l u m n s , h a l f - w a l l s , w i n d o w s , aedi
cules, a n d other f r a g m e n t a r y a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m s . T h e Greeks, w h o
r e q u i r e d t h a t architecture, l i k e w r i t i n g a n d the representational arts,
transcribe nature, h a d p r o b l e m s w i t h a n y t h i n g t h a t was n o t a complete
w a l l , a complete c o l u m n , a complete d o o r , a complete t r i a n g u l a r p e d i
m e n t , o r an u n b r o k e n h o r i z o n t a l entablature. I t was o n l y i n E g y p t t h a t
the Greeks a c q u i r e d f r o m t h e i r subjects a m o r e d y n a m i c conceptual a n d
f o r m a l a p p r o a c h . T h i s is evident b o t h i n real a n d i n p a i n t e d architec
t u r e . T h e correspondence o f the m o r e advanced so-called Second Style
p a i n t i n g s f o u n d at P o m p e i i n o t just w i t h w h a t can be reconstructed as
Ptolemaic architecture a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l p a i n t i n g b u t also w i t h E g y p t i a n
p a i n t e d architecture o f fifteen h u n d r e d years earlier shows once again
h o w i m p o r t a n t E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n s were. N o p a i n t e d architecture i n a
p u r e Greek t r a d i t i o n has a n y t h i n g l i k e the c o m p l e x i t y a n d variety of the
p a i n t e d decorations o f E g y p t i a n M i d d l e K i n g d o m t o m b s . Such p r o p e r
ties o n l y enter the Classical w o r l d i n the u l t i m a t e l y Ptolemaic t r a d i t i o n
of scenes such as those f r o m Boscoreale. T h e same is i n m a n y ways t r u e
of p o r t r a y a l s o f landscape. U n l i k e the Greeks, the Egyptians h a d a l o n g
t r a d i t i o n of s h o w i n g h u m a n i t y o f a l l ages, sexes, a n d races at ease i n
b o t h u r b a n a n d r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e longer the Greeks stayed i n
E g y p t , the m o r e they were liberated b y t h a t land's t r a d i t i o n of m a t e r i a l
expression, a t r a d i t i o n so m u c h longer a n d stronger t h a n theirs.
T h e Greeks elsewhere i n the Eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n , such as
the Seleucids i n Syrian A n t i o c h , felt s o m e t h i n g of the same influence.
Those w h o lived i n m a i n l a n d Greece, o n the other h a n d , a n d especially
the A t h e n i a n s , were u n l i k e l y t o have a p p r o v e d o f the c o n t a m i n a t i o n
of t h e i r inheritance. T h e same m u s t have been true of m a n y Athenseducated R o m a n s . M a n y m u s t have been appalled at the c o r r u p t i o n of
the Greek c u l t u r e they sought t o i m i t a t e , a n d before the Battle o f A c t i u m
i n 3 1 B . C . there was a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y a r i v a l r y o f c u l t u r a l affiliation be
t w e e n those, such as A u g u s t u s , w h o v a u n t e d a relatively pure Greek
taste i n o p p o s i t i o n t o w a n t o n o r i e n t a l extravagance, a n d those, such as
A n t o n y , w h o were enthused by the cultures o f the East. I t has been w e l l
argued t h a t i t is this o p p o s i t i o n t h a t underlies the difference between the
d r i e r a n d plainer Temple o f A p o l l o b u i l t by Augustus o n the Palatine a n d
t h a t c o n s t r u c t e d b e l o w by the T i b e r by A n t o n y ' s associate Sosius (figs.
10, 1 1 ) . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n i n the latter temple o f segmental pediments,
4

Onians

FIG.

10

Plans of Temple of A p o l l o on the

Palatine H i l l and Temple of A p o l l o
Sosianus, Rome. Ca. 20 B . C . (after
Zanker).
FIG.

II

Interior details of Temple of

A p o l l o Sosianus, Rome (after
Zanker).

135

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

F I G . 12
Basilica at Fano. Reconstruction
after Vitruvius.

canted cornices, a n d exuberant organic v i t a l i t y can o n l y be e x p l a i n e d by

an Egyptian inspiration.
T h e p a i n t e d equivalent of such Egyptian-style architecture
was w h a t we n o w call the T h i r d Style. There can be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t the
c o m b i n a t i o n of pediments a n d roofs c a r r i e d by flowering stalks against
w h i c h V i t r u v i u s r a i l e d i n De architectura

7 has its o r i g i n i n the N i l e

Valley, w h e r e flowers h a d s u p p o r t e d massive m a s o n r y for t w o m i l l e n n i a .

O n l y i n the years after A c t i u m was Augustus able t o m a k e this t r a d i
t i o n l i k e the l a n d o f E g y p t itselfhis o w n , a n d V i t r u v i u s himself h a d
n o hesitation i n designing a basilica for the emperor at F a n u m Fortunae,
GREEK TUNIC

w h i c h c o m b i n e d c o l u m n s o f different sizes a n d clerestory l i g h t i n g i n i m i

t a t i o n o f E g y p t i a n hypostyle halls (fig. 12). R o m e , w h i c h h a d l o n g ago
w e l c o m e d the E g y p t i a n s t r u c t u r a l v o c a b u l a r y o f arches, vaults, a n d
domes, came increasingly t o feel m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h the E g y p t i a n
c r i t i q u e o f Greece t h a n i t was w i t h the pure Greek t r a d i t i o n . W i t h the
passing o f t i m e , as the R o m a n s felt increasingly threatened by a l l aspects
of Greek c u l t u r e , g o o d a n d bad, this tendency was o n l y accentuated.
A decisive factor i n the R o m a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the d y n a m
ically curved E g y p t i a n f o r m s was almost certainly a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t the
R o m a n toga, w i t h its nearly semicircular f o r m , differed f r o m the rectan
g u l a r Greek t u n i c i n m u c h the same w a y as the segmental p e d i m e n t dif
fered f r o m the t r i a n g u l a r (fig. 13). Slaves were p r o u d t h a t w h e n they
were freed, they cast off square clothes a n d p u t o n r o u n d ones. To m a t c h
this, there is also p a r a l l e l evidence t h a t some R o m a n s actually t h o u g h t
of themselves as physically r o u n d as i f i n o p p o s i t i o n t o the Greeks, w h o
h a d lavished praise o n m e n w h o were square. I t was this sense o f the re
5

l a t i o n between curved a n d angular f o r m t h a t almost certainly led t o the

i n t r o d u c t i o n , first, o f the a l t e r n a t i n g r o u n d a n d square niche a n d , t h e n ,
of segmental a n d t r i a n g u l a r pediments, w i t h the r o u n d niche a n d seg-

ROMAN T O G A
F I G . 13
Greek tunic and Roman toga.
D r a w i n g by the author.

Onians

FIG.

14

Exterior of Trajan's Markets,

Rome. Ca. A . D . n o . Photo by
D . Hemsoll.

m e n t a l p e d i m e n t t y p i c a l l y i n the m o r e i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n . T h e alterna
t i o n o f t r i a n g u l a r a n d segmental pediments is first f o u n d i n Vespasianic
structures, such as the E u m a c h i a b u i l d i n g at P o m p e i i , a n d i t is significant
t h a t at the same t i m e a n e w c a p i t a l type was i n v e n t e d c o m b i n i n g the
I o n i c a n d C o r i n t h i a n capitals as an e m b l e m of R o m a n d o m i n a t i o n over
the Greek w o r l d . T h e n e w c a p i t a l c o u l d be read as a h i e r o g l y p h m u c h
6

l i k e the d o u b l e c r o w n of E g y p t ; at the same t i m e Q u i n t i l i a n , the official

teacher o f r h e t o r i c a p p o i n t e d by the emperor, w r o t e a treatise p r o p o s i n g
a m e m o r y system using signa, or "signs," i n a w a y s i m i l a r t o h i e r o g l y p h s
t o summarize a n d recall the contents of a speech. T h e use o f sacrificial
7

i n s t r u m e n t s o n the entablature of the Temple of the Deified Vespasian as

a s u m m a r y o f sacrificial r i t u a l reflects a s i m i l a r desire t o compress c o m
m u n i c a t i o n i n t o visual ideograms. T h e n e w c a p i t a l type, the relief frieze,
a n d the d o u b l e p e d i m e n t a l l can be read e m b l e m a t i c a l l y i n a close p a r a l
lel t o E g y p t i a n ideograms. I n the M a r k e t s of T r a j a n the w a y the segmen
t a l p e d i m e n t is made t o break the t r i a n g u l a r f o r m i n h a l f m a y even
express the v i c t o r y of one c u l t u r e over another, just as the h i g h c r o w n o f
one k i n g d o m d o m i n a t e d the l o w f o r m o f the other i n early dynastic
E g y p t (fig. 14).
I t is, however, under H a d r i a n , an e m p e r o r w h o expended
m u c h effort i n b r i n g i n g u n i t y a n d security t o his e m p i r e , t h a t E g y p t i a n

137

138

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

a n d R o m a n cultures come closest, b o t h i n t h o u g h t a n d m a t e r i a l expres

FIG.

sion. L i k e the p h a r a o h , H a d r i a n traversed his r e a l m f r o m end t o end,

The Canopus at Hadrian's V i l l a ,

a n d , also like the p h a r a o h , he c o n s t r u c t e d a b u i l d i n g i n w h i c h he c o u l d

conveniently m i m i c t h a t j o u r n e y o n a s m a l l scale. I n his V i l l a at T i v o l i ,
w i t h its C a n o p u s , its Academy, a n d its Tempe, he c o u l d cover thousands
of miles i n a few yards, just as the p h a r a o h c o u l d i n the c o u r t of the
Heb-Sed festival. I n the V i l l a H a d r i a n also c o m b i n e d r o u n d a n d square
i n the arches a n d h o r i z o n t a l entablatures of a colonnade i n yet another
v a r i a t i o n o f the earlier expression o f b i c u l t u r a l i s m (fig. 15). T h e c o m b i
n a t i o n o f Greek a n d E g y p t i a n sculptures o n the pavement underneath
made i t clear t h a t the synthesis o f Greece a n d R o m e was p a r a l l e l t o t h a t
of Greece a n d E g y p t . R o u n d a n d square were also c o m b i n e d i n H a d r i a n ' s
t o m b , the present Castel S a n t ' A n g e l o , w h i c h enclosed a R o m a n c i r c u l a r
cone w i t h i n a Greek rectangular p l a t f o r m , just as the E g y p t i a n d o u b l e
c r o w n c o m b i n e d the emblems of U p p e r a n d L o w e r E g y p t . T h e p o i n t , of
course, is n o t t h a t the one imitates the other b u t t h a t the w h o l e w a y of
t h i n k i n g h a b i t u a l i n E g y p t was enthusiastically t a k e n u p a n d a p p l i e d
by the R o m a n s .
Finally, the b u i l d i n g t h a t m o s t e l o q u e n t l y articulates E g y p t i a n
t h o u g h t is the Pantheon. T h i s n o t o n l y combines a rectangular Greek
c o l o n n a d e d p e d i m e n t w i t h a r o u n d R o m a n d o m e as w e l l as rectangular
niches o n the m i n o r axes w i t h r o u n d ones o n the m a i n ones (see fig. 1)
but i t reinforces the message o f the a l t e r n a t i o n o f segmental a n d t r i a n g u
lar pediments o n the i n t e r i o r by c o u p l i n g the segmental E g y p t i a n f o r m
w i t h shafts o f E g y p t i a n p o r p h y r y t h a t are u n f l u t e d , f o l l o w i n g E g y p t i a n

15

T i v o l i . Ca. A . D . 130. Photo by

N . Batcock.

Onians

t r a d i t i o n , a n d the Greek t r i a n g u l a r p e d i m e n t w i t h m a r b l e shafts t h a t are

fluted,

as they always were i n Greece. Even as the R o m a n s t o o k the seg

8

m e n t a l p e d i m e n t a n d u n f l u t e d c o l u m n as t h e i r o w n , they always r e m e m
bered t h e i r E g y p t i a n o r i g i n , as i f i n assertion t h a t i n t h e i r p r o u d e s t
a t t r i b u t e , they identified m o r e w i t h t h a t e n d u r i n g e m p i r e t h a n w i t h the
u p s t a r t u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f Greece.
We c a n n o t trace the f u l l story o f the earlier conflict o f a r c h i
t e c t u r a l f o r m a n d idea t h a t t o o k place i n Ptolemaic A l e x a n d r i a , b u t we
f i n d decisive t e s t i m o n y t o its existence i n the architecture o f R o m e .
W h a t e v e r t h e i r debt t o Greece i n terms o f d r y d e t a i l , the R o m a n s o w e d
m o r e t o the Egyptians i n terms o f t h e i r ideas a n d the larger features o f
style. T h e R o m a n use o f the d y n a m i c c u r v i n g f o r m s o f a r c h , v a u l t , u n
fluted

c o l u m n , a n d the segmental p e d i m e n t , a l l d e r i v i n g n o t f r o m Greece

b u t f r o m E g y p t , e l o q u e n t l y d o c u m e n t s t h i s . So, t o o , does t h e i r fondness

for energetic organic p l a n t f o r m s o n friezes a n d capitals. I t is s a l u t o r y t o
realize t h a t w h e n Brunelleschi used u n f l u t e d c o l u m n s i n San L o r e n z o ,
o r w h e n M i c h e l a n g e l o used a b r o k e n segmental p e d i m e n t i n the N e w
Sacristy n e x t d o o r , b o t h were r e v i v i n g the f o r m s n o t o f A t t i c a b u t o f the
N i l e Valley. Since A u g u s t u s absorbed Cleopatra's k i n g d o m , Western
b u i l d i n g s have t o be read n o t as careful exercises i n f o r m a l design i n the
Greek t r a d i t i o n , b u t , l i k e E g y p t i a n m o n u m e n t s , as compressed h i e r o
glyphs o f geography, h i s t o r y , a n d c u l t u r e .
University of East Anglia
N O R W I C H ,

E N G L A N D

139

140

ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Notes

K a l l i x e i n o s is q u o t e d i n A t h e n a e u s

See G . Pesce, I I Palazzo

maide

Colonne

J. M c K e n z i e , The Architecture

in

Tole-

See P. Z a n k e r , The Power

Sapiens,

of Images

in the

(Ann A r b o r 1988), pp.

fortis

et in se ipse totus

H o r . Sat.

rotundus,

(Oxford

ofPetra

75-77-

of Augustus
5

delle

(Rome 1950), passim.

1990), pp.
4

Deipno-

5.38-39.

sophistae

teres

atque

2.7; cf. P l a t o , q u o t i n g Si-

m o n i d e s o n the perfect " s q u a r e " m a n ,

ras
6

Protago

339ff.

J. O n i a n s , Bearers
Orders

in Antiquity,

of Meaning:

The

the Middle

Q u i n t i l i a n Inst.

Or.

Classical

Ages

(Princeton 1988), pp.

Renaissance
7

Age

65-70.

and

the

41-44.

1 1 . z . 1 9 . See J. O n i a n s ,

" Q u i n t i l i a n and the Idea o f R o m a n A r t , " i n

M . H e n i g , e d . , Architecture
Sculpture

of the Roman

and
Empire

Architectural
(Oxford

1990), p. 4.
8

See K . de F i n e L i c h t , The Rotunda

(Copenhagen 1968), p. 1 1 1 .

in

Rome

141

From Hellenistic Polychromy of Sculptures

to Roman Mosaics
W. A.

Daszewski

T h e Ptolemaic p o r t r a i t s i n Greek style executed i n m a r b l e are character

ized by a n u m b e r o f technical a n d stylistic features t h a t set t h e m apart
f r o m other r o y a l p o r t r a i t s o f the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . These features have
l o n g been w e l l recognized by scholars.

M a n y Ptolemaic heads have composite character. T h e f r o n t

p a r t , i n c l u d i n g the face, neck, ears, a n d hair, was s c u l p t u r e d i n one piece
of m a r b l e , the rear p a r t a n d t o p of the head were made separately a n d
adjoined later, o r they were c o m p l e t e d i n a different m a t e r i a l , usually
stucco. T h e lack o f local m a r b l e i n E g y p t a n d the elevated cost of i m
p o r t e d m a t e r i a l were u n d e r s t o o d t o be the m a i n causes f o r the use o f
such marble-saving techniques. I t is also characteristic t h a t a l t h o u g h
m a r b l e heads of Ptolemaic kings a n d queens are quite n u m e r o u s , they
are n o t accompanied by c o m p a r a b l e numbers o f statues or fragments o f
statues. As a m a t t e r of fact, p r a c t i c a l l y n o m a r b l e statues m a y be associ
ated w i t h r o y a l p o r t r a i t heads. O n the other h a n d , ancient w r i t t e n
sources give ample evidence t h a t r o y a l statues d i d exist i n considerable
n u m b e r s . Some were made of bronze a n d possibly o f precious metals,
2

b u t they d i d n o t have m a r b l e heads. A logical c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t m a r b l e

heads were destined f o r a c r o l i t h i c statues. T h e heads were c o m b i n e d
w i t h figures made of perishable m a t e r i a l , m o s t l i k e l y w o o d , b u t perhaps
also g y p s u m . Some heads themselves m u s t have been enriched w i t h at
t r i b u t e s o f different materials, o r even p r o v i d e d w i t h w i g s .
A specific, very soft m o d e l i n g o f the surface of m a n y p o r t r a i t
heads, w i t h l i t t l e emphasis o n precise r e n d e r i n g of c o n t o u r s , a technique
k n o w n as sfumato, was l o n g considered another characteristic feature
of the P t o l e m a i c - A l e x a n d r i a n sculpture i n h e r i t e d f r o m the Praxitelean
t r a d i t i o n . H e l m u t Kyrieleis c o r r e c t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t sfumato s h o u l d
n o t be considered f o r its o w n sake as a special finishing o f A l e x a n d r i a n
sculptures b u t o n l y as a reflection of the a m o r p h i c r e n d e r i n g o f the sur
face. T h e o r i g i n a l f o r m h a d been defined b y features sharply a n d linearly
accentuated b y p a i n t i n g . T h e p o l y c h r o m y was thus o f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e .
I t was also needed t o conceal the difference i n materials, m a r b l e a n d
stucco. T h e p o l y c h r o m y was supposedly executed i n s t r o n g a n d c o n
t r a s t i n g colors, w i t h black a n d red the d o m i n a n t hues. T h e brightness

142

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

a n d aggressivity o f c o l o r finishings o f Ptolemaic p o r t r a i t s were empha

FIG.

sized by Kyrieleis a n d m o r e recently also by K o n s t a n t i n o s Y f a n t i d i s i n a

Female head, from the Serapeion.

thesis o n the p o l y c h r o m y o f H e l l e n i s t i c sculptures.

T h e s t r o n g c o l o r i n g of the heads is generally considered t o

have been i n h e r i t e d f r o m o r influenced by l o c a l E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n , as

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
Museum. Photo by D . Johannes,
courtesy of the D A I , Cairo.
FIG.

opposed t o the m u c h m o r e restrained p o l y c h r o m y o f p u r e l y Greek sculp

Mosaic, from Thmuis, second

tures outside E g y p t . T h e m u m m y masks a n d m u m m y p o r t r a i t s of the

copy. Alexandria, Graeco-Roman

R o m a n p e r i o d are q u o t e d as expressing the same E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n c o n

Museum 21736. Photo by

t i n u i n g i n m o r e recent times. Indeed, the masks a n d m u m m y p o r t r a i t s

often seem t o c o r r o b o r a t e the statement a b o u t the brightness a n d aggres
sivity o f the p o l y c h r o m y , b u t they are a l l m u c h later t h a n the p o r t r a i t s i n
q u e s t i o n . For the earlier p e r i o d , t h a t is, the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , there is
4

l i t t l e reliable evidence. W i t h regard t o w h a t p a i n t e d m a r b l e heads really

l o o k e d l i k e , we are confined t o conjectures based o n m i n u t e traces o f
faded colors, usually o f b l a c k , r e d , a n d occasionally b r o w n , t h a t are still
recognizable o n better-preserved pieces, w h i l e some idea o f the p o l y
c h r o m y o f a c r o l i t h i c statues m a y perhaps be gathered f r o m an analysis
of p a i n t e d t e r r a c o t t a figurines. H o w e v e r , considering the s m a l l size a n d
mass p r o d u c t i o n o f terracottas, they c a n n o t be t a k e n as conclusive evi
dence f o r the standard o f official Ptolemaic statuary.

D . Johannes.

Daszewski

O f special interest w i t h regard t o the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f o r i g i

n a l c o l o r i n g are t w o r o y a l heads f r o m the Serapeion i n A l e x a n d r i a , usu
ally i n t e r p r e t e d as P t o l e m y i v a n d his sister-wife A r s i n o e i n ; a head of a
queen n o w i n Kassel, identified as Berenike i i ; a n d a head n o w i n the
Musee de M a r i e m o n t . I t was the female head f r o m the Serapeion (fig. i )
5

t h a t a l l o w e d Kyrieleis t o d r a w a suggestive p i c t u r e of its o r i g i n a l p o l y c h r o m y a n d t o stress the c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e of p a i n t i n g f o r its final ap

pearance. Kyrieleis underlines the sharpness a n d l i n e a r i t y i n the use of
colors. C o n s i d e r i n g , however, t h a t o n l y traces of the strongest colors are
preserved w h i l e m o r e delicate hues, shading, a n d g r a d a t i o n o f colors are
gone forever, the faded remains of c o l o r i n g o n these heads a n d others d o
n o t a l l o w any conclusive i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . W h a t w e have are the remains
of a skeletal g r i d of c o l o r s , the filling between the m a i n lines h a v i n g dis
appeared. W e m a y thus p u t f o r w a r d t w o c o n t r a d i c t o r y suggestions.
Either the Ptolemaic p o r t r a i t heads were b r i g h t l y c o l o r e d a n d aggressive,
or they were t o n e d d o w n a n d delicate. U n t i l n o w there was l i t t l e t o
prove o r disprove either a s s u m p t i o n . I w o u l d like therefore t o a d d a
brief c o m m e n t a r y t o this subject i n the hope t h a t i t m a y shed n e w l i g h t
o n the p r o b l e m of p o l y c h r o m y o f H e l l e n i s t i c p o r t r a i t s i n E g y p t .
A c o m p a r a t i v e analysis of t w o H e l l e n i s t i c m o n u m e n t s t h a t
have been k n o w n f o r q u i t e a l o n g t i m e b u t never before used i n discus
sions of p o l y c h r o m y m a y perhaps help us. These m o n u m e n t s , m o r e o r
less c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h the above-mentioned heads, are t w o s p l e n d i d
mosaic emblemata

executed i n vermiculatum

technique. B o t h mosaics

were f o u n d i n Tell T i m a i , ancient T h m u i s i n the N i l e D e l t a , b u t they are

obviously products of a metropolitan workshop from Alexandria. Both
s h o w a bust of one a n d the same w o m a n i n a rather strange a t t i r e . 1
6

have considered these t o be t w o stylistically slightly different copies o f

some late t h i r d - c e n t u r y - B . c . p a i n t i n g executed f o r the r o y a l c o u r t circles
i n the c a p i t a l . T h e t w o faces differ slightly a n d represent t w o modes o f
expression. O n e is h i g h l y e m o t i o n a l , the other is m o r e c a l m a n d subdued
(fig. 2). These t w o modes of expression reflect the p r e v a i l i n g s c u l p t u r a l
styles of the p e r i o d i n Ptolemaic p o r t r a i t u r e , exemplified, for instance,
by the B o s t o n head o f A r s i n o e i n a n d the Serapeion head, perhaps of the
same queen. I n the Corpus

of Mosaics

from Egypt,

I suggested, based o n

a detailed i c o n o g r a p h i c a l analysis, t h a t the w o m a n m a y a c t u a l l y be an

ideal presentation o f a Ptolemaic queen as thea synnaos,

representing

various aspects of the Ptolemaic p o w e r o n l a n d a n d sea.

M o r e recently, after careful e x a m i n a t i o n o f several o r i g i n a l
Ptolemaic m a r b l e p o r t r a i t s r e t a i n i n g traces o f c o l o r , I have realized t h a t
t h e i r present p o l y c h r o m y is i n fact a faded version o f w h a t one can see
o n a f u l l scale a n d w i t h a l l details o n the mosaics f r o m T h m u i s . L e t me
quote here, translated by me i n t o E n g l i s h , the d e s c r i p t i o n given by

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Kyrieleis o f c o l o r finishing o f the Serapeion p o r t r a i t , w h i c h is a t y p i c a l

example, a n d c o m p a r e i t w i t h the t w o faces o n the mosaics.
The eyelids are even n o w marked by thick black lines, the eye
lashes are i n the f o r m of short strokes directed upwards and
downwards. The eyebrows were large thick bands. The rugged
surface retains considerable traces of dark b r o w n iris. Clearly
visible are the remains of linear strands of hair o n forehead and
temples. The heavy red and black paint on the m o u t h , nose, and
eyes stood glaring against the w h i t e surface. Painted forms must
have dominated its whole appearance.

L i n e after line, t r a i t after t r a i t , we find o n the mosaics a l l the

p o l y c h r o m a t i c details preserved o n the m a r b l e head, a n d m u c h m o r e .
For the first t i m e we can a d m i r e a b r o a d s p e c t r u m o f halftones, grada
t i o n s , a n d shading. O n e may, of course, object o n the g r o u n d s t h a t the
p o l y c h r o m y o f sculptures c a n n o t be j u d g e d by a representation o n
mosaics. T h i s o b j e c t i o n is justified, b u t o n l y t o some extent. T h e t w o
mosaic busts f r o m T h m u i s are so far absolutely u n i q u e , a n d they are
p r o b a b l y the earliest emblemata

k n o w n t o us. T h e y have n o i c o n o g r a p h i c

parallels a m o n g other H e l l e n i s t i c mosaics o r paintings i n the M e d i t e r

ranean. I k n o w o f n o other representations o f heads o n mosaics, be they
Hellenistic o r R o m a n , w h e r e m i n o r details of the face w o u l d be i n d i
cated i n the same way. Especially characteristic is the r e n d e r i n g o f the
eyes a n d eyelashes, nose, a n d m o u t h . O n the other h a n d , this w a y of
presentation o f eyelashes a n d o f the use of colors f o r other details is
f o u n d o n Ptolemaic p o r t r a i t sculpture i n m a r b l e a n d occasionally o n R o
m a n m u m m y masks a n d m u m m y p o r t r a i t s . T h e mosaics f r o m T h m u i s
thus seem deeply a n c h o r e d i n the P t o l e m a i c - E g y p t i a n c o n t e x t . T h e ques
t i o n remains, however, w h e t h e r the T h m u i s busts are copies of a p a i n t
i n g o r perhaps a reflection o f an a c r o l i t h i c statue. T h e latter hypothesis
is very t e m p t i n g . Be t h a t as i t may, t h a n k s t o these t w o faces of stone, re
e x a m i n e d f r o m a different p o i n t o f view, we m a y better visualize w h a t a
m a r b l e head, perhaps p a r t o f an a c r o l i t h i c statue o f a Ptolemaic ruler,
m i g h t have l o o k e d like i n f u l l p o l y c h r o m a t i c splendor. A l t h o u g h the
mosaics f r o m T h m u i s betray appurtenance t o the P t o l e m a i c - E g y p t i a n
c o n t e x t , they testify t o the w a y colors were used t o emphasize facial fea
tures. U n l i k e m u m m y m a s k s w h i c h , after a l l , are mass p r o d u c t s t h e
faces o n mosaics as a w h o l e are neither excessively sharp n o r t o o aggres
sive. I n fact, they p r o b a b l y are n o t different f r o m w h a t one m i g h t expect
i n the c o n t e x t o f the p u r e l y Greek o r H e l l e n i s t i c k o i n e , except f o r one
i m p o r t a n t detail: T h e eyes are emphasized t o a degree t h a t recalls ageold Egyptian tradition.
A l t h o u g h H e l l e n i s t i c mosaics i n E g y p t are n o t n u m e r o u s ,
some o f t h e m are n o t o n l y b e a u t i f u l b u t also o f great i m p o r t a n c e f o r the

Daszewski

study o f the development o f this type o f d e c o r a t i o n , as p r o v e d by the

mosaic o f the H u n t i n g Erotes f r o m the Shatby r e g i o n i n A l e x a n d r i a .
I have dealt w i t h this p r o b l e m elsewhere. A f o r e i g n i n v e n t i o n , mosaics
8

were b r o u g h t t o E g y p t by the Greeks i n the late f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C .

T h i s type o f d e c o r a t i o n was i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d , first, w i t h the GraecoM a c e d o n i a n settlers a n d , t h e n , w i t h the Graeco-Egyptians b u t always
w i t h a t h o r o u g h l y hellenized p a r t o f the p o p u l a t i o n . T h e h i g h q u a l i t y
of some examples a n d the relative lack o f simple mosaic floors indicate
t h a t mosaics i n H e l l e n i s t i c E g y p t were the p r i v i l e g e o f r i c h people a n d o f
the r o y a l c o u r t .
R o m a n E g y p t presents a very different p i c t u r e . M o s a i c deco
r a t i o n became m o r e frequent, a l t h o u g h , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f A l e x a n
d r i a a n d its v i c i n i t y , mosaics never achieved the immense p o p u l a r i t y they
enjoyed i n other parts o f the R o m a n w o r l d , even i n places as close t o
E g y p t as Cyrene o r the Syro-Palestine r e g i o n .
A c c o r d i n g t o m y i n v e n t o r y based o n l o c a l visits, e x c a v a t i o n
r e p o r t s , m u s e u m records, a n d files o f the E g y p t i a n D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q
uities, some 160 mosaics are n o w k n o w n f r o m a l l over the c o u n t r y , m a n y
of t h e m preserved o n l y i n fragments. O n e can d i s t i n g u i s h f o u r m a i n areas
w i t h mosaics o f u n e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e b o t h i n q u a l i t y a n d i n q u a n t i t y o f
the m o n u m e n t s : First, A l e x a n d r i a a n d its i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o r h o o d ; sec
o n d , the r e g i o n o f the N i l e D e l t a ; t h i r d , the F a i y u m Oasis, M i d d l e a n d
U p p e r E g y p t , a very large area w i t h very few items; a n d , f o u r t h , the Sinai
Peninsula f r o m the M e d i t e r r a n e a n coast s o u t h w a r d t o the M o n a s t e r y o f
Saint Catherine. Scanty remains o f mosaic d e c o r a t i o n are recorded f r o m
the western desert, n o t a b l y f r o m A b u M i n a a n d K e l l i a .
I f the first three areas are m o r e o r less related t o one another
a n d stand under v a r i o u s degrees o f A l e x a n d r i a n influence, the mosaics
f r o m the n o r t h e r n Sinai, especially f r o m Sheikh Z u e d e ,

b e l o n g t o the

sphere o f influence o f the Syro-Palestine r e g i o n , especially the area o f

M a d a b a , R i h a b , M a i n , a n d M o u n t N e b o i n present-day J o r d a n .
c

10

T h e w a l l mosaics i n the M o n a s t e r y o f Saint Catherine stand

apart f r o m a l l other examples i n the area a n d have l i t t l e t o d o w i t h
E g y p t . T h e y p r o v i d e us w i t h a s p l e n d i d e x a m p l e o f the best p r o d u c t s
f r o m the J u s t i n i a n p e r i o d , m o s t p r o b a b l y executed by some m e t r o p o l i
t a n expert mosaicist f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . "
T h e greatest n u m b e r o f mosaic floors, some sixty-seven items
a n d sixty-three larger fragments, come f r o m A l e x a n d r i a a n d its v i c i n i t y .
I a m r e f e r r i n g t o such places as A b u K i r

1 2

(Canopus), M a a m u r a h ,

1 3

a n d the p a r t o f the M a r e o t i s r e g i o n closest t o the c a p i t a l , such as the islet

of M a h a r S h a a r a n .

14

I t is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t a l l these mosaics were

a c t u a l l y made b y the same m e t r o p o l i t a n w o r k s h o p s . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n ,

m o t i f s , a n d e x e c u t i o n o f a large mosaic f l o o r f o u n d by the G e r m a n expe
d i t i o n o n K o m esh-Shugafa i n A l e x a n d r i a

1 5

are very s i m i l a r t o those o f a

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mosaic f r o m M a a m u r a h (fig. 3). T h e same is true for some fine-quality

FIG.

examples f o u n d isolated i n the chora. A g o o d example is p r o v i d e d by a

Mosaic, from M a a m u r a h -

p o l y c h r o m e shield o f scales w i t h the representation o f a p y g m y c a r r y i n g

Kharaba. Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum 8473. Photo by

water. Years ago K l a u s Parlasca saved this fine mosaic, w h i c h is n o w i n

D . Johannes, courtesy of the

the C i b a B u i l d i n g i n Basel, S w i t z e r l a n d , f r o m o b l i v i o n .

D A I , Cairo.

1 6

T h e piece sup

posedly comes f r o m M e m p h i s . I have serious d o u b t s a b o u t its prove

FIG.

nance. I t w o u l d be a u n i q u e mosaic f r o m this t o w n , where extensive

Mosaic, from Shatby. Alexandria,

excavations have been carried o u t for m a n y years. Since Hellenistic times

Graeco-Roman Museum 10200

a "circle i n square" c o m p o s i t i o n , i n i t i a l l y w i t h a shield o f scales a n d

later w i t h a rosette (fig. 4 ) , triangles, o r squares, is very characteristic o f
many Alexandrian floors.

17

T h e mosaic i n Basel thus seems m o r e l i k e l y

t o have been made either by a m i g r a n t artist f r o m A l e x a n d r i a w h o

b r o u g h t w i t h h i m t o M e m p h i s n o t o n l y the technical k n o w - h o w b u t also
the necessary materials, o r i t comes f r o m the r e g i o n o f the c a p i t a l b u t
the provenance has been falsified, as is often the case w i t h finds c o m i n g
f r o m i l l i c i t excavations.
A figured mosaic f r o m Sheikh A b a d a , ancient A n t i n o u p o l i s i n
U p p e r E g y p t , represents a very different case. I t was uncovered i n a p r i
vate house by the I t a l i a n M i s s i o n of Sergio D o n a d o n i .

1 8

Fragments o f a

geometric mosaic floor were also recorded f r o m another l o c a t i o n i n this

t o w n f o u n d e d by E m p e r o r H a d r i a n i n m e m o r y o f his dead f r i e n d . T h e
figured

mosaic, w h i c h was i n a p o o r state o f preservation, depicts an

aucupium,

o r b i r d - c a t c h i n g scene, s u r r o u n d i n g panels p r o b a b l y s h o w i n g

A r t e m i s , A p o l l o , a n d D a p h n e . T h e b i r d - c a t c h i n g m o t i f is rare i n Egyp
t i a n floor mosaics, as are figured representations. I t is n o t a p r o b l e m o f
b a d preservation, as has sometimes been suggested, b u t rather the result
of a deliberate choice o r taste. I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t apart f r o m a few
emblemata

o n l y f o u r floors w i t h figured representations are k n o w n

(5395) Photo by the author.

Daszewski

FIG. 5

Mosaic, from Shatby. Alexandria,

Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 25093.
D r a w i n g by K . K a m i n s k i , Polish
Centre of Archaeology, Cairo.

f r o m R o m a n A l e x a n d r i a . O n e o f t h e m depicts v a r i o u s b i r d s , a n o t h e r fish
(fig. 5), the t h i r d ( n o w lost) c o n t a i n e d a bust o f D i o n y s o s , a n d the f o u r t h
(also n o w lost) h a d a representation o f h u m a n f i g u r e s .

19

T w o figured mosaics are k n o w n f r o m T h m u i s . O n e is the

famous Banquet Scene a m o n g N i l o t i c marshes, aquatic a n i m a l s , a n d p y g
mies; the other redraws one o f the m o s t famous ancient tales o f passion
a n d death, namely, the m y t h o f A l p h e u s a n d A r e t h u s a .

20

G e o m e t r i c mosaics i n the D e l t a are recorded i n greater q u a n

t i t y . T h e y are b i c h r o m e , usually b l a c k a n d w h i t e . I n this they recall the
s i t u a t i o n i n the c a p i t a l , whereas f r o m the later first c e n t u r y A . D . , b l a c k a n d - w h i t e mosaics w i t h v a r i o u s geometric m o t i f s d o m i n a t e the scene,
a l t h o u g h p o l y c h r o m e floors are also present. T h e great m a j o r i t y o f
E g y p t i a n mosaics i n a l l areas, a n d especially i n A l e x a n d r i a , share one
c o m m o n feature. T h e y are usually d e p r i v e d o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l
c o n t e x t a n d lack precise c r i t e r i a f o r d a t i n g other t h a n stylistic o r h i s t o r i
cal ones. O n l y a few floors can be dated o n m o r e secure archaeological
g r o u n d s . These few exceptions are therefore o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e .
T h e y serve as parallels f o r other, u n d a t e d m o n u m e n t s . T h e m o s t o u t
s t a n d i n g such g r o u p is a set o f mosaic pavements discovered by the
Polish A r c h a e o l o g i c a l M i s s i o n at K o m el D i k k a i n the center o f A l e x a n
dria.

21

I n late a n t i q u i t y this area c o m p r i s e d i n its western p a r t several

p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s , an o d e o n , a b a t h , a n d assembly halls. T o the east was a

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FIG.

6a

Mosaics, from House A , K o m el

D i k k a , Alexandria. Photo by
W. Jerke, courtesy of the Polish
Centre of Archaeology, Cairo.
FIG.

6b

Upper mosaic from House A , K o m

el D i k k a , Alexandria. D r a w i n g by
R. Sobolewski, Polish Centre of
Archaeology, Cairo.

Daszewski

FIG.

Mosaic from House A , K o m el

D i k k a , Alexandria. Photo by

residential quarter occupied between the f o u r t h a n d seventh centuries

by modest dwellings a n d w o r k s h o p s o f craftsmen a n d small merchants.

A . B o d y t k o , courtesy of the Polish

B e l o w these late b u i l d i n g s were uncovered remains o f r i c h l y decorated

Centre of Archaeology, Cairo.

w e a l t h y houses w i t h peristyle courts a n d large d i n i n g r o o m s . M a n y

FIG.

c o n t a i n e d mosaic floors of fine q u a l i t y , sometimes i n t w o superimposed

Mosaic from House B, K o m el

layers (figs. 6a, b ) . Stratified p o t t e r y finds give the early second h a l f

D i k k a , Alexandria. D r a w i n g by

of the first century A . D . as a t e r m i n u s post quern f o r their e x e c u t i o n .

R. Sobolewski, Polish Centre of

Archaeology, Cairo.

F i n a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f a l l houses i n the area o c c u r r e d by the end o f the

t h i r d century.
Frequent repairs i n mosaics of the second layer testify t o t h e i r
l o n g use. T h e earliest level c o m p r i s e d t w o b i c h r o m e , b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e
mosaics set i n grayish m o r t a r of l i m e a n d ashes o n an earlier pavement
of red m o r t a r resembling signinum
t i o n of a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e tesselatum

floors. O n e mosaic was a c o m b i n a

frame w i t h a p a t t e r n of small cross-

lets b o r d e r i n g an opus sectile panel (fig. 7 ) . T h e other one presented a

c o m b i n a t i o n of b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e squares w i t h inscribed b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e
circles. There s h o u l d be n o d o u b t t h a t these A l e x a n d r i a n pavements
were made i n the latter h a l f o f the first c e n t u r y o r slightly later. Soon
after the first t w o mosaics were l a i d , f o u r n e w pavements were added,
some of t h e m superimposed. Three other mosaics were executed i n the
n e i g h b o r i n g b u i l d i n g . Five mosaics o u t of the t o t a l of seven were b i
c h r o m e , b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e (fig. 8).
I n their c o m p o s i t i o n s a n d m o t i f s these mosaics a l l find their

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9a

FIG.

Mosaic w i t h birds from House A ,

K o m el D i k k a , Alexandria. Photo
by A . Bodytko, courtesy of the
Polish Centre of Archaeology,
Cairo.

FIG.

9b

Mosaic w i t h birds from House A ,

K o m el D i k k a , Alexandria.
D r a w i n g by R. Sobolewski, Polish
Centre of Archaeology, Cairo.

closest parallels i n Italy. O n e need o n l y m e n t i o n mosaics f r o m P o m p e i i

a n d A q u i l e i a o f the late first c e n t u r y a n d especially o f the first h a l f o f the
second century. Some mosaics f r o m K o m el D i k k a have almost c a r b o n
copies a m o n g u n d a t e d mosaics f r o m Canopus, thus f a c i l i t a t i n g their
c h r o n o l o g i c a l assignment a n d p r o v i n g l i n k s w i t h A l e x a n d r i a n w o r k
shops. T w o mosaics c o n t a i n e d p o l y c h r o m e panels w i t h i n b l a c k - a n d w h i t e geometric borders.
T h e panels w i t h birds (figs. 9a, b) r e m i n d us o f such represen
tations o n H a d r i a n i c floors i n O s t i a . H o w e v e r , aquatic birds o n the K o m
el D i k k a floor deserve special a t t e n t i o n i n v i e w o f the existence i n late
Hellenistic times o f s i m i l a r representations o n mosaics f r o m Canopus,
a n d later i n T h m u i s o n the mosaic w i t h the Banquet Scene.
There is one m o r e peculiar d e t a i l o f technical e x e c u t i o n
w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g because i t sets the representations f r o m K o m el D i k k a
a p a r t f r o m a l l other such depictions of b i r d s . A t K o m el D i k k a the eyes
are made n o t o f tesserae b u t o f specially prepared glass roundels t h a t
i m i t a t e the sequence o f c o l o r zones i n an eye. Suffice i t here t o recall the

Daszewski

FIG.

10

Mosaics from House T, K o m el

D i k k a , Alexandria. Photo by
A . B o d y t k o , courtesy of the Polish
Centre of Archaeology, Cairo.

centuries-long t r a d i t i o n of mosaic glass manufacture i n A l e x a n d r i a .

T h e same layer f r o m the late first a n d early second centuries
A . D . c o m p r i s i n g r i c h residential houses has been identified i n the western
p a r t of K o m el D i k k a , w h e r e t w o mosaics were f o u n d . O n e is an o l d find
of 1 8 9 5 , made by D . G . H o g a r t h a n d m e n t i o n e d by Parlasca.

22

The

floor, i n c o m p l e t e l y recorded i n a d r a w i n g , shows a shield o f triangles

a n d a fragment o f a geometric border. A c c o r d i n g t o a d e s c r i p t i o n , i t also
c o n t a i n e d a representation o f birds a n d an opus sectile p a r t . I t can n o w
be dated m o r e securely t o late H a d r i a n i c times.
T h e other mosaic, f o u n d i n an early R o m a n house located
p a r t l y b e l o w the o d e o n , displays a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e panel c o n t a i n i n g a
sort o f r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a meander o f swastikas, o r latchkey p a t t e r n ,
set w i t h i n an adjusting border o f i r r e g u l a r tesselatum.

23

T h e t h i r d house

i n the eastern p a r t o f the K o m was the largest of a l l a n d is later i n date

a c c o r d i n g t o p o t t e r y finds. W i t h i n i t , three tessellated mosaics a n d one
opus sectile floor were f o u n d .

2 4

O n l y one mosaic was black a n d w h i t e ,

the other pavements are p o l y c h r o m e t h r o u g h o u t (fig. 10). T h e y display

decorative m o t i f s t h a t , w h e n t a k e n i n d i v i d u a l l y , find parallels i n the late
second century b u t , w h e n considered as a w h o l e , s h o u l d n o t be placed

151

152

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

before the second quarter o r even the m i d d l e of the t h i r d century. Espe

cially characteristic i n this respect is the p o l y c h r o m e o r t h o g o n a l p a t t e r n
of adjacent squares i n five colors c o m b i n e d w i t h a p o l y c h r o m e d o u b l e
g u i l l o c h e a n d an adjacent panel of intersecting circles w i t h inscribed
concave lozenges. A l l mosaic pavements a n d the opus sectile floor reveal
traces o f repairs. T h e discovery of mosaics i n a stratified excavation at
K o m el D i k k a a n d their c h r o n o l o g i c a l assignment a l l o w us t o d r a w sev
eral conclusions o f a m o r e general nature.
1.

M o s a i c d e c o r a t i o n i n R o m a n A l e x a n d r i a m u s t have been
m u c h m o r e p o p u l a r t h a n h i t h e r t o suspected. W i t h i n a rela
tively small area o f K o m el D i k k a were f o u n d i n situ sixteen
tessellated floors, three opus sectile pavements, a n d hundreds
of s m a l l , loose fragments. One emblema
figured representation was also f o u n d .

2.

vermiculatum

with

2 5

M o s a i c s f r o m K o m el D i k k a help fix a p p r o x i m a t e dates for

m a n y undated floors i n A l e x a n d r i a a n d Canopus, the a r c h i
t e c t u r a l c o n t e x t o f w h i c h is u n k n o w n .

3.

I f considered together w i t h m a n y floors f r o m other A l e x a n

d r i a n sites n o t m e n t i o n e d i n this paper, the mosaics f r o m
K o m el D i k k a strengthen the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n the first a n d
second centuries A . D . , b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e floors w i t h geometric
ornaments d o m i n a t e d . I n this respect A l e x a n d r i a n mosaics
stay i n line w i t h c o n t e m p o r a r y developments i n Greece, Cyrenaica, a n d , especially, Italy. I t is w i t h I t a l y rather t h a n Greece,
however, n o t t o m e n t i o n Syria, t h a t b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e mosaics
i n A l e x a n d r i a appear t o have h a d special l i n k s w i t h respect t o
m o t i f s a n d their use i n overall c o m p o s i t i o n s .

4.

C e r t a i n representations t h a t were p o p u l a r already i n ear

lier periods, namely birds, flowers, a n d fruits, persist
i n R o m a n times.

5.

T h e astonishing p o p u l a r i t y o f the "circle i n square" c o m

p o s i t i o n a n d the p r e d i l e c t i o n for a l l k i n d s of rosettes are
demonstrated o n mosaics i n K o m el D i k k a a n d other
A l e x a n d r i a n sites.

6.

M o s a i c s f r o m K o m el D i k k a indicate t h a t the scarcity o f

figured representations o n mosaic pavements i n E g y p t as a
w h o l e a n d i n A l e x a n d r i a i n p a r t i c u l a r is n o t accidental b u t
reflects a certain t r e n d or a deliberate choice.
University of Trier
T R I E R ,

G E R M A N Y

Daszewski

Notes

E . g . , A . A d r i a n i , Lezioni

sull'arte

alessandrina

(Naples 1972), pp. 47ft.; H . Kyrieleis,

nisse

der Ptolemer

11

Royal

at Mount

Sinai

of

Saint

(Ann A r b o r 1973),

p p . 1 1 - 2 0 , a n d i l l s . ; K . W e i t z m a n n , Studies

(Berlin 1975), p p . 126ft.;

R . R . R . S m i t h , Hellenistic

G . H . F o r s y t h e et a l . , The Monastery
Catherine

Bild-

the Arts

Portraits

at Sinai

in

(Princeton 1982), pp. 9 - 1 8 .

( O x f o r d 1 9 8 8 ) , p p . 86ff.
12

Black-and-white mosaic showing intersecting

circles w i t h i n s c r i b e d t r i a n g l e s a n d s q u a r e s .

Athenaeus 5.196, 198, 2 0 1 .

K . Y f a n t i d i s , " D i e P o l y c h r o m i e der H e l l e n i -

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 8472.

13

stischen P l a s t i k " ( P h . D . diss., M a i n z 1 9 8 4 ) ,

M u l t i c o l o r e d s h i e l d o f scales w i t h i n a s q u a r e
frame of bead-and-reel m o t i f , A l e x a n d r i a ,

p p . 96ft.

G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m 8 4 7 0 ; see E . B r e c c i a ,
4

G . G r i m m , Die rmischen

Mumienmasken

Bulletin

aus

drie

( W i e s b a d e n 1 9 7 4 ) , p a s s i m ; K . Par-

gypten

lasca, Repertorio

d'arte

dell'Egitto

Serie B . , v o l s . 1 - 3 , Rittrati

romano,
(Palermo

de la Socit

Archologique

d'Alexan-

8 ( A l e x a n d r i a 1905): 105ft. p l . Y

e t

another

greco-

m o s a i c d i s p l a y s a s h i e l d o f i n t e r s e c t i n g circles

di

w i t h i n a square frame of guilloche, A l e x a n d r i a ,

mummie

Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 8473: i b i d . , p p . 107ft.

1969-1980).

and pi.
5

S e r a p e i o n heads: K y r i e l e i s ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) ,
p p . 4 6 f t . a n d p . 1 7 1 , D 3, p i s . 3 4 , 3 5 ; p p . i o 6 f t . ,

14

F o u r geometric b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e mosaics decorating four contiguous rooms: G. Botti, "Studio

a n d p . 1 8 2 , L 5, p i . 2 5 ; Kassel h e a d , i b i d . ,
p p . 98 and 180, K 1, p i . 83; M a r i e m o n t head,

sull i n n o m o d e l l ' E g i t t o inferiore e p i u special-

i b i d . , p p . 9 9 a n d 1 8 1 , K 5, p i . 8 7 ; see also

m e n t e s u l l a r e g i o n e m a r e o t i c a , " Bulletin

Smith (note 1 above), pp. 9 1 - 9 2 .

Socit

Archologique

de la

4 (1902):

d'Alexandrie

80ft. a n d p l .
6

W . A . D a s z e w s k i , Corpus
Egypt,

of Mosaics

vol. i (Mainz 1985), pp.

from

142-60,

15

pis. A 32, 33.

7

T . Schreiber, Expedition

Ernst

vol. 1

Sieglin,

(Leipzig 1908), p. 80, pis. 1 2 - 1 4 .

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p . 109: " D i e A u g e n -

16

l i d e r s i n d n o c h j e t z t als d i c k e s c h w a r z e L i n i e n

K . P a r l a s c a , La mosaque

Grco-Romaine,

v o l . 2 (Paris 1 9 7 5 ) , p p . 3 6 3 - 6 8 , p l . H .

m a r k i e r t , d i e W i m p e r n f h r e n als k u r z e S t r i c h e
n a c h o b e n u n d u n t e n . D i e B r a u e n w a r e n als

17

F o r e x a m p l e , a fine, m u l t i c o l o r e d m o s a i c w i t h a

breite, dichte B n d e r i n Schwarz aufgemalt. D i e

s h i e l d o f r a d i a t i n g scales f o u n d i n t h e r e g i o n o f

g e r a u h t e O b e r f l c h e b e w a h r t n o c h s t a r k e Reste

M o h a r e m Bey i n A l e x a n d r i a ,

der d u n k e l b r a u n e n I r i s , u n d a n S t i r n u n d S c h l -

M u s e u m 3 2 2 4 A ; see G . B o t t i , Le Muse

fen erkennt m a n d e u t l i c h Farbspuren v o n linear

Romain

Graeco-Roman
Grco-

(Alexandria 1892-1898).

d'Alexandrie

a u f g e m a l t e n L o c k e n s t r h n e n . I n s b e s o n d e r e die
starke rote u n d schwarze Bemalung an M u n d ,

18

Nase u n d A u g e n p a r t i e h o b sich u r s p r n g l i c h

G . U g g e r i , i n Antinoe

(Rome

(1965-1968)

1 9 7 4 ) , PP- 1 2 5 - 2 8 , p i s . 5 7 - 6 0 .

g r e l l v o n der w e i e n O b e r f l c h e a b . D i e g e m a l t e n F o r m e n m s s e n d e n g a n z e n E i n d r u c k be-

19

herrscht haben."

F o r b i r d s , M . R o d z i e w i c z , Alexandrie,
nuaire

vol. 3

( W a r s a w 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 4 4 . For fish, A . A d r i a n i ,

D a s z e w s k i ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) , p . 103 a n d p a s s i m .

du Muse

1935-1939

Grco-Romain

(Alexandria 1940): 149, p l . 6 1 ; for

D i o n y s o s , M . D o n d e r e r , Die Mosaizisten
9

J. C l d a t , " F o u i l l e s C h e i k h Z o n d e , "
du service

des Antiquits

de l'Egypte

Annales

Antike

15 ( 1 9 1 5 ) :

lung

und ihre wirtschaftliche

1 5 f t . ; P. H o f f m a n n , " D e r M o s a i k f u b o d e n v o n

with human
marche

turzeitschrift

3 (1969): 1 8 8 - 9 7 .

der

und soziale

Stel-

(Erlangen 1989), pp. 1 0 7 - 8 ; for mosaic

I s m a i l i a , " i n A r m a n t , Deutsch-Arabische

Kul-

An-

d'Alexandrie,

figures,

du service

d'Alexandrie

E . B r e c c i a , Rapport

du Muse

pendant

sur la

Grco-Romain

l'Exercice

1921-1912,

p . 4 ; i d e m ( n o t e 13 a b o v e ) , p . 56 n . 1 .
10

M . P i c c i r i l l o et a l . , I Mosaici

di Giordania,

exh.

cat. ( R e g i o n e L a z i o A s s e s s o r a t o a l l a C u l t u r a
1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 7 8 , 9 5 , 9 8 , esp.

117-27.

20

B a n q u e t Scene, A l e x a n d r i a ,

Graeco-Roman

M u s e u m 2 1 6 4 1 a n d 2 1 6 4 1 A , see E . B r e c c i a , Le

153

154

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

Muse

ALEXANDRIA

grco-romain

d'Alexandrie,

1925-1931,

p. 1 0 1 , p l . 52.193; A . Adriani, in
dell'arte

antica,

classica

e orientale,

Enciclopedia
voi. 1

(Rome 1958), p . 2 2 8 , i l i . 335; i d e m (note 1

above), p . 188, p l . 57; Alpheus and Arethusa,
Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 20195,
see G . D a r e s s y , Annales
Alexandrea

du Service

des

Antiqui

13 ( 1 9 1 4 ) : 1 8 4 ; E . B r e c c i a ,

ts de l'Egypte

(Bergamo 1922),

ad Aegyptum

p. 2 4 1 , ill. 137; H . Sichtermann, i n

dia dell'arte

antica,

classica

Enciclope
voi. 3

e orientale,

(Rome i 9 6 0 ) , ili. 878; K . M i c h a l o w s k i ,

dria

(Warsaw 1970), p l . 20; H . De

a n d P. M a c K a y , Mendes,

Alexan

Meulenaere

voi. 2 (Warminster

1976), p. 2 1 1 , ill. 158.

21

. K i s s , " L e s f o u i l l e s p o l o n a i s e s e n E g y p t e et a u
S u d a n en 1 9 7 3 , " Africana

Bulletin

21 (1974):

2 3 o f f . , i l l . p . 2 3 1 ; M . R o d z i e w i c z , tudes
( n o t e 19 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 3 6 .

Alexandrie
22

et

9 (1976): i7off., and 262L; idem,

Travaux

D . G . H o g a r t h a n d E . F. B e n s o n , " R e p o r t o n
Prospects o f Research i n A l e x a n d r i a w i t h N o t e
o n Excavations i n A l e x a n d r i a n Cemeteries,"
Egypt
port

Exploration

Fund,

Archaeological

i l l . o n p . 1 6 ; A . A d r i a n i , Repertorio
dell'Egitto

Re-

(London 1895), pp. 14. and

1894-1895

d'arte

Serie C , v o l s .

greco-romano,

1-2

( P a l e r m o 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 8 3 , n o . 4 4 A ; Parlasca ( n o t e
16 a b o v e ) , p . 3 6 6 a n d i l l .
23
24

Kiss (note 2 1 above), p. 2 3 1 .

R o d z i e w i c z , Alexandrie

( n o t e 19 a b o v e ) ,

pp. 5 0 - 5 2 .
25

W . A . Daszewski, " A n O l d Question in Light

o f N e w E v i d e n c e , " Das
gypten,

Rmisch-Byzantinische

A k t e n des i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n S y m p o -

sions, 2 6 . - 3 0 . September 1 9 7 8 , T r i e r .
tiaca

Treverensia,

Aegyp-

v o l . 2, ed. G . G r i m m ,

H . H e i n e n , a n d E. W i n t e r ( M a i n z 1983),
pp. 1 6 1 - 6 5 , 3
1

155

Ein sptrmischer bemalter Sarg aus gypten

im J. Paul Getty Museum
Klaus

Parlasca

D i e m i t d e m T h e m a des Symposiums " A l e x a n d r i a a n d A l e x a n d r i a n i s m "

verknpften Probleme sind n i c h t a u f die K u l t u r dieser W e l t s t a d t be
schrnkt. D i e A k z e n t e der griechisch-orientalischen K u l t u r b e g e g n u n g
sind i n dieser a n t i k e n W e l t s t a d t u n d i m eigentlichen g y p t e n , der soge
n a n n t e n Chora,

teilweise sehr verschieden. I m L i c h t e unserer a r c h o l o

gischen Q u e l l e n b e r r a s c h e n die vielfltigen Erscheinungsformen dieser

Symbiose. D a z u k o m m e n charakteristische Unterschiede i n zeitlicher
Hinsicht.
V o r a l l e m sprechen z w e i A r g u m e n t e fr die Einbeziehung v o n
F u n d e n aus anderen Landesteilen i n unsere T h e m a t i k . I n A l e x a n d r i a
sind verschiedene Facetten der materiellen K u l t u r w h r e n d der fast i o o o
Jahre dauernden p o l i t i s c h e n Z u g e h r i g k e i t zur klassischen W e l t n i c h t
belegt. Deshalb m u m a n n i c h t selten a u f Funde aus anderen Gegenden
g y p t e n s zurckgreifen, natrlich m i t d e m V o r b e h a l t eventueller re
gionaler Unterschiede. Andererseits ist die unterschiedliche A u s p r g u n g
der K u l t u r m i s c h u n g ein i n s t r u k t i v e r Gradmesser fr das b e r g e w i c h t
der einen K u l t u r bzw. der Resistenz der anderen. D a b e i sind die V o r z e i
chen dieser Polaritt i n A l e x a n d r i a u n d a u f d e m flachen L a n d , der
" C h o r a , " gegenstzlich. I n A l e x a n d r i a erfolgte eine schrittweise D u r c h
d r i n g u n g des griechischen Erscheinungsbildes m i t g y p t i s c h e n Elementen.
D e m g e g e n b e r haben sich i m brigen g y p t e n die " e u r o p i s c h e n "
K o m p o n e n t e n des a r c h o l o g i s c h e n Erbes n u r z g e r n d durchgesetzt.
Das Griechische ist hier selten u n d zumeist a u f den frhen H e l l e n i s m u s
beschrnkt. I n jedem Falle sind die Resultate der sich d a r a n a n k n p
fenden A n a l y s e n fr beide Aspekte dieses Problemsalso des g y p t i
schen sowie des griechischensehr l e h r r e i c h . Z u r V e r m e i d u n g voreiliger
Verallgemeinerungen sind j e d o c h getrennte U n t e r s u c h u n g e n e r f o r d e r l i c h ,
die den j e w e i l i g e n GegebenheitenGattungen, Perioden u n d R e g i o n e n
R e c h n u n g tragen.
I m Jahre 1982 e r w a r b J i f i Frei fr das J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m
einen i n allen wesentlichen Teilen v o l l s t n d i g e n , bemalten H o l z s a r g
zusammen m i t einer Serie teilweise fragmentierter, nach Aussage des
Vorbesitzers z u g e h r i g e r K l e i n f u n d e . D a v o n w u r d e bisher n u r das
B r u c h s t c k einer beschrifteten H o l z t a f e l p u b l i z i e r t . V o m Sarg selbst
1

56

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

w u r d e i n den vergangenen Jahren n u r die M a l e r e i der Frontseite mehr

ABB.

fach abgebildet ( A b b . i a ) . Erst i n den Jahren 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 erfolgte eine

Holzsarg. Langseite A. M a l i b u ,

eingehende Restaurierung u n d technische U n t e r s u c h u n g . D a n a c h w u r d e

I a

J. Paul Getty Museum 82.AP.75.

der Sarg i n seiner o r i g i n a l e n F o r m anllich des A l e x a n d r i a - S y m p o s i o n s

ABB.

erstmals der ffentlichkeit vorgestellt; er f a n d i n der Schausammlung

Langseite B des Holzsargs,

des M u s e u m s einen angemessenen Platz. D i e erhaltenen Teile des nach

3

seiner A u f f i n d u n g zersgten Sargs umfassen die beiden Langseiten ( A b b .

i a , b ) , eine Schmalseite ( A b b . i c ) u n d den D e c k e l ( A b b . i d ) . S o m i t
fehlt, abgesehen v o n d e m v e r m u t l i c h unverzierten B o d e n u n d den aufge
setzten Leisten an den E n d e n des Deckels, n u r die andere Schmalseite.
I h r Fehlen ist leicht z u e r k l r e n . D i e O b e r f l c h e der anschlieenden Par
t i e n der beiden Langseiten ist d u r c h W a s s e r e i n w i r k u n g stark beschdigt.
Deshalb w a r v e r m u t l i c h auch die M a l s c h i c h t dieser Partie weitgehend
zerstrt. M i t A u s n a h m e der Schmalseite bestehen die erhaltenen Partien
jeweils n u r aus einem Brett. I m H i n b l i c k a u f die gute, bereits i n v o r h e l
lenistischer Z e i t p r a k t i z i e r t e Stckungstechnik ist dieser A u f w a n d ber
raschend. D i e G r n d e fr diese Praxis sind j e d o c h , w i e w i r n o c h sehen
werden, deutlich.
Eine C-14-Analyse hat ergeben, da das H o l z wesentlich lter
ist als seine V e r w e n d u n g fr den Sarg. D i e sorgfltige U n t e r s u c h u n g

I b

Abb. i a .

Parlasca

ABB.

I c

Schmalseite des Holzsargs,

Abb. i a .

ABB.

Id

Gesamtansicht m i t Deckel des

Holzsargs, A b b . i a .

des technischen Befundes lieferte ferner den N a c h w e i s , da die Bretter

zunchst einem anderen Z w e c k gedient haben. D a b e i b i l d e t e n die beiden
Langseiten u r s p r n g l i c h ein einziges B r e t t ( M i n d e s t l n g e 3,06 m ) , dessen
o r i g i n a l e Breite sich d u r c h die an einer Seite verkrzten Einsatzleisten
(s. unten) a u f etwa 75 c m berechnen lt. Z u r E r s t n u t z u n g g e h r t a u c h
eine Serie k l e i n e r B o h r l c h e r , deren u n r e g e l m i g e V e r t e i l u n g allerdings
keine R c k s c h l s s e a u f den u r s p r n g l i c h e n V e r w e n d u n g s z w e c k er
m g l i c h t . D i e L c h e r w u r d e n bei der Z w e i t v e r w e n d u n g kaschiert.
D i e F o r m des Sargs ist auffallend schlicht; bei den H o l z t e i l e n
fehlen vllig i m eigentlichen Sinne tektonische oder d e k o r a t i v e Elemente.
Sogar a u f die sonst blichen Eckpfosten w u r d e n verzichtet. D i e vier
Seiten bestehen ebenso w i e der D e c k e l u n d der fehlende B o d e n aus glat
t e n F l c h e n ohne Profile. A n beiden Schmalseiten des Deckels w a r e n
Leisten v o n 4,3 c m Breite befestigt. Sie dienten w o h l p r i m r als Schiebe
griffe fr den D e c k e l , d o c h k n n e n sie auch als flache Giebel d e k o r a t i v
ausgestaltet gewesen sein. A n den Ecken sind die Einzelbretter sorgfltig
verzapft u n d zustzlich n o c h d u r c h dicke N g e l gesichert.
I n auffallendem Gegensatz zu den b e r a u s schlichten Formge
b u n g des Sargkastens steht die bemerkenswert sorgfltige h a n d w e r k l i c h e
G e s t a l t u n g der w i e d e r v e r w e n d e t e n Bretter. Abgesehen v o n der Schmal-

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seite (s. unten) besteht jede F l c h e aus einem einzigen Brett, das jeweils
aus der M i t t e des Stamms einer m c h t i g e n Libanonzeder h e r a u s g e s g t
ist. A u f diese Weise bestand das geringste R i s i k o , da sich das H o l z i m
Laufe der Z e i t verzieht. A u e r d e m befinden sich i n den langen B r e t t e r n
rechteckige B o h r u n g e n , i n die m i t erstaunlich sauberer F g u n g fnf bzw.
sechs lange Leisten aus H a r t h o l z eingezogen sind. D a d u r c h erzielte m a n
eine zustzliche Stabilitt. Diese Leisten sind i n den B r e t t e r n der L a n g
seite v o n u n t e n bis etwa 2/3 der H h e eingefgt. D e r D e c k e l weist eine
hnliche A r m i e r u n g auf; hier w u r d e n v o n jeder Seite aus sechs bzw. fnf
solcher Leisten i n a n n h e r n d gleicher L n g e eingezogen. Einer V e r w e r
fung des Holzes mute besonders b e i m D e c k e l vorgebeugt w e r d e n , u m
sein einwandfreies F u n k t i o n i e r e n bei spterem ffnung z u g e w h r l e i s t e n .
D e m V e r k l e m m e n i n den beiden Falzen w u r d e zustzlich entgegengewirkt
d u r c h eine geringe, m i t b l o e m Auge n i c h t w a h r n e h m b a r e V e r j n g u n g
des Bretts (die Breite betrgt an den Enden 25,0 bzw. 23,6 c m ) . Daraus
ergibt sich, da der D e c k e l v o n der l i n k e n Seite eingeschoben w u r d e .
D i e alten Bretter hatten teilweise lngere Risse, die d u r c h
L e i n w a n d s t r e i f e n kaschiert w u r d e n . Z u s t z l i c h mute eine Fehlstelle i m
D e c k e l d u r c h ein F l i c k s t c k geschlossen w e r d e n . D i e O b e r f l c h e erhielt
d a n n eine K r e i d e g r u n d i e r u n g fr die M a l e r e i . A u c h die Innenseiten w u r
den m i t einem K r e i d e b e r z u g versehen, u m ein Verziehen des Holzes i n
folge des T r o c k n e n s der ueren Schicht z u vermeiden. D e r B o d e n w a r
i n einer besonderen N u t eingefgt u n d zustzlich d u r c h E i s e n n g e l i n
v o r g e b o h r t e n L c h e r n m i t den senkrechten Teilen v e r b u n d e n .
D i e andere Langseite des Sargs ist d u r c h i h r e n schlichteren
D e k o r d e u t l i c h als R c k s e i t e charakterisiert ( A b b . i b ) . Sie w i r d geglie
dert d u r c h fnf Pilaster m i t k o r i n t h i s i e r e n d e n K a p i t e l l e n u n d B l a t t k e l c h
d e k o r a m unteren Ende. Basen sind n i c h t angegeben, ebensowenig ein
Sockelstreifen a u f der i n voller H h e erhaltenen W a n d u n g . D i e Boden
platte w a r , w i e bereits e r w h n t , i n eine N u t der Langseitenbretter einge
fgt. D e r architektonische C h a r a k t e r der M a l e r e i w i r d unterstrichen
d u r c h die v e r b i n d e n d e n A r k a d e n m i t M u s c h e l n i n den Bogenfeldern.
V i e l l e i c h t ist hier eine N i s c h e n g l i e d e r u n g gemeint, d o c h w u r d e n u r deren
oberer A b s c h l u einigermaen k o r r e k t wiedergegeben. D i e a n n h e r n d
quadratischen Felder d a r u n t e r enthalten n u r geometrische M u s t e r . D i a
gonale L i n i e n u n d breite, auf die Spitze gestellte Vierecke gliedern die
F l c h e i n kleine Q u a d r a t e u n d Dreiecke.
A l s V o r b i l d dieser K o m p o s i t i o n dienten vielleicht W a n d m a
lereien m i t derartiger G l i e d e r u n g , w e n n auch i n g y p t e n hierfr keine
entsprechenden Parallelen erhalten sind. A n S u l e n s a r k o p h a g e d a r f m a n
i n diesem Z u s a m m e n h a n g n i c h t denken; Reliefsarkophage w a r e n i m
L a n d e w e i t g e h e n d u n b e k a n n t ; auch i m p o r t i e r t e E x e m p l a r e sind i m I n
n e r n g y p t e n s n i c h t e i n m a l i n Resten nachzuweisen. D i e geometrischen
M u s t e r sind vielleicht als W e i t e r b i l d u n g v o n I n k r u s t a t i o n s m a l e r e i z u

P a r l a s c a

ABB.

le

Detail m i t Inschrift des Holzsargs,

Abb. i a .

verstehen, o b g l e i c h die fr diese G a t t u n g charakteristische tektonische

G l i e d e r u n g sonst anders gelst ist. D e r B l a t t k e l c h a m unteren Ende
der Pilaster ist ein v o r a l l e m i n der o s t r m i s c h e n A r c h i t e k t u r w e i t
verbreitetes M o t i v , das auch i n g y p t e n seit der m i t t l e r e n Kaiserzeit
vielfach belegt ist.
A u c h der Sargdeckel zeigt i n unregelmiger A u f t e i l u n g
eine r e i n o r n a m e n t a l e M a l e r e i ( A b b . i d ) . Z w e i Felder enthalten gegen
stndige Dreiecksmuster. Das Restfeld an der einen Schmalseite ist u n verziert. Das asymmetrisch i n die eine Hlfte verschobene Rechteck
enthlt ein schildartiges M o t i v a u f g r n e m G r u n d . D i e d u n k e l v i o l e t t e
Flche m i t schwarzen P u n k t e n w i r d v o n einem F l e c h t b a n d eingefat; i n
der M i t t e sitzt eine sechsblttrige Rosette, die aus d e m b e k a n n t e n M u s t e r
v e r s c h r n k t e r Kreise e n t w i c k e l t ist. D i e u n r e g e l m i g e A u f t e i l u n g des
D e k o r s lt v e r m u t e n , da das H a u p t f e l d die P o s i t i o n der K o p f p a r t i e
der M u m i e andeuten sollte. D e r Befund des Deckels spricht j e d o c h dafr,
da die M u m i e tatschlich anders h e r u m gelegen hat.
D i e erhaltene Schmalseite ist m i t einem vierfachen Kreis
muster a u f w e i e m G r u n d verziert, dessen Innenflche d u r c h radiale
L i n i e n i n acht ungleiche Sektoren aufgeteilt ist. D i e verbleibende uere
F l c h e ist d u n k e l g r n ( A b b . i c ) .
D i e m e h r f i g u r i g e M a l e r e i der H a u p t s e i t e des Sargs zeigt i n
der M i t t e den a u f einer K l i n e gelagerten Verstorbenen ( A b b . i a ) . Dieser
Teil der D a r s t e l l u n g n i m m t fast die gesamte Breite ein. D i e u n r e g e l m i g
geformte K l i n e hat n u r i n i h r e r rechten Partie eine hohe, m i t Stoff be
spannte R c k e n l e h n e . D e r untere Teil ist n i c h t wiedergegeben; die Liege
flche schliet m i t der U n t e r k a n t e des Sarges ab. N u r a m rechten R a n d
der K l i n e ist ein gedrechseltes Bein wiedergegeben, das sich i n einer Serie

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ABB.

If

Z w e i Knaben als Diener des

Holzsargs, A b b . i a .

v o n vier scheibenartigen Elementen bis zur O b e r k a n t e der R c k e n l e h n e

fortsetzt. D e r Tote ist offenbar ein K n a b e ; die geringen Abmessungen des
Sargs schlieen o h n e h i n die V e r w e n d u n g fr einen Erwachsenen aus.
Seine reiche G e w a n d u n g w i r d spter i m Z u s a m m e n h a n g m i t der T r a c h t
der anderen Personen z u besprechen sein. D e r Inschriftenstreifen neben
der l i n k e n H a n d des T o t e n n e n n t seinen N a m e n A m m o n i o s ( A b b . i e ) .
D i e D e u t u n g der Buchstaben i n der z w e i t e n Z e i l e ist unsicher. Offenbar
ist die Buchstabenfolge fehlerhaft. V i e l l e i c h t ist N T O N i n ETCON ( i m
A l t e r v o n . . .) z u emendieren. D i e Ziffer des erreichten A l t e r s blieb of
fen. D a der ber den Z a h l b u c h s t a b e n bliche waagerechte Strich
angegeben ist, s o l l t e n sie offenbar nachgetragen w e r d e n . E i n e n or
t h o g r a p h i s c h e n Fehler m u m a n auch a n n e h m e n , w e n n die Buchstaben
z u m Vatersnamen g e h r e n s o l l t e n . V i e l l e i c h t w a r es ( A ) N T O N ( 6 o u ) .

A l l e r d i n g s fehlt a m A n f a n g a m O r i g i n a l k e i n Buchstabe!
D e r B l i c k des K n a b e n f i x i e r t den Betrachter; seine aus
gestreckte Rechte ist j e d o c h einem der Pagen zugewendet, der die v o n
A m m o n i o s m i t spitzen F i n g e r n gehaltene flache Glasschale fllen soll.
Dieser u r a l t e , seit d e m 5. J a h r h u n d e r t v . C h r . belegte G e s t u s hat sich i m
5

Z u s a m m e n h a n g m i t k l e i n e n , henkellosen T r i n k s c h a l e n lange gehalten.

D i e einzuschenkende Flssigkeit hat, w i e m a n a m I n h a l t des Kessels der
k l e i n e n , v o m Pagen gehaltenen Schale sehen k a n n , eine helle, grnliche
F r b u n g . D e m n a c h k n n t e es sich u m W e i w e i n h a n d e l n . B e i m I n h a l t
der Becher, die verschiedentlich i n der H a n d spter M u m i e n b i l d n i s s e z u
sehen s i n d , ist hingegen sicher R o t w e i n g e m e i n t .

D i e K l i n e w i r d v o n drei Pagen f l a n k i e r t , die den T o t e n bedie

nen. D e r eine steht ganz l i n k s v o r einem gelblichen H i n t e r g r u n d neben
einer Serie v o n vier S p i t z a m p h o r e n ( A b b . i f ) . I n der erhobenen rechten
H a n d hlt er einen langen, bronzenen Schpflffel, m i t d e m er aus einer
fnften A m p h o r a W e i n e n t n o m m e n hat, u m d a m i t den rechts neben i h m

Parlasca

stehenden Kessel u n d seine i n der l i n k e n H a n d gehaltene Schale z u

fllen. D e r ungeschickt wiedergegebene, aber sicher r u n d z u denkende
Kessel hat einen o r n a m e n t i e r t e n R a n d . D e r Farbe n a c h zu u r t e i l e n ist es
ein B r o n z e g e f , das a u f einem d r e i - bzw. fnfbeinigen Gestell aus dem
selben M a t e r i a l m i t A n d e u t u n g e n v o n F e n i n F o r m v o n L w e n t a t z e n
steht. Rechts daneben steht ein weiterer Page, dessen F e v o n der an
dieser Stelle r e l a t i v n i e d r i g e n K l i n e n r c k w a n d verdeckt s i n d . Er hlt
einen groen, rechteckigen F c h e r aus F l e c h t w e r k i n der l i n k e n H a n d ; ein
originales G e g e n s t c k aus Tebtynis i m F a y u m befindet sich i n Berkeley
( A b b . 2 ) . V o n d e m ganz rechts neben der K l i n e stehenden d r i t t e n Pagen
7

sind n u r n o c h Reste erhalten; die M a l e r e i ist i n diesem Bereich groen

teils verrieben. T r o t z d e m sind verschiedene Einzelheiten n o c h d e u t l i c h
z u erkennen. I m U n t e r s c h i e d z u den beiden anderen f r o n t a l stehenden
K n a b e n ist er vor d u n k e l g r n e m H i n t e r g r u n d a u f einer gelblichen Stand
linie schreitend dargestellt. I n der rechten H a n d e r k e n n t m a n eine g r o e
B u c h r o l l e , a m H a n d g e l e n k einen querrechteckigen Gegenstand an
schwarzen, geflochtenen B n d e r n ; v e r m u t l i c h ist ein g r o f o r m a t i g e s
P o l y p t y c h o n gemeint.
N o c h ein W o r t zu den G r e n v e r h l t n i s s e n der vier Personen.
M a n hat die relative K l e i n h e i t der Pagen als A u s d r u c k eines n i e d r i g e r e n
sozialen Status i n t e r p r e t i e r t . Diese F o l g e r u n g ist sicher u n r i c h t i g . Es ist
8

b e s t i m m t k e i n Z u f a l l , da die G e w a n d u n g aller vier Personen teilweise

identisch ist, so z. B . die k l e i n e n Z i e r m u s t e r a u f den frei h e r a b h n g e n d e n
Stoffpartien. H i e r b e i h a n d e l t es sich u m lose r m e l . A u f Einzelheiten
9

der G e w a n d u n g u n d i h r e r V e r z i e r u n g k a n n an dieser Stelle n i c h t einge

gangen w e r d e n . Interessanterweise g i b t es aber auch i n der p a l m y r e n i schen G r a b k u n s t des 3. J a h r h u n d e r t s D i e n e r f i g u r e n a u c h hier s p r i c h t
m a n gern v o n Pagendie w i e der G r a b h e r r reich verzierte, parthische
G e w n d e r tragen.
Es ist sicherlich k e i n Z u f a l l , da die Streifengliederung des
Klinenstoffs bei unserer S a r k o p h a g m a l e r e i a u f die O b e r k r p e r p a r t i e

des

T o t e n R c k s i c h t n i m m t . Dies hat k a u m den r e i n sthetischen G r u n d ,

strende b e r s c h n e i d u n g e n des Stoffmusters m i t d e m K o p f zu v e r m e i d e n .
D i e diesen u n m i t t e l b a r umgebende F l c h e b i l d e t ein g r n g r u n d i g e s
ABB. 2
R m i s c h e r Fcher. University of
California at Berkeley, Phoebe A .

Rechteck. Es liegt nahe, hierbei an den rechteckigen N i m b u s z u d e n k e n ,

der i m k o p t i s c h e n g y p t e n verschiedentlich belegt ist. I n diesem Z u s a m

Hearst M u s e u m of A n t h r o p o l o g y

m e n h a n g ist die besonders v o n W . de G r n e i s e n behandelte Frage nach

6-20548.

den eventuellen paganen V o r s t u f e n dieses M o t i v s v o n B e d e u t u n g .

10

Im

R a h m e n seiner A u s f h r u n g e n spielen M u m i e n p o r t r t s a u f L e i c h e n t c h
ern v o n A n t i n o o p o l i s eine gewisse R o l l e . Es ist deshalb vielleicht k e i n
Z u f a l l , da auch fr unseren S a r k o p h a g die H e r k u n f t aus O b e r g y p t e n
i n h o h e m M a e w a h r s c h e i n l i c h ist.
D i e Abmessungen der K o p f p a r t i e des S a r k o p h a g p o r t r t s
entsprechen u n g e f h r den M a e n spter M u m i e n b i l d n i s s e . Es liegt nahe,

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ABB. 3

Schmalseite eines Holzsargs m i t

P o r t r t . Paris, M u s e du Louvre
E. 22309.

hier b e w u t e Z u s a m m e n h n g e z u v e r m u t e n . W a h r s c h e i n l i c h legte m a n
W e r t a u f die Wiedergabe des Portrts ohne die religisen I m p l i k a t i o n e n ,
w i e sie bei den paganen P o r t r t m u m i e n gegeben w a r e n . " E i n derartiger
Z u s a m m e n h a n g ist a m besten verstndlich i n einer Gegend, i n der auch
i n der spten Kaiserzeit die A u s s t a t t u n g v o n M u m i e n m i t gemalten B i l d
nissen blich w a r oder wenigstens gelegentlich v o r k a m .
I n A u s n a h m e f l l e n gab es auch auf paganen Sarkophagen
gemalte Portrts i m allgemeinen Sinne des W o r t e s . H i e r z u rechne i c h
n i c h t die flchtige Wiedergabe der Verstorbenen i m R a h m e n v o n T o t e n geleitszenen g y p t i s c h e r P r g u n g , bei denen die C h a r a k t e r i s i e r u n g als
Sterbliche a u f T r a c h t u n d Darstellungsweisefrontale K o p f w e n d u n g
b e s c h r n k t b l i e b . I m L o u v r e befindet sich die Schmalseite eines Sarko
phags aus der spten Kaiserzeit m i t d e m B r u s t b i l d eines K n a b e n i n
langrmeligem C h i t o n (Abb. 3 ) .

1 2

Er hlt einen schmalen Becher sowie

eine H a n d g i r l a n d e . D i e Bste w i r d f l a n k i e r t v o n z w e i Falken a u f K o n

solen. Eine gebogene G i r l a n d e u m r a h m t den K o p f des K n a b e n . A u f
dieser, v e r m u t l i c h b a l d nach der M i t t e des 4 . Jahrhunderts datierbaren
M a l e r e i begegnen uns i n reduzierter F o r m typische Elemente des pa
ganen Totenglaubens, insbesondere die beiden Falken i n der F u n k t i o n
als Schutzgottheiten des T o t e n . D i e H a n d g i r l a n d e ist t r o t z ihres h e i d n i
schen U r s p r u n g s b e i den g y p t e r n i n der Bedeutung als " K r a n z der
R e c h t f e r t i g u n g " i m osirianischen T o t e n g e r i c h t d u r c h ein M i n i a t u r
p o r t r t i n K a i r o auch n o c h fr die koptische Z e i t e t w a 6. J a h r h u n d e r t
n.Chr.belegt.

13

I m Z u s a m m e n h a n g m i t der religionsgeschichtlichen Interpre

t a t i o n des Sargs d r n g t sich die Frage auf, o b der groe A u f w a n d an
h a n d w e r k l i c h e m K n n e n fr einen uerlich keineswegs

prtentisen

Sarg vielleicht triftige Ursachen hat. Dies g i l t insbesondere fr die H e r

r i c h t u n g der Verschluplatte. D e r a r t i g e Schiebedeckel sind v o r a l l e m

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v o n k l e i n e n H o l z k s t c h e n b e k a n n t . Diese K o n s t r u k t i o n setzt bei den

vorliegenden Abmessungen eine b e r a u s sorgfltige V e r a r b e i t u n g voraus.
Offenbar sollte der D e c k e l i m Bedarfsfalle auch ber einen lngeren
Z e i t r a u m h i n leicht z u ffnen sein. A u s diesem Befund ergeben sich
einige aufschlureiche Konsequenzen. Offenbar w u r d e der Sarg n a c h der
Trauerfeier n i c h t endgltig beigesetzt, w i e dies unseren m o d e r n e n V o r
stellungen entsprche. Literarische Zeugnisse belegen die pagane Sitte,
den Verstorbenen m i t u n t e r n o c h lange Z e i t h i n d u r c h die Grabesruhe
v o r z u e n t h a l t e n , auch n o c h fr die k o p t i s c h e Z e i t . D e r V o r b e h a l t , den
Sarg jederzeit ffnen zu k n n e n , hat die M u m i f i z i e r u n g des d a r i n bestat
teten K n a b e n zur Voraussetzung. W i r wissen, da eine derartige Behand
l u n g der Leichen auch i n k o p t i s c h e r Z e i t n o c h p r a k t i z i e r t w u r d e .
Deshalb k a n n die V o r r i c h t u n g fr ein leichtes ffnen des
Deckels n u r den Z w e c k haben, B e r h r u n g s k o n t a k t e m i t der M u m i e z u
e r m g l i c h e n . Diese Sitte ist, soweit i c h w e i , i m g y p t i s c h e n T o t e n k u l t
der Z e i t l i t e r a r i s c h n i c h t belegt. Andererseits k e n n e n w i r eine derartige
Praxis aus einer historischen Q u e l l e der klassischen W e l t . F r A u g u s t u s
ist berliefert, da er b e i m Besuch A l e x a n d r i a s den S a r k o p h a g des
g r o e n M a k e d o n e n k n i g s ffnen lie u n d seine M u m i e b e r h r t e .

14

Dazu

k o m m e n z w e i a r c h o l o g i s c h e Parallelen, a u f deren Bedeutung i c h bereits

i n anderem Z u s a m m e n h a n g hingewiesen habe. D e r D e c k e l eines w o h l
frhkaiserzeitlichen Sargs aus el-Bagawat ( K h a r g a Oase) i n K a i r o , g y p
tisches M u s e u m , k a n n v o n der einen Langseite eingeschoben w e r d e n .

15

E i n u m 100 n . C h r . datierbarer Sarg u n b e k a n n t e r H e r k u n f t i n B e r l i n hat

eine v e r t i k a l bewegliche Schmalseite.

16

Es fllt auf, da die b i l d l i c h e n D a r s t e l l u n g e n des Sargs keine

d e u t l i c h e n H i n w e i s e a u f die religise S p h r e des Verstorbenen e n t h a l t e n .
Dieser Befund w r e n u r bei einem c h r i s t l i c h e n K n a b e n n i c h t b e r r a
schend. W i r wissen, da bei den frhen C h r i s t e n die D e m o n s t r a t i o n
eigener Symbole i n der ffentlichkeittrotz i h r e r bei zahlreichen M a r
t y r i e n b e w h r t e n G l a u b e n s t r e u e n i c h t blich w a r . Es sei n u r an den
b e k a n n t e n Brief des Clemens v o n A l e x a n d r i a e r i n n e r t , der den G l u b i
gen e m p f o h l e n hatte, sich bei F i n g e r r i n g e n mehrdeutiger Symbole zu be
dienen.

17

E i n solches V e r h a l t e n w i r d anscheinend auch d u r c h unseren

Sarg i l l u s t r i e r t . A u e r d e m ist seit jeher das Fehlen eindeutiger, a r c h o l o

gischer Zeugnisse fr die z a h l e n m i g bereits bedeutende v o r k o n s t a n t i nische Christengemeinde i n g y p t e n aufgefallen.
I m Gegensatz z u i h r e n c h r i s t l i c h e n L a n d s l e u t e n bestand fr
die an paganen Glaubensvorstellungen festhaltenden Teile der B e v l k e
r u n g i n dieser H i n s i c h t k e i n G r u n d zu besonderer Z u r c k h a l t u n g . E i n
B l i c k a u f sicher pagane D a r s t e l l u n g e n i m Bereich der G r a b k u n s t l e h r t ,
da bei i h n e n stets eine m e h r oder m i n d e r a u s g e p r g t e A u s s t a t t u n g m i t
e i n d e u t i g heidnischen M o t i v e n u n d S y m b o l e n z u beobachten ist.
M e i n e Auffassung, da der Sarg i n M a l i b u fr einen christ-

163

64

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

ABB.

Brett eines Sarkophags. Ehemals

Kunsthandel, N e w York. 1975
Sotheby's, Inc.

liehen K n a b e n b e s t i m m t w a r , erfordert eine sorgfltige Prfung even

tueller Gegenargumente. E i n e n scheinbaren H i n w e i s zugunsten einer pa
ganen D e u t u n g bietet der t h e o p h o r e Personenname. " A m m o n i o s " ist
v o n d e m N a m e n des Gottes A m m o n abgeleitet.

18

Es ist aber hufig zu

belegendiese Feststellung g i l t n i c h t n u r fr g y p t e n d a derartige

Personennamen n o c h lange nach d e m Ende der heidnischen Z e i t i n Ge
b r a u c h gewesen s i n d . Deshalb k a n n auch unser A m m o n i o s durchaus
A n g e h r i g e r einer c h r i s t l i c h e n F a m i l i e gewesen sein.
E i n anderes P r o b l e m betrifft die religionsgeschichtliche E i n
o r d n u n g bzw. B e w e r t u n g des i k o n o g r a p h i s c h e n Themas. T o t e n m a h l d a r stellungen begegnen uns i n der griechischen W e l t m i t zunehmender
H u f i g k e i t seit d e m m i t t l e r e n 5. J a h r h u n d e r t v . C h r . Solche Szenen bzw.
einzelne a u f einer K l i n e gelagerte Tote sind i n der gyptischen G r a b
k u n s t , besonders a u f Grabreliefs, w h r e n d der ganzen Kaiserzeit b e r a u s
hufig.

19

Sie liefern uns ein lehrreiches A n s c h a u u n g s m a t e r i a l fr den t y -

pologischen S p i e l r a u m dieser G a t t u n g einschlielich bestimmter Sonder

f o r m e n . D a r a u s w i r d d e u t l i c h , da g y p t i s c h e Elemente n u r d a n n fehlen,
w e n n die D a r s t e l l u n g auch sonst einen d e u t l i c h reduzierten T y p u s re
prsentiert. F r entsprechende Reliefs hellenistischer Z e i t bestanden
natrlich andere Voraussetzungen, die i n griechischen Glaubensvorstel
l u n g e n u n d entsprechenden knstlerischen T r a d i t i o n e n w u r z e l t e n . A u c h
i n der Kaiserzeit findet sich sehr hufig das M o t i v des Trinkgefsses i n
der ausgestreckten Rechten des T o t e n . D e r D o p p e l s i n n dieser auffallen
den GesteTrankspende an den heroisierten T o t e n bzw. seine Bedie
n u n g m i t W e i n i m D i e s s e i t s b l i e b i m frhen C h r i s t e n t u m erhalten.
20

Dieser Gedanke b i l d e t eine religis n i c h t genau festgelegte K o n s t a n t e i n

der frhchristlichen G r a b k u n s t , w o b e i die N u a n c e n der jeweiligen V o r
stellungen vielfach n i c h t genauer z u m A u s d r u c k gebracht w u r d e n . D a r -

P a rIas c a

aus w i r d d e u t l i c h , da auch bei unserem Beispiel diese Szene keineswegs

als spezifisch pagan i n t e r p r e t i e r t w e r d e n m u . B e g n g e n w i r uns z u
nchst m i t der v o r s i c h t i g e n Feststellung, da die Totenmahlszene auf u n
serem Sarg, isoliert betrachtet, keine eindeutige Festlegung i n religiser
H i n s i c h t e r l a u b t . E i n e n i n s t r u k t i v e n V e r g l e i c h bietet eine sicher n i c h t
christliche, v e r m u t l i c h gleichfalls v o n einem Sarg stammende H o l z t a f e l ,
die sich 1975 i m N e w Y o r k e r K u n s t h a n d e l befunden hat ( A b b . 4 ) .

2 1

Hier

sieht m a n a u f einer h o c h b e i n i g e n K l i n e eine gelagerte F r a u . I h r scheinbar

entblter O b e r k r p e r ist w o h l n u r die ungeschickte W i e d e r g a b e eines
d u r c h s i c h t i g e n C h i t o n s . D e r d a h i n t e r dargestellte einzelne Flgel b e r u h t
v e r m u t l i c h a u f der m i v e r s t a n d e n e n E n t l e h n u n g aus einer V o r l a g e , bei
der a m K o p f e n d e der K l i n e eine Schutzgttin m i t ausgebreiteten F l g e l n
stand. D i e M g l i c h k e i t , da a u f diese Weise eine D e i f i k a t i o n angedeutet
sein k n n t e , ist n i c h t auszuschlieen. V o r der K l i n e g l e i c h s a m u n t e r
derselben dargestelltsteht ein M u n d s c h e n k m i t den blichen R e q u i
siten: ein dreibeiniger T i s c h m i t z w e i T r i n k g e f e n u n d eine S p i t z a m
p h o r a i n Dreifustnder. Rechts sieht m a n a u f p y l o n a r t i g e m Sockel
einen n a c k t e n , tanzenden M u s i k a n t e n m i t D o p p e l f l t e . A n speziellen re
ligisen M o t i v e n findet sich a u f dieser Tafel, abgesehen v o n d e m o b e n
e r w h n t e n F l g e l , n u r ganz l i n k s der a u f einer A r t Standarte sitzende
H o r o s f a l k e u n d rechts i m B i l d f e l d des M u s i k a n t e n s o c k e l s eine G t t i n ,
die z w e i aufgerichtete Schlangen hlt.
D i e Klinenszene m i t der D a r b i e t u n g v o n W e i n k n n t e m a n
vielleicht i m dionysischen Sinne i n t e r p r e t i e r e n . D e r fr T o t e n m a h l d a r stellungen ansonsten charakteristische T i s c h m i t E w a r e n fehlt. K i n d
liche Symposiasten sind i n der paganen G r a b k u n s t g y p t e n s n i c h t
u n g e w h n l i c h . Es ist aber meiner A n s i c h t n a c h n i c h t z w i n g e n d , die
betreffenden K i n d e r als echte M y s t e n , also als Eingeweihte der d i o n y
sischen M y s t e r i e n , zu i n t e r p r e t i e r e n . I n unserer a r c h o l o g i s c h e n b e r l i e
f e r u n g g i b t es einige Parallelen bei den Grabreliefs. H i e r f i n d e n sich
z. T . auffallend niedrige A l t e r s a n g a b e n . Das bekannteste Beispiel ist das
v e r m u t l i c h aus A l e x a n d r i a stammende Relief des dreijhrigen K n a b e n
Souper i n B o l o g n a .

22

I m b r i g e n ist die W i e d e r g a b e v o n V e r s t o r b e n e n

beiderlei Geschlechts a u f einer K l i n e i n der kaiserzeitlichen G r a b k u n s t

des N i l l a n d e s ganz gelufig, w i e e i n E x e m p l a r i m B r o o k l y n M u s e u m i l
l u s t r i e r t , das zur u m f a n g r e i c h e n G r u p p e der Terenuthisstelen g e h r t
(Abb. 5).

2 3

Bei der b e r p r f u n g anderer I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s m g l i c h k e i t e n

bietet sich eine b e r r a s c h e n d e A l t e r n a t i v e . Enge f o r m a l e Beziehungen

bestehen n m l i c h z u den griechischen Heroenreliefs. Das lteste e r h a l
tene E x e m p l a r dieser u m f a n g r e i c h e n langlebigen G r u p p e , ein u m 4 5 0
v . C h r . datierbares Relief aus Thasos i n I s t a n b u l ,

2 4

zeigt l i n k s neben der

K l i n e einen g r o e n D i n o s a u f h o h e m Untersatz u n d einen M u n d s c h e n k .

D i e b e r n a h m e einer paganen B i l d t r a d i t i o n w a r i m v o r l i e g e n d e n Falle
n u r eine uerliche, f o r m a l e E n t l e h n u n g . D a b e i w u r d e d e m paganen

665

166

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

ABB.

Grabstele aus Terenuthis

(Nildelta). H . : 37,5 cm; B.: 31 cm.
The Brooklyn M u s e u m 72.60.

T h e m a der H e r o i s i e r u n g v e r m u t l i c h ein vernderter Gehalt i m Sinne der

neuen c h r i s t l i c h e n Lehre unterlegt.
Verschiedene Punkte der Beschreibung haben die Bedeutung
dieses singulren Sargs v e r d e u t l i c h t . U m so w i c h t i g e r ist die K l r u n g
seiner zeitlichen u n d religionsgeschichtlichen E i n o r d n u n g . F r die C h r o
n o l o g i e liefern die Ergebnisse der C-14-Analysen folgende Eckdaten:
zwischen 265 u n d 4 2 0 n . C h r .

25

M e i n e erste, a u f stilistischem Wege unter

Einbeziehung antiquarischer K r i t e r i e n gewonnene D a t i e r u n g E n d e des

4. J a h r h u n d e r t s i s t m i t d e m naturwissenschaftlichen Befund g u t verein
bar. N i c h t u n e r w h n t bleiben d a r f einer der angeblichen Beifunde des
Sargs, das Fragment einer H o l z t a f e l m i t einem 4 7 4 n . C h r . datierten
Kaufvertrag.

26

D i e erhebliche Zeitdifferenz z u m sptestmglichen C - 1 4 -

D a t u m einerseits u n d d e m stilistischen D a t i e r u n g s s p i e l r a u m andererseits

schliet seine Z u g e h r i g k e i t z u unserem K i n d e r s a r g aus.
Fr eine Stilanalyse e m p f i e h l t sich v o r a l l e m ein V e r g l e i c h
des A m m o n i o s m i t spten M u m i e n p o r t r t s , deren jngste nach bis v o r
k u r z e m einhelliger M e i n u n g gegen Ende des 4 . Jahrhunderts z u datieren
sind. Diese E r k e n n t n i s w u r d e zuerst v o n H e i n r i c h D r e r u p e r a r b e i t e t ;
andere, d a r u n t e r G n t e r G r i m m ,
selbst,

30

2 8

David L. Thompson

sind i h m d a r i n gefolgt. Gegen diese communis

2 9

27

und ich

opinio

wurde

jngst die B e h a u p t u n g aufgestellt, die sptesten M u m i e n b i l d n i s s e seien

i n severischer Z e i t entstanden. Eine nhere B e g r n d u n g der bisher n u r
i m R a h m e n eines Vortragsresumes bekanntgemachten H y p o t h e s e steht
n o c h aus. D i e i m folgenden herangezogenen Beispiele dieser G a t t u n g
sprechen m . E . entschieden dagegen. D r e r u p hatte bereits e r k a n n t , da
die M u m i e n b i l d n i s s e der n a c h k o n s t a n t i n i s c h e n Z e i t , also der beiden

Parlasca

ABB.

M u m i e n p o r t r t aus Er-Rubayat
( g y p t e n ) . Ende des vierten
Jahrhunderts n.Chr. Temperafarbe
auf H o l z . H . : 28,2 cm. M a l i b u ,
J. Paul Getty M u s e u m 79.AP.129.
ABB.

Mumienportrt. Wien,
Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m x 432..

G e n e r a t i o n e n zwischen der M i t t e u n d d e m Ende des 4 . J a h r h u n d e r t s ,

n u r a l l g e m e i n als stilistische G r u p p e n d a t i e r b a r s i n d .

31

I n n e r h a l b dieses

Z e i t r a u m s w i r d m a n die G r u p p e des B r o o k l y n M a l e r s r e l a t i v frh

anzusetzen h a b e n e t w a M i t t e bis 3. J a h r h u n d e r t v i e r t e l . Sie w i r d unter
a n d e r e m reprsentiert d u r c h z w e i Bildnisse v o n Erwachsenen i m J. Paul
Getty M u s e u m

3 2

bzw. i n E d i n b u r g h .

3 3

Einer jngeren Stilstufe s i n d einige

andere M u m i e n b i l d n i s s e zuzurechnen, so z.B. z w e i K i n d e r p o r t r t s i n

Athen,

3 4

e i n bereits v o n D r e r u p analysiertes E x e m p l a r heute ebenfalls

i m J. Paul G e t t y M u s e u m ( A b b . 6 ) ,
Wien (Abb. 7).

3 6

3 5

sowie ein J n g l i n g s p o r t r t i n

Letzteres d a r f als besonders nahe stilistische Parallele

z u m stilisierten Gesicht des A m m o n i o s gewertet w e r d e n . D a i n n e r h a l b

der gemalten S e p u l k r a l p o r t r t s keine E x e m p l a r e b e k a n n t s i n d , fr die
sich eine sptere D a t i e r u n g w a h r s c h e i n l i c h m a c h e n lt, e r g i b t sich fr
den Sarg des G e t t y M u s e u m s eine a p p r o x i m a t i v e G l e i c h z e i t i g k e i t m i t
den jngsten M u m i e n p o r t r t s , also ein Ansatz gegen Ende des 4.
Jahrhunderts.
I n verschiedener H i n s i c h t reprsentiert der Sarg des G e t t y
M u s e u m s s o m i t e i n singulares Z e u g n i s des frhen k o p t i s c h e n K u n s t
schaffens. Er v e r m i t t e l t d a r b e r hinaus w i c h t i g e A u f s c h l s s e ber
die religisen V e r h l t n i s s e i m Bereich der g y p t i s c h e n G r a b k u n s t w h
r e n d der relativ langen b e r g a n g s p h a s e v o n der paganen zur frhchrist
lichen Periode.

37

Frankfurt am Main
G E R M A N Y

167

168

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Anmerkungen

I n v . 8 2 . A I . 7 6 ; W . B r a s h e a r , " A B y z a n t i n e Sale
o f L a n d , " / . Paul Getty

Museum

I I

11

Journal

D i e P o r t r a t m u m i e n s t e h e n i n der T r a d i t i o n der
p h a r a o n i s c h e n a n t h r o p o i d e n (besser: o s i r i s f o r -

( 1 9 8 3 ) : 1 6 1 - 6 8 . A b b . 1. 2. Das anpassende

m i g e n ) Sarge. Sie s i n d a u f dieser Weise m i t der

F r a g m e n t b e f i n d e t s i c h als T e i l der S c h e n k u n g

paganen Osirisreligion unmittelbar verkniipft.

Kiseleff i n W i i r z b u r g , M a r t i n v o n WagnerM u s e u m I n v . K 1 0 2 2 . D i e U r k u n d e ist 4 7 4

12

n.Chr. datiert.

Inv. E 2 2 3 0 9 (ehemals M u s e e G u i m e t Inv.

4 8 1 0 ) ; 2 9 , 5 X 4 2 , 0 c m ; G . G r i m m , Die
mischen

I n v . 8 2 . A P . 7 5 ; The /. Paul Getty

Handbook

of the Collections

Museum,

( M a l i b u 1986

1 9 8 8 ) , 55 m i t A b b . ( n i c h t i n der
onore

di A. Adriani,

Studi

miscellanei

1 A ; ders., i n The

Ritratti

di studio

2 0 0 3 , A b b . a u f S. 2 0 0 5 o b e n , s.v.

= Repertorio

d'arte

Serie B , v o l . 3 ( R o m

greco-romano,

1 9 8 0 ) , 4 9 , N r . 6 0 1 , Taf. 1 4 3 . 1 .

in
=

28 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 1 1 5 , 1 2 5 f . A b b .

I3

I n v . J E 6 8 8 2 5 ; P a r l a s c a , Mumienportrats

(a.O.

A n m . 6 ) , 2 1 1 , T a f . 5 3 . 4 ; N . P. S e v c e n k o , i n K .

(1991),

Encyclopedia

di mummie

delVEgitto

R o m , 2 6 - 2 7 N o v . 1984

Coptic

ro
(Wies

aus Agypten

baden 1 9 7 4 ) , 125, Taf. 1 0 9 . 1 ; K . Parlasca,

=

Neuauflage

v o n 1 9 9 2 ) . K . P a r l a s c a , i n Giornate

Mumienmasken

W e i t z m a n n , H r s g . , The Age of Spirituality,

Portraiture,

Aus-

stellungskatalog ( N e w York, The M e t r o p o l i t a n

C o p t i c ( t h i r d a n d f o u r t h centuries).

M u s e u m o f A r t , 1 9 7 9 ) , 55 i f . , N r . 4 9 6 , A b b .
3

MafSe: L : 1,56 m ; H : 0 , 4 7 m ; B r . : 0 , 3 5 m . I n f o r m a t i o n e n iiber die Ergebnisse ihrer bisherigen,

intensiven Untersuchungen

14

N a c h einem U . H a u s m a n n verdankten Hinweis;

D . K i e n a s t , Augustus

und konservatori-

Princeps

und

Monarch

( D a r m s t a d t 1 9 8 2 ) , 6 4 , 4 5 1 A n m . 7 2 ( z u Cas-

schen M a E n a h m e n v e r d a n k e i c h M a y a E l s t o n .

sius D i o 5-1.16.5).
4

Diesen V o r s c h l a g m a c h t e Prof. D i a n a D e l i a
w a h r e n d der D i s k u s s i o n i m AnschlufS a n m e i n e n

15

I n v . J E 5 6 2 2 8 ; P a r l a s c a , i n Giornate

(a.O.

A n m . 2), 125, A b b . 12, 13.

V o r t r a g . E i n e n verschriebenen(P) V a t e r s n a m e n
erwog auch G. W . Bowersock i n einem personlichen Gesprach.
5

B . B . S h e f t o n , i n Annates
Arahes

Syrienne

Archeologiques

2 1 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : i n , Taf.

16

Inv. 16-83; ebendort 1 2 4 ^ , A b b . 10, 1 1 .

17

T h . K l a u s e r , i n Jahrbuch

fiir Antike

und

Chri-

1 (1958): 2 i f f . ; L . Eizenhofer, ebenda,

stentum

22.9-n.

3 ( i 9 6 0 ) : 5 i f f . ; ders., e b e n d a , 6 ( 1 9 6 3 ) : i 7 3 f .
6

K . P a r l a s c a , Mumienportrats
Denkmaler

und

verwandte
18

(Wiesbaden 1966), 144 ( m i t

F. P r e i s i g k e , Namenbuch
chischen

Nachweisen).

griechischen
7

enthaltend

. . . Menschennamen,
Urkunden

alle

soweit

. . . Agyptens

grie-

sie in
sich

vor-

Phoebe A . Hearst M u s e u m of A n t h r o p o l o g y

finden

( H e i d e l b e r g 1 9 2 2 ) , Sp. 2 6 ; T h . H o p f n e r ,

I n v . 6 - 2 0 5 4 8 ; M a E e : 2 2 , 7 X 18 c m ; L a n g e des

Archiv

Orientdlni

G r i f f s : 6 3 , 5 c m . G r a b u n g B . P. G r e n f e l l u n d

cyclopedia,

A . S. H u n t 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 0 ; u n p u b l i z i e r t . P h o t o

Les

und Publikationserlaubnis verdanke ich Frank

weiteren

15 ( 1 9 4 3 ) : 8; The

Coptic

En

Band 1 (1991), 113; G. Wagner,

Oasis

d'Egypte

( K a i r o 1987), 7of., 229 m i t

Nachweisen.

A. Norick.
19

K . Parlasca, i n Roma
classica,

Handbook

(a.O. A n m . 2), 55.

N a c h einem H i n w e i s , den ich E. R. Knauer

265ff., A b b .
( P h i l a d e l p h i a ) v e r d a n k e , die d e n "sleeved c o a t "

20

e VEgitto

nelVanticbita

K a i r o 6 - 9 Feb. 1 9 8 9 ( R o m 1 9 9 2 ) ,
n-15.

Parlasca, Mumienportrats

(a.O. A n m . 6), 144

u n d verwandte Trachten u n d deren langjahrige

m i t H i n w e i s a u f K . F r i i s J o h a n s e n , The

Geschichte eingehend analysiert hat i n

Grave-Reliefs

tion

Expedi

romischen

Welt,

und Niedergang

Period

Attic

(Kopen-

hagen 1951), 85.

21.1 (Fall 1978): 1 8 - 3 6 , sowie i n H . Tem-

p o r i n i , e d . , Aufstieg

of the Classical

der

Band 12.2 (Berlin 1985),

21

A u k t i o n s k a t a l o g Sotheby-Parke Bernet, N e w
Y o r k , N r . 3753, 2 M a i 1975, N r . 58, A b b .

578-741.

(57,2. X 4 1 , 9 c m ) .
10

Parlasca ( a . O . A n m . 6 ) , 2 2 1 , N r . 4 7 ; 2 2 3 ,
N r . 6 1 ( B e i t r a g e v o n W . de G r i i n e i s e n ) .

22

H . W r e d e , Consecratio

in formam

deorum

Parlasca

37

(Berlin 1 9 8 1 ) , 32!., 36, 621., N r . 179, Taf.

2 4 . 1 ; K . P a r l a s c a , i n gypten:
del

Dauer

und

Wan-

( M a i n z 1 9 8 5 ) , i o i f . (jeweils m i t weiterer

D i e religionsgeschichtliche Forschung ber diesen P r o b l e m k r e i s b a s i e r t so g u t w i e a u s s c h l i e lich auf papyrologischen u n d literarischen

Literatur).

Quellen. Die sprliche archologische ber-

I n v . 7 2 . 6 0 , 37,5 X 3 1 c m ; B . V . B o t h m e r , i n The

V g l . zuletzt Ewa Wipszycka, " L a christianisa-

lieferung bleibt weitgehend

23

Brooklyn

Museum

Annual

1972-1973:

Report,

t i o n de l ' E g y p t e a u x i v - v i
e

verdankten Photographie m i t freundlicher

1 1 7 - 6 5 ; R . S. B a g n a l l , " C o m b a t o u v i d e :

Genehmigung v o n R. Fazzini.

C h r i s t i a n i s m e et p a g a n i s m e d a n s l ' E g y p t e r o -

M . Schede, Griechische
Antikenmuseums

und rmische

couche

dans

du vn

au iv

le Proche-Orient
e

siede

avant

Skulptur

(Berlin 1928),

(Istanbul)

3f., T a f . 5; J . - M D e n t z e r , La Motif

du

banquet

et le monde
J.-C.

grec

( R o m 1982),

605, N r . R 316, A b b . 565.

D i e E r s t v e r w e n d u n g d e r B r e t t e r ist z w i s c h e n 9 5
vor u n d 50 n . C h r . datierbar. Jerry Podany i n formierte m i c h freundlicherweise darber,

da

e r g n z e n d e C-1:4-Analysen, besonders v o n den

angeblichen Beifunden, geplant sind.
26

s.O. A n m . 1 .

27

H . D r e r u p , Die Datierung

der

Mumienportrts

(Paderborn 1933; N e u d r u c k 1968), 24, 43$.

28
29

G r i m m (a.O. A n m . 12), 106.

D . L . T h o m p s o n , North
Art

Bulletin

Mummy

Carolina

Museum

of

1 4 . 2 - 3 ( 1 9 8 0 ) : 7, 1 4 ; ders.

Portraits

in the } . Paul Getty

Museum

( M a l i b u 1982), 10.
30

P a r l a s c a , Mumienportrts

31

D r e r u p (a.O. A n m . 27).

32

I n v . 7 9 . A P . 1 4 2 ; T h o m p s o n , Mummy

(a.O. A n m . 6), 2oof.

Portraits

( a . O . A n m . 2 9 ) , 5 7 , 6 6 , N r . 1 1 , F a r b t a f e l a u f S.
56.
33

I n v . 1 9 0 2 . 7 0 ; Parlasca ( a . O . A n m . 6 ) , 25;,
Farbtafel G.

34

I n v . A N E 1 6 3 0 ; P a r l a s c a , Ritratti

di

mummie

( a . O . A n m . 1 2 ) , 111, 6 6 , N r . 6 7 1 , T a f . 1 5 8 . 3 .
Das andere Portrt w i r d i m B a n d 4 meiner Pub l i k a t i o n vorgelegt.
35

Inv. 79.AP.129; D r e r u p (a.O. A n m . 27), 47f.,

6 6 , N r . 3 4 , Taf. 2 0 b ; T h o m p s o n ( a . O . A n m .
2 9 ) , 5 8 f 6 7 , N r . 1 2 , T a f . a u f S. 5 9 .

36

sicles: Aspects

s o c i a u x et e t h n i q u e s , " Aegyptus

des

25

1 1 , m i t A b b . H i e r n a c h einer B . V . B o t h m e r

m a i n e t a r d i v e , " Ktema
24

unbercksichtigt.

I n v . X 4 3 2 ; M . Z a l o s c e r , Portrts
Wstensand

aus

dem

( W i e n 1 9 6 1 ) , 30, 67, Taf. 4 7 :

"typisch . . . Sonntagsmalerei"

(sie!).

68 ( 1 9 8 8 ) :

13 ( 1 9 8 8 ) [ 1 9 9 2 ] :

2 8 5 - 9 6 (jeweils m i t lterer L i t e r a t u r ) .

169

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171

Roots and Contacts:

Aspects of Alexandrian Craftsmanship
Michael

Pfrommer

Shortly after the m i d d l e of the t h i r d c e n t u r y a s m a l l sanctuary located

i n a fortress i n the eastern p a r t o f the D e l t a close t o the m o d e r n village
T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s , b u r n t d o w n t o ashes, b u r y i n g the s m a l l treasure of
the sanctuary. O b v i o u s l y n o b o d y survived t o r e p o r t o n the b u r i e d h o a r d ,
a n d t h a t can mean o n l y t h a t the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the f o r t i f i c a t i o n a n d sanc
t u a r y was n o t caused by accident b u t by w a r or local s e d i t i o n .
T h e fortress seems t o have belonged t o the eastern D e l t a
fortifications o f the first Ptolemy, f o u n d e d already before 3 1 6 B . C . under
the n o m i n a l patronage of P h i l i p A r r h i d a i o s . T h e d a t i n g o f the f o u n d a
1

t i o n a n d the disaster are fairly w e l l fixed by a huge sequence o f c o i n s .

To establish a h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d f o r the d e s t r u c t i o n , i t
is interesting t o keep i n m i n d the g e o p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n of the years i n
question. I n 246 B . C . the Seleucid A n t i o c h o s 11 Theos was m a r r i e d
t o Berenike Syra, the sister of the t h i r d Ptolemy. W h e n A n t i o c h o s d i e d at
Ephesos under obscure circumstances t h a t same year, his d i v o r c e d w i f e
L a o d i k e c l a i m e d the t h r o n e f o r her sons, whereas P t o l e m y 111 Euergetes
t r i e d t o preserve the rights of his sister Berenike Syra a n d her i n f a n t son.
T h e y o u n g Ptolemy, himself just e n t h r o n e d a few m o n t h s earlier, led his
armies against Seleucid Syria t o rescue his sister, w h o was besieged i n
A n t i o c h i a . B u t he a r r i v e d t o o late. B o t h m o t h e r a n d son h a d already
been m u r d e r e d by members o f Laodike's entourage.
C o n d e m n i n g this ruthless c r i m e , the cities o f Asia w e n t over
t o Euergetes, w h o at the same t i m e regained p o w e r over the coastal re
gions of Asia M i n o r a n d Thrace. I n a d d i t i o n , o n the famous i n s c r i p
t i o n at A d u l i s P t o l e m y i n Euergetes c l a i m e d p o w e r over a l m o s t a l l the
M i d d l e East, f r o m the M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o the borders o f I n d i a . As Justi3

nus stated, w i t h o u t sedition i n E g y p t itself, Euergetes w o u l d have c o n

quered a l l A s i a . Because o f the s e d i t i o n , however, the y o u n g k i n g was
4

forced h o m e i n 2 4 4 . W i t h his sister dead and her c h i l d m u r d e r e d , his

c l a i m t o the Seleucid t h r o n e a n d his p o w e r over the t e r r i t o r i e s o f the
M i d d l e East were ephemeral a n d i n the end r e m a i n e d just c o u r t

fiction.

B u t he firmly c o n t r o l l e d the coasts of Asia M i n o r a n d the Aegean, a n d

consequently the regnal years of the t h i r d Ptolemy, between 2 4 6 a n d
2 2 2 / 2 2 1 , m u s t be considered the c l i m a x o f Ptolemaic p o w e r .

172

ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIGS,

la, b

Sketch of t w o incense burners,

from T u k h el-Quarmous. a: Cairo,
The Egyptian Museum J E 38089/
90; b: Cairo, The Egyptian M u
seum J E 38088/91. Drawings by
the author.

T h e w a r is called the W a r of L a o d i k e , o r the T h i r d Syrian

W a r , a n d i t is i n the w a k e o f the l o c a l uproars i n Egypt t h a t we m a y
place the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the sanctuary a n d fortress of T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s .
T h e treasure r e m a i n e d u n t o u c h e d u n t i l 1 9 0 5 , w h e n the leg o f a d o n k e y
b r o k e i n t o the cavern w h e r e the treasure was h i d d e n , a n d the m o d e r n
h i s t o r y o f o u r h o a r d started.

A m o n g the vessels a n d j e w e l r y unearthed by the animal's

l u c k y o w n e r a n d by the subsequent excavations o f the E g y p t i a n Archae
o l o g i c a l Service, t w o t h y m i a t e r i a , o r incense burners, c o r r o b o r a t e the

FIG.

sacred c o n n o t a t i o n o f o u r h o a r d (figs, i a , b ) . T h e type p r o p e r was

6

o r i g i n a l l y derived f r o m o r i e n t a l p r o t o t y p e s , b u t by the early Hellenistic

Cairo, The Egyptian Museum

p e r i o d t h y m i a t e r i a h a d l o n g become an i n t e g r a l class o f the Greek reper

t o i r e . T h e p a i r f r o m T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s belongs t o t w o different phases
7

the other (fig. i b ) , w i t h o u t the r o u n d e d b o w l , m u s t be considered a t r a n

s i t i o n a l shape, m e d i a t i n g between the earlier examples a n d the types of
the second h a l f o f the t h i r d c e n t u r y .

F r o m the v i e w p o i n t o f Greek t y p o l o g y , these incense burners

p r o v i d e n o difficulties. W h e n we shift o u r a t t e n t i o n t o the decorative ele
ments o f the second t h y m i a t e r i o n (fig. i b ) , however, an entirely different
o b s e r v a t i o n emerges. Its spherical l i d is decorated w i t h three tiered
friezes a n d a s m a l l E g y p t i a n leaf c a l y x o n t o p (fig. 2). Just b e l o w runs a
n a r r o w frieze o f lotus flowers a n d t i g h t l y b o u n d palmettes (see fig. 3 b ) ,
w h i c h c a n n o t hide its A c h a e m e n i d ancestors (figs. 3a, c, d ) .

1 0

A l t h o u g h o u r craftsman compressed his N e a r Eastern p r o t o

type considerably, he was entirely aware of the A c h a e m e n i d system, a n d
o n l y m i n i m a l changes give away the later c r e a t i o n . T h e s o m e w h a t ser-

J E 3 8 0 9 1 . Photo by D . Johannes,
courtesy of the D A I , Cairo, neg.
F12605.

of t y p o l o g i c a l development. T h e older (fig. i a ) f o l l o w s late Classical

p r o t o t y p e s represented, f o r example, by an incense burner f r o m C u m a e ;

L i d of incense burner, fig. i b .

Pfrommer

FIGS.

3a-d

a: Architectural decoration from

Susa; b: Sketch of the lotus frieze
on the l i d of the incense burner,

fig. 2; c: Frieze on an Achaemenid

amphora-rhyton f r o m Kukova
M o g i l a (Thrace), Sofia, Archaeo
logical M u s e u m 2; d: Frieze on an
Achaemenid r h y t o n , N e w York,
N o r b e r t Schimmel collection.
Drawings by the author.
d

FIGS.

4a, b

a: Tendril on the base of the

incense burner, fig. i b ; b: Tentative

correction according to Greek
standards. Drawings by the
author.
b

rated leaves o f the base calyxes o f the lotus flowers recall Greek lotus
types, a n d the l i t t l e bars beneath the flowers can o n l y be seen under the
l i t t l e "palmettes."

11

T h e craftsman even q u o t e d f r o m the " o r i e n t a l o r i g i

n a l " the t i n y decorative elements i n the interstices b e l o w the basic semiarches o f the f r i e z e .

12

T h e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h A c h a e m e n i d t r a d i t i o n s is further d o c u
m e n t e d by the frieze o f s t r i d i n g lion-griffins. O n l y the heads t u r n e d en
face t o w a r d the v i s i t o r seem t o be a t r i b u t e t o the conventions o f Greek
art. T h e Bes masks i n perfect E g y p t i a n style i n the m i d d l e frieze are n o
surprise, given the provenance o f o u r vessel.
O u r s i l v e r s m i t h o b v i o u s l y h a d n o difficulties i n mastering the
n o n - E g y p t i a n type o f the incense burner, b u t the t e n d r i l o n the base o f
the vessel (fig. 4a) clearly betrays the craftsman as a n o n - G r e e k native.
Figure 4 b provides a tentative " c o r r e c t i o n " of the artist's atrocious " m i s
s p e l l i n g " o f Greek decorative f o r m s .

13

T h i s insufficient f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h Greek standards n o t o n l y re

veals the craftsman's n o n - G r e e k ethnikon,

i t also demonstrates t h a t even

i n the early Ptolemaic p e r i o d the b l e n d o f cultures was far f r o m perfect.

T h e Greek vessel shape was a d o p t e d , b u t the h a n d l i n g o f Greek decora
tive elements is still d i s a p p o i n t i n g i n n o n - G r e e k ateliers. G i v e n the early
Hellenistic date o f the treasure a n d t h y m i a t e r i o n , i t is s u r p r i s i n g t h a t o u r
craftsman h a d o n l y m i n o r difficulty i n h a n d l i n g the decorative repertoire
of the collapsed A c h a e m e n i d empire, a r e a l m t h a t i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y
d o m i n a t e d E g y p t o n l y f o r a few years under A r t a x e r x e s i n .

173

174

ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Pfrommer

T h i s s t r o n g affiliation t o A c h a e m e n i d standards is n o t u n i q u e
t o T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s . I f one lists, f o r e x a m p l e , the d r i n k i n g vessels o f
o u r treasure a n d parallels t h e m w i t h vessels f o u n d i n a n A c h a e m e n i d
necropolis at Deve H i i y i i k i n n o r t h e r n Syria, a cemetery o f the fifth a n d
early f o u r t h centuries at the latest, w e encounter a n a s t o u n d i n g situa
t i o n : f o r a l m o s t a l l the d r i n k i n g vessels f r o m T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s w e can
FIG. 5

q u o t e A c h a e m e n i d - N e a r Eastern c o u n t e r p a r t s (fig. 5 ) .

Vessel shapes represented i n T u k h

ical angle the w h o l e set f r o m T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s belongs t o the category

el-Quarmous (left) compared w i t h

vessels from the n o r t h Syrian

1 4

From a typolog

of " a c h a e m e n i z i n g " silver. Greek f o r m s are a l m o s t entirely absent. A n d

necropolis of Deve H i i y i i k (right).

a l l this i n a sanctuary t h a t belonged i n its e n t i r e t y t o the early Ptolemaic

Drawings by the author.

p e r i o d . Even i f w e exclude some p r e - H e l l e n i s t i c vessels f r o m T u k h elQ u a r m o u s , the p i c t u r e does n o t change c o n s i d e r a b l y .

15

T h e s i t u a t i o n is s t r o n g l y reminiscent o f the famous w o r k s h o p

representations o n the reliefs f r o m the t o m b o f Petosiris at T u n a el-Gebel
(see K o z l o f f fig. 7 b e l o w ) .

1 6

D e p i c t e d is an E g y p t i a n atelier w i t h E g y p t i a n

craftsmen w h o are m a n u f a c t u r i n g vessels o f a basically N e a r Eastern

type: A c h a e m e n i d deep c u p s ,

17

phialai w i t h flaring rims, rhyta w i t h p r o -

tomes o f lion-griffins a n d , last b u t n o t least, an incense b u r n e r t h a t can

easily be c o m p a r e d w i t h the t y p o l o g i c a l l y less advanced t h y m i a t e r i o n
f r o m T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s . Even the Petosiris r h y t a find a t y p o l o g i c a l
c o u n t e r p a r t i n the famous griffin r h y t o n f r o m T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s (see
K o z l o f f fig. 6 b e l o w ) .

1 8

A l t h o u g h here, i n contrast t o the Petosiris situa

t i o n , the griffin is entirely Greek i n style, the A c h a e m e n i d t r a d i t i o n s s t i l l

s h o w i n the h o r i z o n t a l l y fluted h o r n o f the vessel.
T h e o n l y possible c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t one b r a n c h o f native
E g y p t i a n crafts o f the early Ptolemaic p e r i o d was still s t r o n g l y influenced
by the repertoire o f the f o r m e r A c h a e m e n i d e m p i r e . T h i s was o b v i o u s l y
the case n o t o n l y i n p r o v i n c i a l ateliers b u t even i n w o r k s h o p s i n the
v i c i n i t y o f the o l d E g y p t i a n centers. These achaemenizing tendencies can
be encountered already i n E g y p t i a n treasures o f the later fifth a n d the
first h a l f o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s .

19

Greek influences were r i s i n g , however, as the a d o p t i o n o f the

Greek type o f t h y m i a t e r i o n o r the griffin r h y t o n f r o m T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s
demonstrates, b u t i f w e were t o speak o f a Greek d o m i n a t i o n over native
ateliers, we w o u l d be entirely m i s t a k i n g the s i t u a t i o n . W h a t w e are a c t u
ally e n c o u n t e r i n g is a slow, a l m o s t shy convergence o f t w o cultures; the
o l d , p r e - H e l l e n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n s were still s t r o n g l y alive.
A r e w e justified i n t r a n s f e r r i n g the p i c t u r e " T u k h elQ u a r m o u s / P e t o s i r i s " t o a l l Ptolemaic ateliers o f the late f o u r t h a n d t h i r d
centuries? C e r t a i n l y n o t . L e t us glance briefly at M e m p h i s , the o l d c a p i
t a l , w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y housed the t o m b o f A l e x a n d e r the Great. T h e plas
ter casts o f ancient m e t a l w a r e a n d models o f helmets f o u n d at m o d e r n
M i t R a h i n e shed a n entirely different l i g h t o n Ptolemaic craftsmanship o f

175

176

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Plaster cast of tendril decoration

on a helmet from M e m p h i s .
Hildesheim, Pelizaeusmuseum
H46a-f.

FIG.

Wall painting of a tendril from

a Thracian tomb, Kasanlak,
Bulgaria. D r a w i n g by the author.

the t h i r d a n d earlier second c e n t u r i e s .

20

T h e y are a l m o s t entirely Greek

i n style a n d o f the best q u a l i t y , a n d they cover even figural art, n o t o n l y

o r n a m e n t s . Interestingly e n o u g h , a c e r t a i n A c h a e m e n i d influence is nev
ertheless d o c u m e n t e d i n an u n m i s t a k a b l e preference f o r b u d d e d plates,
a tendency otherwise h a r d l y traceable a m o n g H e l l e n i s t i c m e t a l w a r e .

21

22

Considerable numbers o f the M e m p h i s casts a n d models were

c o n t r i v e d as d e c o r a t i o n f o r w e a p o n r y . T h e I t a l i a n i z i n g t e n d r i l d e c o r a t i o n
of a helmet (fig. 6) illustrates the s t r o n g affiliations of this Ptolemaic ate
lier t o M a c e d o n i a n t r a d i t i o n s . T h e o r i g i n a l l y South I t a l i a n s p i r a l - t e n d r i l
23

was a d o p t e d by M a c e d o n i a n ateliers i n the second h a l f o f the f o u r t h

c e n t u r y a n d is subsequently traceable even i n M a c e d o n i a n - i n f l u e n c e d
T h r a c e , as is d o c u m e n t e d by the w a l l paintings o f the famous T h r a c i a n
t o m b at K a s a n l a k i n B u l g a r i a (fig. 7 ) .

2 4

As models f o r helmets f r o m

Pfrommer

FIG.

Decoration of a shield model, said

to be f r o m M e m p h i s . Limestone.

M e m p h i s show, the s i m i l a r i t y o f o u r t e n d r i l t o decorations f r o m the

M a c e d o n i a n sphere is n o t u n i q u e i n Ptolemaic E g y p t .

25

D i a m . : 64 cm. Ca. 150 b . c .

T h i s decorative axis " M a c e d o n i a - E g y p t " can h a r d l y be a

Amsterdam, A l l a r d Pierson

surprise i n a c o u n t r y such as Ptolemaic E g y p t , whose kings n o t o n l y

Museum 7879.

were M a c e d o n i a n s by descent b u t even c l a i m e d A l e x a n d e r the Great

as ancestor o f t h e i r d y n a s t y .

26

I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h this " M a c e d o n i a n ten

d e n c y " o n the M e m p h i s w e a p o n r y , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be d r a w n t o the

m o d e l o f a " M a c e d o n i a n s h i e l d " w i t h the i n s c r i p t i o n " P t o l e m a i o u "
a r o u n d the c e n t r a l g o r g o n e i o n (fig. 8 ) ,

2 7

a n d i t is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h a t

under the f o u r t h Ptolemy, native Egyptians were t r a i n e d f o r the first t i m e

i n a specifically M a c e d o n i a n m a n n e r f o r the famous Battle o f R a p h i a
against A n t i o c h o s the G r e a t .

28

These M a c e d o n i a n affiliations were by n o means l i m i t e d t o

weapons o r m i n o r arts; they can be f o u n d even i n Ptolemaic architec
t u r e . A l t h o u g h the A u g u s t a n a u t h o r Strabo i n f o r m s us t h a t the Basileia,
the palace quarter, covered a q u a r t e r o r perhaps even a t h i r d o f A l e x a n
d r i a a n d t h a t each P t o l e m y erected his o w n palace i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h

177

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Reconstruction of the facades of

the thalamegos,

the l u x u r y yacht

of Ptolemy i v . D r a w i n g by the
author.
FIG.

10

Reconstruction of the temple of

Aphrodite on the second floor of
the thalamegos.
author.

D r a w i n g by the

Pfrommer

FIG.

I I

Tendril decoration on a hydria,

from Shatby. Alexandria, GraecoRoman M u s e u m 10433. D r a w i n g
by the author.

the b u i l d i n g s of his predecessors,

29

l i t t l e is actually k n o w n a b o u t Ptole

maic p a l a t i a l architecture. A n e x c e p t i o n , however, is the extensive de

s c r i p t i o n by K a l l i x e i n o s o f Rhodes of the famous r i v e r b o a t o f P t o l e m y i v
P h i l o p a t o r : the thalamegos

(figs. 9, 1 0 ) .

30

As the name a n d o u r ancient source reveal, the

thalamegos

was a floating palace, quite u n l i k e any other ship. A t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be

d r a w n t o the facade a n d its a r c h i t e c t u r a l structure (fig. 9 ) . O u r ancient
source describes the facade o f the thalamegos

as c o l o n n a d e d o n the

g r o u n d level b u t w i t h a closed upper storey (krypton).

There we find

w i n d o w s over a balustrade. T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n caused some p r o b l e m s i n

the past, b u t today, w i t h M a c e d o n i a n architecture unearthed, i t provides
l i t t l e difficulty. T h e entirely n o n - G r e e k appearance o f the w i n d o w e d u p
per floor w i t h its " M a c e d o n i a n ledge" resembles at first glance the fa
m o u s M a c e d o n i a n t o m b of L e f k a d i a a n d related facades.
the a r c h i t e c t u r a l order o f the thalamegos,

31

I f we c o m p a r e

there can be n o d o u b t t h a t the

concept o f the facade is closely connected t o M a c e d o n i a n p r o t o t y p e s .

T h e i n t e r i o r o f the yacht, however, provides m u c h m o r e t h a n
just an equivalent o f a M a c e d o n i a n palace. K a l l i x e i n o s m e n t i o n s a l i t t l e
t h o l o i d temple o f A p h r o d i t e o n the upper floor, f r a m e d by t w o d i n i n g
r o o m s (fig. 1 0 ) .

32

T h e real i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this strange concept are missed

unless one k n o w s t h a t A p h r o d i t e - I s i s was the i m m o r t a l equivalent o f the

m o s t famous Ptolemaic queens, f r o m A r s i n o e 11 d o w n t o Cleopatra v n .

3 3

W i t h this temple we suddenly enter the field o f Ptolemaic dynastic cults,

w h i c h is essentially so u n l i k e M a c e d o n i a n c o n c e p t s .
thalamegos,

34

I n the case o f the

the M a c e d o n i a n - t y p e facade is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a M a c e

d o n i a n shell. B u t the a r c h i t e c t u r a l language o f the facade was neverthe

less very clear, a n d t h a t means i n o u r case basically M a c e d o n i a n .
W i t h this b a c k g r o u n d , i t c a n n o t be s u r p r i s i n g that o u r M a c e
d o n i a n t e n d r i l decorations were n o t l i m i t e d t o weapons o r architec
ture.

35

Reference s h o u l d be made t o an u n p u b l i s h e d scroll o n a ceramic

h y d r i a f r o m the A l e x a n d r i a n necropolis of Shatby (fig. n ) .

3 6

T h e rather

squat type o f vessel recalls h y d r i a i of the fifth or earlier f o u r t h c e n t u r y ,

37

b u t the t i n y t e n d r i l d e c o r a t i o n o f a l m o s t extravagant elegance proves its

early H e l l e n i s t i c date. T h e three-dimensional spirals are closely c o n
nected t o the scrolls m e n t i o n e d above f r o m M i t Rahine a n d K a s a n l a k
(see figs. 6, 7 ) .
I n the c o n t e x t o f o u r i t a l i a n i z i n g M a c e d o n i a n t e n d r i l s , atten
t i o n s h o u l d be d r a w n t o Ptolemaic w o o d e n sarcophagi a n d t h e i r scroll
d e c o r a t i o n . A g a i n we are c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the question o f w h e t h e r they
s h o w M a c e d o n i a n influence o r direct South I t a l i a n c o n t a c t s .

38

T h e ques-

179

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

t i o n is h a r d t o answer, as the details a l l o w n o clear-cut conclusions at

FIG.

the m o m e n t , b u t i t s h o u l d be k e p t i n m i n d t h a t A l e x a n d r i a is still o u r

Gnathia imitation pottery, said to

m a j o r source o f I t a l i a n G n a t h i a p o t t e r y i n the eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

12

be from Crete. Germany, private

39

collection. Photo courtesy of the

I n v i e w o f t h i s , direct South I t a l i a n influences can be r u l e d o u t o n l y i n the

case of i t a l i a n i z i n g decorations w i t h e x p l i c i t l y M a c e d o n i a n references.

owner.
FIG.

I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h G n a t h i a i m p o r t s , t w o p o i n t s deserve fur

13

Gnathia imitation pottery, said to

ther c l a r i f i c a t i o n . First, a l t h o u g h dozens o f fragments are k n o w n f r o m

be from Crete. Germany, private

A l e x a n d r i a , G n a t h i a p o t t e r y a n d related vessels f o r m just a s m a l l m i n o r

collection. Photo courtesy of the

i t y o f A l e x a n d r i a n p o t t e r y . Second, at least some o f the A l e x a n d r i a n

G n a t h i a m i g h t w e l l a c t u a l l y be A l e x a n d r i a n i m i t a t i o n s a n d n o t i m p o r t s .

4 0

T h e last p o i n t is clearly i l l u s t r a t e d by m a t e r i a l f r o m a C r e t a n t o m b
g r o u p (figs. 12, i 3 ) .

4 1

Some of the vessels quote f a m i l i a r G n a t h i a m o t i f s ,

b u t the d e c o r a t i o n a n d the fabric speak i n favor o f l o c a l C r e t a n o r per

haps even A l e x a n d r i a n potters a n d s t r o n g l y against any South I t a l i a n at
t r i b u t i o n . I n the case o f a h i g h skyphos (fig. 12), the spray o f m y r t l e
beneath the r i m is clearly derived f r o m the G n a t h i a repertoire, b u t the
rose blossom finds analogies i n Crete itself a n d o n a H a d r a h y d r i a .

4 2

The

pigeon-and-flower frieze (fig. 13) o f a squat skyphos, however, is best

represented a m o n g A l e x a n d r i a n G n a t h i a fragments f r o m Shatby.

43

In

c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the A l e x a n d r i a n m a t e r i a l , the e x e c u t i o n seems some

w h a t i n f e r i o r , a n d we m i g h t consequently see C r e t a n

"pseudo-Gnathia"

as an i n t e r m e d i a r y between m a t e r i a l f r o m South I t a l y a n d f r o m Ptole

maic A l e x a n d r i a .
A glance at the d i s t r i b u t i o n of G n a t h i a a n d pseudo-Gnathia
i n the western M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o u l d be r e w a r d i n g . I n fact, the prove
nances cover m o r e o r less the regions a n d t e r r i t o r i e s c o n t r o l l e d by the
Ptolemies i n the m i d d l e a n d the later h a l f o f the t h i r d century, m e n t i o n e d
i n the i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m A d u l i s n o t e d above (fig. 1 4 ) .

4 4

A l e x a n d r i a as a

G n a t h i a center has already been m e n t i o n e d . C y p r u s was firmly i n Ptole

m a i c hands, a n d the Aegean was a Ptolemaic s t r o n g h o l d . Rhodes a n d

owner.

Pfrommer

FIG.

14

D i s t r i b u t i o n of Gnathia pottery
in the eastern Mediterranean.

A l e x a n d r i a h a d t r a d i t i o n a l l y close e c o n o m i c a f f i l i a t i o n s ,

45

a n d Crete,

whose eastern p a r t a r o u n d Itanos was under Ptolemaic c o n t r o l a n y w a y ,

/: territories conquered during the

m u s t be considered one o f the m a i n sources f o r Ptolemaic m e r c e n a r i e s .

T h i r d Syrian War; 2: territories

I t is thus h a r d l y i n d o u b t t h a t the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f G n a t h i a w a r e reflects

Ptolemy i n inherited from his

Ptolemaic e c o n o m i c connections a n d t h a t w e s h o u l d see G n a t h i a - t y p e

father; 3: fictitious domination

46

over Mesopotamia and farther

p o t t e r y i n the western M e d i t e r r a n e a n p r i m a r i l y u n d e r a Ptolemaic v i e w

east, based on the inscription

p o i n t . T h e e x a m p l e o f G n a t h i a w a r e illustrates the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m eco

from Adulis. D r a w i n g by the

author.

n o m i c s t o artistic r e c e p t i o n . A l e x a n d r i a a n d Ptolemaic E g y p t seem t o

have been n o t o n l y a focus f o r commerce b u t also subsequently the
source o f l o c a l i m i t a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t s f o r m e r l y f o r e i g n t o the Ptolemaic
r e p e r t o i r e a n d as such i m p o r t e d i n t o E g y p t .
T h e achaemenizing tendencies o f the native E g y p t i a n reper
t o i r e o f the early Ptolemaic p e r i o d a n d the M a c e d o n i a n a n d S o u t h I t a l
i a n connections give rise t o the q u e s t i o n o f w h a t was authentic i n the
Graeco-Ptolemaic r e p e r t o i r e . C a n Ptolemaic craftsmanship be regarded
o n l y as a heterogeneous b l e n d o f f o r e i g n influences?
To consider this p o i n t , let us r e t u r n t o T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s
a n d the jewelry o f this t r e a s u r e .

47

I n the case o f the jewelry, w e are deal-

181

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

i n g n o t w i t h p r o v i n c i a l w o r k s h o p s b u t w i t h p r o d u c t s f r o m t o p ateliers,
w o r k i n g i n an entirely Graeco-Hellenistic style. A snake bracelet, for ex
ample, one o f the m a j o r types o f Hellenistic jewelry, reveals at first
glance the already f a m i l i a r similarities between E g y p t (fig. 1 5 a )
the M a c e d o n i a n sphere o f influence (fig. 1 5 b ) .

49

4 8

and

Snake-type j e w e l r y de

veloped considerably over the generations a n d reached almost baroque

f o r m s w i t h v i v i d depictions o f c o i l e d animals i n the second century B.C.,
each object composed o f a single snake (figs. 15c, d ) .

5 0

T h i s one-snake concept seems t o be supplemented by Ptole

m a i c ateliers w i t h a double-snake variety, w i t h a n i m a l heads at b o t h
ends. T h e E g y p t i a n a t t r i b u t i o n o f this type is suggested by a j e w e l r y
h o a r d f r o m E g y p t i a n B a l a m u n a n d by representations o n E g y p t i a n
m u m m y masks.

T h e date o f the B a l a m u n h o a r d is debated, b u t a H e l

51

lenistic date is argued f r o m the n o n i m p e r i a l t y p o l o g y a n d especially

f r o m the a d d i t i o n o f t y p i c a l l y Hellenistic Herakles k n o t s (fig.
I n contrast t o the single-snake types, double-snake

16).

52

examples

exist i n closed, r i g i d (see fig. 16) a n d flexible, open versions a n d v a r y

considerably i n design a n d e x e c u t i o n , leaving the d o u b l e - a n i m a l concept
as the p r i m e element o f c o m p a r i s o n . A rather closed, r i g i d v a r i a n t o f this
class belongs t o a b r i l l i a n t set o f Ptolemaic jewelry, w h i c h has recently
f o u n d its w a y i n t o the G e t t y collections (fig. 17), a g r o u p t h a t seems a l
m o s t t a i l o r - m a d e t o c o n f i r m m y recently questioned c h r o n o l o g y of H e l
lenistic j e w e l r y . I t is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h a t as an aspect o f an authentic
53

Ptolemaic repertoire the set contains a pair o f one-snake bracelets fash

i o n e d w i t h a j o i n t a n d differing i n t h a t detail f r o m the Greek k o i n e
types.

54

W i t h the double-snake concept, P t o l e m a i c - E g y p t i a n j e w e l r y de

veloped an independent type, b u t this v a r i a n t is n o t represented u n t i l the

late t h i r d century.
T h i s g r o w i n g e m a n c i p a t i o n f r o m the early H e l l e n i s t i c M a c e d o n i a n repertoire is likewise d o c u m e n t e d by earrings w i t h ante
lope heads f r o m the set o f j e w e l r y i n the G e t t y M u s e u m m e n t i o n e d
above (fig. 1 8 ) .

55

T h i s variety developed f r o m the M a c e d o n i a n lion's-

head earrings a n d was almost entirely absent i n the M a c e d o n i a n sphere.

As antelope-head earrings seem t o have been p a r t o f the treasure i n T u k h
e l - Q u a r m o u s , the emergence o f this v a r i a n t m a y have t a k e n place i n the
second quarter o f the t h i r d century, o r the m i d d l e o f t h a t century at the
latest.

56

T h e earrings are also, a l t h o u g h rarely, represented i n Syria, a n d

i t is t e m p t i n g t o consider t h e m p r i m a r i l y Ptolemaic i n type b u t o f course

not i n manufacture.
We can see clearly the rise of types favored i n Ptolemaic
E g y p t , a repertoire o f j e w e l r y t h a t emerged s l o w l y a r o u n d the m i d d l e of
the t h i r d century. W e can nevertheless expect i n Ptolemaic E g y p t the
presence a n d general k n o w l e d g e o f Hellenistic " k o i n e standards," a
p o i n t t h a t deserves n o further e l a b o r a t i o n i n a c o u n t r y devoted so exten
sively t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange a n d trade.

FIGS.

I 5a-d

a: Bracelet, from T u k h elQuarmous. Cairo, The Egyptian

Museum J E 38078; b: Bracelet,
from Kralevo, Bulgaria;
c, d: Bracelets, said to be from
Thessaly. Athens, N a t i o n a l
Museum. Drawings by the
author.

pfrommer

FIG.

I 6

Double-snake bracelet, bought i n

Balamun, Egypt. Silver. N e w York,
The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t
26.7.i4 36

FIG.

17

Double-snake bracelets. G o l d .
M a l i b u , The J. Paul Getty
Museum 92.AM.8.7.1-2.
FIG.

18

Antelope-head earrings. G o l d .
D i a m . : 2.0 c m . M a l i b u , The
J. Paul Getty M u s e u m 9 2 . A M . 8 . 3 .

183

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

19

Antelope-head bracelet, said to

be from Egypt. Silver. Formerly
art market.

To w h a t extent, however, these k o i n e types s t o o d side by side

w i t h specific Ptolemaica is h a r d t o t e l l , because so l i t t l e datable m a t e r i a l
is k n o w n f o r the second a n d first centuries. O f interest is a s m a l l set o f
second-century silver t h a t appeared o n the art m a r k e t i n recent years a n d
t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o reliable sources, was f o u n d i n E g y p t . A n antelopehead bracelet f r o m this h o a r d f o l l o w s a type already k n o w n i n Achae
m e n i d times a n d is likewise w e l l represented a m o n g early H e l l e n i s t i c
j e w e l r y (fig. 1 9 ) .

5 7

A c c o r d i n g t o H e l l e n i s t i c conventions, the rather u n

usual preference o f silver, already encountered i n B a l a m u n , p o i n t s t o a

l o c a l atelier. T h i s a t t r i b u t i o n is c o r r o b o r a t e d by the incised a n d crosshatched " c u f f s " b e h i n d the a n i m a l s ' heads a n d the s i m i l a r l y incised,
large, t r i a n g u l a r tongues b e h i n d these c u f f s .

58

A m o n g Hellenistic jewelry

these elements are n o r m a l l y i n d i v i d u a l adjuncts, cut f r o m t h i n sheets o f

g o l d a n d soldered o n .
T h e h i g h l y stylized f o r m s o f the a n i m a l heads still recall
A c h a e m e n i d a n d early H e l l e n i s t i c conventions, b u t the heavy r i n g , a l
m o s t t w o centimeters i n diameter, speaks u n m i s t a k a b l y i n favor o f a
second-century d a t e .

59

T h e " h e a v y " variety of the antelope-head

lets is k n o w n f r o m a b r i l l i a n t fragment f r o m A s i a M i n o r ,

6 0

brace

a comparison

t h a t underlines the p r o v i n c i a l i t y of o u r Ptolemaic example. T h e silver

bracelet also illustrates t h a t even p r o v i n c i a l Ptolemaic ateliers o f the sec
o n d c e n t u r y n o t o n l y preserved o l d t r a d i t i o n s b u t adjusted t h e i r reper
toires t o c o n f o r m t o c o n t e m p o r a r y standards.
To the same second-century h o a r d belongs an excellent h e m i
spherical silver cup w i t h parcel-gilt c a l y x d e c o r a t i o n (fig. 2 0 ) .

61

The

d e c o r a t i o n associates the cup w i t h silver a n d gold-glass vessels f r o m

E g y p t i a n F a i y u m a n d Canosa i n I t a l y .

62

T h e Faiyum-Canosa g r o u p c o n

tains f o u r silver examples o f t w o entirely different t e c h n i q u e s l o w a n d

extremely h i g h r e l i e f a n d n o less t h a n three exquisite gold-glass b o w l s .

Pfrommer

FIG.

20

Cup, said t o be f r o m Egypt.

Parcel-gilt silver. Formerly art
market.

O u r cup is the t h i r d f r o m E g y p t p r o p e r , a n d i t c o r r o b o r a t e s the Ptole

m a i c a t t r i b u t i o n o f the w h o l e g r o u p .
T h e F a i y u m - C a n o s a g r o u p n o t o n l y underlines again the I t a l
i a n c o n n e c t i o n o f Ptolemaic e x p o r t s b u t is l i k e w i s e r e m a r k a b l e i n c o m
p a r i s o n w i t h silver f r o m the Seleucid sphere. Nevertheless, a l t h o u g h
several examples o f s i m i l a r calyxes are k n o w n f r o m Seleucid-influenced
t e r r i t o r i e s , n o precise p a r a l l e l f o r o u r c a l y x c o m p o s i t i o n can be c i t e d .
I f w e study the decorative l a y o u t o f the pieces i n the F a i y u m Canosa g r o u p , however, the basic o u t l i n e o f the leaf decorations is a l
m o s t i d e n t i c a l t h r o u g h o u t the g r o u p (fig. 2 1 ) .

6 3

V a r i a t i o n s are l i m i t e d t o

the differing flower types. D e p i c t i o n s have become standardized, a fea

t u r e t h a t h a d always been t y p i c a l o f E g y p t i a n craftsmanship.
I n s u m m a r y , w e are d e a l i n g w i t h a r e m a r k a b l e c o m p l e x i t y o f
influences a n d tendencies i n Ptolemaic ateliers. First, there is a decisive
achaemenizing tendency, at least i n the earlier decades. Second, there is
a s t r o n g affiliation w i t h early H e l l e n i s t i c - M a c e d o n i a n tastes a n d t r a d i
FIG.

2 1

t i o n s . T h i r d , there is the slow, a l m o s t tentative emergence o f an au

Leaf-calyx composition from

t h e n t i c Ptolemaic r e p e r t o i r e . A n d f o u r t h , there is a c e r t a i n desire f o r

t w o sandwich-glass bowls, from

clear-cut standards. T h a t this tendency t o w a r d s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n is, h o w

Canosa. L o n d o n , The British

M u s e u m 71.5-18.1/2. D r a w i n g
by the author.

ever, i n n o way c o m b i n e d w i t h a decline i n q u a l i t y is borne o u t n o t least

by the F a i y u m - C a n o s a g r o u p , w h i c h reveals glimpses o f the excellence
w e connect w i t h Ptolemaic E g y p t .
University of Trier
T R I E R ,

G E R M A N Y

185

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ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Notes

A faience p l a q u e b e a r i n g t h e n a m e o f P h i l i p A r -

T a r a n t o ( P f r o m m e r , Studien,

rhidaios was acquired d u r i n g the

K T 52, p l . 32).

E . N a v i l l e , Mound
i n Egypt

Onias,
Extra

Volume

excavations:

of the Jew and the City

Exploration

Fund,

Memoir,

2 9 , 5 5 , p i s . 8 B , 1 7 . 8 . M . P f r o m m e r , Studien
alexandt'inischer

und grogriechischer

frhhellenistischer

Zeit,

Studien),

10

F i g u r e 3 a h e r e , f r o m Susa: R . de

Mecquenem,

L . L e B r e t o n , a n d M . R u t t o n , Mmoire
zu

mission

Toreutik

archologique

de la

30 (1947): 79,

en Iran

fig. 4 8 . F i g u r e 3c here is t a k e n f r o m a n A c h a e -

Archologische For-

s c h u n g e n 16 ( B e r l i n 1 9 8 7 ) (hereafter

207,

of

jth

(London 1890), pp.

1888/1889

pp. 3 6 - 3 8 ,

menid amphora-rhyton from Kukova Mogila

Pfrommer,

( T h r a c e ) . Sofia, A r c h a e o l o g i c a l M u s e u m 2 :

pp. 1 4 8 - 4 9 . For a new reading of

M . P f r o m m e r , Archologische

Mitteilungen

aus

t h e d e m o t i c i n s c r i p t i o n s o n t h e vessels, see

Iran

K . - T . Z a u z i c h , Enchoria

d e p i c t s t h e frieze o f a r h y t o n i n t h e N o r b e r t

21 (1994): 101-6.

23 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 1 9 3 - 9 6 , fig. 1 . 1 . F i g u r e 3 d h e r e

S c h i m m e l c o l l e c t i o n ( i b i d . , p . 193 n . 1 8 , fig.
2

F o r t h e c o i n h o a r d , see P f r o m m e r ,

1.2, w i t h refs.).

Studien,

p. 142 n. 925.
II
3

F o r G r e e k friezes w i t h these N e a r E a s t e r n

A d u l i s is l o c a t e d close t o S u a k i n o n t h e R e d

" b a r s , " see m y r e m a r k s i n Istanbuler

Sea. F o r t h e i n s c r i p t i o n , see E . B e v a n ,

gen 3 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 1 6 0 , p i s . 4 4 . 1 ; 4 5 . 1 ; 4 6 . 1 .

House

The

2 n d ed. (Chicago 1 9 6 8 ; i s t

of Ptolemy,

e d n . 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 1 9 2 - 9 3 . P. M . Fraser,
maic

Ptole-

12

v o l . 1 ( O x f o r d 1 9 7 2 ) (here-

Alexandria,

For a Hellenized version of this c o m p o s i t i o n ,

see t w o p l a s t e r casts f r o m M e m p h i s / M i t

after Fraser, 1), p p . 2 0 3 , 2 0 8 ; v o l . 2 , p . 3 4 4 n .

Rahine. Hildesheim, Pelizaeusmuseum 1109;

1 0 6 ( w i t h refs.) (hereafter Fraser, 11).

1 1 1 0 : C . R e i n s b e r g , Studien
Toreutik,

zur

hellenistischen

Hildesheimer gyptologische Beitrge

9 ( H i l d e s h e i m 1 9 8 0 ) (hereafter R e i n s b e r g ,

Justinus 27.1.5fr.

dien),
5

Mitteilun-

F o r t h e t r e a s u r e , see P f r o m m e r , Studien,

Stu-

p p . 3 0 6 - 7 , n o s . 2 6 , 2 7 , figs. 3 6 , 3 7 ( w i t h

a d a t i n g a r o u n d 3 4 0 / 3 3 0 , w h i c h is t o o e a r l y ) .

pp.

1 4 2 - 5 9 . F o r t h e j e w e l r y , see M . P f r o m m e r ,
Untersuchungen

zur Chronologie

hochhellenistischen

frh-

und

13

Istanbuler

Goldschmucks,

The type of tendril w i t h small semipalmettes i n

the interstices between the m a i n b o d y o f the

F o r s c h u n g e n 3 7 ( T b i n g e n 1 9 9 0 ) (hereafter

s c r o l l a n d t h e helices is o f t e n e n c o u n t e r e d i n

P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck),

r e d - f i g u r e d vase p a i n t i n g o f S o u t h I t a l y . See

p p . 2 0 8 - 9 , pis. 8 . 1 ,

2 ; 1 5 . i , 3; 1 9 . i , 2 ; 2 1 . 3 - 5 ; 2.3-1;

>

P. J a c o b s t h a l , Ornamente

( w i t h refs.).

griechischer

(Berlin 1 9 2 7 ) , pis. 108.b, m ,

Vasen

144.b ( A p u l i a n

amphora: Karlsruhe, M u s e u m 388; A p u l i a n

6

C a i r o , E g y p t i a n M u s e u m JE 3 8 0 8 9 / 9 0 : P f r o m -

h y d r i a i : B e r l i n , M u s e u m F. 3 2 9 0 / 3 2 9 1

and

m e r , Studien,

Naples, M u s e u m H . 3244; Campanian

am-

p . 2 6 6 , K T K 2 , p i s . 2 , 3 (here

fig. i a ) . C a i r o , E g y p t i a n M u s e u m J E 3 8 0 8 8 / 9 1 :

phora: Stoddard coll.). Tendrils w i t h palmettes

P f r o m m e r , Studien,

c a n , o f c o u r s e , n o t be c o n f i n e d t o a single a r t i s -

p . 2 6 6 , K T K 3, p i s . 4 , 5

(here fig. i b ) .

tic province, but i n connection w i t h o u r H e l -

For an A c h a e m e n i d t h y m i a t e r i o n w i t h the t y p i -

p a l m e t t e - t e n d r i l is d e r i v e d f r o m late C l a s s i c a l

cal h o r i z o n t a l cannelures a n d the stepped l i d ,

prototypes.

l e n i s t i c t h y m i a t e r i o n i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e
7

see a n e x a m p l e i n N e w Y o r k , T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n
M u s e u m of A r t 1980.11.12: D . von Bothmer,
Bulletin

of The Metropolitan

Museum

of

14

F o r T u k h e l - Q u a r m o u s , see P f r o m m e r ,

Studien,

p i s . 1 0 , 1 4 , 2 5 . F o r D e v e H y k , see P. R . S.

Art

4 2 , n o . 1 ( 1 9 8 4 ) : 4 4 , n o . 6 8 , w i t h i l l . For the

M o o r e y , Cemeteries

development o f Classical a n d Hellenistic t h y -

at Deve

m i a t e r i a , see m y r e m a r k s i n P f r o m m e r ,

T. E. Lawrence

Studien,

British

pp. 2 5 - 4 1 .

Hyk,

of the First

near
and

Millennium

Carchemish,
C. L . Woolley

Archaeological

Reports,

Salvaged
in

B.c.
by

1913,

International

Series 89 ( O x f o r d 1 9 8 0 ) , p . 3 3 , fig. 6.
8

E . G a b r i c i , Monumenti

antichi

22 (1913):

6 5 7 - 5 8 , p i . 108.4.

15

See P f r o m m e r , Studien,

See t h e f a m o u s " R o t h s c h i l d " t h y m i a t e r i o n f r o m

16

G . L e f b v r e , Le tombeau

pp.

152-55.

de Petosiris

I (Cairo

Pfrommer

1 9 2 4 ) , p p . 5 2 - 5 5 , p i . 8. S. N a k a t e n , i n
kon
PP17

Lexi-

25

See n o t e 2 0 a b o v e .

26

See Fraser, 1, p p . 2 0 2 - 3 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 ,

v o l . 4 (Wiesbaden 1982),

der Agyptologie,
995-9$-

F o r t h e A c h a e m e n i d deep b o w l o r A c h a e m e n i d
c u p , see P f r o m m e r , Studien,

27

18

and Roman

Gold

and Silver

(note

20 above), pp. 5 4 - 5 9 , 89, no. 23, p i . 22. For

Plate

( L o n d o n 1966), pp. 9 9 - 1 0 1 was erroneously

the M a c e d o n i a n tendencies i n Ptolemaic E g y p t ,

see m y r e m a r k s : " G o t t l i c h e F i i r s t e n i n B o s c o -

Q u a r l e s v a n U f f o r d , Bulletin

reale: D e r Festsaal i n d e r V i l l a des P. F a n n i u s

antieke

beschaving

66 [ 1 9 9 1 ] : 1 5 9 - 6 3 ) , a p r o b l e m t h a t w i l l be d i s

S y n i s t o r , " 1 2 . Trier er

cussed i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t .

1992

i n A . B u l l o c h et a l . , eds., Images

and

C a i r o , E g y p t i a n M u s e u m JE 3 8 0 9 3 : P f r o m m e r ,

Self-definition

World

Winckelmannsprogramm

(Mainz 1993): 3 8 - 4 2 , 6 0 - 6 4 ; L- Koenen,

in the Hellenistic

Ideologies:
(Berke

ley 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 35 (a n a t i v e E g y p t i a n s e r v i n g as a

pp. 1 5 6 - 5 8 , 266, K T K 1, p i . 1 ( w i t h

" M a c e d o n i a n o f the cavalry settlers").

refs.).
P f r o m m e r , Studien,

28

pp. 7 5 - 9 1 , 142.

See P o l y b i u s 5 . 6 5 . F o r t h e rise o f t h e E g y p t i a n
e l e m e n t , M . R o s t o v t z e f f , Die

20

Anti-

q u e s t i o n e d i n a recent a r t i c l e ( L . B y v a n c k -

Studien,

19

Septentrionalis

qua 9 ( 1 9 3 4 ) : 2 2 1 - 3 0 , f i g . 2 . G a g s t e i g e r

A c h a e m e n i d d e r i v a t i o n established by D . E.
S t r o n g , Greek

A m s t e r d a m , A l l a r d Pierson M u s e u m 7 8 7 9 :
W . v o n B i s s i n g , Eurasia

pp. 4 2 - 7 4 . The

224-26.

F o r t h e casts, c o m p a r e R e i n s b e r g ,

F o r t h e h e l m e t s , see G . G a g s t e i g e r , Die
mdischen

Waffenmodelle

Welt: Gesellschaft

Studien.

und

b i n g e n 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . SS9~^ -

ptole-

hellenistische
vol. 2 (Tu

Wirtschaft,

Fraser, 1, p p . 6 0 - 6 1 .

Hildes-

aus Memphis,

heimer agyptologische Beitrage 36 ( H i l d e s h e i m

29

Strabo 17.1.8.

30

Kallixeinos, quoted i n Athenaeus

1 9 9 3 ) . O n pages 2 5 - 4 7 a n d 7 6 G a g s t e i g e r c o n
nects t h e d e c o r a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e M a c e

F o r m o d e r n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , see F. C a s p a r i ,

m y e a r l i e r s t a t e m e n t s t o see specific I t a l i a n c o n

Jabrbuch

n e c t i o n s . See M . P f r o m m e r ,

tuts

"GroEgriechischer

u n d m i t t e l i t a l i s c h e r E i n f l u E i n der
Deutschen

Archaologischen

Instituts

1 1 9 - 9 0 , esp. 184 (hereafter

Klio

des

Archaologischen

des antiken

r t

posiums
314,

31

Berlin

Palaste,

P. M . Petsas, Ho taphos

the Hellenized
tions,

East:

J . Paul Getty

Catalogue
Museum

Sym

(Athens

of

Macedon

( A t h e n s 1 9 8 0 ) , p . 1 5 0 , fig. 8 0 ( c o l o r r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n ) . F o r t h e " M a c e d o n i a n l e d g e , " see

from

of the

des

ton Leukadion

L . D . L o u k o p o u l o s , eds., Philip
T h a t is even v a l i d f o r t h e S e l e u c i d sphere o f
i n f l u e n c e . See M . P f r o m m e r , Metalwork

Akten

(forthcoming).

1992

1 9 6 6 ) , p . 8 2 , fig. 2 9 . M . B . H a t z o p o u l o s a n d

n o s . 3, 1 0 , 1 1 - 1 3 , 4 2 , figs. 4 , 1 8 , 2 0 - 2 2 , 6 1 .
22

Seewesens,

p a l a t i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , see

m y r e m a r k s i n Antike

p p . 2 9 4 , 197-99,,

Insti
Stu

Beiheft 32 ( 1 9 3 4 ; 2 n d ed. A a l e n 1 9 6 3 ) ,

pp. 2 0 - 5 3 . F

97 (1982):

Pfrommer,

"EinfluE").
See R e i n s b e r g , Studien,

des Deutschen

3 1 ( 1 9 1 6 ) : 1 - 7 4 , fig. 1 0 . A . K o s t e r ,

dien zur Geschichte

Rankenorna-

m e n t i k f r u h h e l l e n i s t i s c h e r Z e i t , " Jabrbuch

21

5.204d-2o6c.

d o n i a n repertoire, an observation that corrects

H . L a u t e r , Die Architektur

Collec

(Malibu 1993).

des

Hellenismus

( D a r m s t a d t 1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 1 4 1 , 1 5 2 , fig. 4 4 . a ,

T h e s e c o m p l e x e s d o n o t c o n t a i n a single e x

p i . 4 8 , based o n V . H e e r m a n n , Studien

ample.

makedonischen

Palastarchitektur

zur

( P h . D . diss.,

University of Erlangen-Niirnberg 1986),

23

H i l d e s h e i m , Pelizaeusmuseum
b e r g , Studien,

1146 a - f : Reins

pp. 283, 373~75

P l s

X I

p p . 3 0 1 - 2 , n o . 1 6 , fig. 2 4 .

P f r o m m e r , " E i n f l u E , " 1 8 5 , f i g . 35 ( w i t h a d i s

32

Athenaeus

5.205d.

33

Fraser, 1, p p . 2 3 9 - 4 4 .

34

I n M a c e d o n i a n o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ruler c u l t ex

cussion of M a c e d o n i a n analogies).
24

For I t a l o - M a c e d o n i a n t e n d r i l decorations,

see

P f r o m m e r , " E i n f l u E . " F o r K a s a n l a k , see P f r o m

m e r , " E i n f l u S , " 1 3 5 - 3 6 . O u r d r a w i n g ( f i g . 7) is

i s t e d . I t is s u f f i c i e n t t o r e c a l l h e r e t h e resistance

based o n L . S h i v k o v a , Das Grabmal

t o A l e x a n d e r ' s ideas f o r h i s p e r s o n a l d e i f i c a t i o n .

von

Kasan

lak ( R e c k l i n g h a u s e n 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 6 5 , p i . 1 9 . F o r
the p r i m a r i l y T h r a c i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the
figural

zoff, C . H o c k e r , a n d L . Schneider,
scher

35

frieze o f t h e w a l l d e c o r a t i o n , see P. Z a Anzeiger,

1985: 623, 6 4 2 - 4 3 .

F o r references, see P f r o m m e r , " E i n f l u E , "

175-

87.

Archaologi36

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman M u s e u m 10433:

187

188

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

E . B r e c c i a , La necropoli
general

des antiquites

di Sciatbi,

Catalogue

egyptiennes

du

(Cairo 1912), pp. 2 9 - 3 0 , no. 40,

d'Alexandrie

43

B r e c c i a ( n o t e 3 6 a b o v e ) , p i . 8 2 , figs. 2 8 4 , 2 8 5 .

44

T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n is g i v e n a c c o r d i n g t o G r e e n

Musee

p i . 3 7 , fig. 4 6 , m e n t i o n e d i n p a s s i n g i n P f r o m

( n o t e 39 a b o v e ) . F o r A d u l i s , see n o t e 3 a b o v e .

mer, "Einfluft," 184 n . 332.

For the extension o f Ptolemaic c o n t r o l i n gen

See E . D i e h l , Die Hydria

politik

e r a l , see W . H u s s , Untersuchungen
37

( M a i n z 1964), pis. 1 1 ,

B a g n a l l , The Administration

17-

Possessions
38

W i t h s h o r t references: P f r o m m e r ,

"EinfluE,"

1 7 7 - 8 0 . I n detail: M . Pfrommer,

Chronolo-

gische

Uberlegungen

Holzsarkophagen

zu

45

fruhhellenistischen

n a t i o n a l K o l l o q u i u m s i n D e l p h i 1988

(forth

coming).
39

Aufien-

outside

of the

Ptolemaic

(Leyden 1976).

Egypt

I t is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h a t s o m e t i m e s g o o d s
f r o m P t o l e m a i c Palestine r e a c h e d E g y p t b y w a y

A k t e n des i n t e r

aus Agypten.

zur

iv. ( M u n i c h 1 9 7 6 ) . R . S.

Ptolemaios'

o f R h o d e s : M . R o s t o v t z e f f , Die

hellenistische

Welt: Gesellschaft

vol. 1

und

(Tubingen 1955), pp.

F o r G n a t h i a f r a g m e n t s f r o m A l e x a n d r i a , see

46

Wirtschaft,
175-76.

F o r I t a n o s u n d e r t h e t h i r d P t o l e m y , see B a g n a l l

Breccia (note 36 above), p p . 1 8 8 - 9 0 , p i . 8 1 ,

(note 44 above), p p . 1 1 7 - 2 3 . For C r e t a n mer

figs. 2 7 7 - 7 9 , p i . 8 2 . P f r o m m e r , " E i n f l u E , "

cenaries, see G . T . G r i f f i t h , The

176

n . 2 8 0 ( w i t h f u r t h e r refs.). F o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

of the Hellenistic

of G n a t h i a i n the western M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,

p . 2 4 5 . P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

J. R . G r e e n , i n A . C a m b i t o g l o u , e d . ,
in Honour

of Arthur

Dale

see

Studies

Mercenaries

(Cambridge

1935),
vol.

Alexandria,

3 ( O x f o r d 1 9 7 2 ) (hereafter Fraser, m ) , i n d e x ,

(Sydney

Trendall

World

s.v.

Crete.

1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 8 1 - 9 0 , pis. 2 0 - 2 2 .
40

F o r t h e p r o b l e m o f i m i t a t i o n s , see

47

F o r t h e j e w e l r y , see n o t e 5 a b o v e .

48

F r o m T u k h el-Quarmous, Cairo, Egyptian M u

Pfrommer,

" E i n f l u E , " 176. For an i m i t a t i o n of a South

Italian a m p h o r a f r o m Shatby (Alexandria,

seum JE 3 8 0 7 8 ( C G 5 2 0 9 4 ) : P f r o m m e r ,

G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m 1 6 0 3 4 ) , see

schmuck,

Pfrommer,

"EinfluE," 181 n. 316. G. G r i m m , in

Gotter

18.3, p i . 21.4 (second q u a r t e r o f t h i r d century;

e x h . cat. ( M a i n z 1 9 7 8 ) , n o . 1 0 8 ,

Pharaonen,

w i t h c o l o r i l l . ( w i t h refs.). F o r f u r t h e r

w i t h refs.).

Gnathia

i m i t a t i o n s , see t h e t o m b g r o u p f r o m C r e t e ( n o t e

49

41 below).

F r o m K r a l e v o : G . G i n e v , Sukrovisteto
Kralevo

E . B i e l e f e l d , Eine

Fundgruppe

Vasen in Deckfarbentechnik,
griechische,

rbmiscbe

132,

fiir

byzantinische

(Frankfurt 1970). T h e b u l k of the

pp. 1 2 9 - 3 0 ,

3 5 1 , SR 4 1 , fig. 1 8 . 4 .

griechischer
Galerie

und

ot

(Sofia 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 1 1 , 6 1 , figs. 1 7 , 1 8 .

P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck,
41

Gold-

p p . 1 3 2 , 1 3 4 - 3 6 , 3 4 8 , SR 6, fig.

Kunst

50

unpublished

F r o m Thessaly (so-called Carpenisi h o a r d ) ,

A t h e n s , N a t i o n a l M u s e u m : P. A m a n d r y ,

Collec

m a t e r i a l is i n a G e r m a n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ,

tion Helene

w h o s e o w n e r has g e n e r o u s l y p r o v i d e d t h e p h o

v o l . 1 (Strasbourg 1953), p . 117, nos. 256, 257,

Stathatos:

Les bijoux

antiques,

t o g r a p h s . T h e m a j o r piece o f t h e g r o u p is i n

2 6 0 , 2 6 1 , fig. 7 0 , p i s . 4 6 , 4 7 . P f r o m m e r ,

Bloomington, Indiana, University A r t M u s e u m

schmuck,

7 1 . 9 7 : B i e l e f e l d , o p . c i t . , n o . 1 , figs, o n p p . 5, 9 ,

figs. 1 8 . 2 6 , 2 7 .

1 1 . P. C a l l a g h a n , Annual
at Athens

of the British

School

7 6 ( 1 9 8 1 ) : 6 3 - 6 4 , fig. 2 ( C r e t a n ) .

I d e m , i n Alessandria

e il mondo

ellenistico-

Studi i n onore d i Achille A d r i a n i ,

romano,

v o l . 3, Studi

e materiali

Gold

p p . 1 3 2 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 6 , 3 4 9 , SR 1 7 , 1 9 ,

51

F o r " d o u b l e - s n a k e " bracelets a n d finger r i n g s ,

see P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck,

pp.

135-37,

figs. 1 8 . 9 , 1 0 , 2 1 , 2 5 ; p i . 2 2 . 6 . F o r B a l a m u n ,

6 (Rome 1984), p. 792,

see P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck,

p. 208, F K 4,

p i s . 1 4 . 4 , 5, 2 2 . 7 , 8 ( w i t h refs.). T o be a d d e d

p i . 1 2 4 . 5 , 8.

is a p a i r o f s i l v e r b r a c e l e t s f r o m t h e a r t m a r k e t ,
42

Plate f r o m C r e t e . Paris, L o u v r e : R . Pagenstecher, Die calenische

des Deutschen

Reliefkeramik,

Archdologischen

s o l d w i t h a n " A l e x a n d r i a n a t t r i b u t i o n " (Sothe

Jahrbuch

b y ' s , L o n d o n , D e c . 14 a n d 1 5 , 1 9 8 1 , p . 6 9 ,
n o . 2 0 3 A , B , w i t h i l l . ) . F o r t h e sole e x c e p t i o n o f

Instituts,

E r g a n z u n g s h e f t 8 ( B e r l i n 1 9 0 9 ) , p . 7, p i . 1 .

t h e d o u b l e - s n a k e c o n c e p t o u t s i d e E g y p t , see a

H a d r a h y d r i a : R . Pagenstecher, Die

t i n y finger r i n g f r o m T a r a n t o i n B e r l i n , A n t i k e n -

dgyptische
dition

Sammlung

E. v. Sieglin,

Ernst

griechisch-

von Sieglin,

v o l . 2, p a r t 3 (Leipzig

1 9 1 3 ) , p . 4 6 , fig. 5 0 .

Expe

museum 1980.21: Pfrommer,

Goldschmuck,

p p . 1 3 2 - 3 3 , 3 5 0 , SR 3 1 , fig. 1 8 . 1 7 ; p l . 2-2,-3T h e n o n c a n o n i c a l r i n g w i t h its c l o s e d , r i g i d s p i -

Pfrommer

r a l c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as a c l u e t o a P t o l e m a i c

57

U n p u b l i s h e d . I n 1992 i n the N e w Y o r k art

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e T a r a n t o h o a r d . I suggested

m a r k e t . O n e o f t h e t w o b r a c e l e t s is n o w i n

t h i s a l r e a d y i n Goldschmuck.

Trier, c o l l e c t i o n o f the A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Institute

For the snake

b r a c e l e t s i n M a l i b u , see n o t e 53 b e l o w . F o r

( = Collection Simonian). For

m u m m y m a s k s , see G . G r i m m , Die

b r a c e l e t s , see P f r o m m e r ,

Mumienmasken

rbmischen

pp. 1 1 5 - 1 8 .

(Wiesbaden 1974),

aus Agypten

antelope-head

Goldschmuck,

pis. 1 3 . 1 , 14, 15.

58
52

T h e same d e c o r a t i o n s h o w s a s o m e w h a t

N e w York, The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t

smaller, very p r o v i n c i a l bracelet w i t h h o r n e d ,

2 6 . 7 . 1 4 6 3 : P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck,

s t y l i z e d heads f r o m t h e same h o a r d . T h e

pp. 76,

1 3 6 , 3 0 0 , H K 10. p i . 14.5. For the M a c e d o n i a n

second-century date o f the bracelets corrects

a f f i l i a t i o n a n d the t y p o l o g y o f t h e H e r a k l e s

m y t o t a l l y w r o n g d a t i n g o f a similarly deco

k n o t , see P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck,

r a t e d s i l v e r b r a c e l e t w i t h g o a t heads f r o m E g y p

pp. 4 - 8 0 .

tian M i t Rahine (Cairo, Egyptian M u s e u m

53

S n a k e bracelets: M a l i b u , T h e J. P a u l G e t t y M u

J E 4 1 0 3 7 , C G 5 2 5 8 7 ) : E . V e r n i e r , Bijoux

seum 9 2 . A M . 8 . 7 . For the o p p o r t u n i t y t o illus

fevreries,

t r a t e t h i s b r a c e l e t a n d t h e e a r r i n g s (see b e l o w ,

egyptiennes

fig. 18) I a m indebted t o M a r i o n True, w h o

p. 188, C G 52587, p i . 2 1 . Pfrommer,

generously p r o v i d e d me w i t h photographs

schmuck,

and

Catalogue

generale

du Musee

des

du Caire

et or-

antiquites
(Cairo 1927),
Gold

p p . 1 1 4 , 3 4 5 n . 6 5 0 , T A 155 (late

slides o f t h e w h o l e h o a r d . I n h e r r e c e n t r e v i e w

s i x t h o r fifth c e n t u r y ) . T h e b r a c e l e t s h o u l d l i k e

o f m y Goldschmuck,

w i s e be p l a c e d i n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h e same

Journal

St. G . M i l l e r

{American

is v a l i d p e r h a p s i n t h e case o f a g o a t - h e a d

9 7 [ 1 9 9 3 ] : 58 o f . )

of Archaeology

v i v i d l y q u e s t i o n e d a l m o s t a l l results o f m y s t u d y

bracelet i n Geneva w i t h a very o r n a m e n t a l ren

w i t h o u t presenting any n e w evidence. T h e n e w

d e r i n g o f the a n i m a l s ' beards (Geneva,

M a l i b u complex renders this u n f o u n d e d c r i t i

d ' a r t et h i s t o i r e : P f r o m m e r ,

c i s m c o m p l e t e l y i n v a l i d . T h e set d i s p l a y s a l m o s t

pp. 114, 347 n. 650, T A 173).

Musee

Goldschmuck,

a l l t h e t y p o l o g i c a l features a n d even t h e re
g i o n a l preferences o f H e l l e n i s t i c j e w e l r y o f t h e
late t h i r d a n d e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s
i n m y Goldschmuck.

59

described

F o r these c o m p a r a t i v e l y " h e a v y " d e r i v a t e s o f

the H e l l e n i s t i c a n i m a l - h e a d bracelets,

S h o r t references s h o u l d be

P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck,

see

pp. 1 0 7 - 8 , 112, 114,

given t o the c o l o r e d Herakles k n o t s , t o the type

1 1 8 , 3 3 2 - 3 3 , 3 4 0 , n o s . T A 6, 1 3 , 1 0 9 ,

of snake bracelets w i t h m e a n d e r i n g b u t n o t i n

i 6 - 3 3 , 4 7 , 53-

figs.

t e r t w i n e d b o d i e s o f t h e a n i m a l s ( f o r a n o t h e r de
t a i l see n o t e 5 1 a b o v e ) , t o t h e h e a v y

finger

60

Paris, L o u v r e : H . H o f f m a n n a n d P. F. D a v i d s o n ,

r i n g s , a n d even t o m i n o r d e t a i l s s u c h as t h e leaf-

Greek

Gold:

c a l y x m e d a l l i o n s w i t h o u t stone inlays of the

ander,

e x h . cat. ( B r o o k l y n M u s e u m 1 9 6 5 ) ,

erotes' earrings a n d t o the alleged Ptolemaic

p p . 1 4 7 - 5 1 , n o . 5 3 , figs. 5 3 a - f , c o l o r p l a t e i v .

preference f o r a n t e l o p e - h e a d

P f r o m m e r , Goldschmuck,

a n d b u l l - h e a d ear

r i n g s (see n o t e 55 b e l o w ) . E v e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

Jewelry

from

the Age of

Alex

pp. 107, 112, 114,

3 3 2 , T A 6, fig. 1 6 . 4 7 . T h e t y p e is nevertheless

o f a " p r o p a g a n d i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n " o f s o m e de

d i f f e r e n t , because t h e piece w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o m

t a i l s is c o r r o b o r a t e d b y t h e t e l l i n g features o f

p o s e d o f t w o p a r t s , each w i t h t w o a n i m a l

the M a l i b u h a i r n e t w i t h its A p h r o d i t e m e d a l l i o n

heads.

{The J. Paul Getty

188-89,

I 2

Museum

-> %

I 2

)>

Journal
n

21 [1993]:

Dionysiac masks,

61

a n d the Herakles k n o t . A p h r o d i t e was a w e l l -

U n p u b l i s h e d . I n 1992 i n the N e w Y o r k art mar

ket, whereabouts

unknown.

d o c u m e n t e d di vine equivalent of m a n y o f the

m o s t famous Ptolemaic queens, a n d D i o n y s o s

62

F o r t h e F a i y u m - C a n o s a g r o u p , see D . A h r e n s ,

a n d H e r a k l e s w e r e r e g a r d e d as d i v i n e a n c e s t o r s

Miinchner

of the house o f Ptolemy.

( 1 9 6 8 ) : 2 3 2 - 3 3 , figs. 5, 6. P f r o m m e r ,

Jahrbiicher

der Bildenden

Kunst

19

Studien,

pp. 1 1 1 - 1 6 , 2 6 3 - 6 5 , K B k 117/118, 121/122,

54

M a l i b u , T h e J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m 9 2 . A M . 8 . 6 .

128, p i . 58a. P f r o m m e r (note 22 above), p . 55,

fig- 4 3 -

55

M a l i b u , T h e J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m 9 2 . A M . 8 . 3 .

56

F o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n , see P f r o m m e r ,

63
schmuck,

Gold

p p . 1 7 1 - 7 2 , fig. 3 1 . F o r t h e

examples

T h e d r a w i n g is based o n C a n o s a n s a n d w i c h glass b o w l s i n L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m 7 1 . 5 1 8 . 1 / 2 : D . B . Harden,

Journal

of Glass

f r o m T u k h el- Q u a r m o u s i n O x f o r d , A s h m o l e a n

1 0 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 2 3 - 2 5 , figs. 1 - 9 . P f r o m m e r ,

M u s e u m 1 9 2 6 . 1 0 5 - 7 , see P f r o m m e r ,

dien,

schmuck,

Gold

p p . 1 6 8 - 7 2 , O R 9, pis. 2 5 . 2 , 3 0 . 4 0 .

p . 2 6 4 , K B k 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 ( w i t h refs.).

Studies
Stu

189

This page intentionally left blank

191

Pharaonic Egyptian Elements in the

Decorative Arts of Alexandria during the
Hellenistic and Roman Periods
Robert

Steven

Bianchi

A l t h o u g h there is a r t i n A l e x a n d r i a , I seriously question w h e t h e r t h a t art

is d i s t i n c t l y A l e x a n d r i a n . I a m able t o demonstrate the v a l i d i t y o f t h a t
assertion by s u m m a r i z i n g several o f the conclusions reached i n m y essay
i n the Festschrift f o r D r . D a o u d .

I t u r n m y a t t e n t i o n first t o glass because the older l i t e r a t u r e

m a i n t a i n s that A l e x a n d r i a n w o r k s h o p s were p r i m a r i l y responsible f o r
the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f b o t h so-called m i l l e f i o r i a n d cameo glass. O n e n o w
2

recognizes that the native Egyptians were already e x p l o i t i n g the uses o f

m i l l e f i o r i glass d u r i n g the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . , as the examples decorat
i n g the w o o d e n shrine inscribed f o r N e k t a n e b o n i n the B r o o k l y n M u
seum clearly reveal. Recent investigations n o w suggest as w e l l t h a t
3

cameo glass, once considered t o be an A l e x a n d r i a n a r t f o r m , was first

m a n u f a c t u r e d instead i n I t a l i a n R o m a n w o r k s h o p s d u r i n g the reigns o f
the J u l i o - C l a u d i a n e m p e r o r s .

H a d r a h y d r i a e , t o o , were l o n g considered f o u n d a t i o n stones

i n the edifice o f A l e x a n d r i a n art. T h e i r f l o r a l d e c o r a t i o n eventually gave
rise t o the p u t a t i v e t r a d i t i o n of a ghirlandomania

alessandrina,

which

was suggested t o have been a p a r t i c u l a r l y A l e x a n d r i a n c u l t u r a l predilec

t i o n . Alas, we n o w recognize t h a t m a n y o f these vasesand these d o
include the m o r e artistically accomplished examples o f this classare
k n o w n t o have been m a n u f a c t u r e d i n Crete a n d subsequently i m p o r t e d
i n t o A l e x a n d r i a . L i k e the H a d r a h y d r i a e , the so-called Tanagra terra
5

cottas, w h i c h h a d l o n g been u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y regarded as p a r a m o u n t ex

amples o f A l e x a n d r i a n art, are n o w k n o w n t o have been developed first
i n w o r k s h o p s outside E g y p t , o n m a i n l a n d Greece a n d elsewhere. M a n y
were, like the H a d r a h y d r i a e , i m p o r t e d i n t o A l e x a n d r i a as w e l l .

There are, o f course, other typologies t h a t I c o u l d pass i n re

view, once considered t o be exclusively A l e x a n d r i a n a r t f o r m s b u t subse
quently p r o v e d t o be otherwise. O n e can n o longer b l i n d l y accept o n
f a i t h w h a t earlier scholars h a d t o say a b o u t A l e x a n d r i a n art, f o r an
A l e x a n d r i a n provenance f o r examples of any t y p o l o g y , as we have just
seen, is n o guarantee of an A l e x a n d r i a n w o r k s h o p .
T h e role o f A l e x a n d r i a as an artistic center f o r the p r o d u c t i o n
of those m i n o r arts is being successfully a n d successively challenged,

192

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Bracelet, from the Nile Delta.

Silver. Roman Imperial period.
N e w York, The M e t r o p o l i t a n
Museum of A r t 2,6.7.1454,
Carnarvon Collection, Gift of
E. S. Harkness, 1926.

w i t h the result t h a t the c i t y of A l e x a n d r i a can n o longer be t a k e n f o r

g r a n t e d as a leader i n the c r e a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f such a r t f o r m s .
T h e n u m b e r o f m i n o r - a r t typologies once a t t r i b u t e d t o
A l e x a n d r i a n w o r k s h o p s is d i m i n i s h i n g , f o r there are a c t u a l l y very few
typologies i n t o w h i c h the m i n o r arts p r o d u c e d by the native Egyptians
d u r i n g the Ptolemaic a n d R o m a n periods can be placed. T h e t w o m o s t
u b i q u i t o u s categories o f p h a r a o n i c m i n o r arts d u r i n g these t w o periods
are, o f course, the so-called sculptor's m o d e l s / t r i a l piecesplaques a n d
statuettes i n limestone t h a t I m a i n t a i n were e m p l o y e d as e x - v o t o s
7

a n d glass i n l a y s .

W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of these t w o statistically n u m e r o u s classes,

there are very few examples indeed o f the m i n o r arts i n p h a r a o n i c Egyp
t i a n style i n numbers sufficient t o d r a w inferences a b o u t their style a n d
development. T h e excavations o f Ptolemaic a n d R o m a n t o m b s at Thebes
by the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t earlier this c e n t u r y , the early ex
9

cavations of the E g y p t i a n D e p a r t m e n t of A n t i q u i t i e s at such sites as

Zeitoun,

1 0

a n d even the m o s t recent excavations by the French i n the

cemeteries o f D o u c h

1 1

a n d by the Poles at M a r i n a e l - A l a m e i n

1 2

have n o t

p r o d u c e d the k i n d s o f assemblages o f objects t h a t can be used t o define

the nature o f p h a r a o n i c decorative arts d u r i n g these t w o periods. T h e
same generalization appears t o o b t a i n f o r other excavations, such as
those b y the B r i t i s h at Saqqara, w h i c h have yielded large numbers o f

B ia nchi

m e t a l vessels, utensils, a n d the l i k e .

T h e p u b l i s h e d examples are so ba

1 3

n a l and so artistically u n a c c o m p l i s h e d , however, as t o be of l i t t l e value

for establishing d a t i n g criteria or e x a m i n i n g the exchange o f artistic
influences.

14

I k n o w of almost n o examples f r o m the Ptolemaic and R o

m a n periods of any p h a r a o n i c f u r n i t u r e , save items such as t r a d i t i o n a l

funerary beds.

15

M o r e o v e r , there is v i r t u a l l y n o t a single scrap o f any

t h i n g resembling an excavated piece of p h a r a o n i c j e w e l r y ,

16

w i t h the ex

c e p t i o n , perhaps, of a h o a r d o f t w e n t y - o n e silver serpent-form bracelets

a n d armlets f o u n d i n a large p o t t e r y jar d u r i n g the course o f an unsuper
vised excavation i n the D e l t a ; they are n o w i n N e w Y o r k a n d suggested
t o be of R o m a n I m p e r i a l date (fig. i ) .

1 7

So universal is this absence o f assemblages of objects i n large

numbers f r o m archaeological contexts f r o m Ptolemaic a n d R o m a n E g y p t
t h a t one c a n n o t simply ascribe this r e m a r k a b l e circumstance either t o
the hazards of excavation or t o the p r i o r p i l l a g i n g o f the sites. There
seems t o be a deeper c u l t u r a l significance b e h i n d the absence i n great
numbers o f such objects. I s h o u l d , therefore, like t o offer one possible
e x p l a n a t i o n f o r this s t r i k i n g p h e n o m e n o n .
I w i l l begin by reaffirming the general consensus t h a t Ptole
maic E g y p t was characterized by t w o societies, the i m m i g r a n t Greek a n d
the native E g y p t i a n , w h i c h were separate a n d i n m a n y ways u n e q u a l .

18

T h e c u l t u r a l values a n d t r a d i t i o n s o f the native Egyptians were perpetu

ated by the priests o f the temples, w h o m o r e often t h a n n o t w o r k e d i n
i s o l a t i o n , developing local t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n their l i m i t e d geographic
spheres of influence. Evidence f o r the strength o f l o c a l , p h a r a o n i c t r a d i
tions derives from, the universally accepted observation t h a t the i n s c r i p
tions a n d relief decorations of each m a j o r p h a r a o n i c temple o f the
Ptolemaic p e r i o d are characterized by their o w n i d i o s y n c r a t i c epigraphic
a n d decorative repertoire, t e r m e d i n the literature "la grammaire
temple."

1 9

du

T h e i n d i v i d u a l s responsible f o r these activities belonged t o a

statistically s m a l l , h e r e d i t a r y

20

elite

estimated t o have been less t h a n

21

one percent of the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , whose members were simultane

2 2

ously the secular a n d clerical a u t h o r i t i e s of the local regions i n w h i c h

they lived and w o r k e d .

2 3

M a n y of these i n d i v i d u a l s were w e a l t h y a n d

w o r k e d w i t h i n h i g h l y centralized local a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t h r o u g h w h i c h
they m i g h t m a x i m i z e their revenues.

24

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c u l t u r a l characteristic of this elite was

the literacy of its members; they k n e w and u n d e r s t o o d the h i e r o g l y p h s ,
a n d they were r e l u c t a n t t o share this k n o w l e d g e .

26

25

As a result, one

m i g h t say t h a t the m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f Ptolemaic E g y p t was r o o t e d i n the

hieroglyphs.

27

Its members w o u l d , therefore, quite n a t u r a l l y favor the

development o f o n l y those artistic t r a d i t i o n s , such as temples a n d their

c o n c o m i t a n t types of statuary, t h a t can be u n d e r s t o o d solely w i t h i n the
h i e r o g l y p h i c t r a d i t i o n s of ancient E g y p t i a n a r t .

28

W i t h i n such a c u l t u r a l

193

194

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

c o n t e x t , the members o f this elite w o u l d invest large sums o f c a p i t a l for

their o w n funerary establishments,
adorned m u m m i e s ,

30

29

w i t h their a c c o m p a n y i n g stelae a n d

b u t they w o u l d a v o i d quantities o f grave goods,

particularly imported Alexandrian l u x u r y goods.

31

T h e manufacture of

these last-mentioned objects a n d the m o t i f s decorating t h e m are n o t i n

keeping w i t h the scribal, h i e r o g l y p h i c nature o f the t r a d i t i o n s this elite
was perpetuating. T h a t there s h o u l d be this t i g h t c o n n e c t i o n between the
a p p r o a c h t o the temple a n d the t o m b by members o f this elite s h o u l d
come as n o surprise, f o r the same members o f this p r i v i l e g e d class were
serving, i f the m o d e l derived f r o m Edfu can be a p p l i e d t o the w h o l e o f
the chora,

as b o t h temple a n d funerary c l e r i c s .

32

W h a t is m o r e r e m a r k a b l e is t h a t some members o f this native

E g y p t i a n elite, b e l o n g i n g t o p r o m i n e n t families o f E d f u ( A p o l l i n o p o l i s
M a g n a ) a n d later h a v i n g been b u r i e d at el-Hassaia some ten k i l o m e t e r s
t o the s o u t h , are suggested t o have h a d b o t h p u r e l y Greek a n d p u r e l y
E g y p t i a n funerary stelae i n the same necropolis, i f n o t i n the same
tomb.

3 3

I n certain cases, the very same i n d i v i d u a l was h o n o r e d o n sepa

rate Greek a n d E g y p t i a n tombstones under t w o different n a m e s .

34

This

conscious c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z i n g o f t w o d i s t i n c t t r a d i t i o n s , the Greek a n d

the p h a r a o n i c E g y p t i a n , by members o f the native elite finds its exact
correspondence i n the observation t h a t the Ptolemies themselves, r u l i n g
f r o m A l e x a n d r i a , were able t o c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e their roles as E g y p t i a n
p h a r a o h s a n d as H e l l e n i s t i c m o n a r c h s a n d were able t o keep these t w o
different roles separate a n d d i s t i n c t . T h e M a c e d o n i a n Ptolemies a n d
35

the native E g y p t i a n priests u n d e r s t o o d the stylistic differences t h a t dis

t i n g u i s h e d A l e x a n d r i a n , Classical a r t f o r m s f r o m p h a r a o n i c ones. As
these t w o stylistically different art f o r m s a n d the h i s t o r i c a l circumstances
d u r i n g w h i c h b o t h were created clearly reveal, Greeks a n d Egyptians
alike avoided creating w o r k s o f art i n w h a t some earlier scholars have
erroneously defined as a m i x e d s t y l e .

36

T h e c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s o f the elite members o f E g y p t i a n soci

ety d u r i n g the Ptolemaic p e r i o d were thus r o o t e d i n the h i e r o g l y p h t r a d i
t i o n , w h i c h tended t o find its consummate expression i n temple a n d
funerary i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d scenes rather t h a n i n other f o r m s o f a r t .

37

One

m i g h t define this c u l t u r a l tendency as a scholastic one, r o o t e d i n a l o n g ,

b o o k i s h , scribal t r a d i t i o n , n o t p r i m a r i l y a visual one. F u r t h e r m o r e , b o t h
the members o f this elite a n d also, t o an extent, the Ptolemies under
s t o o d the differences between their t w o cultures a n d consciously created
m o n u m e n t s i n one o r the other o f these t r a d i t i o n s .
T h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d confirms t h a t

r a n k i n g members o f

this E g y p t i a n elite were i n direct personal c o n t a c t w i t h the Ptolemies

themselves. I cite as evidence the personal address b y the E g y p t i a n priest
H o r t o the royals a c c o m p a n y i n g P t o l e m y v i P h i l o m e t o r ,

38

the interac

t i o n between P t o l e m y v Epiphanes a n d the s y n o d o f M e m p h i t e priests i n

B i anc hi

186

B.C.,

3 9

a n d the apparent personal n o m i n a t i o n by P t o l e m y x n Auletes

of a h i g h priest at M e m p h i s .

4 0

H o w e v e r p r a g m a t i c these associations m a y

have been f o r p o l i t i c a l or economic reasons, some evidence also suggests

t h a t the leading intellectuals o f the day, b o t h members o f the native
E g y p t i a n elite a n d those o f the A l e x a n d r i a n c o u r t , engaged i n i n t e l l e c t u a l
dialogues w i t h one another. T h i s is certainly the scenario suggested by at
least one scholar i n his evocative character sketch o f the career a n d inter
ests o f the a n o n y m o u s , so-called learned priest w h o w r o t e the treatise
c o n t a i n e d i n the Papyrus J u m i l h a c .

41

I n such p u t a t i v e discussions, native

E g y p t i a n prelates were clearly t a k i n g the i n i t i a t i v e i n this transfer of i n

f o r m a t i o n , as the i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n the archive o f the i n d i v i d u a l n a m e d
M e n k h e s , a village c l e r k ,

42

a n d the recent discussion a b o u t the develop

m e n t o f the C o p t i c language d e m o n s t r a t e .

43

These dialogues m u s t be

regarded against the b a c k g r o u n d o f the activities o f the C r o w n , whose

financing of the E g y p t i a n temples was a q u i d p r o q u o w i t h the E g y p t i a n
elite t o m a i n t a i n the status q u o of the c o u n t r y . T h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f
the syntaxis for a temple i n Elephantine, i n i t i a t e d under P t o l e m y 11
Philadelphos b u t begun under the reign of P t o l e m y v i P h i l o m e t o r , is a
case i n p o i n t .

4 4

D u r i n g the course o f these suggested dialogues, members o f

the E g y p t i a n elite c o m m u n i c a t e d t h e i r p h a r a o n i c ideas a n d concepts t o
t h e i r Greek counterparts n o t as objets d'art whose f o r m s a n d m o t i f s
m i g h t be copied b u t rather as i n t e l l e c t u a l ideas b o r n o f the b o o k i s h t r a
d i t i o n s t o w h i c h that E g y p t i a n elite was so b o u n d . I t r e m a i n e d f o r the
A l e x a n d r i a n s t o clothe these ideas i n visually understandable terms.
T h e earliest a n d b e s t - k n o w n exemplar o f this p h e n o m e n o n
is, o f course, the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the hellenized g o d Serapis by the early
Ptolemies.

45

T h e artificially f o r m u l a t e d tenets of this c u l t ostensibly

m a k e manifest i n t e l l e c t u a l aspects o f E g y p t i a n funerary beliefs, c o m

bined w i t h those f r o m Greece, i n an A l e x a n d r i a n visual t r a d i t i o n . T h e
precedent established by the c r e a t i o n o f the c u l t a n d image of Serapis,
despite the failed a t t e m p t t o convince the Egyptians t o embrace its w o r
ship, was so p r o f o u n d that i t influenced the ways i n w h i c h m a n y subse
quent a p p r o p r i a t i o n s of the E g y p t i a n c u l t u r a l r e c o r d by the A l e x a n d r i a n s
were effected.
These visual images o f Serapis, d e v o i d as they are o f a l l refer
ences t o p h a r a o n i c E g y p t , c a n n o t be fully u n d e r s t o o d by a m o d e r n w h o
relies solely o n f o r m a l , a r t - h i s t o r i c a l analysis. T h e themes associated
w i t h these images of Serapis are comprehensible o n l y w h e n one consid
ers the religious contexts p r o v i d e d by the l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n . A f o r m a l i s t i c
a p p r o a c h t o A l e x a n d r i a n art i n a l l o f its manifestations fails because this
m e t h o d o l o g y relies exclusively o n stylistic analysis a n d never considers
the d o c u m e n t a r y evidence so c r u c i a l f o r a fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the
w o r k o f art under i n v e s t i g a t i o n . W i t h o u t the k n o w l e d g e of this evidence,

195

196

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Figurine w i t h images of Isis and

the dog, from Faiyum. Terracotta.
Berlin, Staatliche Museen
PreufSischer Kulturbesitz,
Agyptisches M u s e u m und
Papyrussammlung, inv. 9 9 5 6 .

one m i g h t h y p o t h e t i c a l l y consider images o f Serapis i n i s o l a t i o n as the

exclusive expressions o f H e l l e n i s t i c Greek concepts.
T h i s p h e n o m e n o n o f c l o a k i n g p h a r a o n i c E g y p t i a n concepts i n
A l e x a n d r i a n Greek v i s u a l g a r b , w h i c h begins i n the Ptolemaic p e r i o d , is
c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h a related practice, t h a t o f i n s c r i b i n g a p h a r a o n i c
w o r k o f a r t w i t h an e p i t o m e , usually i n Greek, b u t occasionally i n an
other script as w e l l . Someone n o t conversant w i t h ancient E g y p t i a n v i
sual conventions is thus p r o v i d e d w i t h a gloss b y w h i c h the image c o u l d
be rendered c o m p r e h e n s i b l e .

46

T h e m o s t famous example o f this practice

is the stela o f Pasos i n C a i r o , dedicated t o A p o l l o n i o s i n the m i d - t h i r d

century

B.C.

4 7

I k n o w n o other object f r o m E g y p t i n a Classical artistic

i d i o m t h a t is p r o v i d e d w i t h an e p i t o m e i n hieroglyphics f o r the benefit o f

an E g y p t i a n p e r c i p i e n t . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is i n keeping w i t h the x e n o
p h o b i a o f the native E g y p t i a n elite, w h o were n o t interested i n foreigners
a n d made n o a t t e m p t at achieving an i n t e l l e c t u a l r a p p r o c h e m e n t w i t h
t h e m . T h e n o n - E g y p t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s , o n the other h a n d , i n c l u d i n g the
Greeks, h a b i t u a l l y a t t e m p t e d t o achieve such a r a p p r o c h e m e n t , as the
use o f these epitomes demonstrates. T h i s practice o f p r o v i d i n g epitomes
for w o r k s i n E g y p t i a n style c o n t i n u e d i n t o the R o m a n I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ,
at least u n t i l the late first c e n t u r y A . D . , at w h i c h t i m e , o r so i t w o u l d ap
pear, the Egyptians ceased creating statues i n p h a r a o n i c s t y l e .

48

T h e penchant f o r t r a n s l a t i n g p h a r a o n i c , E g y p t i a n concepts
i n t o A l e x a n d r i a n w o r k s o f art accelerated, however, d u r i n g the R o m a n

B ianchi

FIG.

Votive stela w i t h Athena, T u t u ,

and Nemesis as a griffin. Vienna,
Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m , inv.
AOS 5077.

I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . T h i s is n o w h e r e m o r e evident t h a n i n the subjects o f

4 9

some of the F a i y u m i c terracottas of the p e r i o d . A p o p u l a r type depicts a

goddess i n some association w i t h a d o g . O n the basis o f religious tenets
already firmly i n place i n the p h a r a o n i c p e r i o d , this subject can r e a d i l y
be identified as the goddess Isis. She is associated w i t h Sothis. I n the
f o r m of the D o g Star, Sothis appeared i n the A u g u s t sky as the h a r b i n g e r
of the f r u c t i f y i n g N i l e flood, w h i c h was believed t o be c o n t r o l l e d by Isis,
at the b e g i n n i n g o f the N e w Year (fig. 2 ) .

5 0

T h e Isiac associations o f the

d o g a n d H a r p o k r a t e s are also evident i n a bronze g r o u p , w h i c h , together

w i t h the presence o f the t u r t l e , have been i n t e r p r e t e d as symbols o f the
rising N i l e a n d renewed f e r t i l i t y .

51

T h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f p h a r a o n i c religious tenets a n d t h e i r
subsequent t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o A l e x a n d r i a n visual images are sometimes
quite sophisticated, as Quaegebeur demonstrated i n his discussion o f
several stelae t h a t depict A t h e n a , the composite genie T u t u , a n d the
griffin (fig. 3 ) .

5 2

R e v i e w i n g p h a r a o n i c precedents, he demonstrated t h a t

the griffin, l o n g identified i n E g y p t as the i n c a r n a t i o n o f the divine

and/or r o y a l m i g h t , p u n i t i v e l y directed against the forces o f chaos, is
here associated also w i t h E g y p t i a n concepts o f divine r e t r i b u t i o n , over
w h i c h N e i t h , here represented as A t h e n a , a n d her charge, T u t u , pre
side.

53

There are, o f course, other examples, such as the use o f p h a r a o n i c

c r o w n s a n d headdresses, t h a t are n o t p u r e l y decorative m o t i f s o n the

b a n d o l i e r of this priestess

54

b u t rather represent emblems of funerary

practices, derived f r o m p h a r a o n i c precedents, i n the R o m a n I m p e r i a l

p e r i o d . Similar c r o w n s w i t h s i m i l a r meanings a d o r n the w a l l s o f T o m b 2
at A n f u s h y .

55

197

198

ARTS

O F HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

I n c o n c l u s i o n , the n u m b e r o f typologies i n t o w h i c h one can

place objects classified as m i n o r arts f r o m H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n A l e x a n d r i a
a n d p h a r a o n i c P t o l e m a i c - R o m a n E g y p t are less n u m e r o u s t h a n one
m i g h t expect. O n e o f the reasons c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the d i m i n u t i o n of
p h a r a o n i c m i n o r arts i n Ptolemaic a n d R o m a n E g y p t m a y be ascribed
n o t t o the hazards of excavation a n d the vagaries of pillage b u t rather t o
the c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s o f the native E g y p t i a n elite. M o r e often t h a n n o t ,
these t r a d i t i o n s were conveyed i n a scribal rather t h a n a v i s u a l i d i o m .
There was ample o p p o r t u n i t y i n b o t h Ptolemaic a n d R o m a n
periods f o r members o f t h a t elite t o engage i n a dialogue w i t h t h e i r
A l e x a n d r i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . As a result o f t h a t dialogue, p h a r a o n i c ideas
were made manifest either by the a d d i t i o n o f a w r i t t e n epitome o n a
p h a r a o n i c w o r k of a r t o r b y the v i s u a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n of those concepts
u t i l i z i n g A l e x a n d r i a n n o n p h a r a o n i c m o t i f s . T h i s hypothesis explains
w h y the m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f p h a r a o n i c R o m a n E g y p t consists a l m o s t
exclusively of temple a n d t o m b d e c o r a t i o n w i t h its a c c o m p a n y i n g cartonnage o r other t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l decorations. A n d these c u l t u r a l ex
pressions can best be u n d e r s t o o d as b e l o n g i n g t o the scribal i n t e l l e c t u a l
t r a d i t i o n o f the E g y p t i a n elite, w h i c h was always the cornerstone of its
c i v i l i z a t i o n . W i t h i n such a c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d , there does n o t appear
to have been a so-called m i x e d school of art i n w h i c h t w o d i s t i n c t artis
tic styles reflecting the characteristics of the t w o t r a d i t i o n s were c o n
sciously conflated.
N E W

Y O R K

B ianchi

Notes

"De Rogato A r t i u m Elegantiorum Alexandrin a r u m , " Bulletin

of Glass

du Service

I I

des Antiquites

Annales
4 (1903):

de I'Egypte

F. D u n a n d et a l . , La necropole
(Oasis

10 ( 1 9 6 8 ) : 4 8 - 7 0 ,

Studies

A . Kamal, " U n tombeau a Zeitoun,"

95-96.

A . O l i v e r , Jr., " M i l l e f i o r i Glass i n A n t i q u i t y , "

Journal

10

Archeologique

45 ( 1 9 9 3 ) : 3 5 - 4 4 .

d'Alexandrie
2

de la Societe

de

Douch

vol. 1 (Cairo 1992).

de Kharga),

suggests t h a t t h e a d j e c t i v e " m i l l e f i o r i " is t o be

preferred to " m o s a i c " w h e n describing this par

12

W . B e n t k o w s k i , " T h e Activities of the Polish-

t i c u l a r t y p e o f glass.

E g y p t i a n M i s s i o n at M a r i n a e l - A l a m e i n i n

T h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m 37.258 E: O l i v e r (note

ranean:

1 9 8 8 , " Polish
3

Archaeology

Reports

in the

Mediter

vol. 2 (1989-

1989-1990,

2 a b o v e ) : 6 8 ; R . S. B i a n c h i , i n R . A . F a z z i n i

1990): 3 8 - 4 3 ; and W . A . Daszewski, " M a r i n a

et a l . , Ancient

e l - A l a m e i n 1 9 9 1 , " Polish

Egyptian

Art in the

Brooklyn

Mediterranean:

(Brooklyn 1988), no. 79.

Museum

Reports

Archaeology
1991,

in

the

vol. 3 (1992):

2 9 - 3 8 . See a l s o t h e c o m m e n t s e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s
4

D . B . H a r d e n , Glass
1 9 8 7 ) , PP.

v o l u m e by J u d i t h M c K e n z i e a b o u t some o f the

(Milan

of the Caesars

a r c h i t e c t u r a l f r a g m e n t s r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h i s site.

53-4-

T h e s u g g e s t i o n w a s first m a d e b y B . C o o k , " A

13

The Brooklyn

Annual

Graeco-Roman

10 ( 1 9 6 8 -

Stelae

from

Kom

Abou

(Ann A r b o r 1961), pp. 1-7; A . Abdalla,

Funerary

Stelae

from

Upper

(Liverpool 1992), pp. 6 - 7 , passim, for

1969): 1 1 5 - 3 8 , and unequivocally confirmed

Egypt

b y P. C a l l a g h a n , " E x c a v a t i o n s at a S h r i n e o f

A b y d o s a n d D e n d e r a . T h e subject matter of the

G l a u k o s , " Bulletin

deceased o n a k l i n e o f f e r i n g a l i b a t i o n , w h i c h is

Archaeology,

of the British

School

of

f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u n t e r e d o n these stelae, is also

33 ( 1 9 7 8 ) : 1 0 - 3 0 . F o r a

Athens

s u m m a r y o f the e v i d e n c e l e a d i n g t o t h i s r e v i

the p r i n c i p a l m o t i f of the Getty sarcophagus

s i o n i s t assessment f o r t h a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , see

discussed e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s v o l u m e b y K l a u s

R . S. B i a n c h i , Cleopatra's

Parlasca.

Egypt:

Age of

the

e x h . cat. ( T h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m

Ptolemies,
1988) , pp.
6

Museum

F. A . H o o p e r , Funerary
Billou

D a t e d H y d r a Vase i n t h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m , "

14

226-27.

R . A . H i g g i n s , Tanagra

and the

Figurines

C . I . G r e e n , The Temple

Furniture

cred Animal

Necropolis

at North

1964-19-76

(London 1987); to w h i c h compare

(Princeton 1986); N . H i m m e l m a n n ,

Alexandria

F. Petrie, The Funeral

und der Realismus

Kunst

don 1937), p i . x x x i x .

in der griechischen

Furniture

from

the

Sa

Saqqara,
(Lon

of Egypt

(Tubingen 1983).
15
7

" E x - v o t o s o f D y n a s t y x x v i , " Mitteilungen

Deutschen
Kairo

Archaologischen

Instituts,

Scientiarum

Abteilung

B i a n c h i (note 5 above), p . 108, where I s u m m a

of Glass

Studies

25 ( 1 9 8 3 ) : 2 5 - 3 5 ,

i n Bulletin

of the Egyptological

New

5 (1:983): 9 - 2 9 .

York

Seminar

16

in
Academiae

15 ( 1 9 6 7 ) : 1 2 4 ;

Hungaricae

C . A n d r e w s , Ancient

Egyptian

(Lon

Jewellery

d o n 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 1 9 9 ; so, t o o , U . K a p l o n y - H e c k e l ,
and

of

" N o c h e i n m a l S O L L U N D H A B E N I N PAT H Y R I S . ' W a s Petosiris ausgegeben h a t . ' :

Pheidelberg I n v D e m 763 Recto Z l . 1 0 - 1 9 , "
Agypten

Antiqua

D u n a n d et a l . ( n o t e 1 1 a b o v e ) , p i s . 6 0 , 6 1 .

35 ( 1 9 7 9 ) : 1 5 - 2 2 .

rize m y earlier a r g u m e n t s a p p e a r i n g b o t h i n
Journal

L . C a s t i g l i o n e , " K u n s t u n d Gesellschaft
r o m i s c h e n A g y p t e n , " Acta

des

und Altes

Testament

20 (1990):

Inter alia, N e w York, The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u

1 7 5 - 8 2 ; a n d J. T a i t , " A D e m o t i c L i s t o f T e m p l e

s e u m o f A r t , D e p a r t m e n t a l Files, T o m b C a r d s

a n d C o u r t O c c u p a t i o n s : P. C a r l s b e r g 2 3 , " i n

4582 and 5270: unpublished. I wish to thank

H . J. T h i s s e n a n d K . - T . Z a u z i c h , eds.,

D o r o t h e a A r n o l d f o r g r a n t i n g m e access t o these

mata

r e c o r d s as I w o r k t o w a r d p r e p a r i n g a m a n u

deckens

s c r i p t f o r v o l u m e 3 t o c o m p l e t e t h e series b e g u n

p p . 2 1 1 - 3 3 . I n his l e c t u r e d u r i n g t h e s y m p o

b y W . H a y e s , The Scepter

of Egypt,

vol. 1 (New

York 1953), and vol. 2 ( N e w York 1959).

Demotika:
zum

Festschrift
I J . Juni

1983

fur Erich

GramLud-

(Wiirzburg 1984),

s i u m M i c h a e l P f r o m m e r discussed several as
pects o f H e l l e n i s t i c G r e e k j e w e l r y , f o c u s i n g his

199

200

ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

a t t e n t i o n o n a g r o u p n o w i n t h e J. P a u l G e t t y

and Friends

M u s e u m , 92.AM.8.

J. C . G o y o n , " P t o l e m a i c E g y p t : Priests a n d t h e

(Groningen 1986), pp.

254-64;

T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n , " i n Bianchi (note 5 above),

17

The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t 2 6 . 7 . 1 4 5 4 -

p p . 2 9 - 4 0 . O f t e n t i m e s these same p r i e s t s i n t e r

1 4 7 4 , t w e n t y - o n e bracelets a n d armlets, r e p o r t

m a r r i e d t o consolidate their a d v a n t a g e d status,

edly f r o m B a l a m u n a n d acquired f r o m the

as a r g u e d b y D . J. C r a w f o r d , " P t o l e m y , P t a h a n d

C a r n a r v o n c o l l e c t i o n : M . R o s t o v t z e f f , The
cial and Economic

History

of the

A p i s i n H e l l e n i s t i c M e m p h i s , " i n D . J. C r a w

So

f o r d , J. Q u a e g e b e u r , a n d W . C l a r y s s e , eds.,

Hellenistic

vol. 1 ( O x f o r d 1941), p. 378, and

World,

Studies

on Ptolemaic

Memphis

( = Studia

Hel-

24) (Leuven 1980), p . 22.

lenistica

p i . X L V . 2 , 3, w h e r e t h e l o t is d a t e d , i n c o r r e c t l y
t o m y m i n d , t o t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ; see
T . G . H . James, Howard

Carter:

The Path

to

22

( L o n d o n 1992), pp. 1 6 4 - 6 5 , for

Tutankhamun

H . te V e l d e , " S o m e R e m a r k s o n t h e M y s t e r i o u s
L a n g u a g e o f t h e B a b o o n s , " i n J. K . K a m s t r a ,

t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g its d i s c o v e r y . I

H . M i l d e , a n d K . W a g t e n d o n k , eds.,

u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e r e m a y be a d d i t i o n a l o b j e c t s

Symbols

b e l o n g i n g t o this g r o u p i n the C a r n a r v o n collec

fessor

t i o n i n H i g h c l e r e Castle i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m .

casion

and Religion:

M. S. H. G. Heerma

A . E . S a m u e l , The Shifting
Interpretations

Sands

of Ptolemaic

of

23

" C o m p u l s o r y P u b l i c Service i n R o m a n E g y p t , "

PP19

Treverensia,

of

the

University
129-36.

H . de M e u l e n a e r e , " L e s strateges i n d i g e n e s d u
et a u d e b u t de 1'occupation r o m a i n e , "
degli

A l t h o u g h this p h e n o m e n o n was already recog

n i z e d b o t h b y H . J u n k e r , Grammatik

der

24

Den-

Studi

J. H . J o h n s o n , " T h e R o l e o f t h e E g y p t i a n P r i e s t
Egyptological

Studies

H . W . F a i r m a n , " N o t e s o n t h e A l p h a b e t i c Signs

A. Parker:

E m p l o y e d i n the H i e r o g l y p h i c Inscriptions of

78th

t h e T e m p l e o f E d f u , " Annales

1986), pp. 7 0 - 8 4 .

du Service

Rivista

34 (1959): 18.

Orientali

h o o d i n Ptolemaic E g y p t , " i n L . H . Lesko, ed.,

(Leipzig 1906), pp. 1-3, and by

Antiquites

the Chair
at the

n o m e t e n t y r i t e a la fin de l ' e p o q u e p t o l e m a i q u e

vol. 2 (1983),

35-39-

deratexte

Pro
Oc

(Kampen 1988), pp.

of Amsterdam

History:

from

Religions

to

Voss on the

(New York

Egypt

1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 9 , 3 6 , 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 8 ; J. D . T h o m a s ,
Aegyptiaca

of Ancient

Funerary

Dedicated

van

of His Retirement

History
18

Essays

des

Presented

Birthday,

in Honor

of

Richard

on the Occasion

December

of

His

(Hanover

10, 1983

43 ( 1 9 4 3 ) : 1 9 4 , P. D e r -

de VEgypte

c h a i n w a s t h e first c l e a r l y t o a r t i c u l a t e its p r i n

25

D e r c h a i n - U r t e i l (note 20 above), p p .

169-86;

c i p l e s : " U n m a n u e l de g e o g r a p h i e l i t u r g i q u e a

F. D a u m a s , " D u p h o n e m e a u s y m b o l e d a n s

E d f o u , " Chronique

l'ecriture hieroglyphique ptolemaique,"

73 ( 1 9 6 2 ) : 3 1 -

d'Egypte

6 5 . D e r c h a i n ' s l e a d has b e e n f o l l o w e d b y v i r t u

rier du CNRS

Cour-

29 (July 1978): 20.

a l l y a l l s u b s e q u e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s o n these
temple texts, inter alia, E. W i n t e r , "Weitere

26

Egypt,

der griechisch-romischen Z e i t , "

R . S. B i a n c h i , " A n I d e a l I m a g e , " i n The

1989), pp.

Agyptologische

4 6 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 6 1 - 7 6 ; a n d m o r e re

c e n t l y E . V a s s i l i k a , Ptolemaic

est of Seers: Essays

(Leuven

Philae

M . - T . D e r c h a i n - U r t e i l , Priester
Die

Rezeption

Edfu

und

der Theologie

Dendera

Zeit

im

of Cyril

Great
Aldred,

i n press.
agyptischen

t i t a t , " i n J. O s i n g a n d E . K . N i e l s e n , eds.,

von

Heritage

Privatdokumenten

(Wiesbaden

J. A s s m a n n , " D e r T e m p e l d e r

S p a t z e i t als K a n o n i s i e r u n g k u l t u r e l l e r I d e n -

Tempel:

der Tempel

in den

aus ptolemaischer
pp. 158,

in Honor

5-17.
27

of Erik

1989),

of Ancient
Iversen

Egypt:

Studies

in

The

Honour

(Copenhagen 1992), p. 23.

169-86.
28

21

of Ancient

trans. A . Morrissett ( N e w York i 9 6 0 ) , p. 118;

Ahhandlungen

20

S. S a u n e r o n , The Priests

Beobachtungen zur 'grammaire d u temple' i n

B i a n c h i (note 5 above), p p . 5 5 - 5 9 , f u r t h e r i n g

J. B a i n e s , " R e s t r i c t e d K n o w l e d g e , H i e r a r c h y ,

the perceptive c o m m e n t s o f H . G . Fischer,

a n d D e c o r u m : M o d e r n Perceptions a n d A n c i e n t

L'ecriture

I n s t i t u t i o n s , " Journal

lecons

Center

in Egypt

of the American

Research

2 7 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 2 1 - 2 3 ; H . te V e l d e ,

et Part de VEgypte
sur la paleographie

pharaoniques

et

ancienne:

Quatre

Vepigraphie

(Paris 1 9 8 6 ) .

"Scribes a n d L i t e r a c y i n A n c i e n t E g y p t , " i n
H . L . J. V a n s t i p h o u t et a l . , eds., Scripta

Signa

Vocis:

Scribes

Studies

and Languages
to ] . H. Hospers

about

Scripts,

in the Near

Scriptures,
East,

by His Pupils,

Presented
Colleagues

29
30

J o h n s o n (note 24 above).
A m s t e r d a m , A l l a r d Pierson M u s e u m 7 0 6 9 :
D . K u r t h , Der Sarg

der Teiiris:

Eine

Studie

B i anc hi

zum

Totenglauben

( = Aegyptiaca

im romerzeitlicben

Agypten

40

C r a w f o r d (note 21 above), p . 39.

41

P. D e r c h a i n , " L ' a u t e u r d u p a p y r u s J u m i l h a c , "

6) ( M a i n z a m

Treverensia

R h e i n 1 9 9 0 ) , f o r w h i c h he d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t
the decorative and t e x t u a l components,

Revue

far

41 (1991): 9 - 3 0 .

d'Egyptologie

f r o m b e i n g a b e r r a n t a n d m i s u n d e r s t o o d as t h e y
are g e n e r a l l y p o r t r a y e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , are i n

42

fact carefully p l a n n e d and derive f r o m a purely

N . L e w i s , Greeks
1986), pp.

in Ptolemaic

(Oxford

Egypt

104-23.

pharaonic t r a d i t i o n , divorced f r o m outside

i n f l u e n c e s . T h i s same c o n c l u s i o n w a s r e a c h e d

43

D . R. M c B r i d e , "The Development of Coptic:

independently by L . C o r c o r a n , " A C u l t Func

L a t e - P a g a n L a n g u a g e Synthesis i n E g y p t , "

t i o n for the So-Called F a i y u m M u m m y Por

nal of the Society

t r a i t s ? , " i n J. H . J o h n s o n , e d . , Life

tiquities

cultural

Society:

Constantine

Egypt

and Beyond

from

in a

Multi

Cambyses

for the Study

An

19 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 9 0 - 9 1 .

to

(Chicago 1992),

44

U . Kaplony-Heckel, " Z u m

demotischen

pp. 5 7 - 6 2 .

B a u g r u b e n - G r a f f i t o v o m Satis-Tempel a u f

Johnson (note 24 above), p p . 7 0 - 8 4 .

Archdologischen

E l e p h a n t i n e , " Mitteilungen
3I

Jour

of Egyptian

des

Instituts,

Deutschen

Abteilung

Kairo

43 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 1 6 7 - 6 8 .
32

D e r c h a i n - U r t e i l (note 20 above), p p . 2 4 7 - 5 3 .

33

W . Clarysse, " i v . I n s c r i p t i o n s , 1 - 2 , "

45
D a c k , et a l . , eds., The
ofio^-101

Dossier

Concerning

( = Collectanea

O s i r i s - A p i s i n p l a c e i n A l e x a n d r i a at t h e t i m e

Judean-Syrian-Egyptian
B.C.: A

Conflict

a "War

o f his " f o u n d i n g " o f t h a t c i t y , as a r g u e d b y

Multilinguistic
of

Hellenistica,

T h e r e is a g r o w i n g c o n s e n s u s t h a t A l e x a n d e r
the Great encountered an E g y p t i a n c u l t of

i n E. van't

D . J. T h o m p s o n , Memphis

Scepters"

under

the

Ptolemies

(Princeton 1988), pp. 116 n . 57, 194; A . Swi-

v o l . 1) (Brussels

1 9 8 9 ) , p . 8 5 , c i t i n g t h e classic w o r k o n t h i s

d e r e k , " S a r a p i s et les H e l l e n o m e m p h i t e s , " i n

s u b j e c t b y J. Y o y o t t e , " B a k h t i s r e l i g i o n e g y p -

J. B i n g e n , G . C a m b i e r , a n d G . N a c h t e r g a e l ,

t i e n n e et c u l t u r e g r e c q u e a E d f o u , " i n i d e m , e d . ,

Le monde

Religions

en Egypte

(Brussels 1 9 7 5 ) , PP- 6 7 0 - 7 5 ; S. K . H e y o b ,

Colloque

de Strasbourg,

hellenistique
16-18

et
mai

romaine:

The

(Paris

1967

Cult

grec: Hommages
of Isis among
World

a Claire

Women

eds.,

Preaux

in the

Graeco-

( L e i d e n 1 9 7 5 ) , PP- 2 - 4 . I t h a n k

1969), pp. 1 2 7 - 4 1 .

Roman

W . Clarysse, "Greeks a n d Egyptians i n the

w i t h me and for p r o v i d i n g the cited

Ptolemaic A r m y and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , "

t i o n . See, t o o , t h e c o m m e n t s o n t h i s p o i n t m a d e

Lorelie C o r c o r a n b o t h for discussing this p o i n t

34

Aegyptus

by L i l l y K a h i l elsewhere i n this v o l u m e .

55 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 5 7 - 6 6 .
35

documenta

46

I b i d . , 6 4 ; see also n o t e 2 1 a b o v e .

R . S. B i a n c h i , " T h e C u l t u r a l T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
E g y p t as Suggested b y a G r o u p o f E n t h r o n e d

36

B i a n c h i ( n o t e 5 a b o v e ) , p p . 5 5 , 6 3 - 6 9 ; see also

M a l e Figures f r o m the F a i y u m , " i n J o h n s o n

n o t e 53 b e l o w , a n d t h e s u c c i n c t s u r v e y o f t h e

( n o t e 3 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 3 - 2 4 ; see Y o y o t t e ( n o t e

h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f A l e x a n d r i a n C l a s s i c a l art h i s

33 a b o v e ) f o r a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f t h i s same

t o r y by A n d r e w Stewart i n this v o l u m e .

p r a c t i c e b y t h e G r e e k s , w h i c h is a g a i n w i t h o u t
a p p a r e n t p a r a l l e l for the Egyptians.

37

L . Z a b k a r , Hymns

to Isis in Her Temple

at

Phi-

lae ( H a n o v e r 1 9 8 8 ) , p p . 1 3 5 - 6 0 , f o r c r e a t i v e ,

47

C a i r o , T h e E g y p t i a n M u s e u m JE 4 4 0 4 8 :
Bianchi (note 4 6 above), pp. 15, 23.

n a t i v e E g y p t i a n h y m n s t o Isis at P h i l a e c o m
posed d u r i n g the Ptolemaic p e r i o d , w h i c h i n
s p i r e d t h e later Isis a r e t a l o g i e s o f t h e R o m a n
p e r i o d ; a n d S. S a u n e r o n , UEcriture
dans

les textes

d'Esna

48

B i a n c h i (note 46 above), p p . 1 5 - 2 6 .

figurative

( C a i r o 1 9 8 2 ) , f o r t h e ex

49

C a s t i g l i o n e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) : 3 1 , a l r e a d y p e r c e p
tively recognized this trend.

t r a o r d i n a r y , elaborate prayers created d u r i n g

the R o m a n I m p e r i a l p e r i o d by the E g y p t i a n
elite i n h o n o r o f t h e g o d K h n u m at E s n a .

50

B e r l i n 9 9 5 6 : G . C l e r c , " I s i s - S o t h i s d a n s le
m o n d e r o m a i n , " i n M . B . de B o e r a n d T . A .

38

J. D . R a y , The Archive

of Hor

(London 1976),

p. 120.

E d r i d g e , eds., Hommages

a Maarten

maseren:

offert

Recueil

d'etudes

de la Serie Etudes
39

C r a w f o r d (note 21 above), p . 36.

orientates

dans

] . Vermaseren

preliminaires

Vempire
a Voccasion

J.

Ver-

par les
aux

romain
de son

auteurs

religions
Maarten
soixantieme

201

202

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

le 7 Avril

anniversaire

1978,

v o l . 1 (Leiden

o r beginning o f the R o m a n p e r i o d , t o w h i c h

1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 2 4 7 - 8 1 . T h i s t h e m e is o f g r e a t a n
t i q u i t y i n p h a r a o n i c E g y p t ; see C . D e s r o c h e s -

" O p u s Sectile M o s a i c s f r o m A l e x a n d r i a a n d

N o b l e c o u r t , " Q u a t r e objets

M a r e o t i s , " Jahrbuch

protodynastiques

p r o v e n a n t d ' u n ' t r e s o r ' f u n e r a i r e , " Revue

Louvre

et des Musees

de France

du

tum,

2 (1979):

108-17.
51

M . M a l a i s e , " L e s a n i m a u x et la p o t d ' H a r p o c r a t e : C o n t r i b u t i o n a l ' i c o n o g r a p h i e d u fils

d T s i s , " Bulletin
tologie

52

de la Societe

francaise

d'Egyp-

122 (1991): 1 3 - 3 5 .

V i e n n a 5 0 7 7 : J. Q u a e g e b e u r , " D e l ' o r i g i n e
e g y p t i e n n e d u g r i f f o n N e m e s i s , " i n Visages
Destin

dans

les mythologies:

line Duchemin.
Colloque

Travaux

Melanges

et memoires:

du Chantilly,

1-2

du

Jacque
Actes

du

(Paris

mai 1980

1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 4 1 - 5 4 ; J. Q u a e g e b e u r , W . C l a r y s s e ,
and B. van Maele, "Athena, Neith, and Thoeris
i n G r e e k D o c u m e n t s , " Zeitschrift

fur

Papyrolo-

60 (1985): 2 1 7 - 3 2 . One

gie und Epigraphik

can profitably compare this typically pharaonic

n a t u r e o f N e m e s i s w i t h its R o m a n n a t u r e , as
defined by K . M . D . D u n b a b i n , " I n b i d e calco
te . . . T r a m p l i n g u p o n t h e E n v i o u s , "
fur Antike

und

Christentum,

Jahrbuch

Erganzungsband

18 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 6 - 3 5 .
53

For a temple t o T u t u d a t i n g to the R o m a n

I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , see C . H o p e , " T h e 1 9 9 1 E x
cavations o f Ismant el-Kharab i n the D a k h l e h
O a s i s , " Bulletin

of the Australian

Centre

2 (1991): 4 1 - 5 0 ; C. H o p e

for Egyptology

a n d O . E . K a p e r , " E x c a v a t i o n s at I s m a n t e l K h a r a b 1 9 9 2 , " Bulletin

Centre

for Egyptology

of the

Australian

3 (1992): 4 1 - 4 9 ;

C . H o p e et a l . , " D a k h l e h O a s i s P r o j e c t : I s m a n t
e l - K h a r a b 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 2 , " Journal
for the Study

of Egyptian

of the

Antiquities

Society

19 ( 1 9 8 9 ) :

8 - 9 , reinforce the observation that Classical

m o t i f s are k e p t separate a n d d i s t i n c t f r o m
p h a r a o n i c m o t i f s (note 36 above). These t w o
styles w e r e r a r e l y c o m m i n g l e d i n a n t i q u i t y t o
p r o d u c e w h a t some m o d e r n c o m m e n t a t o r s have
termed a " m i x e d school of art."
54

L . Kakosy, " D i e K r o n e n i n spatagyptischen

T o t e n g l a u b e n , " Aegyptiaca

Treverensia

(1983): 5 7 - 6 0 .
55

consider the c o m m e n t s b y M . R o d z i e w i c z ,

T h e c r o w n s are also used i n i s o l a t e d squares

i n the checkerboard decoration o f C h a m b e r 1
(j) o f H y p o g e u m 2 at A n f u s h y . J. M a c K e n z i e ,
The Architecture

ofPetra

(Oxford 1990),

p p . 6 7 - 6 8 , considers the checkerboard

decora

t i o n t o be " o f E g y p t i a n o r i g i n " a n d t h e a p p e a r
ance o f t h a t d e c o r a t i v e scheme i n t h i s c h a m b e r
t o be n o e a r l i e r t h a n t h e late H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d

Erganzungsband

fur Antike

und

Christen

18 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 2 0 4 , p a s s i m .

203

Ptolemaic Portraits: Alexandrian Types,

Egyptian Versions
R. R. R.

Smith

T h i s paper describes some characteristic aspects o f the Ptolemaic

r o y a l image i n the t h i r d c e n t u r y a n d t h e n explores i n m o r e detail the
reception o f A l e x a n d r i a n p o r t r a i t types i n E g y p t i a n w o r k s h o p s i n the
second century.
Ptolemaic p o r t r a i t s have been the subject o f m u c h recent
study a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d several distinctive features o f r o y a l style at
1

A l e x a n d r i a can be readily agreed o n . T w o such characteristics are w e l l

exemplified by a p a i r of bronze statuettes i n L o n d o n (fig. i ) : first, the
2

heavy deployment: o f attributes, a n d second, the p r o m i n e n t role a n d dis

t i n c t i v e representation of the queen.
T h e L o n d o n statuettes p r o v i d e o u r best evidence f o r the ap
pearance o f f u l l Ptolemaic statues i n the t h i r d century. T h e queen wears
a stephane and carries a d o u b l e c o r n u c o p i a , the personal s y m b o l o f A r sinoe n , w h i l e the k i n g , P t o l e m y n , wears t a l l boots a n d an elephant3

scalp headdress a n d carries a c l u b . T h e boots a n d elephant s k i n refer

t o D i o n y s o s a n d Alexander, w h o c o n q u e r e d I n d i a , a n d the c l u b t o
H e r a k l e s . T h e figure was thus designed t o e m b o d y the official r o y a l
4

m y t h o l o g y i n w h i c h the kings c l a i m e d A r g e a d descent v i a A l e x a n d e r

f r o m D i o n y s o s o n one side a n d Herakles o n the o t h e r . T h e m e a n i n g is
5

t h a t the k i n g has powers like those o f his d i v i n e forebears.

T h e i m p o s i n g bust o f P t o l e m y i n o n his g o l d coinage presents
a classic image of Ptolemaic k i n g s h i p heavily accoutred w i t h d i v i n e sym
bols (fig. 2 ) . T h e k i n g has ( i ) the rays of H e l i o s attached t o his r o y a l
6

d i a d e m , signifying the idea o f manifest r o y a l d i v i n i t y , basileus

phanes;

theos

epi-

(2) an aegis w o r n like a r o y a l chlamys, the Zeus-like a t t r i b u t e o f

Ptolemy 1 Soter, the dynasty's founder; a n d (3) a r o y a l scepter crafted as

a t r i d e n t o f Poseidonthe k i n g also rules the sea. Each a t t r i b u t e was
carefully adapted t o its nearest r o y a l a n a l o g u e d i a d e m , c h l a m y s ,
scepterto create n e w d i v i n e attributes peculiar t o the k i n g a n d differ
ent f r o m those o f the o l d gods.
These attributes were p a r t of the larger shaping o f a distinc
tive A l e x a n d r i a n c o u r t style. T h e A n t i g o n i d s a n d Seleucids favored an
energetic a n d d y n a m i c r o y a l image, expressive o f m a r t i a l h e r o i s m i n the
manner o f A l e x a n d e r , an overtly charismatic style t h a t does n o t rely

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FIG.

Statuettes of Arsinoe n and

Ptolemy n ( 2 8 2 - 2 4 6 B . C . ) , from
Egypt. Bronze. H . : 39 cm.
L o n d o n , The British Museum
38443 and 38442.

on e x t e r n a l a t t r i b u t e s . A t A l e x a n d r i a , o n coins f r o m Philadelphos t o
7

Epiphanes, one sees the emergence a n d sharp d e f i n i t i o n o f another r o y a l

style: c a l m a n d impassive i n demeanor, precise a n d rather m a n n e r e d i n
f o r m , c o u r t l y a n d refined i n effect. T h i s was the Ptolemaic alternative t o
8

the heroic v i g o r prescribed f o r the Successors by A l e x a n d e r . T h e differ

ence i n i d e o l o g y is t h a t t o be f o u n d between the ideal dashing D i a d o c h ,
deinos

a n d drasterios,

p o r t r a y e d i n Plutarch's account o f the r o y a l style

FIG.

of D e m e t r i o s Poliorketes, a n d the dazzling e n c o m i u m of the majesty of

Alexandrian octadrachm of

P t o l e m y Philadelphos i n T h e o k r i t o s 1 7 .

Ptolemy i n ( 2 4 6 - 2 2 2 B . C . ) . G o l d .

Ca. 220 B . C . D i a m . : 2.5 cm. N e w

T h e Ptolemies were unusual i n g i v i n g real p r o m i n e n c e t o t h e i r

q u e e n s i n r o y a l ceremony, c u l t , a n d p u b l i c documents. A n d the queens
appear m o r e r e g u l a r l y o n coins a n d i n s u r v i v i n g sculpture t h a n i n any
other k i n g d o m , a n d i t was doubtless their images t h a t defined the visual
ideal o f female p o w e r f o r other dynasties a n d m o r e w i d e l y f o r the wives
of the H e l l e n i s t i c c i t y elites. T h e coins o f A r s i n o e 11 present a s t r i k i n g
female e d i t i o n o f Ptolemaic c o u r t style, a h i g h l y m a n n e r e d , angular p o r
t r a i t , w i t h t h i n , sharp features a n d w i d e - s t a r i n g eyes c o n t a i n e d i n a t i g h t
controlling contour.

10

T h i s h i g h l y austere ideal was tempered i n the

fuller-faced p o r t r a i t s o f Berenike 11. B o t h were w i d e l y i m i t a t e d .

11

12

I n the second century, there are t w o connected aspects t h a t

perhaps deserve m o r e a t t e n t i o n . T h e first is the use o f official o r c e n t r a l l y
p r o v i d e d types i n the c r e a t i o n a n d dissemination o f r o y a l p o r t r a i t s , a
practice m o r e f a m i l i a r i n the R o m a n p e r i o d . T h e second is the nature o r
q u e s t i o n o f Greek elements i n E g y p t i a n sculpture o f the p e r i o d . I t has
been argued recently t h a t E g y p t i a n sculptors b o r r o w e d l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g

York, The American Numismatic

Society.

Smith

f r o m A l e x a n d r i a . O n this view, m o s t things i n late-period E g y p t i a n

1 3

sculpture are t o be e x p l a i n e d i n terms o n l y of the r i c h pre-Ptolemaic

t r a d i t i o n . H e r e I w o u l d like s i m p l y t o examine a few second-century
A l e x a n d r i a n r o y a l p o r t r a i t types i n r e l a t i o n t o w h i c h the character a n d
extent o f E g y p t i a n reception o f Greek s c u l p t u r a l ideas can be d e m o n
strated a n d measured. H e r e w e can, as i t were, f o l l o w a few A l e x a n d r i a n
models i n t o the E g y p t i a n hard-stone w o r k s h o p s . T h i s i n t u r n m a y help
o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f second-century developments i n the Ptolemaic i m
age m o r e generally.
T r a d i t i o n a l hard-stone statues a n d reliefs o f the Ptolemaic
rulers were made t h r o u g h o u t the Ptolemaic p e r i o d f o r the native temples
of E g y p t .

14

T h e i r c o n t e x t is w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d by decrees o f the E g y p t i a n

p r i e s t h o o d , such as t h a t preserved o n the Rosetta stone. U n l i k e earlier

invaders, the M a c e d o n i a n Ptolemies came w i t h t h e i r o w n ideas a b o u t
r o y a l representation t h a t were r a d i c a l l y different i n basic p r i n c i p l e s o f
f o r m , i c o n o g r a p h y , a n d style f r o m p h a r a o n i c images. T h e priests a n d
their sculptors were free t o ignore or take notice o f these differences as
they saw fit. T h e i r response, t h o u g h v a r i e d , was always slight i n the c o n
t e x t o f the w h o l e statue. A d j u s t m e n t a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n were confined
t o the head. I n place of a p u r e l y p h a r a o n i c scheme, the head m i g h t a d d
H e l l e n i c h a i r over the b r o w a n d take o n v a r y i n g degrees o f n a t u r a l i s m .
These were o b v i o u s l y intrusive elements designed t o represent the differ
ent or foreign character o f the k i n g . T h a t is, the head of a statue m i g h t
express merely " t r a d i t i o n a l p h a r a o h , " o r by i m p o r t i n g a few elements
of Greek r o y a l style, i t m i g h t express the ideas o f b o t h " p h a r a o h " a n d
" P t o l e m y . " M y purpose here is t o s h o w h o w E g y p t i a n sculptors c o u l d
sometimes go considerably further.
M a n y A l e x a n d r i a n r o y a l p o r t r a i t s i n m a r b l e were also h i g h l y
generalized, ideal images t h a t expressed forcefully the idea o f
Ptolemaios

w i t h o u t specifying w h i c h o n e .

15

Basileus

O t h e r s , however, reproduce

the p a r t i c u l a r s of a defined p o r t r a i t type t h a t can sometimes also be

f o u n d o n coins a n d seals. A fine head i n A l e x a n d r i a is t y p o l o g i c a l l y re
lated t o a rare c o i n p o r t r a i t type o f P t o l e m y v i P h i l o m e t o r a n d clearly
represents h i m (fig. 3 ) .

1 6

T h e surface is s m o o t h a n d even, w i t h very spar

i n g p h y s i o g n o m i c d e t a i l , b u t the posture, l o n g face, and p r o m i n e n t c h i n

give the w h o l e a strongly i n d i v i d u a l effect.
We happen also t o have t w o hard-stone heads o f P h i l o m e t o r .
T h e first, a granite head i n Athens w i t h nemes a n d d o u b l e c r o w n , is
identified by the cartouche o n its back p i l l a r .

17

O n the basis o f the

p h y s i o g n o m y alone, one w o u l d n o t have identified i t as the same k i n g .

There is, however, a clear c o n n e c t i o n i n the h a i r arrangement over the
forehead. T h e m a r b l e head has a t h i c k c e n t r a l l o c k , t u r n i n g t o the r i g h t ,
framed by t w o smaller locks c u r l i n g i n w a r d o n b o t h sides. T h i s scheme
is r e p r o d u c e d o n the granite head, o n l y w i t h a flatter, m o r e s y m m e t r i c a l

205

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h a n d l i n g . Such r e p e t i t i o n o f h a i r schemes is, o f course, m o r e fully attested

FIG.

a m o n g the a b u n d a n t copies of, f o r example, J u l i o - C l a u d i a n p o r t r a i t

Head of Ptolemy v i ( 1 8 0 - 1 4 5

B . C . ) . M a r b l e . H . : 4 1 cm.

types. T h a t this h a i r scheme was really a defined feature o f Philometor's

Alexandria, Graeco-Roman

p o r t r a i t type is s h o w n by the second hard-stone head, a fragment o f a

Museum 24092. Photo courtesy

colossal granite statue f r o m C a n o p u s (fig. 4 ) . '

of the D A I , Cairo, neg.

H e r e the h a i r arrangement is almost exactly the same as t h a t

F12679-12680.

of the head i n Athens, o n l y w i t h a m o r e detailed a n d lively " H e l l e n i s t i c "

FIG.

r e n d e r i n g . T h e repeated h a i r scheme w o u l d p r o b a b l y be enough t o c o n

Head of Ptolemy v i ( 1 8 0 - 1 4 5

nect the C a n o p u s head w i t h P t o l e m y v i . T h e i d e n t i t y is, however, clearly

demonstrated by the face, w h i c h is a version o f the same p h y s i o g n o m i c a l
type as the m a r b l e h e a d t a l l n a r r o w face, f u l l m o u t h , deep c h i n . These
are sufficient t o establish the c o n n e c t i o n .
It is i m p o r t a n t t o emphasize t h a t the c o n n e c t i o n is n o t merely
a p o r t r a i t resemblance, t h a t these t w o heads are close enough t o repre
sent the same person, b u t rather t h a t they have a definable r e l a t i o n s h i p
to the same sculptured type. T h a t is, they c o n t a i n repeated elements
f r o m a n " o f f i c i a l " p o r t r a i t o f P h i l o m e t o r . There is n o reason t o t h i n k the
A l e x a n d r i a head is the " o r i g i n a l " ; indeed i t is u n l i k e l y , given t h a t the
C a n o p u s head has m o r e detailed hair. T h e y are b o t h , t h e n , secondary
versions o r interpretations o f an A l e x a n d r i a n c o u r t p o r t r a i t . T h e m a r b l e
head is s u m m a r y i n the h a n d l i n g o f the h a i r a n d perhaps adds a layer
of d y n a m i c v i g o r . T h e C a n o p u s head is n a t u r a l l y static i n posture a n d
flattens the side o f the l o n g face i n t o b r o a d , u n n a t u r a l planes. I t also
exaggerates the eyes, w h i c h o n the m a r b l e head are u n c o m m o n l y s m a l l ,
o u t l i n e d above by heavy lids. T h e m a r b l e head is a perhaps intensified

B . C . ) , from Canopus. Granite.

H . : 61 cm. Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum 3357. Photo
courtesy of the D A I , Cairo, neg.
11135-11140.

Smith

FIG.

Head of Ptolemy v i n ( 1 4 5 - 1 1 6
B . C . ) . M a r b l e . H . : 23.5 cm. Private
collection, on loan to Yale
University A r t Gallery, N e w
Haven. Photo: Sotheby's, Inc.
FIG.

Head of Ptolemy v i n ( 1 4 5 - 1 1 6
B . C . ) . D i o r i t e . H . : 51 c m . Brussels,
Musees Royaux d ' A r t et d'Histoire
E1839.

H e l l e n i s t i c r e n d e r i n g of the type; the granite head is a t h o u g h t f u l transla

t i o n or a d a p t a t i o n f o r a t r a d i t i o n a l E g y p t i a n statue.
P t o l e m y v i n Euergetes P h y s k o n issued rare t e t r a d r a c h m s a n d
d i a d r a c h m s (the latter dated i n 1 3 8 / 1 3 7

B.C.),

o n w h i c h he wears the ra

diate d i a d e m a n d aegis o f his great t h i r d - c e n t u r y forebear P t o l e m y i n

Euergetes.

19

I t is a p l u m p - f a c e d , wide-eyed image t h a t combines a p r o

n o u n c e d p h y s i o g n o m i c a l p r o f i l e l a r g e nose, s m a l l p o u t i n g m o u t h ,
w e a k c h i n w i t h an impressive r o y a l bearing. T h i s c o i n gives the key t o
a series of related images, some t y p o l o g i c a l l y , some generically, related.
A s m a l l stucco head i n H i l d e s h e i m is a precise version of the
same p o r t r a i t t y p e ,

20

belongs here (fig. 5 ) .

a n d an i m p o r t a n t m a r b l e head i n N e w H a v e n also
21

T h i s is a lifesize p o r t r a i t w i t h h a i r a n d one ear

added i n stucco. I t has a l o n g face i n the t r a d i t i o n o f P h i l o m e t o r , w i t h

sharply c u t features l a i d over a p l u m p , rather formless, p o l i s h e d facial
structure. T h e r o u g h l y w o r k e d h a i r f o l l o w s precisely the same line a n d
r e l a t i o n t o the b r o w as the stucco head, a n d i t , t o o , is p r o b a b l y a version
of the same t y p e . A g a i n , the N e w H a v e n head is surely n o t the o r i g i n a l
c o u r t p o r t r a i t b u t an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i t . I t seems t o have enlarged the
w i d e , s t a r i n g eyes a n d accentuated the aggressive p o u t of the l o w e r l i p .
O n e m i g h t note also the closeness of the eyes.

207

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A fine d i o r i t e head i n Brussels is clearly an E g y p t i a n version

of the same p o r t r a i t type of P t o l e m y v i n (fig. 6, a n d B o t h m e r fig. 20 be
low).

2 2

I t wears a d o u b l e c r o w n , s u p p o r t e d b e h i n d by a t a l l , b r o k e n back

p i l l a r . U n u s u a l l y for this category o f hellenizing p h a r a o n i c r o y a l p o r t r a i t ,

n o h a i r emerges f r o m beneath the c r o w n as an i m m e d i a t e l y i d e n t i f y i n g
" f o r e i g n " element. T h e p o r t r a i t effect is carried b y the face alone, a n d
the E g y p t i a n sculptor has made a very careful c o p y o f its i d e n t i f y i n g
p h y s i o g n o m y : fat cheeks, s m a l l p o u t i n g m o u t h , w e a k c h i n , p r o m i n e n t
nose, a n d large, r o u n d eyes. To capture the essence of the type, the sculp
t o r seems also t o have intensified certain features, f o r example, the close
ness o f the eyes a n d the fatness o f the face, w h i c h is rendered w i t h a
degree o f surface p l a s t i c i t y n o t present i n any o f the Greek versions of
the type. T h e shaping o f the eyes is a l i t t l e a s y m m e t r i c a l o n e is w i d e r
t h a n the o t h e r w h i c h perhaps indicates a certain u n f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h
the a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m s o f enlarged A l e x a n d r i a n r u l e r eyes. T h a t apart,
i t is a r e m a r k a b l y careful a n d i n s t a n t l y recognizable t r a n s l a t i o n of
Ptolemy

VIII'S

p o r t r a i t type i n t o p h a r a o n i c f o r m a n d m a t e r i a l .

There m u s t t h e n have been models o f the " o f f i c i a l " A l e x a n

d r i a n p o r t r a i t s o f Ptolemies v i a n d v i n available i n the native w o r k
shops t h a t p r o d u c e d the C a n o p u s a n d Brussels heads, a n d a certain
c o n s t i t u e n c y s u r e l y some of the E g y p t i a n c l e r g y w a n t e d t o see those
models e m p l o y e d . T h e face o f the statues denoted the distinctive a n d
special character o f the Ptolemaic pharaohs i n general and o f P h i l o m e t o r
a n d P h y s k o n i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h e statues are s t r i k i n g m o n u m e n t s of
priestly a c c o m m o d a t i o n t o the M a c e d o n i a n rulers.
T h e Brussels P h y s k o n is a near-perfect E g y p t i a n replica o f the
king's A l e x a n d r i a n p o r t r a i t type. W e m a y l o o k n o w at the image of a

FIG.

Head of Ptolemaic queen. Black

stone. M i d - to late second century
B.C. Lifesize. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum 406.

Smith

FIG.

Head of Ptolemaic queen, from

Egypt. M a r b l e . M i d - to late
second century B . C . H . : 37 cm.
Paris, Musee du Louvre M A 3546.

c o n t e m p o r a r y queen a n d at a case o f s y n t a c t i c a l l y a w k w a r d t r a n s l a t i o n .
A n i m p o r t a n t head i n V i e n n a (fig. 7 ) ,

2 3

broken f r o m a traditional phar

aonic statue w i t h back p i l l a r , m a y be v i e w e d as a female c o u n t e r p a r t t o

the Brussels P h y s k o n , o n l y here the s c u l p t o r h a d difficulty i n c a p t u r i n g
the essence o f the A l e x a n d r i a n p o r t r a i t he was a t t e m p t i n g t o r e p r o d u c e .
T h e head is a n E g y p t i a n r e n d e r i n g o r r e c e p t i o n o f a novel female r o y a l
style t h a t emerged at A l e x a n d r i a i n the m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . Several
m a j o r sculptures f r o m this c o n t e x t , f o r e x a m p l e , a bronze head i n N a p l e s
a n d a m a r b l e head f r o m A l e x a n d r i a i n the L o u v r e (fig. 8), have a force
f u l , energetic, a l m o s t " m a s c u l i n e " e x p r e s s i o n .

24

T h i s r o y a l style is a

s t r i k i n g d e p a r t u r e f r o m the passive beauty of A r s i n o e a n d Berenike i n

the t h i r d c e n t u r y a n d was p r o b a b l y designed f o r the series o f p o w e r f u l
queens i n the second century, Cleopatras

I-III,

w h o r u l e d o n behalf o f

o r t h r o u g h b o y kings a n d w e a k k i n g s .
L i k e the A l e x a n d r i a n p o r t r a i t s , the V i e n n a head wears d i a
d e m a n d Isis l o c k s , b u t i t has so heightened some featuresthe s t r o n g
d o u b l e c h i n , w i d e m o u t h , a n d masculine n a s o - l a b i a l f o l d s t h a t the
subtle balance o f the A l e x a n d r i a n type between t r a d i t i o n a l beauty a n d
executive capacity has been a l l b u t destroyed. T h e s c u l p t o r seems b o t h
t o have m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d t o have m i s m a n a g e d the f o r m s o f a c o m p l e x
a n d u n u s u a l image.
A m o n g the later Ptolemies, i x - x i , whose p o r t r a i t s have been
m u c h studied i n recent years a n d considerably e x p a n d e d by n e w pieces,

25

there are several f u r t h e r examples o f hard-stone heads based o n A l e x a n

d r i a n p o r t r a i t types, b u t none w i t h such clear t y p o l o g i c a l connections as
those seen i n the cases o f P h i l o m e t o r a n d P h y s k o n . A granite bust f r o m
A l e x a n d r i a , recently p u b l i s h e d , is perhaps a loose E g y p t i a n v e r s i o n o f

209

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ALEXANDRIA

the same late Ptolemaic type preserved i n the p r o v i n c i a l limestone statue

f r o m A p h r o d i t o p o l i s . A n d a lost granite head, f o r m e r l y i n B e r l i n , was
2 6

surely based o n a p o r t r a i t f r o m the same e n v i r o n m e n t as a late Ptolemy

( i x o r x ) at the G e t t y .

27

T h i s demonstrable use o f A l e x a n d r i a n types by the E g y p t i a n

hard-stone w o r k s h o p s comes i n the well-defined c o n t e x t o f the king's
image. Since he was b o t h M a c e d o n i a n basileus

and Egyptian pharaoh,

P t o l e m y was a u n i q u e figure o f c o m m o n p r o p e r t y between the Greek

a n d the indigenous i n h a b i t a n t s o f E g y p t . I t is precisely this statuary c o n
t e x t t h a t is so w e l l b r o u g h t t o life by the inscriptions o f the E g y p t i a n
clergy i n the later t h i r d a n d second centuries, such as the Canopus a n d
the Rosetta decrees. These inscriptions are edicts o f the assembled
28

E g y p t i a n priests meeting t o vote c u l t a n d statuary h o n o r s t o the Ptole

maic kings i n the native temples o f E g y p t . T h e y d o c u m e n t h o w "the na
tive clergy, t h r o u g h decrees made at synods, i n c o r p o r a t e d an E g y p t i a n
version o f the H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t of the Ptolemies i n t o the priesthoods a n d
r i t u a l s o f the l o c a l t e m p l e s . "

29

I t is against the b a c k g r o u n d o f this larger

p h e n o m e n o n t h a t the hard-stone version o f A l e x a n d r i a n r o y a l types

s h o u l d be set.
R o y a l interest i n the dissemination o f images i n the temples is
p l a i n l y stated i n the Mendes stela, a n d the priests' interest i n the style o r
" m a n n e r " (tropos)
cree.

30

o f the statues is e x p l i c i t l y attested i n the Rosetta de

T h e clergy's decision t o have Ptolemy's features represented i n a

Hellenistic i d i o m i n some statues i n a d d i t i o n t o the usual statues w i t h

p u r e l y p h a r a o n i c features was analogous t o their decision t o p u b l i s h
their decrees i n the Greek language as w e l l as E g y p t i a n . T h i s measurable
i c o n o g r a p h i c a s s i m i l a t i o n o f the t r a d i t i o n a l image of p h a r a o h t o Ptole
maic r o y a l style a n d t o p a r t i c u l a r types was meant t o represent t o the
E g y p t i a n temple-goer the distinctive nature a n d i d e n t i t y o f the Ptolemaic
p h a r a o h residing i n his foreign c a p i t a l at A l e x a n d r i a . I n the examples
we have e x a m i n e d the sculptors w e n t b e y o n d the simple i m p o r t a t i o n of
a few Greek elements t h a t indicated " P t o l e m y " t o the r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a
defined p o r t r a i t m o d e l t h a t specified w h i c h Ptolemy. T h e y s h o w t h a t
i n some E g y p t i a n temples, at least i n the second century, the a c q u i r i n g
a n d use o f an " i d e n t i f y i n g " A l e x a n d r i a n m o d e l was considered desirable
for the m a n u f a c t u r e o f some o f the r e i g n i n g Ptolemy's statues. T h e c o n
t e x t a n d o r i g i n o f this p h e n o m e n o n , i t m a y be guessed, was M e m p h i s ,
whose c u l t u r e has been so w e l l described by D . J. T h o m p s o n i n her
Memphis

under the Ptolemies**

These images m a y be seen as the visual

c o u n t e r p a r t o f the p o l i c y o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h the M a c e d o n i a n rulers

pursued by the M e m p h i t e clergy t h r o u g h the m e d i u m o f the r o y a l c u l t .
Lincoln College
O X F O R D ,

E N G L A N D

Smith

Notes

H . K y r i e l e i s , Bildnisse

p i s . 8, 1 7 , 3 0 , 4 0 ; S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 9 1 -

(Berlin

der Ptolemder

1 9 7 5 ) ; E . B r u n e l l e , Die Bildnisse

der

9 2 , pis. 7 5 . 3 - 1 1 .

Ptole-

( P h . D . diss., F r a n k f u r t 1 9 7 6 ) ;

mderinnen

R . R . R . S m i t h , Hellenistic

Royal

(Ox

Portraits

See esp. P l u t a r c h , Dem.

2 - 4 , probably from

f o r d 1988), ch. 9, " T h e Ptolemies and E g y p t . "

the early Hellenistic h i s t o r y of H i e r o n y m o s s o

M u c h m a t e r i a l also i n H . M a e h l e r a n d

J. H o r n b l o w e r , Hieronymos

V . M . S t r o c k a , eds., Das ptolemaische

( M a i n z 1 9 7 8 ) ; a n d R . S. B i a n c h i ,
Egypt:

Age

(Oxford

i d e o l o g y i n t h i s passage, cf. S m i t h ( n o t e 1

Cleopatra's

a b o v e ) , p . 5 2 . O n T h e o k r i t o s 17 = A u s t i n

e x h . cat. ( T h e

of the Ptolemies,

of Cardia

1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 6 7 - 7 1 . O n the reflection o f r o y a l

Agypten

B r o o k l y n M u s e u m 1 9 8 8 ) . Some recent articles:

( n o t e 5 a b o v e ) , p . 2 1 7 ; cf. Fraser, v o l . 1 ( n o t e 5

A . L i n f e r t , " N e u e P t o l e m a e r : P t o l e m a i o s 11.

above), p p .

u n d A r s i n o e 11.," Mitteilungen
Archaologischen

Instituts,

des

666-67.

Deutschen

Athenische

Abteilung

10

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 7 9 - 8 0 , p i . 70.

II

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 9 4 - 9 6 , p i . 82.

12

T w o w i d e l y separated examples, one r o y a l , one

102 (1987): 2 7 9 - 8 2 ; G. Dontas, " Z u einem

H e r r s c h e r k o p f In M u s e u m v o n K o s , "
lungen
tuts,

des Deutschen

Athenische

Mittei

Archaologischen

Insti

104 (1989):

Abteilung

159-63;

M . P r a n g e , " D a s B i l d n i s A r s i n o e s 11. P h i l a d e l
p h o s , 2 7 8 - 7 0 v . C h r . , " Mitteilungen
schen

Archaologischen

des

Instituts,

"private."

Deut

(1) C o i n s o f Q u e e n P h i l i s t i s at Syracuse:

Athenische

C . M . K r a a y a n d M . H i r m e r , Greek

105 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 1 9 7 - 2 1 1 ; H . P. L a u f >

Abteilung

scher, " P t o l e m a i s c h e R e i t e r b i l d e r , "

gen des Deutschen
Athenische

Mitteilun

Archaologischen

Ancient

Instituts,

106 (1991):

Abteilung

Coins

( L o n d o n 1966), p i . 49; G . K . Jenkins,

Greek

Coins

(New York 1972),

fig. 6 0 3 .

223-38.

(2) L i m e s t o n e f e m a l e h e a d f r o m A r s o s , C y p r u s :
2

K y r i e l e i s ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 0 , 8 2 , B 1 a n d J 2,

J. B . C o n n e l l y , Votive

p i s . 8.5, 6, 9 ; 7 2 . 4 ; S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p .

tic Cyprus

4 4 , 9 1 , app. v m , n o . 9, p i . 70.6; N . H i m r n e l -

p i . 1 2 . T h e e x t e n t o f t h i s p h e n o m e n o n is

Sculpture

of

Hellenis

( N i c o s i a 1 9 8 8 ) , p . 3 6 , n o . 3,

m a n n , " E i n Ptolemaer m i t Keule u n d K o t h u r n , "

best i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e g r e a t n u m b e r o f " p r i

i n Festschrift

vate" H e l l e n i s t i c female heads t h a t archaeo

v o l . 1 (Istanbul 1989),

fur J . Inan,

p p . 3 9 1 - 9 5 ; Laubscher (note 1 above): 230.

l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e has, at one t i m e o r a n o t h e r ,

A r s i n o e ' s dikeras:

t h i s , cf. S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p .

i d e n t i f i e d as A r s i n o e 11 o r B e r e n i k e 11. O n
3

Athenaeus 1 1 . 4 9 7 B - C .

89-90,

w i t h e x a m p l e s c i t e d at n o t e 2 4 .
4

O n r o y a l e l e p h a n t exuviae,
1 above):

cf. L a u b s c h e r ( n o t e
13

232-35.

B i a n c h i ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 5 5 - 8 0 , a n d o n cat.
nos. 2, 3 1 , 32, 35, 36, 38, 39, 4 2 - 4 7 , 52, 53.

Orientis

Graeci

Inscriptiones

Selectae,

M . M . A u s t i n , The Hellenistic
Alexander

to the Roman

of Ancient

Sources

World

Conquest:

p . 54 =

F o r e x a m p l e , o n t h e Brussels P t o l e m y v m (here

from

f i g . 6 ) : "Because t h e h e a d i n Brussels c o n f o r m s

its r e s e m b l a n c e t o i m a g e s o f a n y

Fragmente

6 3 1 , F 1, w i t h

Historiker,

P. M . Fraser, Ptolemaic

current i n the t h i r d a n d second centuries B . C . ,

(Cambridge

in Translation

1 9 8 1 ) , p . 2 2 1 ; S a t y r o s , F. J a c o b y , Die
der griechischen

to established pharaonic traditions that were

Selection

( p . 1 4 9 , cat. 5 3 ) .

(Oxford

Alexandria

1972), v o l . 1, pp. 2 0 2 - 3 ; l -

J P-

- 4814

B . V . B o t h m e r , Egyptian

p. 148, pis. 1 7 . 1 - 4 ; S m i t h (note 1 above), p . 4 4 ,

Period

pi. 75.9.

t h e r b e l o w at n o t e 2 8 .
15

O n Seleucid r o y a l p o r t r a i t s , see n o w R . F l e i
Herrscherbildnisse

T h e r e is n o f u l l s t u d y o f t h i s m a t e r i a l . See

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 2 8 - 2 9 w i t h n . 120,

scher, Studien

zur Seleukidischen

Kunst,

Ptolemaic

r u l e r i n a H e l l e n i s t i c i d i o m m a y be g r a t u i t o u s "

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 18, 29, 4 2 - 4 3 ,

52,

16

Late

1 0 , a n d D 5, 6; w i t h S m i t h ( n o t e

1 a b o v e ) , p p . 88-89

(Mainz 1991).

of the

See, f o r e x a m p l e , K y r i e l e i s ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , B 6,
8, 1 0 , C 1 - 7 ,

v o l . 1,

Sculpture

( B r o o k l y n i 9 6 0 ) . O n the context, fur

a n d app. v.

M a r b l e head: Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p . 60,

211

212

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

F 3, p i s . 49.2., 5 0 , 5 1 ; S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) ,

R . R . R. S m i t h , " T h r e e H e l l e n i s t i c Rulers at the

p . 9 3 , cat. 5 5 , p i s . 3 8 . 1 , 2 . C o i n : K y r i e l e i s

G e t t y , " The J . Paul Getty

(note 1 above), p . 59, p i . 46.3; S m i t h (note 1

( 1 9 8 6 ) : 5 9 - 7 8 , at 7 0 - 7 8 .

Museum

14

Journal

above), p . 9 3 , p i . 7 5 . 1 4 . T h i s rare silver

h e m i d r a c h m m a k e s t h e clearest t y p o l o g i c a l

17

26

G r a n i t e b u s t , A l e x a n d r i a P 1 2 0 7 2 : P. E . S t a n -

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the A l e x a n d r i a n marble head.

w i c k , " A R o y a l Ptolemaic Bust i n A l e x a n d r i a , "

T h e p o r t r a i t o n the b e t t e r - k n o w n Phoenician

Journal

tetradrachms (Kyrieleis [note 1 above], p i . 4 6 . 1 ;

Egypt

of the American

Research

Center

in

2 9 ( 1 9 9 2 ) : 1 3 1 - 4 1 , figs, i a , b . A p h r o -

S m i t h [ n o t e 1 a b o v e ] , p i . 7 5 . 1 3 ) is p r o b a b l y o f

d i t o p o l i s statue: Kyrieleis (note 1 above),

t h e same t y p e . T h e r e w a s also a q u i t e separate,

p p . 7 0 - 7 1 , H 3, p i s . 5 9 . 3 , 4 ; S m i t h ( n o t e 1

earlier, m o r e y o u t h f u l P h i l o m e t o r p o r t r a i t type,

a b o v e ) , p . 9 7 , cat. 6 1 , p i s . 4 1 . 1 - 3 . T h e r e seems

attested by the u n i q u e g o l d o c t o d r a c h m i n L o n

t o be a d i s t i n c t e c h o o f a c o m m o n i m a g e be

d o n : S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 93 ( w i t h l i t .

t w e e n these t w o p o r t r a i t s , n o t a b l y i n t h e s i m i l a r

n . 38), pis. 75-!5>

f o r m u l a t i o n s o f t h e eyes a n d c h i n .

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 5 9 - 6 0 , F 1, p i . 4 7 ;

27

S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 9 3 , cat. 7 1 , p i . 4 6 . 2 .

Berlin head: Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p . 7 2 ,

H 7, pis. 6 3 . 1 - 3 ; S m i t h (note 1 above), p . 9 6 ,
cat. 7 5 , p i s . 4 8 . 3 , 4 . G e t t y h e a d : S m i t h ( n o t e 25

18

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p . 6 0 , F 2, pis. 4 8 , 4 9 . 1 ;

a b o v e ) : 7 0 - 7 8 , figs. 6 a , d ; S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) ,

S m i t h (note 1 above), p . 9 3 , cat. 7 2 , pis. 4 6 . 3 , 4 .

p . 9 6 , c a t . 5 9 , p i s . 4 0 . 1 , 2 . T h e s e heads w e r e

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p . 63, p i . 5 2 . 1 ; S m i t h

Alexandrian type.

b o t h p r o b a b l y simplified versions o f a single

19

(note 1 above), p. 9 4 , p i . 7 5 . 1 7 .
28

C a n o p u s : Orientis

Graeci

Inscriptiones

Selec-

20

K y r i e l e i s ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 6 4 , G 1 , p i . 5 2 . 2 , 3.

tae, p . 5 6 = A u s t i n ( n o t e 5 a b o v e ) , p . 2 2 2 .

21

S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 9 6 - 9 7 , 1 2 4 , cat.

p . 9 0 = A u s t i n ( n o t e 5 a b o v e ) , p . 2 2 7 . F o r es

R o s e t t a : Orientis

Graeci

Inscriptiones

Selectae,

5 8 , p i s . 3 9 . 3 , 4 t h e r e n o t e d as close t o

sential b a c k g r o u n d o n the E g y p t i a n temples

P t o l e m y v n i ( p . 9 6 ) , b u t c a t a l o g u e d as " a late

a n d c l e r g y , see esp. D . J. T h o m p s o n ,

P t o l e m y , p r o b a b l y P t o l e m y i x o r x . " I t seems

under

the Ptolemies

Memphis

(Princeton 1988), ch. 4,

t o me n o w m o r e clearly a version of Physkon's

"Ptolemies and Temples"; and out of m a n y

m a i n A l e x a n d r i a n type. Also illustrated i n

a r t i c l e s b y J. Q u a e g e b e u r , h i s " C l e o p a t r a v i i

R . R . R . S m i t h , Hellenistic

a n d the Cults of the Ptolemaic Queens," i n

(London

Sculpture

Bianchi (note 1 above), p p . 4 1 - 5 4 . Also o n

1991),%. 241.

t h e p r i e s t s : J.-C. G o y o n , " P t o l e m a i c E g y p t :
22

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p . 6 4 , G 2, pis. 52.4,

Priests a n d t h e T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n , " i n B i a n c h i

5 3 ; S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 9 3 - 9 4 , cat. 7 3 ,

(note 1 above), p p . 2 9 - 3 9 .

pis. 4 7 . 1 , 2. Cf. B i a n c h i (note 1 above),

29

p p . 1 4 8 - 4 9 , cat. 53 ( q u o t e d n o t e 13 a b o v e ) .

Quaegebeur (note 28 above), p . 4 2 , f o l l o w i n g

D . J. C r a w f o r d , " P t o l e m y , P t a h a n d A p i s i n

23

24

S m i t h ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 9 4 - 9 5 , cat. 7 4 ,

H e l l e n i s t i c M e m p h i s , " i n D . J. C r a w f o r d ,

pis. 4 8 . 1 , 2.

J. Q u a e g e b e u r , a n d W . C l a r y s s e , Studies

on

Ptolemaic

24

Memphis.

Studia

Hellenistica

( L o u v a i n 1 9 8 0 ) : p p . 1 - 4 2 , esp. 2 7 - 3 6 .

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 1 2 0 - 2 1 , M 12,

pis. 1 0 4 . 1 , 2 (Louvre); S m i t h (note 1 above),
p p . 7 5 - 7 6 , 9 4 , cat. 2 4 a n d 5 6 , p i s . 1 9 . 1 , 2 a n d

30

M e n d e s stela: " H i s m a j e s t y o r d e r e d t o erect h e r

[sc A r s i n o e ' s ] statues i n every t e m p l e , t h i s w a s

38.3, 4 (Naples and Louvre).

pleasing t o t h e i r priests . . . her cult-statues

25

w e r e m a d e i n e a c h n o m e . " T r a n s . : J. Q u a e g e

K . Parlasca, " E i n verkanntes hellenistisches

H e r r s c h e r b i l d n i s , " Jahrbuch
Archaologischen

Instituts

des

beur, " D o c u m e n t s C o n c e r n i n g a C u l t o f A r s i n o e

Deutschen

82 (1967): 1 6 7 - 9 4 ;

P h i l a d e l p h o s at M e m p h i s , " Journal

of

Near

Eastern

" D i e Bildnisse Ptolemaios i x , x , u n d x i , " i n

n . 1 3 ; also i d e m , i n B i a n c h i ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) ,

H . M a e h l e r a n d V . M . S t r o c k a , eds.,

p. 4 3 . I n the c o n t e x t o f this d o c u m e n t , we can

ptolemdische

Agypten

Das

(Mainz 1978), pp. 9 - 2 2 ;

H . M a e h l e r , " E g y p t under the Last Ptolemies,"

Bulletin

of the Institute

the University

of London

of Classical

Studies

30 (1983): 1-16;

Studies

3 0 ( 1 9 7 1 ) : 2 3 9 - 7 0 , esp. 2 4 2

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 6 4 - 7 5 ; A . K r u g ,

w e l l imagine a request f o r a n d the d i s t r i b u t i o n

of p o r t r a i t models f r o m A l e x a n d r i a .
R o s e t t a s t o n e , Orientis

of
tiones

Selectae,

Graeci

Inscrip

9 0 , l i n e 3 9 : " t h e statues s h a l l be

Smith

made i n the native (or Egyptian) manner

pos)."

(tro-

T h e w o r d f o r " n a t i v e / E g y p t i a n " is re

stored i n the Greek t e x t f r o m the h i e r o g l y p h i c

a n d d e m o t i c versions: E. A . W a l l i s Budge,
Rosetta

Stone

The

( L o n d o n 1929), pp. 88, 117. The

s u r v i v i n g p o r t r a i t s s h o w h o w far t h e priests
w e r e w i l l i n g t o see t h i s o r d e r c o m p r o m i s e d .
3I

T h o m p s o n ( n o t e 28 a b o v e ) .

213

This page intentionally left blank

215

Hellenistic Elements in Egyptian Sculpture

of the Ptolemaic Period
Bernard

Norma

Jean

thanks

Paul

Bothmer

for preparing

I n the last t h i r t y years, the study o f Late E g y p t i a n sculpture has made

Stanwick

great progress, m a i n l y as a result o f three l a n d m a r k p u b l i c a t i o n s : Egyp

t i a n Sculpture o f the Late Period i n i 9 6 0 , Bildnisse der Ptolemaer i n

completing

the

This

is

posthumously.

Bothmer

the

for publication

article

V.

article

and

for

notes.
published

1 9 7 5 , a n d Das ptolemaische A g y p t e n i n 1 9 7 8 . T h e y i n t u r n have gener

ated numerous studies a n d articles i n the scholarly l i t e r a t u r e , i n c l u d i n g
Cleopatra's E g y p t i n 1 9 8 8 ' t h e catalog of the e x h i b i t i o n i n B r o o k l y n
o n Ptolemaic E g y p t , w h i c h contains some novel as w e l l as bizarre
ideas. T h u s , accurately dated m a t e r i a l f o r each successive c e n t u r y f r o m
8 0 0 B . C . t o the R o m a n conquest i n 30 B . C . has been w e l l defined, a l
t h o u g h such secure a t t r i b u t i o n s are disseminated very slowly, especially
i n the academic w o r l d .
A m o n g the p r o b l e m s r e m a i n i n g is, f o r instance, the difficulty
i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the r o y a l likenesses o f D y n a s t y x x x ( 3 8 0 - 3 4 3 B . C . )
f r o m those o f a h u n d r e d years later. As research o n the last f o u r cen
2

turies o f ancient E g y p t is n o w being c o n d u c t e d i n the great E g y p t o l o g i c a l

centers o f the West, we n o w k n o w t h a t m a n y elements o f E g y p t i a n statu
ary o f the Ptolemaic Period (305 = 30

B.C.),

once considered t o be o f for

eign o r i g i n , have been f o u n d t o stem f r o m native sources, f o r e x a m p l e ,

the r i c h drapery o f the male costume (figs. 1, 2 ) . O n the other h a n d ,
3

n e w features have come t o l i g h t t h a t were o v e r l o o k e d u n t i l recently a n d

are n o w recognized as n o n - E g y p t i a n . T h i s was due t o the presence a n d ,
after Alexander's death, t o the p r e d o m i n a n c e o f the Greeks i n the N i l e
Valley. A m o n g these n e w features are matters o f substance a n d o f style,
b u t i n the m o s t p r o m i n e n t E g y p t i a n art f o r m s c u l p t u r e i n the r o u n d
Hellenistic influence does n o t become evident u n t i l w e l l past the begin
n i n g of the t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . O n e can see the emergence o f this influence
especially i n the naturalistic r e n d e r i n g o f the real h a i r (fig. 3 ) . T h i s shift
4

i n style persists u n t i l the m i d d l e o f the first c e n t u r y B . C . , as is evident i n

the B r o o k l y n " B l a c k H e a d " (fig. 4 ) ; a l t h o u g h the h a i r is h i g h l y pat
5

terned, i t still shows n a t u r a l locks. R o y a l t y , t o o , is thus p o r t r a y e d , even

under the t r a d i t i o n a l E g y p t i a n headdress (figs. 5a, b ) .

A m o r e s u m m a r y e x e c u t i o n of the coiffure m a y n o t have de

veloped u n t i l the second century B . C . , as can be seen i n t w o heads w i t h
s h o r t - c r o p p e d hair, one i n S t o c k h o l m (fig. 6 ) a n d another i n Cleveland
7

(fig. 7 ) . T h e n e w t r e a t m e n t o f the h a i r is accompanied by the represen8

216

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

K i n g Sety ( 1 3 0 6 - 1 2 9 0 B.C.),
from Abydos. Schist. H . : 21 cm.
Cairo, The Egyptian Museum
CG 7 5 1 . Photo courtesy of the
Institute of Fine Arts, N e w York
University.
FIG.

Draped male torso, f r o m Tell elT i m a i (Thmuis). Basalt. Ptolemaic

Period. H . : 96.5 cm. Alexandria,
Graeco-Roman Museum 20949
( = G. 214). Photo courtesy of the
Institute of Fine Arts, N e w York
University.

FIG.

M a l e head, provenance u n k n o w n .
Basalt. Second century B.C. H . :
20.2 cm. M u n i c h , Staatliche
Sammlung Agyptischer Kunst

GI.WAF 328.
FIG.

The Brooklyn "Black H e a d , "

provenance u n k n o w n ; reportedly
from M i t r a h i n e h . Diorite. A b o u t
8 0 - 5 0 B.C. H . : 41.4 cm. The
Brooklyn Museum 58.30, Charles
E d w i n W i l b o u r Fund.

4
FIGS.

5a, b

Ptolemy v i Philometor
( 1 8 0 - 1 6 4 / 1 6 3 - 1 4 5 B.C.), from
the sea at Aegina. Granite.
H . : 62.5 cm. Athens, N a t i o n a l
Archaeological Museum ANE 108.

5b

B o t h m e r

FIG.

Head of male statue, provenance

u n k n o w n . Granite. Second century
B.C. H . (of head): 12.2 cm.
Stockholm, Medelhavsmuseet

NME 73.
FIG.

Head of bearded male statue, from

Cyrenaica. Basalt. Second century
B.C. H . (of head): 7.9 cm. The
Cleveland M u s e u m of A r t 91.2b.
FIG.

M a l e head w i t h diadem,
provenance u n k n o w n , said to be
f r o m Dime. Granite. First century
B.C. H . : 34.5 cm. M u n i c h , Staatliche Sammlung Agyptischer Kunst
G l . 30.
FIG.

M a l e head, from Tanis. Basalt.

A b o u t 8 0 - 5 0 B.C. H . : 34 cm.
Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
M u s e u m 3204.

217

218

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

10

Bust of a king, provenance un

k n o w n . Diorite. A b o u t 2 2 0 180 B.C. H . : 44.5 cm. N e w Haven,
Yale University A r t Gallery
1.1.195 3 (on loan from the
Peabody Museum of N a t u r a l
History, Yale University).

FIG.

II

Royal head w i t h diadem, prove

nance u n k n o w n . Granite. A b o u t
6 0 - 3 0 B.C. H . : 10.5 cm. Bologna,
Museo Civico Archeologico
KS1803.

t a t i o n o f w h i s k e r s , sideburns (fig. 8 ) , a t h i c k mustache, o r a s t u b b l y

9

(fig. 9 )

1 0

o r f u l l beard (see fig. 7 ) .

W h i l e m o s t Ptolemaic p h a r a o h s are represented i n the t r a d i

t i o n a l nemes headdress (fig. i o ) ,

1 1

some o f t h e m , a l t h o u g h sculptured

w i t h a back p i l l a r , wear the t y p i c a l l y H e l l e n i s t i c tie o r b a n d a r o u n d the

head (fig. 1 1 ) ;

1 2

queens, t o o , are thus s h o w n (fig. 1 2 ) .

13

N o t a l l of those

a d o r n e d w i t h r i b b o n s o r bands o n their h a i r are r o y a l figures, since these

insignia, as w e l l as the l a u r e l w r e a t h , also distinguished certain members
of the p r i e s t h o o d (fig. 1 3 ) .

1 4

15

For example, the statue o f Pamenkhes, a p r o v i n c i a l governor i n the t i m e

B.C.),

12

Queen's head, provenance

A b a n d o f rosettes, however, p r i m a r i l y identified a n o m a r c h .

of C l e o p a t r a v n ( 5 1 - 3 0

FIG.

wears such a d i a d e m (fig. 1 4 ) ,

1 6

as d o

u n k n o w n . Limestone. Ptolemaic
Period. H . : 13.7 cm. The B r o o k l y n
Museum 71.12, Charles E d w i n
W i l b o u r Fund.

Bothmer

FIG.

13

Head w i t h laurel wreath, from

Tell U m m el-Briegat (Tebtunis).
Limestone. Late Ptolemaic Period.
H . : 8.5 cm. Cairo, The Egyptian
Museum JE 65424 A .
FIG.

14

Statue head of Pamenkhes w i t h

rosette wreath, from Dendera.
Granite. A b o u t 5 0 - 3 0 B.C.
H . (total statue): 130 cm. Cairo,
The Egyptian Museum JE 46320
(statue base is CG 50047).

13

FIGS.

14

I 5a, b

Statue head of H o r , son of T u t u ,

provenance u n k n o w n , said to be
from Sais. Granite. End of fourth
century B.C. H . (total statue):
113 cm. Berlin, Agyptisches
Museum 2271.

I 5b

I 5a

other officials i n positions of p o l i t i c a l p o w e r . We also k n o w o f at least

one instance where the rosettes were r e m o v e d for reasons n o t k n o w n
a n d replaced by n a t u r a l hair (figs. 15a, b ) ,

1 7

perhaps because the o w n e r

lost his exalted p o s i t i o n before he d i e d .

A t y p i c a l l y M a c e d o n i a n headdress, the kausia,

makes its ap

pearance i n the terracottas o f private persons after Ptolemaic rule was

established i n the N i l e Valley, as s h o w n by a fine example i n a private
FIG.

16

Head w i t h kausia, provenance

u n k n o w n . Terracotta. Ptolemaic

c o l l e c t i o n (fig. i 6 ) .

1 8

T h a t this k i n d of cap o r hat was also w o r n by

Ptolemaic p h a r a o h s has been k n o w n f r o m seal impressions for some

Period. H . : 9.5 cm. Amsterdam,

t i m e . T h e seals were f o u n d at E d f u , Delos, K a l l i p o l i s , a n d N e a P a p h o s .

private collection.

O n l y recently d i d a Ptolemaic ruler's head w e a r i n g the kausia

appear i n

19

219

220

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

17

Royal head w i t h kausia, prove

nance u n k n o w n , said to be from
the Faiyum. Limestone. Mid-first
century B . C . H . : 23 cm. H a r m o n
Fine Arts/Leonard Stern. Illus
trated by permission of Leonard
Stern, N e w York.
FIG.

18

Ptolemy i v Philopator ( 2 2 2 205 B . C . ) , from Canopus. Granite.

H . : 150 cm. Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum 3364.

FIG.

19

Ptolemy v Epiphanes ( 2 0 5 180 B . C . ) , provenance u n k n o w n .

Alabaster. H . : 7.6 cm. Berlin,
Agyptisches Museum 13457.
FIG.

20

Ptolemy v i n Euergetes 11 ( 1 7 0 1 6 3 / 1 4 5 - 1 1 6 B . C . ) , provenance

u n k n o w n . Diorite. H . : 51 cm.
Brussels, Musees Royaux d A r t et
d'Histoire E . 1839.

a private c o l l e c t i o n i n N e w Y o r k (fig. 1 7 ) .

2 0

I t represents a r o y a l y o u t h

a d o r n e d w i t h uraeus, H e l l e n i s t i c hairstyle, a n d a full-sized u n i n s c r i b e d

back p i l l a r . T h e eyes a n d eyebrows were once i n l a i d . Stylistic considera
tions suggest t h a t the head s h o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o the m i d d l e o f the first
c e n t u r y B . C . T h e delicate, i d e a l i z i n g features are paralleled i n a firstc e n t u r y limestone s p h i n x i n N e w Y o r k ;

2 1

the style o f the locks, w i t h

s h o r t curls over the forehead, can be c o m p a r e d t o a s i m i l a r treatment i n

the B r o o k l y n " B l a c k H e a d " (see fig. 4 ) . L i t e r a r y evidence is likewise sup
p o r t i v e o f a m i d - f i r s t - c e n t u r y a t t r i b u t i o n ; a passage i n Plutarch's Life
Antony

of

(54.5) relates t h a t a son o f M a r k A n t o n y a n d Cleopatra V H was

dressed u p i n a kausia a n d d i a d e m .

22

T h e question o f true p o r t r a i t u r e i n ancient E g y p t is still m u c h

debated, m a i n l y because w e d o n o t have c o r r o b o r a t i v e sources t o i n d i
cate h o w the people thus represented l o o k e d i n real l i f e .

23

I n Ptolemaic

B o t h m e r

FIG.

2 1

Ptolemy x Alexander I ( 1 0 7 88 B . C . ) , f r o m M e m p h i s . Plaster.

H . : 16.5 cm. Geneva, Musee d'art
et d'histoire 20240. Musee d'art
et d'histoire.
FIG.

22

Head w i t h realistic features,

provenance u n k n o w n . D a r k stone.
Ptolemaic Period. H . : 18.5 cm.
Aix-en-Provence, Musee Granet 17.

FIG.

23

Head w i t h realistic features, from

the Temple of M u t , Karnak.
Granite. M i d d l e K i n g d o m .
H . : 18.5 cm. Petrie Museum of
Egyptian Archaeology, University
College L o n d o n , uc. 1 6 4 5 1 .

statuary, however, some of the rulers have been identified by name f r o m

sculptures a n d c o i n p o r t r a i t s . A m o n g t h e m are P t o l e m y i v P h i l o p a t o r
(222-205 - - 5
B

8),

2 4

P t o l e m y v Epiphanes ( 2 0 5 - 1 8 0 B . C . ; fig. 1 9 ) ,

25

a n d P t o l e m y v i P h i l o m e t o r ( 1 8 0 - 1 6 4 / 1 6 3 = 145 B . C . ; see fig. 5). P t o l e m y

VIII

Euergetes 11 ( 1 7 0 - 1 6 3 / 1 4 5 = 116

B.C.)

has also been recognized

by his f u l l face a n d w i d e - o p e n eyes i n a u n i q u e head, n o w i n Brussels

(fig. 20 a n d S m i t h fig. 6 above), t h a t reproduces precisely this king's p o r
t r a i t type as k n o w n f r o m c o i n s .

26

T h e likeness o f Ptolemy x A l e x a n d e r 1

( 1 0 7 - 8 8 B . C . ) is p r o b a b l y reflected i n a plaster profile, n o w i n Geneva

(fig. 2 1 ) ,

2 7

a n d i n a stucco mask i n M u n i c h t h a t was first p u b l i s h e d as a

likeness o f N e k t a n e b o 1 ( 3 8 0 = 3 6 2
i n a small basalt head i n P a r i s .

29

B.C.).

2 8

I t is p r o b a b l y also t o be f o u n d

Few such identifications exist f o r the

n u m e r o u s private E g y p t i a n sculptures whose realistic features (fig. 2 2 )

are w e l l k n o w n f r o m the p u b l i c a t i o n i n i 9 6 0 of Egyptian
the Late Period,

Sculpture

3 0

of

yoo B . C . to A . D . 100 a n d f r o m t w o studies o f the o r i g i n s

of R o m a n R e p u b l i c a n v e r i s m .

31

T h e a t t e m p t t o decide t o w h a t extent such realistic features

are true likenesses, r e n d e r i n g the very essence o f a definite person eter
nally i n stone, is p r o b a b l y futile. H a r s h realism i n the image o f m a t u r e
Egyptians w i t h f u r r o w e d features goes back t o the M i d d l e K i n g d o m
(fig. 2 3 )

3 2

a n d was revived as an archaism i n the e i g h t h a n d seventh cen-

221

222

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

24

ALEXANDRIA

25

26

FIG.

24

Head w i t h realistic features,

provenance u n k n o w n , said
to be from Memphis. Schist.
Dynasty x x v n ( 5 2 5 - 4 0 4 B.C.).
H . : 25.1 cm. Paris, Musee du
Louvre N. 2454.
FIG.

25

Head w i t h realistic features, from

Dime. Granite. Ptolemaic Period.
H . : 19.5 cm. Alexandria, GraecoRoman Museum 3194.
FIG.

26

Head w i t h realistic features and

shaven pate, provenance u n k n o w n .
Granite. Second century B.C.
H . : 13.9 cm. Paris, Musee du
Louvre E. 8060.
FIG.

27

27

Head w i t h rosette diadem, from

Aquileia. Basalt. Second century
B.C. H . : 18.5 cm. Trieste, Civici
Musei d i Storia ed Arte 2187.
FIG.

28

Statue of man i n pensive m o o d ,

provenance u n k n o w n . Basalt.
Second century B.C. H . : 49 cm.
L o n d o n , The British Museum
34270.

28

B o t h m e r

29

FIG.

31

30

29

Cocked statue head w i t h realistic

features, provenance u n k n o w n .
Steatite. Second century B.C.

turies B . C . Skin folds, w r i n k l e s , a n d crow's-feet at the outer corners o f

the eyes were for so l o n g p a r t o f the E g y p t i a n sculptor's r e p e r t o r y t h a t i t
is h a r d t o tell w h a t i n the Ptolemaic age is E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n a n d w h a t

H . (of head): 7.2 cm. Berlin,

is Hellenistic influence. C o m p a r e , for example, a head w i t h realistic fea

Agyptisches Museum r o 9 7 2 .

tures (fig. 2 4 )

FIG.

30

3 3

o f D y n a s t y x x v n ( 5 2 5 - 4 0 4 B . C . ) w i t h t w o Ptolemaic

sculptures, one i n A l e x a n d r i a (fig. 2 5 )

3 4

a n d another i n Paris (fig. 2 6 ) .

3 5

Head w i t h gloomy features, prove

I t is also difficult t o establish h o w m u c h o f the realism of a Greek p o r

nance u n k n o w n . Basalt. Second

t r a i t is rendered i n the features of an a n o n y m o u s E g y p t i a n n o m a r c h

century B.C. H . : 28 cm. Venice,

Museo Archeologico d i Venezia,

(fig. 2 7 ) .

no. 34.

pensive m o o d (fig. 2 8 ) ,

FIG.

3 1

3 6

W h a t is novel i n this stark realism, however, is first o f a l l the

3 7

occasionally i n d i c a t e d by the i n c l i n a t i o n o f the

head t o one side (fig. 2 9 ) .

3 8

G l o o m a n d m e l a n c h o l y also emanate f r o m

Head w i t h parted lips, provenance

these i n t e l l i g e n t faces (fig. 3 0 ) ,

u n k n o w n . Black marble? Ptole

(fig. 3 1 ) .

maic Period. H . : 15.2 cm. N e w

realistic representations t h a t t o the u n i n i t i a t e d m a y resemble those o f an

York, A n t i q u a r i u m , L t d .

40

3 9

sometimes w i t h the lips slightly p a r t e d

I t is very difficult t o see this n e w s p i r i t t h r o u g h the facade o f

earlier age. I t is the " m o o d " t h a t makes the likenesses of the Ptolemaic
Period differ f r o m those of the preceding periods, surely as a result o f
the Hellenistic presence.
W h a t is n e w i n E g y p t i a n sculpture o f the Ptolemaic age is
the b l e n d i n g o f the art o f b o t h nations, E g y p t i a n and Greek (fig. 3 2 ) ,

41

achieved i n a series of likenesses t h a t c o m b i n e , i n E g y p t i a n materials a n d

techniques, Hellenistic concepts a n d features. T h e finest examples o f the
m i x t u r e o f t w o w o r l d s , one aged, one y o u t h f u l , are the H a r r i s head f r o m
A l e x a n d r i a i n the B r i t i s h M u s e u m (fig. 3 3 )
personage, possibly Caesarion ( 4 1 / 3 6 - 3 0
seum (fig. 3 4 ) .

4 3

4 2

a n d the statue o f a r o y a l

B.C.),

in The Brooklyn M u

B o t h s h o w the stylized treatment o f n a t u r a l hair, w h i l e

the latter also has the b a n d o f the Hellenistic r u l e r w i t h uraeus, his eyes
w i d e open, like those of A l e x a n d e r the Great, the m o u t h d i s d a i n f u l , the
w h o l e expressing the thoughtfulness a n d m e l a n c h o l y of the h u m a n face
t h a t came t o E g y p t w i t h the Greeks.

223

224

ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

32

Ptolemy in? ( 2 4 6 - 2 2 2 B.C.),

provenance u n k n o w n . Schist.
H . : 37 cm. N e w Haven, Yale
University A r t Gallery 4.1.1953
(on loan from the Peabody
Museum of N a t u r a l History,
Yale University).

32

FIG.

33

Head w i t h curly hair, provenance

u n k n o w n , said to come from
Alexandria. Schist. First century
B.C. H . : 24.5 cm. L o n d o n , The
British Museum 55253.
FIG.

34

Head of a royal statue, provenance

u n k n o w n . Basalt. First century
B.C. H . (total statue): 30.5 cm.
The B r o o k l y n Museum 54.117.

34

33

Bothmer

225

I n c l o s i n g , i t m a y be useful t o m e n t i o n c e r t a i n features o f
E g y p t i a n statuary o f the Ptolemaic Period t h a t u n t i l f a i r l y recently were
often a n d w r o n g l y c i t e d as s h o w i n g Greek influence. A m o n g t h e m are:
1.

the d r a p e d g a r m e n t o f the male figure w i t h n u m e r o u s folds

and pleats;

44

2.

the serrated scarf w i t h fringed b o r d e r s ;

3.

the pleated female c o s t u m e ;

4.

d e v i a t i o n f r o m the t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e o f arms by the s i d e ;

5.

representation o f a p o t h e o s i s ;

6.

emphasis o n the shapely female f i g u r e ;

7.

the receding h a i r l i n e above the t e m p l e s ;

8.

exuberant torso m o d e l i n g .

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

There are, however, t w o features o f the sculptor's craft fre

FIG.

35

Head of a kore, from Memphis.

q u e n t l y f o u n d i n statuary o f the Ptolemaic Period whose o r i g i n s are

Limestone. Late sixth century B . C .

c o m p l e x : i n l a i d eyes a n d c o r k s c r e w l o c k s . W h i l e i n l a i d eyes appear f a i r l y

H . (total statue): 7 2 cm. Cairo,

often i n E g y p t i a n sculpture f r o m the O l d K i n g d o m t o the N e w K i n g

The Egyptian M u s e u m C G 2 7 4 3 1 .

d o m , after the P^amesside p e r i o d (ended 1 0 7 0

B.C.),

they can be f o u n d

o n l y i n a few examples: o n a gray granite head o f K i n g O s o r k o n 11

( 8 8 3 - 8 5 5 B . C . ) from around 870 B . C . , n o w i n Philadelphia;

52

o n a schist

head o f K i n g Shabako ( 7 1 2 - 6 9 8 B . C . ) o f a b o u t 705 B . C . , n o w i n B r o o k

lyn;

5 3

a n d o n a g i l d e d figure of Isis w i t h H o r u s , dated b y the cartouches

of Psamtik 1 ( 6 6 4 - 6 1 0

B.C.),

now in London.

5 4

A l i t t l e later, f r o m E g y p t ,

a l t h o u g h n o t s t r i c t l y E g y p t i a n , is a limestone k o r e f r o m M e m p h i s t h a t
has been a t t r i b u t e d t o the last q u a r t e r of the s i x t h c e n t u r y B . C . (fig. 3 5 ) .

5 5

Finally, a male d i o r i t e head, w h i c h m a y date t o D y n a s t y x x x ( 3 8 0 342

B.C.),

has b o t h i n l a i d eyes a n d e y e b r o w s .

56

A f t e r this rather sparse

use o f i n l a i d eyes, they appear q u i t e often i n the Ptolemaic P e r i o d , i n

stone sculpture f o r p r i v a t e persons as w e l l as f o r r o y a l t y (figs. 34, 3 6 ) .

5 7

T h e r e f o r e t h e i r frequent use i n E g y p t after A l e x a n d e r the Great m a y w e l l

be due t o the presence o f the Greeks whose o w n statuary often shows
this element i n sculpture i n the r o u n d .
T h e second feature, namely, c o r k s c r e w locks o n sculptures o f
w o m e n i n the Ptolemaic P e r i o d , has thus far been considered t o be o f
Egyptian o r i g i n .
FIG.

36

Queen's bust w i t h corkscrew locks,

provenance u n k n o w n . Basalt. Late
Ptolemaic Period. H . : 4 1 cm.
Rome, Museo Barracco 4 2 . Photo
courtesy of H . W. M u l l e r - A r c h i v e ,
Universitatsbibliothek Heidelberg,
neg.

no.

11/794.

5 8

I t m u s t be n o t e d , however, t h a t the c o r k s c r e w locks

h a d appeared i n Greek a r t l o n g before they were seen i n E g y p t ,

5 9

and it

is a q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r the hairstyle was n o t a d o p t e d by Greek w o m e n

before i t appeared i n E g y p t i a n statuary (fig. 3 6 ) . T h e use o f c o r k s c r e w
locks was thus perhaps i n s p i r e d by a Greek p r o t o t y p e , b u t i t was the
E g y p t i a n a d a p t a t i o n o f the hairstyle t h a t eventually pervaded the H e l
lenistic w o r l d .

226

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

W h i l e E g y p t i a n statues o f the Ptolemaic Period h o l d closely t o

long-established native canons, Greek influence sometimes is betrayed i n
the t r e a t m e n t o f facial features, coiffure, a n d costume. T h e r e is a n i n
creased emphasis o n the n a t u r a l i s t i c m o d e l i n g o f the h u m a n head, espe
c i a l l y i n the e x e c u t i o n o f the h a i r , beard, a n d m o u t h . T h e t i l t o f the head
a n d the t u r n o f the t o r s o i n r e l a t i o n t o a s t r i c t l y f r o n t a l p o s i t i o n o f the
figure are also new. A n o t h e r change is the w e a r i n g o f Greek headdresses,
n o t a b l y the M a c e d o n i a n kausia.

E g y p t i a n Ptolemaic sculpture exem

plifies a successful b l e n d i n g o f t w o separate t r a d i t i o n s , a native one,

nearly ended, a n d a y o u n g e r one, v i t a l i z e d by the spread o f Greek ideas
t h r o u g h the legacy o f A l e x a n d e r the Great.
New York University
N E W

Y O R K

B ot hm er

Notes

T h e f o r m e r figure: L . B o r c h a r d t , Statuen

und

t h o u g h t f u l discussion o n Ptolemaic E g y p t i a n sculp

Statuetten

im

ture that c o n t r i b u t e d t o this paper. T h e editors w i s h

Museum

t o t h a n k R i c h a r d A . Fazzini, D o n a l d Spanel, Bojana

General

Mojsov, and Asmarina A r o m i n o of The Brooklyn

du Caire

T h e a u t h o r is g r a t e f u l t o J a c k A . J o s e p h s o n f o r

von Konigen

und

Privatleuten

vol. 3 of

von Kairo,
des Antiquites

Catalogue

Egyptiennes

du

Musee

(Berlin 1930), p. 74, p i . 139; V . Solia,

M u s e u m a n d C a r l a M a r c h i n i of the B r i t i s h M u s e u m

" A G r o u p o f R o y a l Sculptures f r o m A b y d o s , "

f o r t h e i r g e n e r o u s assistance i n s e c u r i n g

Journal

permissions

Research

Center

in

T h e l a t t e r figure: H . D e M e u l e n a r e a n d

erts a n d J e n n i R o d d a o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f F i n e A r t s at
New

of the American

29 ( 1 9 9 2 ) : 1 2 1 - 2 2 n . 3 0 , fig. 2 6 .

Egypt

for sculptures illustrated w i t h this article. N i t a R o b

P. M a c K a y , Mendes,

Y o r k University were helpful i n securing photos.

vol. 2 (Warminster 1976),

p . 2 0 0 , n o . 7 4 , p i . 2 7 d . R . S. B i a n c h i , " T h e

W a r m e s t t h a n k s are d u e t o t h e c o l l e c t o r s a n d

Striding Draped M a l e Figure of Ptolemaic

curators w h o graciously a l l o w e d the sculptures i n

t h e i r care t o be i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h i s p a p e r . T h e y are

E g y p t , " i n H . M a e h l e r a n d V . M . S t r o c k a , eds.,

Denis Coutagne (Musee Granet, Aix-en-Provence),

Das

D o r e y a Said ( G r a e c o - R o m a n M u s e u m , A l e x a n d r i a ) ,

p p . 9 5 - 1 0 2 , discusses t h e d r a p e d m a l e

Olga Tzahou-Alexandri (National Archaeological

of the Ptolemaic p e r i o d .

ptolemdische

(Mainz 1978),

Agypten

figure

M u s e u m , Athens), D i e t r i c h W i l d u n g (Agyptisches
M u s e u m , Berlin), Christiana M o r i g i Govi (Museo

S. S c h o s k e a n d D . W i l d u n g , Agyptische

Kunst

C i v i c o A r c h e o l o g i c o , Bologna), Luc L i m m e (Musees

Munch

R o y a u x d ' A r t et d ' H i s t o i r e , Brussels), M o h a m m e d

Sammlung

Saleh ( T h e E g y p t i a n M u s e u m , C a i r o ) , A r i e l l e K o z l o f f

n i c h 1 9 8 5 ) , p p . 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 , 1 5 4 , cat. 8 6 , i l l . ;

en.

(The Cleveland M u s e u m of A r t ) , Richard A . Fazzini

Cleopatra's

(The B r o o k l y n M u s e u m ) , Jean-Luc Chappaz (Musee

cat. 3 8 , i l l .

Katalog

Handbuch

Agyptischer

Kunst

zur

Staatlichen

Munchen

(Mu

(note 1 above), p p .

Egypt

133-34,

d ' a r t et d ' h i s t o i r e , G e n e v a ) , W . V . D a v i e s ( T h e B r i t i s h
M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) , R o s a l i n d H . Janssen (Petrie M u

ESLP

(note 1 above), p p . x x x i x , 128, 138,

seum of E g y p t i a n Archaeology, University College

1 4 3 , 1 5 6 , 1 7 2 - 7 3 , 1 7 6 , cat. 1 3 2 , p i s . 1 2 3 - 2 4 ,

L o n d o n ) , Sylvia Schoske (Staatliche S a m m l u n g A g y p -

figs. 3 2 9 - 3 1 ; R . F a z z i n i et a l . , Ancient

t i s c h e r K u n s t , M u n i c h ) , Susan B . M a t h e s o n (Yale

tian Art in the Brooklyn

University A r t Gallery, N e w Haven), R o b i n Bening-

1 9 8 8 ) , cat. 9 2 , i l l .

Egyp

(Brooklyn

Museum

son ( A n t i q u a r i u m , L t d . , N e w Y o r k ) , L e o n a r d Stern
(New

York), Christiane Ziegler (Musee du Louvre,

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 37, 5 9 - 6 2 , 174,

Paris), M a r e s i t a N o t a ( M u s e o Barracco, R o m e ) ,

cat. F 1 , p i . 4 7 . 1 - 3 ; R . R . R . S m i t h ,

Bengt Peterson (Medelhavsmuseet,

Royal

Stockholm),

G r a z i a B r a v a r ( C i v i c i M u s e i d i S t o r i a ed A r t e , T r i

Portraits

Hellenistic

( O x f o r d 1988), pp. 87, 93, 170,

cat. 7 1 , p i . 4 6 . 2 .

este), M a r i s a R i g o n i ( M u s e o A r c h e o l o g i c o , V e n i c e ) .
7
1

B . V . B o t h m e r et a l . , Egyptian
Late

Period,

yoo

Sculpture

H . K y r i e l e i s , Bildnisse

En

(hereafter
der

(note 1 above), p . 156; B. George a n d

Medelhavsmuseet:

(Stockholm 1982), pp. 1 0 0 - 1 ,

Introduktion

ill.

Ptolemaer

(Berlin 1 9 7 5 ) . K . Parlasca, " P r o b l e m e

der

G . Pesce, I I "Palazzo

delle colonne"

in

Tole-

spaten Ptolemaerbildnisse," i n H . M a e h t e r

maide

a n d V . M . S t r o c k a , eds., Das

figs. 9 7 - 9 9 ; R . S. B i a n c h i , " C o l l e c t i n g a n d

Agypten

ptolemdische

( M a i n z 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 2 5 - 3 0 , figs. 3 6 - 5 1 .

R . S. B i a n c h i , Cleopatra's
Ptolemies,

Egypt:

Age of

di Cirenaica

(Rome 1950), p. 80,

C o l l e c t o r s , E g y p t i a n S t y l e , " The Bulletin

the

the Cleveland

e x h . cat. ( T h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m

144-51, ill.

1 9 8 8 ) (hereafter Cleopatra's

Museum

of Art

Schoske a n d W i l d u n g (note 4 above), p p . 1 2 0 ,

J. J o s e p h s o n s f o r t h c o m i n g s t u d y o n f o u r t h -

1 2 2 , 1 5 4 , cat. 8 5 , i l l . ; Cleopatra's

c e n t u r y - B . c . r o y a l p o r t r a i t u r e , Egyptian

a b o v e ) , p p . 8 4 - 8 5 , cat. 2, i l l .

Sculpture

of the Late

Period:

400-246

Royal

Egypt

(note 1

B.C.,

w i l l discuss h o w D y n a s t y x x x styles c a n be d i s
tinguished f r o m those o f the t h i r d - c e n t u r y
Ptolemies.

of

79 ( M a y 1 9 9 2 ) :

Egypt).
9

ESLP

B. Peterson, " E g y p t e n , " i n

the

B.C. to A.D. IOO, e x h . cat.

(The B r o o k l y n M u s e u m i 9 6 0 )
ESLP).

of

10

ESLP

( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 7 0 - 7 2 , 1 7 3 , cat.

1 3 1 , p i . 1 2 2 , figs. 3 2 7 - 2 8 ; D . W i l d u n g a n d
G . G r i m m , Gotter,

Pharaonen,

e x h . cat. (Essen,

V i l l a H i i g e l 1 9 7 8 ) , cat. 1 2 9 , i l l . ; B . V . B o t h m e r ,

227

228

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

A L E X A N D R I A

" E g y p t i a n Antecedents of R o m a n Republican

V e r i s m , " Quaderni

di "La Ricerca

the clay sealing p o r t r a i t s appear i n S m i t h (note

Scientifica"

6 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 4 , 9 5 - 9 6 ; P. E . S t a n w i c k , " A

1 1 6 ( R o m e 1 9 8 8 ) : 4 7 - 6 5 , figs. 1 - 2 0 , esp. 6 3 .

R o y a l Ptolemaic Bust i n A l e x a n d r i a , "

of the American

I I

( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 3 2 , 1 4 1 - 4 2 , cat.

ESLP

Research

Center

Journal
29

in Egypt

( 1 9 9 2 ) : 135 n . 16.

1 0 9 , p i . 1 0 1 , figs. 2 7 0 - 7 1 ; G . D . S c o t t i n , An
cient

Art at Yale ( N e w H a v e n 1 9 8 6 ) ,

Egyptian

20

p p . 1 6 5 - 6 7 , cat. 9 4 , i l l .
12

R . S. B i a n c h i , " A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t as a K a u s i a
D i a d e m a t o p h o r o s f r o m E g y p t , " i n The

Intellec

tual Heritage

to

K y r i e l e i s ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 5 , 1 7 7 , cat. H 1 9 ;

Ldszlo

C . G o v i et a l . , I I senso

the Occasion

dell'arte

nell'Antico

Kdkosy

Studies

by Friends

Presented

and Colleagues

of His 60th

Birthday

on

(Budapest

1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 6 9 - 7 5 , pis- n - 1 1 1 . A l t h o u g h B i a n c h i

e x h . cat. ( B o l o g n a , M u s e o C i v i c o 1 9 9 0 ) ,

Egitto,

of Egypt:

p . 1 9 9 , cat. 1 5 2 , i l l . F o r a discussion o f the

attempts t o a t t r i b u t e the head t o the f o u r t h cen

H e l l e n i s t i c d i a d e m , see S m i t h ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) ,

t u r y B . C . , t h e r e is v e r y s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t o p l a c e
i t i n t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . , as m y a r g u m e n t s i n

pp. 3 4 - 3 8 .

this article demonstrate.

13

" A d d i t i o n s t o the M u s e u m Collections, D e p a r t

m e n t o f A n c i e n t A r t , " The Brooklyn

Museum

21

N e w York, The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t
3 0 . 8 . 7 1 ; p r o v e n a n c e u n k n o w n . ESLP

12 ( 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 ) : 2 0 - 2 1 , i l l .

Annual

(note 1

a b o v e ) , p p . 1 6 2 , 1 7 9 , cat. 1 2 5 , p i . 1 1 6 ,
14

A . Adriani, "Ritratti dell'Egitto greco-romano,"

Mitteilungen
Instituts,

des Deutschen
Romische

figs.

313-14.

Archaologischen
77 (1970): 7 2 -

Abteilung

22

T h e a u t h o r t h a n k s Jack A . Josephson for p o i n t

1 0 9 , p i s . 3 2 - 5 1 , esp. p . 9 1 n . 8 5 , p i . 4 6 . 1 ;

i n g o u t t h i s passage. T h e w e a r i n g o f t h e

G . G r i m m , Die romischen

i n t h e first c e n t u r y B . C . m a y h a v e been p a r t o f a

Mumienmasken

p i . 2 7 . 2 ; E . R u s s m a n n , Egyptian
Cairo

deliberate a t t e m p t b y the Ptolemies t o legitimize

(Wiesbaden 1974), pp. 48, 75,

aus Agypten

and Luxor

their rule i n politically unstable times by i n v o k

Sculpture:

i n g A l e x a n d e r the Great a n d his M a c e d o n i a n

(Austin 1989), pp. 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 ,

a n c e s t r y ; see C . B o h m , Imitatio

no. 9 1 , ill.
See ESLP

16

E . D r i o r t o n , Encyclopedie
Le Musee

du Caire

Photo graph ique

T h e r e is e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e s u b j e c t
o f p o r t r a i t u r e . See, w i t h p r i o r b i b l i o g r a p h y ,

de

J. A s s m a n n , " D i e H i e r o g l y p h e M e n s c h : A g y p

(Cairo 1949), pp. 32,

4 7 , fig. 2 0 9 ; A . F a r i d , " G e n e r a l H a t h o r , D a u g h

t i s c h e P o r t r a t k u n s t , " Frankfurter

t e r o f S t r a t e g o s H j a r g s - P a k o m , " Revue

Zeitung,

tologie

im

(note 1 above), p p . 1 5 6 - 5 7 .
23

I'Art,

Alexandri

(Munich 1989), pp. 1 3 0 - 5 2 .

Hellenismus
15

kausia

d'Egyp-

Ancient

4 1 ( 1 9 9 0 ) : 57 n . 1 , 5 8 , 6 3 .

Allgemeine

28 M a r c h 1 9 8 7 ; D . Spanel,
Eyes:

Egyptian

Portraiture,

Through
e x h . cat.

( B i r m i n g h a m M u s e u m of A r t 1988), and the

17

B o t h m e r (note 10 above): 4 8 , 6 1 ;
Egypt

Orientalis

(note 1 above), p p . 1 2 5 - 2 7 , cat. 3 1 , i l l . ;

K . - H . Priese, e d . , Das Agyptische

Berlin

review of this b o o k by R. Tefnin i n

Cleopatra's

" D a s B i l d n i s i n d e r a g y p t i s c h e n K u n s t : Stile

Museum

(Mainz 1991), pp. 183, 1 9 4 - 9 5 ,

u n d F u n k t i o n e n bildlicher Selbstdarstellung,"

c h a p . 6 i n i d e m , Stein

116, ill.

Gesellschaft
18

Bibliotheca

48 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : cols. 1 1 7 - 1 9 ; ] . A s s m a n n ,

U n p u b l i s h e d . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e kausia,

im alten

und Zeit:
Agypten

Mensch

und

( M u n i c h 1991),

pp. 1 3 8 - 6 8 .

see

C. Saatsoglu-Paliadeli, "Aspects o f A n c i e n t
M a c e d o n i a n C o s t u m e , " Journal
Studies

113 ( 1 9 9 3 ) : 1 2 2 - 4 7 ,

of
figs.

Hellenic

24

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 37, 4 4 - 4 6 , 1 7 1 ,

cat. D 2 , p i . 3 3 . 1 , 2 ; S m i t h , p p . 8 7 , 9 7 , 1 7 1 ,

1-5,

cat. 8 0 , p i . 4 9 . 6 .

pis. 1 - i v , w i t h earlier b i b l i o g r a p h y . R o b e r t L u n s i n g h Scheuleer p o i n t e d o u t t h i s s c u l p t u r e t o m e .

25
19

F o r s o m e e x a m p l e s w i t h kausia,
t o s , Ta Sphragismata

tes Aitolikes

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 54, 1 3 4 - 3 6 , 172,

c a t . E 2 , p i . 4 2 . 1 , 2; Cleopatra's

see P. A . P a n

Egypt

(note 1

above), p p . 1 5 2 - 5 3 , cat. 56, i l l .

Kallipoleos

(Athens 1985), pis. 35.258, 37.263, a n d H .

K y r i e l e i s , " B i l d n i s s e des K a i s a r i o n z u Siegela b d r u c k e n aus N e a P a p h o s , " Akten
internationalen
Archaologie

Kongresses

fur

des

XIIL

Klassische

( M a i n z 1 9 9 0 ) , p i . 67c.

Previous discussion and b i b l i o g r a p h y o n

26

H . Kyrieleis a n d R . R. R. S m i t h also a t t r i b u t e
the head t o Ptolemy v n i : Kyrieleis (note 1
a b o v e ) , p p . 6 4 , 1 7 4 , c a t . G 2, p i s . 5 2 . 4 , 5 3 . 1 , 2;
S m i t h (note 6 above), p p . 87, 9 3 - 9 4 , 170,
cat. 7 3 , p i . 4 7 . 1 , 2 . R . S. B i a n c h i prefers t o see

Bothmer

t h e h e a d as a n i d e a l physkon

figs.

type that belongs

1 6 0 - 6 3 ; B o t h m e r (note 10 above), p p . 53,

5 8 , fig. 6.

s o m e w h e r e i n the t h i r d t o second c e n t u r y B.C.;

Cleopatra's

229

(note i above), p p . 1 4 8 - 4 9 ,

Egypt

34

cat. 53, i l l . H o w e v e r , g i v e n the s t r o n g resem

H . S. K . B a k r y , 5000

ans d'art

egyptien,

exh.

blance t o c o i n portraits (Kyrieleis [note 1

c a t . (Brussels, Palais des B e a u x - A r t s i 9 6 0 ) ,

above], p i . 5 2 . 1 ; Smith [note 6 above],

p. 3 2 , cat. 8 6 .

p i . 7 5 . 1 7 ) , t h e v i e w t h a t t h e Brussels h e a d r e p r e

27

sents P t o l e m y v i n Euergetes 11 m u s t be c o r r e c t .

35

P a r l a s c a ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 2 6 , fig. 3 9 .

36

B o t h m e r ( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 5 9 , 6 2 , fig. 1 7 .
S. C u r t o , L'Egitto

e x h . cat. ( B o l o g n a ,

antico,

M u s e o C i v i c o 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 9 1 , cat. 7 7 , p i . 4 2 ,
28

M u n i c h , Staatliche S a m m l u n g A g y p t i s c h e r

fig. 7 7 . A d r i a n i ( n o t e 14 a b o v e ) , p p . 7 4 - 7 5

Kunst AS 5339; provenance u n k n o w n . H . W .

n . 7, p i s . 3 3 . 1 , 3 4 . 2 .

M i i l l e r attributed this sculpture to Nectanebo I;

see H . W . M i i l l e r , Die Agyptische
des

Bayerischen

Staates

37

Sammlung

i d e m , " B i l d n i s s e K o n i g N e k t a n e b o s 1. ( 3 8 0 3 6 2 v . C h r . ) , " Pantheon

figs.

W . Seipel, Gott,

Mensch,

Pharao,

e x h . cat.

(Vienna, Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m 1992),

( M u n i c h 1 9 6 6 ) , cat. 6 6 ;

p. 4 4 6 , cat. 1 8 3 , i l l .

28 ( 1 9 7 0 ) : 8 9 - 9 9 ,

5 - 7 . Parlasca ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 2 6 , fig. 3 6 ,

38

B o t h m e r ( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 5 0 , 5 9 , 6 2 , fig. 1 8 .

r e - a t t r i b u t e d the w o r k t o P t o l e m y x .
39
29

G . T r a v e r s a r i , Museo

Archeologico

di Venezia:

ritratti

u n k n o w n . Originally attributed to Nectanebo 1

p l a t e is e r r o n e o u s l y m a r k e d " 1 0 5 " ) ; A d r i a n i

i n ESLP

( n o t e 14 a b o v e ) , p . 7 6 , p i . 3 6 . 3 , 4 ; G o v i ( n o t e

(note 1 above), p p . 9 0 - 9 2 , 134, 177,

12 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 2 0 2 , n o . 1 5 3 , i l l .

cat. 7 3 , p i . 6 9 , figs. 1 7 7 - 8 0 . C . A l d r e d , i n h i s
r e v i e w o f ESLP

(American

Journal

of

( R o m e 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 1 1 3 - 1 4 , n o . 1 0 4 (the

Paris, M u s e e d u L o u v r e E. 8 0 6 1 ; provenance

Archaeol

ogy 66 [ 1 9 6 2 ] : 2 0 7 - 9 ) , a r g u e d t h a t t h e h e a d

40

U n p u b l i s h e d . ESLP

(note 1 above), p p . 1 8 0 - 8 1 ,

s h o u l d be p l a c e d i n t h e P t o l e m a i c P e r i o d a n d

discusses t h e use o f p a r t e d l i p s i n E g y p t i a n

suggested P t o l e m y v E p i p h a n e s . A l t h o u g h Par

sculpture of the Ptolemaic p e r i o d .

lasca ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 2 6 , successfully re
a t t r i b u t e d the w o r k t o P t o l e m y x ,

Cleopatra's

41

( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 1 4 3 , cat. 4 8 , i l l . ,

Egypt

Kyrieleis (note 1 above), p p . 3 7 - 4 2 , 4 4 , 136,

170,

c o n t i n u e d t o h o l d the incorrect v i e w that the

cat. C 16, p i . 2 8 . 1 - 3 ; S m i t h (note 6

a b o v e ) , p p . 8 7 , 9 3 , 1 6 9 , cat. 7 0 , p i . 4 6 . 1 ;

L o u v r e h e a d r e p r e s e n t e d N e c t a n e b o 1.

Cleopatra's

Egypt

(note 1 above), p p . 1 4 7 - 4 8 ,

cat. 52, i l l .
30

T . D e v e r i a , " C a t a l o g u e des m o n u m e n t s e g y p t i e n s a u M u s e e d ' A i x , " Bibliotheque

egyptolo-

42

A d r i a n i ( n o t e 14 a b o v e ) , p p . 8 6 - 8 7
103,

v o l . 4 (Paris 1 8 9 6 ) , p . 2 3 8 .

gique,

W . V . D a v i e s , Egyptian
31

A d r i a n i ( n o t e 14 a b o v e ) ; B o t h m e r ( n o t e 1 0

- ^4>

p i s . 4 3 . 1 , 4 4 . 4 ; T . G . H . James a n d
Sculpture

(Cambridge,

M a s s . , 1 9 8 3 ) , p p . 5 ^ - 5 7 , fig- 6 3 .

above), pp. 4 7 - 6 5 .
43
32

A . Page, Egyptian
from

the Petrie

Sculpture,
Collection

Archaic

to

ESLP

(note 1 above), p p . 133, 1 7 6 - 7 7 , 179,

c a t . 1 3 5 , p i . 1 2 7 , figs. 3 3 8 - 3 9 ; K y r i e l e i s ( n o t e 1

Saite,

above), p p . 7 5 , 1 7 7 , cat. H 18.

(Warminster 1976),

p . 9 4 , cat. 1 0 5 , i l l . Page m i s t a k e n l y a t t r i b u t e s
t h e s c u l p t u r e :o D y n a s t i e s x x v / x x v i ; see

44

Bianchi (note 3 above), p p . 9 8 - 9 9 .

45

B i a n c h i (note 3 above), p p . 9 7 - 9 8 .

46

R . S. B i a n c h i , " N o t t h e Isis K n o t , " Bulletin

B. V . B o t h m e r , " E g y p t i a n A n t i q u i t i e s , " i n
Antiquities

from

33

the Collection

of

Christos

(Mainz 1987), p. 94.

G. Bastis

the Egyptological

S. B . S h u b e r t , " R e a l i s t i c C u r r e n t s i n P o r t r a i t

figs.

S c u l p t u r e o f t h e Saite a n d P e r s i a n P e r i o d s i n
E g y p t , " Journal

of the Society

for the Study

Seminar

of

2 (1980): 9 - 3 1 ,

1-13.

of
J. V a n d i e r , Manuel

d'archeologie

utes t h e L o u v r e b u s t t o t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.C.

v o l . 3, Les grandes

epoques:

I , however, w o u l d still h o l d to a Dynasty x x v n

1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 2 2 8 - 2 9 . v n , 2 3 1 . X I I I , pis. L X X V I . 2 ,

d a t e based o n t h e s t y l i s t i c a n d e p i g r a p h i c e v i

3, L x x v i i . 3 .

Egyptian

Antiquities

19 ( 1 9 8 9 ) : 3 7 - 3 8 , a t t r i b

d e n c e discussed i n ESLP
81-83,

i o

5>

I X

(note 1 above), p p . 7 1 ,

8 , 134? 1 4 0 , c a t . 6 7 , p i s . 6 4 , 6 5 ,

47

egyptienne,

La statuaire

(Paris

230

ARTS

OF

48

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

B. V . Bothmer, "Apotheosis i n Late Egypt i a n S c u l p t u r e , " Kemi

pis.

59

20 (1970): 3 7 - 4 8 ,

See, f o r e x a m p l e , t w o late s i x t h - c e n t u r y - B . c .
k o r a i i l l u s t r a t e d i n R i c h t e r ( n o t e 55 a b o v e ) ,

VI-XIII.

figs. 3 5 8 - 6 7 ( A t h e n s , A c r o p o l i s M u s e u m 5 9 8
a n d 6 8 2 , respectively); a n d the goddess Eirene

49

J. V a n d i e r , " T r o i s statues e g y p t i e n n e s a u M u s e e

a n d Ploutos o f the second quarter o f the f o u r t h

d u L o u v r e , " La Revue

century B . C . ( M u n i c h , Glyptothek 219, a Ro

du Louvre

11 (1961): 2 4 7 - 5 4 ,

de France

et des
figs.

musees

5-9.

m a n copy), illustrated i n A . Stewart,

Sculpture:

50
51

B i a n c h i (note 3 above), p . 9 9 .
Cleopatra's

Egypt

1 9 9 0 ) , figs. 4 8 5 - 8 7 -

(note 1 above), pp. 6 7 - 7 0 .

C o n t r a r y t o the discussion there, however, I still

m a i n t a i n t h a t classic t r i p a r t i t i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d
i n m i d - D y n a s t y x x v i , a r o u n d 6 0 0 B . C . ; see
(note 1 above), p p . x x x v , 54.

ESLP
52

Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania,

The

University M u s e u m E 16199, f r o m Tanis. The

head joins t o a k n e e l i n g statue, C a i r o , Egyp
tian M u s e u m C G 1040. B. V. Bothmer, "The
P h i l a d e l p h i a - C a i r o Statue o f O s o r k o n 11
( M e m b r a D i s p e r s a i n ) , " Journal

of

Egyptian

4 6 ( i 9 6 0 ) : 3 - 1 1 , pis. i - v i ;

Archaeology

H . K . Jacquet-Gordon,

"The Inscriptions of

t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a - C a i r o Statue o f O s o r k o n 11,"
Journal

of Egyptian

46 (i960):

Archaeology

1 2 - 2 3 , pis. V I I - V I I I ; K . M y s l i e w i e c ,
Portraiture

Royal

x x i - x x x (Mainz

of the Dynasties

1988), p p . 16, 24, 115, p i . x x i a - d .

53

The B r o o k l y n M u s e u m 60.74, provenance u n

k n o w n . S. W e n i g , Africa
of Ancient

Nubia

in Antiquity:

and the Sudan,

The

Arts

v o l . 2, exh.

cat. ( T h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 1 7 0 ,
cat. 8 0 , i l l .
54

L o n d o n , British M u s e u m E A 23050. H . De
M e u l e n a e r e , Le surnom

55

egyptien

a la

Basse

(Istanbul 1966), p . 5 n . 13.

Epoque

G . M . A . R i c h t e r , Korai

(London 1968), p. 94,

fig. 5 4 0 , n o . 1 7 0 .
56

Private collection, provenance u n k n o w n .

ESLP

( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 6 5 , 1 0 5 - 7 , cat. 8 4 , p i . 8 0 ,
figs.
57

107-9.

F o r t h e l a t t e r figure, see ESLP

(note 1 above),

p p . 1 5 8 , 1 7 0 ( e r r o n e o u s l y l i s t e d as R o m e ,
M u s e o B a r r a c c o 2 9 ) ; G . C a r e d d u , Museo
racco

di Scultura

Antica:

La collezione

Baregizia

( R o m e 1 9 8 5 ) , p p . 3 8 - 3 9 , cat. 4 3 , fig. 4 3 a - c .
58

W . Needier, "Some Ptolemaic Sculptures i n the

Yale U n i v e r s i t y A r t G a l l e r y , " Berytus

9 (1949):

1 3 8 - 4 1 ; E . J. W a l t e r s , " A t t i c G r a v e Reliefs
T h a t Represent W o m e n i n the Dress o f Isis,"
Hesperia,

Supplement 22 (Princeton 1988),

p . 1 2 ; Cleopatra's

Egypt

An Exploration,

(note 1 above), p . 170.

Greek

vol. 2 (New Haven

231

The Alexandrian Style- A Mirage?

Andrew

Stewart

M y o r i g i n a l charge was t o tackle the question " A n A l e x a n d r i a n Style:

Does I t E x i s t ? " Since this is one o f the m a i n themes o f this meeting a n d
has already been addressed by several speakers, I w o u l d like t o d o t w o
things. First, t o p u t i t i n c o n t e x t , b o t h t o situate o u r enterprise h i s t o r i
cally a n d t o use past scholarship t o i l l u m i n a t e a n d occasionally t o c r i
tique o u r present concerns. For as Santayana has w a r n e d us, those w h o
ignore h i s t o r y are d o o m e d t o repeat i t . A n d , second, I w a n t t o offer some
brief remarks o n three test cases, each very different i n character, as a
positive c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the debate.
T h e concept o f a specifically A l e x a n d r i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
Hellenistic art is just over one h u n d r e d years o l d . I t was the c r e a t i o n o f
one m a n , T h e o d o r Schreiber. For m o s t of the nineteenth c e n t u r y i t was
c o m m o n l y accepted t h a t A l e x a n d r i a n art was t r i v i a l t o nonexistent. T h e
o r t h o d o x v i e w was neatly s u m m e d u p by H e i n r i c h B r u n n w h e n he de
clared t h a t A l e x a n d r i a p r o d u c e d n o t h i n g t o m a t c h the achievements o f
the Pergamene a n d R h o d i a n schools, p r e s u m a b l y because the strength
of the native E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n i n h i b i t e d c r e a t i v i t y there. As B r u n n re
m a r k e d o n another occasion, since A l e x a n d r i a h a d n o g o o d stone w i t h i n
reach a n d n o incentive t o carve i t , one m i g h t as w e l l expect t o find a
school o f skating there as a school of sculpture. Johannes Overbeck a n d
L u c y M i t c h e l l accepted this j u d g m e n t w i t h o u t d e m u r i n their h a n d b o o k s
of Greek sculpture, first p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 8 1 a n d 1 8 8 3 , respectively.

I n the last fifteen years o f the century, however, the climate of

o p i n i o n changed a b r u p t l y , at least i n some quarters. T h e catalyst was an
article by T h e o d o r Schreiber i n the Athenische

Mitteilungen

of 1 8 8 5 ,

p u b l i s h i n g f o u r bronzes i n the D e m e t r i o c o l l e c t i o n . A grotesque, an

2

A t l a s , a n d t w o caricatures o f blacks (figs. 1, 2 ) , they h a d recently been

transferred t o Athens f r o m A l e x a n d r i a a n d were t h e n o n display w i t h
other items o f the c o l l e c t i o n i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m .
I n his article, Schreiber a n n o u n c e d w h a t was t o be his m i s s i o n
for the n e x t t h i r t y years, namely, t o s h o w t h a t far f r o m being negligible
o r derivative, A l e x a n d r i a n a r t h a d t a k e n a n u m b e r o f paths t h a t were
s t r i k i n g l y n e w a n d o r i g i n a l . I n suggesting this, he p o i n t e d t o the huge
3

discrepancy between the archaeological r e c o r d a n d A l e x a n d r i a ' s i n c o m -

232

ARTS

OF

HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Grotesque, from Alexandria.

Ex-Demetrio collection. Athens,
N a t i o n a l Museum. F r o m
T. Schreiber, Mitteilungen
Deutschen
Instituts,

des

Archaologischen
Athenische

Abteilung

10

(1885), p i . 10.
FIG.

Black boy, from Alexandria.

Ex-Demetrio collection. Athens,
N a t i o n a l Museum. From
T. Schreiber, Mitteilungen
Deutschen
Instituts,

Athenische

(1885), p i . 12.

parable achievements i n literature a n d l e a r n i n g , n o t t o m e n t i o n the

ancient descriptions o f Ptolemaic m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , such as Athenaios's
accounts o f P t o l e m y Philadelphos's great procession a n d s y m p o s i u m tent
a n d o f Philopator's fabulous r i v e r b o a t (see Pfrommer, figs. 9, 10 above).
As N i k o l a u s H i m m e l m a n n has r e m a r k e d , b e h i n d Schreiber's w h o l e p r o j
ect was the c o n v i c t i o n t h a t even i n the Hellenistic p e r i o d , r e g i o n a l styles
were still alive a n d p o t e n t .

H e r e , Schreiber was s w i m m i n g i n the m a i n

stream o f late nineteenth-century art history, w h i c h was fascinated w i t h

r e g i o n a l i s m a n d its artistic manifestations. B u t there is m o r e : o n l y five
years before, i n 1 8 8 0 , the first slabs of the Great A l t a r o f Pergamon h a d
gone o n display i n B e r l i n , causing a sensation. Hellenistic art, h i t h e r t o
5

restricted t o i n d i v i d u a l masterpieces such as the N i k e o f Samothrace a n d

a mass o f copies, was n o w very definitely o n the m a p . Schreiber's p r o m o
t i o n of A l e x a n d r i a ' s c l a i m t o fame was surely his w a y of responding and
perhaps o f securing f o r h i m s e l f a n e w piece o f the a c t i o n .

des

Archaologischen
Abteilung

10

Stewart

I n a b r i l l i a n t l y evocative t e n pages, Schreiber sketched a v i v i d

p i c t u r e o f a " f l o u r i s h i n g , n e w Greek l o c a l s c h o o l , " a m a j o r center o f
H e l l e n i s t i c art. Its p r o d u c t s , he asserted, were p a t r o n i z e d by the A l e x a n
d r i a n p o p u l a c e o n the one h a n d a n d the c o u r t o n the other; were charac
terized b y specific l o c a l techniques, subjects, a n d styles; a n d p r o f o u n d l y
influenced the a r t o f o t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c centers a n d o f R o m a n I t a l y .

Basing his a p p r o a c h o n the o p i n i o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y G e r m a n

h i s t o r i o g r a p h y t h a t the essence o f A l e x a n d r i a n c u l t u r e was c o s m o p o l i
t a n i s m , Schreiber argued t h a t A l e x a n d r i a n a r t was essentially c o s m o p o l i
t a n , t o o . I t often made use o f c e r t a i n E g y p t i a n techniques, such as stucco
a n d p i e c i n g , a n d tended t o use E g y p t i a n m o t i f s i n decorative c o n t e x t s .
T h e small-scale genre figures (and t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s , the m a r b l e peas
ants, fishermen, a n d derelicts) were made f o r the A l e x a n d r i a n p o p u l a c e .
Stressing t h e i r extreme r e a l i s m t h a t often shaded i n t o c y n i c i s m , he saw
t h e m as either uncensored vignettes o f street a n d c o u n t r y life o r parodies
o n the dissolute orgies o f the C a n o p u s . A t this level, he observed, the
A l e x a n d r i a n aesthetic p r i v i l e g e d t r u t h over b e a u t y i n stark c o n t r a s t t o
the A t t i c s c h o o l . T h e c o u r t , o n the other h a n d , e m p l o y e d i m m i g r a n t
artists t o create r o y a l p o r t r a i t s a n d ideal w o r k s i n an a t t i c i z i n g (by w h i c h
he m e a n t P r a x i t e l e a n ) style characterized by soft, f l u i d m o d e l i n g a n d a
7

suppression o r s l u r r i n g o f secondary d e t a i l . I f a l l this sounds r e m a r k a b l y

f a m i l i a r , i t is because i t has been repeated i n a h u n d r e d h a n d b o o k s over
the years, often w i t h l i t t l e o r n o change b u t usually w i t h o u t a c k n o w l
e d g m e n t o r perhaps even r e c o g n i t i o n o f its o r i g i n a l source. A n d
i n a final

flourish,

Schreiber listed a series o f " A l e x a n d r i a n " m o t i f s i n

R o m a n o - C a m p a n i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e , sculpture, a n d p a i n t i n g a n d even
characterized the H o u s e o f the F a u n i n P o m p e i i as t h o r o u g h l y A l e x a n
d r i a n i n style a n d d e c o r a t i o n i n c l u d i n g , o f course, the A l e x a n d e r M o
saic a n d the N i l o t i c landscape t h a t f r o n t e d i t .
Excessive t h o u g h some o f this was, i t s h o u l d n o t lead us t o
o v e r l o o k Schreiber's e x t r a o r d i n a r y o r i g i n a l i t y . I f anyone were t o ask me
t o c o m p i l e an a n t h o l o g y o f the t w e n t y m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l articles i n the
field, this article w o u l d definitely be a m o n g t h e m . W r i t t e n at a t i m e w h e n
m o s t w o r k o n ancient a r t was p o s i t i v i s t i n the extreme, i t has m u c h t o
teach us. O n the one h a n d , its evocative i n t e g r a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l a n d social
h i s t o r y , l i t e r a t u r e , a n d a r t is b o t h p o w e r f u l a n d s t r i k i n g l y m o d e r n , b u t ,
o n the other, its n a r r o w f a c t u a l basis made its w h o l e thesis dangerously
unstable a n d p r o n e t o s p i n o u t o f c o n t r o l .
O v e r the n e x t q u a r t e r century, i t proceeded t o d o just t h a t , as
Schreiber proceeded t o pile m o r e a n d m o r e u p o n i t . Soon he h a d added
the H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n landscape reliefs, w a l l e n c r u s t a t i o n i n c o l o r e d
m a r b l e a n d its plaster i m i t a t i o n s , m o s t i f n o t a l l G r a e c o - R o m a n em
bossed m e t a l w o r k , a n d even m a n y p o r t r a i t s o f A l e x a n d e r the Great t o
the achievements o f the A l e x a n d r i a n s c h o o l . M a n y o f the w o r k s he i n 8

233

234

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

eluded were w i t h o u t provenance o r came f r o m outside E g y p t a n o m i

nous development.
Schreiber's v i s i o n o f A l e x a n d r i a as the r a d i a n t center of H e l
lenistic a n d early R o m a n art, i l l u m i n a t i n g a l l w h o came i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h
i t , a t t r a c t e d m a n y f o l l o w e r s . T h i s was, after a l l , the h i g h summer o f E u
r o p e a n e x p a n s i o n i s m , G e r m a n as w e l l as French a n d B r i t i s h , a n d c u l t u r a l
i m p e r i a l i s m was very m u c h i n vogue. T w o o f t h e m deserve m e n t i o n here
for the r e m a r k a b l e l o n g e v i t y o f t h e i r ideas: E d m o n d C o u r b a u d , w h o re
duced Schreiber's r i c h a n d variegated c o n s t r u c t i o n t o a simple contrast
between Pergamene " r e a l i s m " a n d the A l e x a n d r i a n " p i c t u r e s q u e , " a n d
W e r n e r Weisbach, w h o located the o r i g i n s o f i m p r e s s i o n i s m i n A l e x a n
drian tomb painting.

Needless t o say, Schreiber's s h i n i n g edifice o f hypothesis d i d

n o t go unchallenged. C r i t i c s s w i f t l y spotted its weaknesses a n d p o l i t e l y
b u t relentlessly set a b o u t exposing t h e m . I n 1895 Franz W i c k h o f f dis
p u t e d the A l e x a n d r i a n o r i g i n s o f the landscape reliefs, c l a i m i n g t h e m f o r
R o m a n a r t o n the g r o u n d s t h a t they h a d m o s t l y been f o u n d i n I t a l y b u t
never i n A l e x a n d r i a , were usually o f I t a l i a n m a r b l e , a n d were best p a r a l
leled i n R o m a n o - C a m p a n i a n p a i n t i n g a n d o n the A r a Pacis.

10

I n 1897,

Ernest G a r d n e r p o i n t e d o u t yet again t h a t the ancient sources tell o f n o

great A l e x a n d r i a n sculptors a n d t h a t archaeology h a d so far revealed n o
great m o n u m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a n art. H e was, however, prepared t o c o n
cede at least a share i n the c r e a t i o n of the landscape reliefs t o the A l e x
a n d r i a n elite's desire t o escape "the dreary level o f the D e l t a " f o r "the
trees a n d m o u n t a i n s a n d breezes o f Cos a n d Sicily."

11

B u t w i t h this par

t i a l e x c e p t i o n , he clearly t h o u g h t t h a t A l e x a n d r i a n a r t was neither par

t i c u l a r l y o r i g i n a l n o r p a r t i c u l a r l y creative. I n 1 9 0 3 - 1 9 0 4 , A . J. B . Wace
n o t e d t h a t the small-scale grotesques were f o u n d as m u c h i n Asia M i n o r
as i n E g y p t , a n d he argued t h a t the " r e v o l t i n g b r u t a l i t y " o f the m a r b l e
peasants, fishermen, a n d derelicts was u n - H e l l e n i c and therefore R o m a n .
As he d r i l y r e m a r k e d , "Such art goes b e y o n d nature i n its search f o r
subjects t o give a fillip t o the jaded tastes o f its p a t r o n s . " H e also m a r
shaled m o r e arguments against the supposed A l e x a n d r i a n o r i g i n s o f the
landscape r e l i e f s . A n d i n 1 9 1 0 , M . A . Ruffer traced the h i s t o r y o f the
12

grotesque i n E g y p t back t o the early t h i r d m i l l e n n i u m , thereby r e c l a i m

i n g the genre f o r E g y p t i a n a r t .

13

So b y the o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d W a r 1,

w h a t its critics n o w derisively t e r m e d " p a n - A l e x a n d r i a n i s m " was under

heavy attack f r o m a l l sides.
Yet just w h e n i t seemed t h a t Schreiber's p o s i t i o n was n o
longer tenable, s a l v a t i o n o f a sort came i n the f o r m o f n e w finds o f m a r
bles, plaster casts, silverware, p a i n t i n g s , a n d terracottas i n a n d a r o u n d
A l e x a n d r i a , i n the D e l t a , a n d elsewhere. These gave w e l c o m e s u p p o r t
t o some o f his ideas, t h o u g h they c o m p l i c a t e d the p i c t u r e q u i t e c o n
siderably o n other f r o n t s .

14

These developments p r o m p t e d the y o u n g

Stewart

FIG.

Ptolemaic k i n g , probably Ptolemy

i v Philopator, from the Serapeion
at Alexandria. Ca. 2 1 7 - 2 0 5 B . C .
Paris, Musee du Louvre M a 3168.
Photo: Documentation photographique de la Reunion des musees
nationaux.

A . W . Lawrence t o issue w h a t was clearly i n t e n d e d t o be the c o u p de

grace t o p a n - A l e x a n d r i a n i s m i n 1 9 2 5 J

I n a magisterial a n d devastating first f o o t n o t e , Lawrence

dismissed the landscape reliefs once m o r e , reassigned m o s t o f the
terracotta grotesques a n d plaster m o l d s t o the R o m a n p e r i o d , l i m i t e d
A l e x a n d r i a n p r i o r i t y t o the First Style o f P o m p e i a n m u r a l d e c o r a t i o n ,
c o m m e n d e d the city's " g o o d r e c o r d " i n ceramics a n d silverware, l a m
basted the p o o r q u a l i t y of its jewelry, a n d n o t e d the p a i n t e d gravestones
w i t h o u t c o m m e n t . H i s m a i n target, however, was A l e x a n d r i a n sculpture,
a n d he characteristically made his o p i n i o n s a b o u t i t clear f r o m the very
start. " I t has been said t h a t an A l e x a n d r i a n School existed w i t h ideals
m a r k e d l y different f r o m those o f the rest o f the H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d . T h i s
question m u s t be settled i f the development o f H e l l e n i s t i c sculpture is t o
be traced; I have therefore collected w h a t remains o f G r a e c o - E g y p t i a n
w o r k i n the r o u n d , a n d I w i s h people t o l o o k at the c o l l e c t i o n a n d see
t h a t i t is b a d . "

1 6

R e l y i n g u p o n w o r k s a c t u a l l y f o u n d i n E g y p t , Lawrence n o t e d
t h a t the t e r m " A l e x a n d r i a n " was overly n a r r o w , f o r t a k e n l i t e r a l l y i t ex
c l u d e d m a t e r i a l f r o m the chora.

17

H e t h e n traced f o u r m a i n phases i n

w h a t he called G r a e c o - E g y p t i a n sculpture. First, under P t o l e m y 1, came

a p e r i o d o f eclecticism, w i t h Praxiteles the m a i n source o f i n s p i r a t i o n , as
i n the other H e l l e n i s t i c centers. N e x t , under the second a n d t h i r d Ptole
mies, sculptors t u r n e d t o passionate extravagance, exaggerating a n d dis
t o r t i n g t h e i r w o r k f o r expressive effect. ( E x c o r i a t i n g the head i l l u s t r a t e d
i n figure 3 here, he singled o u t t h a t of a Ptolemaic queen [see D a s z e w s k i

235

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

fig. i above], n o w dated almost a century later, as the finest w o r k i n this

otherwise lamentable s t y l e . ) Yet a naturalistic r e a c t i o n was already
18

u n d e r w a y by a b o u t 2 5 0 , a n d by the end o f the century i t d o m i n a t e d the

s c u l p t u r a l scene. T h e n , after the native revolts o f the late t h i r d a n d early
second centuries a n d the depraved rule o f P h i l o p a t o r , the art w e n t r a p i d l y
d o w n h i l l , as exemplified by the sculptures o f the Serapeion at M e m p h i s
a n d the Copenhagen Soter. Finally, at the end, "later artistic movements
i n the c o u n t r y are semi-oriental: thus a r e v i v a l i n native sculpture oc
c u r r e d i n the first c e n t u r y B . C . , w h e n some curious p o r t r a i t s were t u r n e d
o u t under G r a e c o - R o m a n influence."

1 9

Lawrence thus saw the h i s t o r y o f Ptolemaic sculpture as a

classic c o l o n i a l progression o f s u b j u g a t i o n , d o m i n a t i o n , retrenchment,
decadence, a n d finally collapse. So a u t h o r i t a t i v e , n o t t o say a u t h o r i t a r
i a n , was his survey t h a t B e r n a r d A s h m o l e felt able t o echo its dismissive
tone i n his a n d J o h n Beazley's h a n d b o o k o f 1 9 3 2 . I b r a h i m N o s h y , t o o ,
b o r r o w e d its c h r o n o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k ( t h o u g h n o t its negative tone)
w h e n under Ashmole's t u t o r s h i p he w r o t e his b o o k - l e n g t h survey o f
Ptolemaic art i n 1 9 3 7 .

20

N o s h y also c o n c l u d e d t h a t each c o m m u n i t y

k e p t t o itself a n d t h a t cross-fertilization was m i n i m a l ; he believed t h a t

the grotesques, f o r example, were " p u r e l y G r e e k . "

21

Yet t h o u g h Noshy's

b o o k is derivative a n d l i t t l e read today, i t is interesting t h a t he d i d n o t

entirely b u y i n t o his m e n t o r s ' c o l o n i a l i s t line: I n his view, E g y p t i a n char
acteristics p r e d o m i n a t e d i n the so-called Graeco-Egyptian w o r k i n h a r d
stone, because w h e n the t w o races d i d i n t e r m a r r y , the E g y p t i a n "cast o f
mind" won out.

2 2

I n 1 9 3 9 , Frederik Poulsen posed the question anew i n an

article e n t i t l e d " G a b es eine alexandrinische Kunst? "

2 3

H e accepted the

all-pervasive influence o f Praxiteles u p o n Ptolemaic sculpture b u t c o n

structed a n e w c h r o n o l o g y for i t based u p o n a p a r t i a l separation o f
genresa n e w a n d significant step. A f t e r an i n i t i a l p e r i o d of eclecticism,
the p o r t r a i t s o f the kings become m a s k l i k e , w o m e n m o r e naturalistic,
a n d gods f r a n k l y b a r o q u e a t least f r o m the second century. L i k e N o s h y ,
Poulsen also accepted A l e x a n d r i a n p r i m a c y i n the grotesque a n d i n c a r i
catures, a n d A l e x a n d r i a n influence u p o n Pompeian p a i n t i n g . H e also
t o o k u p a t h o u g h t o f F r i e d r i c h W i l h e l m v o n Bissing t h a t the so-called
G r a e c o - E g y p t i a n p o r t r a i t s m i g h t have i n s p i r e d R o m a n r e p u b l i c a n verism.
H e was, i n c i d e n t a l l y , the first H e l l e n i s t t h a t I k n o w of t o treat t h e m
sympathetically.
M e a n w h i l e , p u b l i c a t i o n o f finds i n the A l e x a n d r i a m u s e u m
h a d been proceeding apace, directed first by Evaristo Breccia a n d t h e n
by A c h i l l e A d r i a n i , w h o succeeded Breccia i n 1 9 3 2 . I n 1 9 5 8 , after he
h a d r e t i r e d t o Palermo, A d r i a n i p u b l i s h e d a s u m m a r y o f his o p i n i o n s for
the Enciclopedia

delVarte

antica,

classica

e orientate.

24

I n i t , he refined

Poulsen's c h r o n o l o g y for the sculpture, a r g u i n g t h a t Praxitelean sfumato,

Stewart

FIG.

Bronze cup w i t h landscape scene.

Early(?) t h i r d century B . C . Alex
andria, Graeco-Roman Museum
25263. From A . A d r i a n i ,

Diva-

gazioni intorno ad una coppa

paesistica

del Museo di Alessan

dria (Rome 1959), p i . A .

so far f r o m w a n i n g as the years progressed, eventually came t o d o m i n a t e

the A l e x a n d r i a n style t o the e x c l u s i o n o f a l l else, e m p t y i n g its p r o d u c t s
of s p i r i t u a l c o n t e n t . Reasserting A l e x a n d r i a ' s c l a i m t o have h a d a m a j o r
i m p a c t u p o n H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n landscape, A d r i a n i a n n o u n c e d his
f o r t h c o m i n g p u b l i c a t i o n o f a bronze cup i n A l e x a n d r i a w i t h a landscape
scene (fig. 4) i n s u p p o r t .

25

H e t o o k A l e x a n d r i a n p r i m a c y i n the grotesque

a n d i n caricatures as a foregone c o n c l u s i o n a n d cautiously accepted

A l e x a n d r i a n i m p r e s s i o n i s m i n p a i n t i n g . H e also says n o t a w o r d a b o u t
possible E g y p t i a n influence u p o n A l e x a n d r i a n art. I n this he c o n f o r m e d
completely t o c o n t e m p o r a r y o r t h o d o x y , w h i c h , as we have seen, r i g h t l y
o r w r o n g l y i n c l i n e d t o a k i n d of c u l t u r a l a p a r t h e i d .
Yet i t is A d r i a n i ' s s u m m a r y of A l e x a n d r i a n achievements i n
the arts t h a t is o f greatest interest, f o r i t puts o u r present p r o b l e m i n the
strongest perspective.
Alexandria was indeed a fervid and fecund center of Hellenistic
art. I n its long history, its art manifests a singular p l u r a l i t y of
aspects. I t was an art b o t h of pure Greek traditions and eclectically Graeco-Egyptian; it loved the most dreamy idealization

237

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

and the crudest realism; i n sculpture i t had a taste for sfumato,

for sketchy pictorialism, but just as much for the minutest de
tail; like none other, i t was an art for a refined, decadent elite,
but also a popular one too; unequal i n the quality of its
production.

26

A l t h o u g h A d r i a n i p r o c l a i m e d h i m s e l f a moderate a n d ex
p l i c i t l y disclaimed any t h o u g h t s o f reverting t o turn-of-the-century p a n A l e x a n d r i a n i s m , his sympathies are clear. T h o u g h he o b v i o u s l y believed,
l i k e Schreiber, t h a t c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m was the essence o f A l e x a n d r i a n art,
just as i t was the essence o f A l e x a n d r i a n society, the incoherence o f his
s u m m a t i o n is t e l l i n g , for i t p o i n t s t o a peculiar d i l e m m a . Those w h o be
lieve i n a " f e r v i d a n d f e c u n d " A l e x a n d r i a , t o use A d r i a n i ' s o w n w o r d s ,
f i n d themselves o v e r w h e l m e d by the chaotic diversity o f the far-flung
m a t e r i a l c o n f r o n t i n g t h e m , w h i l e the m i n i m a l i s t s have far less t r o u b l e i n
characterizing an A l e x a n d r i a n style b u t can o n l y disparage i t once they
have done so. Together, they suggest t h a t t o l o o k for an overarching, i m
p o r t a n t , a n d a u t h e n t i c a l l y Ptolemaic style is t o pursue a mirage a n d t h a t
the answer lies elsewhere.
I n his article, A d r i a n i called f o r renewed investigation of i n d i
v i d u a l genres a n d groups o f m o n u m e n t s , a process t h a t he h i m s e l f d i d
m u c h t o f u r t h e r w i t h his Repertorio

delVArte

delVEgitto

greco-romano.

I n recent years m a n y scholars have answered the call. I single o u t five:

Blanche R. Brown's m o n o g r a p h o n the paintings a n d mosaics, H e l m u t
Kyrieleis's o n the ruler p o r t r a i t s , N i k o l a u s H i m m e l m a n n ' s o n the g r o
tesques, W i k t o r Daszewski's o n the mosaics alone, a n d M i c h a e l P f r o m
mer's o n the m e t a l w o r k a n d j e w e l r y . T h e y i m p l i c i t l y base themselves
27

o n the suspicion t h a t genre style may be m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n p e r i o d

style i n the H e l l e n i s t i c age, b u t they are also receptive t o the o l d idea
t h a t the H e l l e n i s t i c k o i n e does n o t e x p l a i n or account for e v e r y t h i n g
t h a t i n the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d l o c a l styles m i g h t still be a p o t e n t f o r c e .

28

Indeed, some o f these scholars have gone further, r e v i v i n g an

other o l d n o t i o n , t h a t the l o c a l m i l i e u eventually h a d a p r o f o u n d a n d
lasting effect u p o n the genres they have studied; they discern, i n other
w o r d s , a g r a d u a l e g y p t i a n i z i n g o f certain genres as t i m e progresses. Sug
gested by Kyrieleis as an e x p l a n a t i o n for the stereometric character o f
m a n y o f his ruler p o r t r a i t s , this idea was recently t a k e n u p o n a g r a n d
scale by G i i n t e r G r i m m i n a brief b u t w i d e - r a n g i n g survey o f Ptolemaic
arts i n a v o l u m e expressly dedicated t o c u l t u r a l interchange i n E g y p t .

29

So by the 1980s the climate h a d clearly changed: w i t h i m p e r i a l i s m n o w

discredited, m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m was again i n the air. M e a n w h i l e , a m o n g
some Egyptologists, a k i n d o f feisty n a t i o n a l i s m h a d t a k e n h o l d , r e c l a i m
i n g the so-called G r a e c o - E g y p t i a n p o r t r a i t s i n h a r d stone for E g y p t ,
re-evaluating t h e i r artistic a n d social w o r t h , a n d soon d e n y i n g t h a t the

Stewart

genre l o o k e d t o Greek a r t at a l l .

3 0

So as the c o l o n i z i n g West g r a d u a l l y

capitulates t o the l o c a l m i l i e u , the c o l o n i z e d East gets its revenge: here,

as so often i n the h u m a n i t i e s , c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y
c u l t u r a l values shape o u r d i s c i p l i n e , often m o r e t h a n its p r a c t i t i o n e r s
recognize o r perhaps care t o a d m i t .
I hope t h a t this extended preamble has helped t o p u t the arth i s t o r i c a l issues before us i n c o n t e x t . I t s h o u l d also have s h o w n t h a t
w h a t goes a r o u n d , comes a r o u n d : Fashions m a y change, b u t the same
questions often persist l o n g after t h e i r usefulness is over, a n d the same
stale answers have a h a b i t o f r e s u r r e c t i n g themselves. N o w i t is t i m e t o
come clean w i t h m y o w n o p i n i o n s .
First, i t is indeed t i m e t o take stock; I w o u l d l i k e t o t h i n k t h a t
this was the p o i n t o f m y o r i g i n a l charge, t o address the q u e s t i o n " A n
A l e x a n d r i a n Style: Does I t E x i s t ? " A s has appeared, scholars have at
t e m p t e d t o chase the mirage o f an a u t h e n t i c a l l y A l e x a n d r i a n a r t style
over a n d over again i n the past c e n t u r y w i t h conspicuous lack o f success.
G i v e n the city's c o m p l e x h i s t o r y , i n t r i c a t e c u l t u r e , a n d m a n g l e d archae
ology, o n the one side, a n d the range o f genres a n d m e d i a i t p r o d u c e d ,
o n the other, their f a i l u r e is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g . For even i n the m o s t fa
v o r a b l e circumstances, any generally acceptable d e f i n i t i o n w o u l d be at
best c r u d e l y reductive, at w o r s t as i n c o h e r e n t as A d r i a n i ' s .
So s h o u l d the q u e s t i o n be r e f o r m u l a t e d ; s h o u l d A l e x a n d r i a n
styles,

i n the p l u r a l , be the focus o f i n q u i r y ? Even this seems t o o f o r m a l

ist a n d c o u n t e r t o the d r i f t o f c u r r e n t scholarship. For i n recent years,

several cherished icons o f A l e x a n d r i a n a r t have fallen l i k e n i n e p i n s ,
f r o m H a d r a vases, t o " r o u g h " bronzes, t o p i c t o r i a l i m p r e s s i o n i s m . Late
f o u r t h - c e n t u r y V e r g i n a has p r o d u c e d a p a i n t e d landscape t h a t casts any
t h i n g f r o m E g y p t i n t o the shade.

31

Perhaps i t is t i m e t o a d d Praxitelean-

style sfumato t o the list, f o r hundreds o f D e l i a n sculptures a n d dozens

of statuettes i n the magazines o f the A t h e n i a n A g o r a display the same
characteristic surface m o d e l i n g u n l e s s one s h o u l d revert t o t u r n - o f - t h e c e n t u r y practice a n d label t h e m A l e x a n d r i a n t o o !
Instead, we s h o u l d ask h o w m u c h the c i t y c o n t r i b u t e d t o the
v a r i o u s genres of H e l l e n i s t i c a r t a n d w h a t the nature o f t h a t c o n t r i b u t i o n
was, genre by genre. A d r i a n i , B r o w n , K y r i e l e i s , D a s z e w s k i , a n d P f r o m
mer have blazed the t r a i l , a n d others are n o w f o l l o w i n g t h e i r lead. F u l l
a n d up-to-date p u b l i c a t i o n o f the a r c h i t e c t u r e , bronzes, terracottas,
plaster m o l d s , decorative m e t a l w o r k , coins, a n d so o n , are desperately
needed t o keep the debate f r o m g e t t i n g o u t o f c o n t r o l a n d t o quash the
t e m p t a t i o n t o b u i l d castles i n the air. P a n - A l e x a n d r i a n i s m is b y n o means
dead, a n d eternal vigilance is r e q u i r e d t o keep i t i n check. A n d second,
as m u c h assistance as possible m u s t be given t o the E g y p t i a n a u t h o r i t i e s
t o stop the p l u n d e r i n g o f sites a n d t o l i m i t the trade i n illegal a n t i q u i t i e s .

239

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ARTS

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ALEXANDRIA

For n o t o n l y are thieves a n d smugglers destroying contexts at a cata

s t r o p h i c rate, b u t dealers' provenances c a n n o t be relied o n a n d so m a k e
the objects they sell a l l b u t useless f o r o u r i n q u i r y .
To r e t u r n t o genres a n d the eternal question of the " A l e x a n
d r i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n " : H e r e , by w a y o f example, are three test cases, each
manifesting p r o b l e m s o f a quite different k i n d . T h e first concerns a genre
t h a t a p p a r e n t l y h a r d l y existed i n A l e x a n d r i a ; the second addresses a c o n
troversy over h o w a distinctive characteristic o f another genre is t o be
i n t e r p r e t e d ; a n d the t h i r d focuses o n a feature o f several genres t h a t
c l a m o r s f o r m o r e a t t e n t i o n t h a n i t has yet received.
First, the missing genre: p r i v a t e , n o n r o y a l p o r t r a i t u r e i n m a r
ble o r bronze. H o n o r a r y a n d v o t i v e p o r t r a i t s o f private persons a b o u n d
i n the H e l l e n i s t i c cities o f Greece a n d Asia M i n o r , attested n o t o n l y by
s u r v i v i n g p o r t r a i t s o f this i l k b u t also by thousands o f inscribed statue
bases. Yet there are n o t o n l y very few A l e x a n d r i a n candidates f o r private
p o r t r a i t s t o set against the dozens of r o y a l ones t h a t have survived, b u t a
q u i c k l o o k t h r o u g h W i l h e l m Dittenberger's Orientis
selectae,

the Supplementum

Prosopographia

Ptolemaica

epigraphicum

Graecum,

Graeci

ins crip

tiones

a n d p a r t o f the

has t u r n e d u p h a r d l y any inscribed statue

bases o f this k i n d . T h i s is very o d d i n d e e d u n t i l one realizes t h a t ex

actly the same s i t u a t i o n seems t o have prevailed at t w o other r o y a l capi
tals, Pergamon a n d A n t i o c h .

3 2

O n e e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t a l t h o u g h P t o l e m y Soter gave A l e x a n
d r i a a t i t u l a r independence i n the f o r m of a c o u n c i l a n d an assembly, i n
reality the c i t y was his o w n possession. Perhaps, t h e n , the mechanisms
of social exchange t h a t generated m u c h H e l l e n i s t i c private p o r t r a i t u r e
i n the independent o r quasi-independent poleisprivate

benefactions

t o the m u n i c i p a l i t y , a n d so o n s i m p l y d i d n o t f u n c t i o n there. I n this

c o n n e c t i o n , i t is interesting t h a t i n Ptolemaic E g y p t , private citizens of
ten made t h e i r dedications t o the gods on behalf

of the k i n g .

3 3

Clearly,

they felt it.necessary t o include h i m i n the t r a n s a c t i o n . Since the i n s c r i p

tions also prove t h a t they often c o m m i s s i o n e d r o y a l p o r t r a i t s t o o ,

3 4

it

is possible t h a t these a c t u a l l y substituted f o r their o w n o n numerous

occasions.
Second, the debate a b o u t w h e t h e r the stereometric character
of m a n y t h i r d - c e n t u r y r o y a l p o r t r a i t s i n m a r b l e (cf. D a s z e w s k i f i g . i
above) is due t o the sculptors' s l o w a d o p t i o n o f E g y p t i a n style o r t o
a desire t o classicize. T h e e g y p t i a n i z i n g t h e o r y was first p r o p o s e d by
L a w r e n c e a n d seductively argued by Kyrieleis, w h i l e a classicizing t r e n d
is c h a m p i o n e d by M a r t i n R o b e r t s o n a n d R. R. R. S m i t h . T h e latter is
3 5

perhaps m o r e plausible, f o r three m a i n reasons. To begin w i t h , exactly

the same development is t o be seen i n the A l e x a n d e r coins that Soter
m i n t e d f r o m a r o u n d 3 2 1 u n t i l his a s s u m p t i o n o f the d i a d e m i n 3 0 5 . A g
gressive a n d craggy at first, Alexander's face soon becomes r o u n d e r a n d

Stewart

fuller. T h e m o d e l i n g is smoother a n d blander, the features m o r e stylized,

the expression m o r e composed; a h a l o o f h a i r n o w frames the face, eas
ing the t r a n s i t i o n t o the semidivine a n d d i v i n e attributes t h a t encase i t
(figs. 5a, b ) . Alexander's d r i v i n g energy a n d irresistible charisma give
way

t o the stately repose of the universal m o n a r c h . T h i s is n o t egyptian-

i z i n g b u t classicizing, the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a g o d o n earth.

N e x t , like the coins, the m a r b l e p o r t r a i t s were a i m e d at an
audience t h a t was largely Greek. N o w , Greeks w o u l d n o t o n l y n a t u r a l l y
i n t e r p r e t this k i n d o f simple structure as classicizing b u t they w o u l d also
FIG.

5a

Tetradrachm minted by Ptolemy I

Soter of Egypt, obverse. Silver.

judge any m a j o r a t t e m p t at e g y p t i a n i z i n g pejoratively, as a c a p i t u l a t i o n

to the conquered. F r o m the late t h i r d c e n t u r y i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h the

Ca. 3 1 5 - 3 0 5 B . C . Hess/Leu sale,

regime increasingly under threat, any h i n t of such weakness w o u l d surely

15 A p r i l 1957, lot 313. Photo:

be studiously avoided by k i n g a n d sculptor alike. Echoes o f the classical,

H i r m e r Fotoarchiv no. 15.0797 v.

on the other h a n d , w o u l d have h a d decidedly positive c o n n o t a t i o n s , sug

gesting ( a m o n g other things) social a n d p o l i t i c a l stability, adherence t o
t r a d i t i o n , close ties t o the Greek m o t h e r l a n d , perhaps even the resurrec
t i o n of a past g o l d e n age. A n d finally, the p o r t r a i t of t h a t m o s t ecumeni
cal o f the Ptolemies, Cleopatra v n , the o n l y one a m o n g t h e m t o learn
Egyptian,

36

e x h i b i t s n o t a trace o f E g y p t i a n style. Instead, she models

herself firmly a n d decisively o n the greatest of the Ptolemaic queens,

A r s i n o e . A f o r t i o r i , t h e n , we s h o u l d n o t expect her predecessors t o have
t r o d w h e r e she so conspicuously refrained.
FIG.

5b

T h i r d , there is a characteristic of A l e x a n d r i a n art t h a t , w h i l e

Reverse of tetradrachm, fig. 5a.

certainly n o t exclusive t o A l e x a n d r i a , seems t o have been p a r t i c u l a r l y at

Athena, legend A L E X A N D R O U .

h o m e a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l developed at the Ptolemaic c o u r t : a dedica

Photo: H i r m e r Fotoarchiv no.

15.0797 R.

t i o n t o allegory, s y m b o l , a n d m e t a p h o r . A m o n g the m o s t recent of a l o n g

line of scholars t o identify an interest i n allegory, a l l u s i o n , a n d signs as
p a r t i c u l a r l y characteristic of the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d is J o h n O n i a n s . I n his
provocative b o o k Art and Thought

in the Hellenistic

Age, he p o i n t s t o

such w e l l - k n o w n m o n u m e n t s as the Tyche of A n t i o c h a n d the C a l u m n y

of A p e l l e s . T h o u g h n o t the first t o observe this p h e n o m e n o n , he does,
37

however, pursue i t considerably further t h a n m a n y o f his predecessors

a n d integrates i t m o r e firmly i n t o the H e l l e n i s t i c social c o n t e x t . Yet w h i l e
he, t o o , c o r r e c t l y treats i t as a panhellenic p r e o c c u p a t i o n , i t is w o r t h re
m a r k i n g t h a t the largest and richest b o d y o f h a r d evidence for i t comes
precisely f r o m H e l l e n i s t i c A l e x a n d r i a , leading one t o suspect t h a t the
taste f o r i t was p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l developed there a n d arose at a p a r t i c u
l a r l y early d a t e .

38

Examples are numerous a n d begin at the very start of

the Ptolemaic regime.

F r o m 3 2 1 , Ptolemy's A l e x a n d e r coins showed h i m w i t h ele
p h a n t scalp and ram's h o r n , a n d f r o m a r o u n d 314 these attributes are
j o i n e d by a forehead b a n d , o r mitra, a n d scaly aegis (see fig. 5a). T h e
elephant scalp is presumably Alexander's o w n answer t o the l i o n scalp of
H e r a k l e s , a n d the others are attributes of A m m o n , D i o n y s o s , and Zeus.

241

242

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Together, they f u n c t i o n as i n t e r l o c k i n g v i s u a l m e t a p h o r s , i n v i t i n g us t o
c o m p a r e Alexander's powers w i t h those o f Herakles a n d the gods, t o
speculate u p o n Alexander's u n i q u e p o s i t i o n i n the cosmos. T h e i m p e t u s ,
as Kyrieleis has seen, m a y come f r o m the E g y p t i a n practice o f investing
kings w i t h m u l t i p l e a t t r i b u t e s .

39

I f so, i t is a p a r t i c u l a r l y early example o f

w h a t B i a n c h i has a p t l y called the Ptolemaic tendency t o c l o a k E g y p t i a n

concepts i n Greek g a r b . Yet Kyrieleis does n o t m e n t i o n t h a t a m o n u m e n t
p a i d f o r b y A l e x a n d e r himself a n d erected b y his governor, Kleomenes,
offers a perfect precedent: the Shrine o f the B a r k at L u x o r .
T h e r e , i n the early 3 20s, A l e x a n d e r appears n o less t h a n
f o r t y - t w o times i n the presence o f A m m o n a n d various other gods.
H e often carries the a n k h , s y m b o l o f longevity, a n d wears a variety o f
c r o w n s , sometimes t w o o r m o r e together: w h i t e , blue, red, d o u b l e ,
Nemes, Atef, h o r n e d , double-feather, a n d g o l d - r i b b o n . H i s titles are v o
l u m i n o u s a n d v a r i e d , i n the ancient E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n .

4 0

Soter also i n t r o d u c e d this practice o f w h a t one m i g h t call syncretistic s y m b o l i s m i n t o sculpture i n the r o u n d . A series o f replicas s h o w
A l e x a n d e r d i a d e m e d a n d w e a r i n g a l o n g chlamys-shaped aegis, w h i c h
n o t o n l y again recalls his father, Zeus, b u t also clearly alludes t o the c i t y
of A l e x a n d r i a , w h i c h was shaped like a chlamys. I n his r i g h t h a n d he
h e l d a scepter, i n his left, p r o b a b l y the P a l l a d i o n .

41

I n m y view, this statue

was p r o b a b l y the c u l t image o f the c u l t o f A l e x a n d e r , w h i c h Soter estab

lished at the Sema between 3 1 1 a n d 2 8 5 : this, t h e n , is A l e x a n d e r the
d i v i n e p r o t e c t o r o f c i t y a n d dynasty alike.
T h e later Ptolemies b o t h c o n t i n u e d this t r a d i t i o n a n d i n t r o
duced i t i n t o n a r r a t i v e contexts. P t o l e m y 11 Philadelphos a n d A r s i n o e 11
appear i n t w o w e l l - k n o w n bronze statuettes i n the B r i t i s h M u s e u m (see
S m i t h fig. 1 above): he w i t h elephant scalp a n d c l u b , she w i t h stephane
a n d d o u b l e c o r n u c o p i a . N e x t , P t o l e m y 111 Euergetes dons the d i a d e m ,
solar c r o w n , t r i d e n t , a n d scaly aegis a n d also, i t seems, commissions a
g r o u p o f h i m s e l f as a diademed H e r m e s - T h o t h s u b d u i n g a Syrian o p p o
nent i n the so-called L a o d i k e a n W a r o f the 2 4 0 s .

42

Soter also i n a u g u r a t e d another l o n g - l i v e d Ptolemaic practice:

t h a t o f s h o w i n g the r u l e r s u r r o u n d e d by personalities a n d personifica
t i o n s t h a t together made u p a k i n d o f allegorical n a r r a t i v e . I n the T y c h a i o n at A l e x a n d r i a , n e x t d o o r t o the M o u s e i o n , he placed A l e x a n d e r
i n the center o f the r o o m ; the personified E a r t h , Ge, was c r o w n i n g h i m ,
w h i l e she, i n t u r n , was being c r o w n e d b y Tyche. Statues o f N i k e s t o o d
o n either side o f Tyche, m a k i n g the c o m p o s i t i o n r o u g h l y T-shaped i n
plan.

4 3

S i m i l a r a l l e g o r i c a l t a b l e a u x appeared i n the g r a n d procession o f

P t o l e m y Philadelphos i n 2 7 5 . T h e m o s t elaborate o f these showed A l e x

ander a n d Philadelphos ( b o t h w r e a t h e d w i t h g o l d e n i v y c r o w n s ) , A r e t e ,
Priapos, a n d C o r i n t h i n a c h a r i o t , f o l l o w e d by w o m e n representing the
Greek cities o f I o n i a liberated b y A l e x a n d e r .

44

T h e s y m b o l i s m is c o m p l e x

Stewart

a n d by n o means t o t a l l y t r a n s p a r e n t b u t c e r t a i n l y alludes t o the excel

lence a n d p o t e n c y of the regime, its l e g i t i m i z a t i o n b y A l e x a n d e r a n d the
League of C o r i n t h , a n d its pretensions t o assuming the great conqueror's
m a n t l e i n the A e g e a n .

45

T h e m o s t spectacular essay i n this genre t o sur

vive is, o f course, the Tazza Farnese (see K o z l o f f fig. 9 b e l o w ) , t h o u g h

at this p o i n t i t is best t o r e f r a i n f r o m speculating w h i c h , i f any, P t o l e m y
i t celebrates.

46

I t seems t o me t h a t w e w o u l d d o w e l l t o spend m o r e t i m e o n
these p e c u l i a r l y A l e x a n d r i a n p r o d u c t s , f o r t h e i r v a r i e t y a n d inventive
ness are t r u l y astonishing. Questions t h a t beg t o be addressed include
the f o l l o w i n g : W h a t k i n d s of allegory a n d s y m b o l i s m are we l o o k i n g at,
a n d w h a t is the r e l a t i o n between them? W h a t f u n c t i o n s d i d they serve?
H o w d o r e a l i t y a n d fantasy i n t e r a c t a n d t o w h a t effect? W h a t overlap, i f
any, is there between genres? W h a t l i n k s , i f any, exist w i t h A l e x a n d r i a n
literature? W h a t degree o f engagement, i f any, is there w i t h native E g y p
t i a n c u l t u r e a n d its t h o u g h t patterns? W h a t i m p a c t , i f any, d i d these
p r o d u c t s have o n the w i d e r w o r l d o r u p o n the art of Rome?
O f course, I have m e n t i o n e d o n l y a few selected examples of
the genre. O t h e r A l e x a n d r i a n allegories i n c l u d e at least t w o m o r e by
Apelles, the sculptures o f the Serapeion at M e m p h i s , a n d a p a r t i c u l a r l y
tasteless p i c t u r e described by A e l i a n . " P t o l e m y P h i l o p a t o r , " he says,
" f o u n d e d a temple t o H o m e r a n d set u p a fine c u l t image o f h i m there.
I n a circle a r o u n d the image he placed the cities w h o l a i d c l a i m t o the
poet. G a l a t o n the p a i n t e r t h e n p a i n t e d a p i c t u r e of H o m e r t h r o w i n g u p ,
a n d a l l the other poets g u l p i n g d o w n his v o m i t . "

4 7

University of California
B E R K E L E Y ,

C A L I F O R N I A

243

244

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

Notes

I w o u l d like t o t h a n k those colleagues a n d students

lenistische

w h o a t t e n d e d a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r at B e r k e l e y

idem, "Alexandrinische Toreutik,"

o n 14 M a r c h 1 9 9 3 f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s , p a r

gen der kbniglichen

ticularly Gale Boetius, K a r a Olsen, Rainer M a c k ,

der Wissenschaften

R i c h a r d N e e r , Teresa P e y t o n , a n d H a r v e y S t a h l ; f u r

Der

t h e r assistance o n p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t s w a s k i n d l y p r o

(Leipzig 1 8 9 6 ) ; i d e m , " D i e hellenistische Relief

(Leipzig 1 8 8 9 - 1 8 9 4 ) ;

Reliefbilder

Abhandlun-

Sdchsischen

Gesellschaft

14.5 ( L e i p z i g 1 8 9 4 ) ; i d e m ,

Gallierkopf

des Museums

in Gize

v i d e d by Stanley Burstein a n d D i a n a D e l i a . A l l errors

b i l d e r u n d die a u g u s t e i s c h e K u n s t , "

o f f a c t a n d o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are, o f c o u r s e , m y o w n .

des Deutschen

Archdologischen

H . B r u n n , Geschichte

der griechischen

nis Alexanders

Kunstler,

Kairo

Jahrbuch
11

Instituts

( 1 8 9 6 ) : 7 8 - 1 0 1 ; i d e m , Studien
1

bei

des Grossen:

uber

das

Bild-

Ein Beitrag

zur

(Leipzig 1903);

v o l . 1 (1st e d . , S t u t t g a r t 1 8 5 2 ; 2 n d ed., S t u t t g a r t

alexandrinischen

1 8 8 9 ) , p . 5 9 5 ; J. O v e r b e c k , Geschichte

i d e m , " U b e r d e n C h a r a k t e r der

alexandrinische

K u n s t , " Actes

archeologique

chischen

der

grie

v o l . 2 ( 3 r d ed., L e i p z i g 1 8 8 2 ) ,

Plastik,

p . 1 9 9 ; L . M . M i t c h e l l , A History

of

du lie Congres

( C a i r o 1 9 0 9 ) . F o r a n u p d a t e o n Schreiber's

Ancient

reliefs, see J. S a m p s o n , " N o t e s o n T h e o d o r

(London and N e w York 1883), p. 606.

Sculpture

Hellenismus

T h e pages t h a t f o l l o w d o n o t p r e t e n d t o give a

Schreiber's Hellenistische

complete account of the

of the British

"pan-Alexandrian"

School

Reliefbilder"

Papers

42 (1974): 2 7 - 4 5 .

at Rome

d e b a t e , s t i l l less o f t h e s c h o l a r s h i p o n A l e x a n
d r i a n a r t per se; e x t e n s i v e b i b s , w i l l be f o u n d i n
A . A d r i a n i , Enciclopedia

delVarte

antica,

clas-

v o l . 1 ( R o m e 1 9 5 8 ) , s.v. A l e s -

sica e orientale,

E . C o u r b a u d , Le Bas-relief
tions

romain

9aises d ' A t h e n e s et de R o m e 8 1 (Paris 1 8 9 9 ) ,

sandrina, arte, p p . 2 3 2 - 3 5 ; G . G r i m m , " O r i e n t

p . 2 5 1 ; W . W e i s s b a c h , Impressionismus:

u n d O k z i d e n t i n der K u n s t A l e x a n d r i e n s , " i n

Problem

G. G r i m m , H . Heinen, and E. W i n t e r ,

zeit ( B e r l i n 1 9 1 0 ) , p p .

drien:

Kulturbegegnungen

im Schmelztiegel

dreier

einer

Alexan-

in the Hellenistic

pp. 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 ,

Age

der Malerei

in der Antike

Ein

und der

Neu-

9-15.

Jahrtausende

mediterranen

Groszstadt

10

( M a i n z 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 2 2 - 2 5 ; a n d J. J. P o l l i t t ,
Art

representa

B i b l i o t h e q u e des Ecoles f r a n -

historiques,

(Cambridge

F. W i c k h o f f , i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Die Wiener
sis ( V i e n n a 1 8 9 5 ) , p p .

Gene

17-20.

1986),

316-17.

11

E . A . G a r d n e r , A Handbook

of Greek

Sculpture

(1st e d . , L o n d o n 1 8 9 6 - 1 8 9 7 ; 2 n d e d . , L o n d o n
2

T . S c h r e i b e r , i n Mitteilungen
Archdologischen
10 ( 1 8 8 5 ) :

des

Instituts,

1 9 1 5 ) , p p . 4 7 5 - 7 6 . O n p . 4 7 9 , f o r e x a m p l e , he

Deutschen

Athenische

accepted W i c k h o f f ' s c o n t e n t i o n that m a n y o f

Abteilung

t h e l a n d s c a p e reliefs w e r e R o m a n b u t w e a k l y

380-400.

ascribed "the influence under w h i c h they were

3
4

made" partly to Egypt, partly to Asia M i n o r .

Ibid.: 386.
N . H i m m e l m a n n , Alexandria
mus

in der griechischen

und der

Kunst

Realis-

12

" A p o l l o Seated o n t h e O m p h a l o s , " Annual

the British

(Tubingen 1983),

p. 2 1 .

School

See esp. M . K u n z e , e d . , " Wir haben

Kunstepoche

gefundenV

Forschungen

zum

Ein

Pergamonaltar

eine

of the British

School

c e n t w o r k o n t h e l a t t e r , see . H . F o w l e r ,

Jahrhundert

Hellenistic

(Berlin 1986),

Aesthetic

kotten

aus Agypten:

und Schreiber

391-99.

The

( M a d i s o n 1989), p . 66 n . 1.

See also J. Fischer, Griechisch-romische

Schreiber (note 2 above):

Terra-

Die Sammlungen

Sieglin

(Tubingen 1994), pp. 7 0 - 7 3 ;

a n d R . G a r l a n d , The Eye of the Beholder:

7

Praxiteles himself entered the e q u a t i o n shortly

formity

afterward: W . A m e l u n g , "Sull'arte Alessan-

World

d r i n a , " Bullettino
logica
esp.

comunale

della
di Roma

Commissione
25 ( 1 8 9 7 ) :

and Disability

110-42,

(Ithaca, N . Y . , 1995), pp.

T . S c h r e i b e r , Die

Wiener

Palazzo

( L e i p z i g 1 8 8 8 ) ; i d e m , Die

Brunnenreliefs

De

Graeco-Roman
105-22.

13

M . A . Ruffer, " O n Dwarves and O t h e r De

f o r m e d Persons i n A n c i e n t E g y p t , "

138-40.

Grimani

in the

archeo-

de la Societe
8

10

at Athens

( 1 9 0 3 - 1 9 0 4 ) : 1 0 3 - 1 4 . F o r a b i b . o f m o r e re

ganze

p. 60.
6

of

(1902-1903):

2 1 1 - 4 2 , esp. 2 2 8 - 2 9 ; " G r o t e s q u e s a n d t h e E v i l
E y e , " Annual

at Athens

archeologique

Bulletin

d'Alexandrie

13

( 1 9 1 0 ) : 1 6 2 - 7 5 ; see m o s t r e c e n t l y A . B a d a w y ,

aus
hel-

"Le Grotesque: Invention egyptienne,"

Gazette

Stewart

24

set. 3 . 6 6 ( 1 9 6 5 ) : 1 8 9 - 9 8 ; V .

des beaux-arts
D a s e n , Dwarves

in Ancient

Egypt

and

A d r i a n i (note 1 above), w i t h exhaustive b i b . ,

pp. 2 3 2 - 3 5 .

Greece

( O x f o r d 1 9 9 3 ) ; a n d Fischer ( n o t e 12 a b o v e ) .
25
14

See, e.g., O . R u b e n s o h n , Hellenistisches

gerdt

in antiken

del Museo

intorno

ad una

coppa

(Rome

di Alessandria

1 9 5 9 ) ; o n t h e d a t e o f t h e c u p , see C . R o l l e y ,

Pelizausmuseum,

Gipsabgussen,

A . A d r i a n i , Divagazioni
paesistica

Silber-

Greek

H i l d e s h e i m , Wissenschaftliche Veroffentlichung

( L o n d o n 1986), p. 214.

Bronzes

1 ( 1 9 1 1 ) ; R . Pagenstecher, " A l e x a n d r i n i s c h e
S t u d i e n , " a n d i d e m , " U b e r das

landschaftliche

R e l i e f b e i d e n G r i e c h e n , " Sitzungsbericbte
Heidelberger
Phil.-Hist.

Akademie

der

26

Wissenschaften,

27

1917, no. 12, and 1919,

Klasse,

A d r i a n i (note 1 above), pp. 2 3 1 - 3 2 .

der
B . R . B r o w n , Ptolemaic
and the Alexandrian

1 9 5 7 ) ; H . K y r i e l e i s , Die Bildnisse

p u s o f P t o l e m a i c c o i n s also a p p e a r e d d u r i n g

maier

kratous

saics

der

from

Roman

Period,

andrinischer

zur Chronologie

hochhellenistischen

alex-

Toreutik

(Berlin 1987); idem,

Zeit

Untersuchungen
179-80.

zur

und grossgriechischer

friih hellenistischer

(1925): 1 7 9 - 9 0 .

Early

Aegyptiaca Treverensia 3

E g y p t , " Journal

11

Mo

and

( M a i n z 1 9 8 5 ) ; M . P f r o m m e r , Studien

Archaeology

Ptole-

of Ancient

v o l . 1 , Hellenistic

Egypt,

A . W . Lawrence, "Greek Sculpture i n Ptolemaic

of Egyptian

Mosaics

(Berlin 1975); H i m m e l m a n n (note 4

a b o v e ) ; W . D a s z e w s k i , Corpus

tou

3 vols. (Athens 1904).

ton Ptoiemaion,

and

(Cambridge, Mass.,

n o . 1. T h e f i r s t , a n d so far o n l y , p u b l i s h e d c o r
these years: J. N . S v o r o n o s , Ta nomismata

15

Paintings
Style

friih-

und

Istanbuler

Goldschmucks,

16

Ibid.:

17

A p o i n t recently and independently restated by

leis, H i m m e l m a n n , a n d P f r o m m e r a l l base t h e i r

G i i n t e r G r i m m : G r i m m ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 18

arguments partly on material w i t h no prove

(offering some c h r o n o l o g i c a l distinctions to

n a n c e . O n t h e t o m b p a i n t i n g s as a n c e s t o r s o f

nuance Lawrence's

t h e P o m p e i a n S e c o n d Style, see A . R o u v e r e t ,

Forschungen 37 (Berlin 1 9 9 0 ) t h o u g h K y r i e

observation).

Histoire
18

et imaginaire

de la peinture

ancienne,

R e c e n t l y , K y r i e l e i s has a r g u e d t h a t these t w o

B i b l i o t h e q u e des ecoles franchises d ' A t h e n e s et

h e a d s , b o t h f r o m t h e S e r a p e i o n , p r o b a b l y be

de R o m e , 2 7 4 ( R o m e 1 9 8 9 ) , p p . 1 9 0 - 2 0 1 .

l o n g o v e r h a l f a c e n t u r y later. T h e y a p p a r e n t l y
f o r m e d a g r o u p w i t h a Serapis a n d so are l i k e l y

28

C f . t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r ' s r e m a r k s i n Attika:

t o be P t o l e m y i:v P h i l o p a t o r a n d A r s i n o e i n ,

ies in Athenian

i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h h i m after R a p h i a i n 2 1 7 :

(London 1979), pp. 1 7 - 2 1 , 1 4 6 - 4 8 .

" E i n hellenistischer G o t t e r k o p f , " i n

Tomos

eis Mnemen

Nikolaou

Sculpture:

1990), %s.

An Exploration

Stud

of the Hellenistic

Age

Stele:

Kontoleontos

29

( A t h e n s 1 9 8 0 ) , p p . 3 8 3 - 8 7 ; cf. A . S t e w a r t ,
Greek

Sculpture

E.g., K y r i e l e i s (note 27 above), p p .

126-28;

G r i m m (note 1 above), passim.

(New Haven

756-58.

30

B . V . B o t h m e r , Egyptian
Late

Period:

yoo

Sculpture

B.C. to A.D. 100,

of

the

e x h . cat.

19

L a w r e n c e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p . 1 9 0 .

( T h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m i 9 6 0 ) ; R . S. B i a n c h i ,

20

B . A s h m o l e , i n J. D . Beazley a n d B . A s h m o l e ,

R . S. B i a n c h i , Cleopatra's

"The Pharaonic A r t of Ptolemaic Egypt," in

Greek

Sculpture

and Painting

p . 7 0 ; I . N o s h y , The Arts

Ptolemies,

( O x f o r d 1932),

in Ptolemaic

Egypt:

Age of

the

e x h . cat. ( T h e B r o o k l y n M u s e u m

1988), pp. 5 5 - 8 0 .

Egypt

(Oxford 1937), pp. 8 3 - 9 7 .

3I
21

H a d r a vases: r e a t t r i b u t e d t o C r e t e b y P. J.

I b i d . , p . 1 0 1 , r e g a r d i n g t h e m as r a c i s t c a r i

Callaghan, "Knossian Artists and

catures.

A l e x a n d r i a , " i n Alessandria

I b i d . , p . 1 4 6 , m a k i n g i t clear t h a t he f o u n d s u c h

Adriani,

w o r k h i g h l y distasteful.

R o u g h b r o n z e s : see t h e c r i t i q u e s b y R o l l e y

V . P o u l s e n , " G a b es eine A l e x a n d r i n i s c h e

A . K o z l o f f a n d D . G . M i t t e n , eds., The

K u n s t ? " From

Delight:

ellenistico-romano:
22

Studi

e il
in onore

Ptolemaic
mondo
di

Achille

vol. 3 (Rome 1984), pp. 7 8 9 - 9 4 .

( n o t e 25 a b o v e ) , p . 2 1 7 , a n d M . T r u e , i n
23

Carlsberg
pp.

1-52.

the Collections

Glyptotek

of the

Ny

2 (Copenhagen 1939),

The Human

Figure

Gods

in Classical

Bronze,

e x h . cat. ( T h e C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m 1 9 8 8 ) ,
pp. 126, 1 3 1 , 1 3 5 - 3 6 . Impressionism: demol
ished by B r o w n (note 27 above), p p . 9 0 - 9 2 ;

245

246

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

J. J. P o l l i t t , The Ancient

View

40

Art

See M . A b d e l - R a z i q , Die Darstellungen

Texte

( n o t e 2 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 0 4 a n d 2 2 5 argues t h a t

Tempel

f o u r t h - c e n t u r y skiagraphia

32

of Greek

( N e w Haven 1974), pp. 3 2 8 - 3 1 ; Rouveret

is t h e t r u e a n c e s t o r

des Sanktuars
von Luxor,

Alexanders

und

des Grossen

im

Deutsches Archaologisches

Institut Kairo, Archaologische Veroffentlichun-

of impressionism. Vergina landscape: M . A n -

g e n 1 6 ( C a i r o 1 9 8 4 ) ; S t e w a r t ( n o t e 39 a b o v e ) ,

d r o n i k o s , Vergina

p p . 1 7 3 - 7 8 , figs. 5 3 - 5 4 .

( A t h e n s 1 9 8 4 ) , figs. 5 7 - 7 1 .

T h e n u m e r o u s p o r t r a i t s o f D i o d o r o s Pasparos

41

O n t h e t y p e , see S t e w a r t ( n o t e 39 a b o v e ) ,

at P e r g a m o n are t h e e x c e p t i o n s t h a t p r o v e t h e

p p . 2 4 6 - 5 1 , figs. 8 2 , 8 3 ; o n t h e c i t y ' s shape,

r u l e , f o r these w e r e e r e c t e d d u r i n g t h e M i t h r a -

see D i o d . 1 7 . 5 2 ; S t r a b o 1 7 . 7 9 2 ; P l i n . NH

d a t i c W a r s , a g e n e r a t i o n after A t t a l o s i n w i l l e d

P l u t . Alex.

5.62;

26.8.

h i s k i n g d o m t o R o m e : cf. S t e w a r t ( n o t e 18
a b o v e ) , p p . 5 1 - 5 2 , fig. 8 7 2 .

42

H . Kyrieleis,
Antike

33

Orientis

Graeci

inscriptiones

Plastik

43

Pseudo-Libanios (Nikolaos Rhetor),

nasmata

Orientis

Graeci

inscriptiones

EPMHX KAIOP02,"

12 (Berlin 1 9 7 3 ) : 1 3 3 - 6 0 .

nos. 1 6 -

selectae,

1 8 , 2 1 , 2 8 , 2 9 , etc.
34

"KA0AIIEP

ster); c o m m e n t s , S t e w a r t ( n o t e 39 a b o v e ) ,

nos. 19,

selectae,

Progym-

25 ( L i b a n i u s v o l . 7, p p . 5 3 0 - 3 1 Foer-

pp. 2 4 3 - 4 6 .

3 0 , 3 2 , etc.; cf. K y r i e l e i s ( n o t e 2 7 a b o v e ) ,
PP- I 4 3 - 5 0 44
35

K a l l i x e i n o s o f R h o d e s , Peri Alexandreias

frag.

L a w r e n c e ( n o t e 15 a b o v e ) , p . 1 8 7 ; K y r i e l e i s

2 . 1 9 8 - 2 1 4 ( A t h e n . 5 . 2 o i d - e = F. J a c o b y ,

(note 27 above), p p . 1 3 4 - 3 5 , 163; C. M . R o b

Fragmente

e r t s o n , A History

of Greek

Art

1975), p p . 5 2 2 - 2 4 ; R. R. R. Smith,
Royal

Hellenistic

Hellenistic

45

( O x f o r d 1986), p. 88; idem,

Portraits

Sculpture

Philadelphos
46

P l u t . Ant.

37

J. O n i a n s , Art and Thought

627 F2).

Historiker,

27.

S t e w a r t ( n o t e 39 a b o v e ) , p p . 2 5 2 - 6 0 ; cf.
E . E . R i c e , The Grand

(London 1991), p. 208.

36

der griechischen

(Cambridge
Procession

of

Ptolemy

(Oxford 1983), pp. 1 0 2 - 1 0 .

F o r t h e t w o m o s t r e c e n t suggestions a n d ex
h a u s t i v e b i b . , see E . J. D w y e r , " T h e T e m p o r a l

in the

A l l e g o r y o f t h e Tazza F a r n e s e , " a n d J. P o l l i n i ,

Hellenistic

Age ( L o n d o n 1 9 7 9 ) , c h . 3; o n t h e C a l u m n y , see

" T h e Tazza Farnese: 'Augusto

m o s t r e c e n t l y J . - M . M a s s i n g , Du texte

deunt

La Calumnie

d'Apelle

et son

Vintage:

Archaeology

iconographie

Ancient

and Allegory

Art ( L o n d o n 1 9 3 9 ) w i t h , m o s t r e c e n t l y ,

art, " N a r r a t i o n a n d A l l u s i o n i n the Hellenistic

B a r o q u e , " i n P. H o l l i d a y , e d . , Narrative
in Ancient

and

Art ( C a m b r i d g e 1 9 9 5 ) ,

pp. 1 3 0 - 7 4 .
38

See R o u v e r e t ( n o t e 2 7 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 4 5 a n d 3 5 3
f o r t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t A p e l l e s m a y have been
the p r i m e m o v e r here.

39

Kyrieleis (note 27 above), p p . 1 4 8 - 4 9 ; o n the

c h r o n o l o g y o f P t o l e m y ' s c o i n s , see A . S t e w a r t ,
Faces
lenistic

of Power:
Politics

Alexander's

Image

and

Hel

(Berkeley 1993), p p . 2 3 1 - 3 3 .

One should note i n this context, t h o u g h , that

m o d e r n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t h e o r y recognizes t h a t
a n increase i n i n f o r m a t i o n a c t u a l l y i n h i b i t s
c o m m u n i c a t i o n : T . E a g l e t o n , Literary
An Introduction

Imperatore

American

Re-

Journal

of

96 (1993): 2 5 5 - 8 2 , 2 8 3 - 3 0 0 ,

in

R o u v e r e t (note 27 above), p p . 3 4 2 - 5 4 ; A . Stew

Event

Regnal'"

respectively.

( S t r a s b o u r g 1 9 9 0 ) . O n G r e e k a l l e g o r y i n gen
e r a l , see esp. R . H i n k s , Myth

Saturnia

Theory:

(Minneapolis 1983), p. 101.

47

A e l . VH 1 3 . 2 1 ; also s c h o l . L u c . Charon

7; cf.

R o u v e r e t (note 27 above), p p . 3 4 5 , 353 n . 1 4 4 .

247

Is There an Alexandrian Style

What Is Egyptian about It?
P.

Arielle

Kozloff

To m a n y Egyptologists, Ptolemaic art a n d its b y - p r o d u c t A l e x a n d r i a n

style l o o k foreign,. N o t o n l y is the style itself strange b u t some of the m a
1

terials are also n e w t o us. There is a decline i n the q u a l i t y of native stone

sculpture a n d a rise i n the q u a l i t y of, for example, terracotta, w h i c h was
never a t r a d i t i o n a l E g y p t i a n favorite. N o t k n o w i n g w h a t t o m a k e o f
A l e x a n d r i a n art, m a n y Egyptologists ignore i t , t a k i n g safe refuge i n the
i n s c r i p t i o n s of the p e r i o d o r those f o u n d nearby, such as the Rosetta
stone. A l e x a n d r i a ' s art has also been confusing t o m o d e r n w r i t e r s such
as Forster, w h o said t h a t G r a e c o - E g y p t i a n art is " n o t as interesting as
one m i g h t expect. N o l i v i n g art was b o r n f r o m the u n i o n . "

I f that is true, h o w d o we e x p l a i n the b r i l l i a n t w o r k s of art

a t t r i b u t e d t o A l e x a n d r i a that are n o w i n museums a n d private collec
tions a r o u n d the w o r l d ? Take, f o r example, Cleveland's bronze statuette
of an A f r i c a n beggar (fig. i ) , identified by J o h n D . C o o n e y as A l e x a n
d r i a n o n the basis o f three p o i n t s : its exotic subject matter, a t r a d i t i o n a l
theme i n E g y p t i a n art; the silver and copper inlays, an E g y p t i a n practice
since her beginnings i n bronze casting; a n d , finally, its b r i l l i a n t aesthetic
q u a l i t y , the h a l l m a r k of E g y p t i a n art t h r o u g h o u t m i l l e n n i a o f p r o d u c
t i o n . I n 1988 M a r i o n True reconsidered the bronze as p r o b a b l y A l e x a n
d r i a n , p a r t l y o n the basis o f the perfection of its surface finish, w i t h its
silky black sheen.

U l t i m a t e l y , b o t h the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d the a p p r e c i a t i o n of
A l e x a n d r i a n style m a y lie i n w h a t is a n d is n o t E g y p t i a n a b o u t i t . We
m i g h t begin w i t h the style o f the c i t y itself, w h i c h was f o u n d e d by A l e x
ander the Great after his c o r o n a t i o n as Egypt's p h a r a o h i n the t r a d i t i o n a l
c a p i t a l , M e m p h i s , s o u t h o f A l e x a n d r i a . I n t h a t ceremony, A l e x a n d e r
was e n d o w e d w i t h a l l the a p p r o p r i a t e a n d t r a d i t i o n a l N i l o t i c titles a n d
n o m e n c l a t u r e K i n g o f U p p e r a n d L o w e r E g y p t , M e r y a m e n Setepenra,
Son of the Sun G o d , A r k s a n d r e s . A l e x a n d r i a ' s design has been described
4

by O w e n s as " r o o t e d i n Classical p l a n n i n g t r a d i t i o n s [ w h i l e ] at the

same t i m e i t l o o k s f o r w a r d t o the great achievements o f the H e l l e n i s t i c
w o r l d . " A n d b o t h A l e x a n d e r a n d his Greek c i t y planner have been
5

credited w i t h the o r i g i n a l i t y of A l e x a n d r i a ' s design.

248

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

T h e elements t h a t were n e w t o the Greek w o r l d m o n u m e n

t a l l y far exceeding the A t h e n i a n A c r o p o l i s , " b u i l d i n g s arranged i n t o
i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g complexes a n d ensembles," the canals, even the sugges
7

t i o n o f c a r v i n g the king's image i n t o the face o f a m o u n t a i n s i d e w e r e ,

however, far f r o m o r i g i n a l . T h e y were l o n g - s t a n d i n g t r a d i t i o n s i n E g y p t .
T h e grandeur o f M e m p h i s , w h i c h A l e x a n d e r revisited w h i l e his n e w c i t y
was being b u i l t , m u s t have eclipsed any t h a t even the w e l l - t r a v e l e d M a c e
d o n i a n h a d ever seen. M e m p h i s ' s cemeteries alone stretched t h i r t y k m
8

a l o n g the desert escarpment, a n d the city, t o tell f r o m the l i t t l e t h a t is

visible t o d a y a n d f r o m i n s c r i p t i o n s n a m i n g temples yet t o be f o u n d , was
indeed a vast site o f b u i l d i n g s arranged i n t o i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g complexes
a n d ensembles. For e x a m p l e , the great Temple o f Ptah " H i k u p t a h , "
9

w h i c h p r o b a b l y gave rise t o the Greek name f o r E g y p t , Aigyptos,

was

connected t o another sacred p r e c i n c t by a b r o a d processional w a y .

10

These features have been perhaps better preserved, at least better re

c o r d e d , at e l - A m a r n a , w h e r e A k h e n a t e n h a d a b r o a d avenue b u i l t f o r the
express purpose o f r u n n i n g his c h a r i o t , a n d at L u x o r (ancient Thebes),
w h i c h A m e n h o t e p i n organized i n t o a series o f temples a n d ensembles
connected b y b r o a d processional routes, a n d w h e r e A l e x a n d e r added a
shrine t o himself as sun g o d .
T h u s , the o n e - h u n d r e d - f o o t - w i d e , east-west avenue bisecting
A l e x a n d r i a , f r o m the p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s near the H e p t a s t a d i o n past t e m
ples a n d p a r k s t o the palace area,

11

was i n g o o d E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n a n d

w o u l d have made a perfect venue f o r the famous Ptolemaic processions,

12

those, t o o , being a distant m i r r o r o f l o n g - s t a n d i n g E g y p t i a n practice.

Even A l e x a n d r i a ' s H e p t a s t a d i o n causeway, w h i c h connected

FIG.

Statuette of a beggar, probably

Alexandrian. Bronze w i t h copper
and silver inlays. Hellenistic,

the m a i n l a n d t o the i s l a n d of Pharos, thus f o r m i n g the h a r b o r , was n o t a

ca. 1 0 0 - 5 0 B.C. H : 18.5 cm.

n e w idea b u t an e a r t h w o r k i n g o o d , ancient E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n . Pharaohs

The Cleveland Museum of A r t ,

t h r o u g h o u t the m i l l e n n i a h a d created artificial h a r b o r s , i r r i g a t i o n sys

tems, a n d jetties b y m o v i n g a n d reshaping vast a m o u n t s o f earth at
Thebes, a l o n g the R e d Sea, a n d at the F a i y u m , the latter h a v i n g been
witnessed a n d described t o the Greeks by H e r o d o t o s a n d c e r t a i n l y read
about by Alexander.
life a n d the a f t e r l i f e .

13

14

Egyptians regarded such labors as a fact of b o t h

Even the servant figures they c a r r i e d w i t h t h e m t o

t h e i r t o m b s were t r a d i t i o n a l l y inscribed w i t h the prayer, " O shabti, . . .

i f I be s u m m o n e d . . . t o d o any w o r k . . . o f flooding the banks o r c o n
veying sand f r o m east t o west; ' H e r e a m I , ' y o u shall say."

1 5

A n d so,

A l e x a n d r i a itself m u s t be recognized n o t as an entirely n e w i n v e n t i o n o f

Greek c i t y p l a n n i n g b u t as an overlay o f classical f o r m a t o n a f u n d a m e n
t a l l y E g y p t i a n f o u n d a t i o n . I f each P t o l e m y changed or added b u i l d i n g s
o r left some unfinished a l o n g the way, so h a d his predecessors at M e m
phis a n d Thebes.
A r e d granite p o r t r a i t o f A l e x a n d e r i n the G r a e c o - R o m a n
M u s e u m i n A l e x a n d r i a shows a similar overlay of f o r m a t over substance

Leonard C. Hanna, Jr., Fund,

63.507.

Kozloff

(see K a m i fig. 2 above). T h e t i l t of Alexander's head slightly t o the left

a n d his m e l t i n g glance, apparent despite the loss of the inlays, recalls
Plutarch's d e s c r i p t i o n o f Lysippos's r e n d e r i n g of A l e x a n d e r . Yet the h a i r
is f o r m e d like a h e a d c l o t h o r w i g , rather u n l i k e the massive, c u r l y h a i r of
true Greek p o r t r a i t s ; just above the c o w l i c k o n his b r o w is the trace of a
t r a d i t i o n a l E g y p t i a n uraeus c o i l e d i n a figure eight, n o t the d i a d e m even
t u a l l y w o r n by Ptolemaic r o y a l t y . T h e face is h i g h l y p o l i s h e d , a n d the
finish

of the h a i r is matte, a type of surface t e x t u r i n g o n hard-stone

sculpture t h a t occurred repeatedly t h r o u g h o u t the h i s t o r y of E g y p t i a n

art. I n l a i d eyes were also an ancient t r a d i t i o n i n E g y p t i a n stone sculp
t u r e , w h i l e i t seems t o have become p o p u l a r i n Greek stone sculpture
first d u r i n g H e l l e n i s t i c times.
Red granite f r o m the quarries at A s w a n i n southern E g y p t is
extremely difficult t o carve because of its hardness a n d s t r u c t u r a l coarse
ness. T h e technical s k i l l represented by the A l e x a n d r i a head r e q u i r e d a
p r a c t i c e d h a n d , perhaps that of an E g y p t i a n carver w o r k i n g f r o m a
Greek m o d e l a n d w i t h Greek v o c a b u l a r y b u t w i t h an u n a v o i d a b l y Egyp
t i a n accent. Some of the same observations a p p l y t o a statuette o f a
k o u r o s f r o m the second quarter o f the s i x t h c e n t u r y B . C . , said t o have
been f o u n d at N a u k r a t i s a n d n o w i n the P u s h k i n M u s e u m i n M o s c o w ,

1 6

its t w i n being i n C a i r o . W h i l e the Greek type is o b v i o u s , the s m o o t h ren

d e r i n g o f a n a t o m i c a l f o r m s a n d the o r i e n t a l appearance of the facial fea
tures a n d hairstyle suggest n o n - G r e e k w o r k . T h e y are carved i n E g y p t i a n
alabaster, suggesting l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n .
Sculptured p o r t r a i t s o f Alexander's eventual successors (see
S m i t h fig. 4 above) are rather rare c o m p a r e d t o those o f previous Egyp
t i a n p h a r a o h s o f s i m i l a r w e a l t h . Those carved i n i m p o r t e d m a r b l e usually
t e n d t o be H e l l e n i s t i c i n style rather t h a n E g y p t i a n a n d are i n d i v i d u a l
ized e n o u g h t o be g o o d likenesses o f t h e i r subjects. Few, however, can be
called b r i l l i a n t i n q u a l i t y , perhaps because, like E g y p t i a n limestone p o r
t r a i t s , they were finished w i t h gesso a n d p a i n t , w h i c h have since disap
peared, a n d they are n o w v i e w e d i n a rather r o u g h state.
M o s t p o r t r a i t s of the Ptolemies i n native E g y p t i a n stone nev
ertheless depict t h e m i n E g y p t i a n haberdashery, a n d the p o r t r a i t s were
p r o b a b l y meant f o r E g y p t i a n temples. T h e kings are s h o w n s t r i d i n g for
w a r d i n a h i e r o g l y p h i c pose a n d w i t h a l l the accoutrements that w o u l d
a l l o w the E g y p t i a n people t o " r e a d " these sculptures as t h e i r kings even
t h o u g h neither the people n o r the M a c e d o n i a n kings c o u l d read the
inscriptions.
A t odds w i t h E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n , however, is the degree t o
w h i c h these E g y p t i a n stone p o r t r a i t s are h o m o g e n i z e d . T h e y were n o t
p a i n t e d , a n d technically they are w e l l carved, and yet i t is very difficult
t o t e l l one P t o l e m y f r o m another n o t o n l y i n sculpture i n the r o u n d b u t
also o n temple w a l l reliefs, such as at Dendera, Esna, E d f u , a n d Philae.

249

250

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

I f the cartouche is missing, as i t often is, i t is difficult t o divine w h i c h

P t o l e m y is represented.
T h i s is n o t true o f t r a d i t i o n a l E g y p t i a n p h a r a o n i c p o r t r a i t u r e
w h e r e i n the "perfected likeness" o r " l i v i n g i m a g e , " the tut ankh,

o f an

i n d i v i d u a l p h a r a o h was o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e . A p o r t r a i t o f p h a r a o h
was a receptacle o f the divine essence, a n d i t needed t o be recognizable
t o f u n c t i o n c o r r e c t l y . T h e p o r t r a i t , w h i c h I define as the discernible
17

likeness o f a specific i n d i v i d u a l , h a d been an essential element o f Egyp

t i a n a r t as early as the b e g i n n i n g o f the t h i r d m i l l e n n i u m B . C . a n d c o n t i n
ued unceasingly f o r the t w o - a n d - a - h a l f m i l l e n n i a preceding M a c e d o n i a n
r u l e . C e r t a i n l y , E g y p t is the b i r t h p l a c e o f p o r t r a i t u r e , a n d the Greeks h a d
m a n y centuries o f c o n t a c t d u r i n g w h i c h t o absorb this t r a d i t i o n g r a d u
ally i n t o t h e i r o w n .

1 8

O n e can o n l y guess w h y the tut ankh, the perfected likeness,

was n o t achieved i n a consistent m a n n e r i n h a r d stone under the M a c e
donians. Perhaps the Ptolemies, c o m i n g f r o m a b a c k g r o u n d t h a t h a d re
peatedly n o t e d the darkness o f E g y p t i a n s k i n i n b o t h a r t a n d l i t e r a t u r e ,
f o u n d i t i r o n i c a n d possibly even unpleasant t o have t h e i r true images
carved o u t o f d a r k E g y p t i a n s t o n e .

19

T h e i n d i v i d u a l , recognizable images o f the first Ptolemies

are clearly recorded o n the coins m i n t e d i n A l e x a n d r i a , t h o u g h even i n
t h a t m e d i u m t h e i r likenesses suffered some c l o n i n g after a t i m e .

2 0

I n the

early years, however, w e find the energetic face o f M e r y a m e n Setepenra

Ptolemiis, a.k.a. P t o l e m y i Soter, w i t h his j u t t i n g c h i n , l o n g , d r o o p i n g
nose, heavy eyebrows, a n d deep-set eyes, a n d there, t o o , Userkaenra
M e r y a m e n P t o l e m i i s , a.k.a. P t o l e m y n Philadelphos, w i t h his d o u b l e
c h i n (see K a h i l fig. 3 above).
A b r i l l i a n t a n d creative m a n , P t o l e m y 11 is w e l l remembered
f o r his legendary b u i l d i n g s a n d f o r c o m m i s s i o n i n g the t r a n s l a t i o n o f
the Pentateuch a n d M a n e t h o ' s history. B u t his m o s t i m p o r t a n t accom
p l i s h m e n t w h i l e o n Egypt's t h r o n e was the c r e a t i o n o f an e c o n o m y
w i t h i n E g y p t t h a t was c o m p l e t e l y independent o f the w o r l d w i d e econ
omy.

21

I t was an e c o n o m y t h a t m u s t have affected the artistic p r o d u c

t i o n o f the t i m e .
F o l l o w i n g a p a t h begun b y his father, P t o l e m y 11 achieved a
r o y a l m o n o p o l y i n E g y p t i a n currency b y r e d u c i n g the weights o f g o l d
a n d silver coins s t r u c k i n E g y p t f o r use i n A l e x a n d r i a , b y e x c l u d i n g for
eign coins f r o m the E g y p t i a n m a r k e t ,

22

a n d eventually by m i n t i n g f o r use

i n the E g y p t i a n c o u n t r y s i d e large bronze coins t h a t were attractive t o the

l o c a l populace b u t were difficult t o place i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y a n d are rarely
f o u n d a b r o a d . F r o m this t i m e f o r w a r d , silver a n d g o l d were restricted t o
r o y a l hands, silver coinage eventually d i m i n i s h i n g , since the ore came
f r o m lands n o t i n Ptolemaic c o n t r o l , u n l i k e N u b i a n g o l d a n d C y p r i o t
copper.

23

Therefore, the Ptolemaic coinage m o n o p o l y m u s t also have

Kozloff

FIG.

Portrait of a man, f r o m Egypt.

Green schist. First century B . C .
H : 21.5 cm. Berlin, Agyptisches
Museum inv. 12500.

been a m o n o p o l y i n metals, a n d I shall r e t u r n t o this p o i n t later.

T w o p o r t r a i t s o f private i n d i v i d u a l s i n i d e n t i c a l , h a r d , green
ish stone, one i n B o s t o n

2 4

a n d one i n B e r l i n (fig. 2), are a m o n g the few

supremely fine p o r t r a i t heads o f private persons t o have been carved i n

Egypt d u r i n g the entire Ptolemaic p e r i o d . Certainly, one master carved
b o t h , since the a p p r o a c h t o the masses a n d the t o o l - w o r k i n g o f surface
details are i d e n t i c a l o n the t w o heads. T h e i r crispness a n d severity, their
very q u a l i t y , speak o f an E g y p t i a n sculptor, as does the stone itself.
T h e i r facial features are true tut ankhs,

d o w n t o the m o l e o n the left

cheek o f the one. As B i a n c h i quite fairly p o i n t e d o u t i n the catalogue f o r

the e x h i b i t i o n Cleopatra's

Egypt,

the nature of these p o r t r a i t s is w i t h i n

the m i l l e n n i a - o l d E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n of private p o r t r a i t u r e .

25

I n general,

however, m o s t Ptolemaic r e n d i t i o n s of private persons are far m o r e gen

eralized a n d less satisfying as p o r t r a i t u r e t h a n the B e r l i n a n d B o s t o n
heads. Even so, they often have strength a n d m u s t have c o m m u n i c a t e d
t o their audience as the t r a d i t i o n a l h i e r o g l y p h i c f o r m of the h u m a n
figure i n a c t i o n .
Statues o f w o m e n present another set o f issues. A limestone
statue i n A l e x a n d r i a belongs t o the l o n g E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n o f stepping,

251

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ARTS

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ALEXANDRIA

d r a p e d female figures (fig. 3). A g a i n the structure is h i e r o g l y p h i c . T h e

figure has an u n u s u a l l y v o l u p t u o u s a n d rather m a t u r e l o o k , however,
even f o r E g y p t i a n a r t . Perhaps i t is a c o m m e n t o n the actual appearance
of a Berenike o r an A r s i n o e , b u t t h e i r representations o n the faience
o i n o c h o a i , o r "queen's b o t t l e s , " made i n Ptolemaic E g y p t v a r y between
flat-chested

a n d f u l l (fig. 4 ) .

2 6

Voluptuousness is depicted s p o r a d i c a l l y i n E g y p t i a n art, f o r

instance i n late D y n a s t y x v i n a n d again i n the Sake p e r i o d . M u c h closer
c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , however, was the influence o f western A s i a , w h i c h c o n
t i n u o u s l y f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f the second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . t h r o u g h
the late first m i l l e n n i u m p r o d u c e d statues a n d figurines o f full-figured
w o m e n , a n d d u r i n g the t i m e E g y p t was, i n fact, r u l e d by Asiatics.
Such was the figure style o f statues made f o r native E g y p t i a n
c o n s u m p t i o n b u t n o t f o r the Greek p a t r o n s o f A l e x a n d r i a . N i c o , a m i d t h i r d - c e n t u r y - B . c A l e x a n d r i a n priestess, is s h o w n o n her limestone
grave stela, n o w i n C a i r o , d e m u r e l y c l o t h e d i n b o d y - o b s c u r i n g drapery,
a n d her pose is t h a t o f w o m e n o n stelae i n Classical Athens (fig. 5). T h e
subject matter, however, is a c t u a l l y m o r e E g y p t i a n t h a n i t first appears,
since N i c o receives a h a r p , a n d Greek w o m e n were always s h o w n receiv
i n g a j e w e l r y b o x o r a m i r r o r f r o m t h e i r servants.

27

A t first b l u s h the c a r v i n g appears Greek i n style, t h o u g h u n

sophisticated i n e x e c u t i o n , b u t a second l o o k t u r n s up at least t w o de
tails t r a d i t i o n a l t o E g y p t i a n art. First, the carver has splayed o u t N i c o ' s
f o o t s t o o l so t h a t b o t h the f r o n t a n d the side can be seen. S h o w i n g t w o
dimensions o f an object, either side b y side o r one above the other, was
a n accepted aesthetic device i n E g y p t i a n a r t f r o m the O l d K i n g d o m
t h r o u g h the Ptolemaic p e r i o d .

2 8

T h e other d e t a i l is the a w k w a r d p o s i t i o n

of N i c o ' s a r m . I n g o o d E g y p t i a n artistic t r a d i t i o n i t , l i k e the f o o t s t o o l , is

presented as a h i e r o g l y p h i n the p o s i t i o n t h a t makes i t m o s t legible, i f

FIG.

s o m e w h a t a w k w a r d t o a post-Renaissance eye.

Headless statue of a w o m a n ,

T h o u g h the q u a l i t y o f Ptolemaic stone c a r v i n g often leaves

s o m e t h i n g t o be desired, the smaller arts are w i t h o u t equal. I n t h e m w e
see a taste f o r h i g h q u a l i t y a n d c o l o r i n an a s t o u n d i n g v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i
als, just as one finds i n the smaller arts o f ancient E g y p t .
Dozens o f b e a u t i f u l p a i n t e d t e r r a c o t t a statuettes o f w o m e n ,
often called Tanagra figures after the b i r t h p l a c e o f the t y p e ,

29

are the

h i g h p o i n t o f the A l e x a n d r i a m u s e u m f o r m a n y visitors (see R i a d figs. 4

a n d 5 above). These c o l o r f u l ladies w i t h t h e i r Classical m e l o n coiffures
are a l m o s t always extremely demure. T h e y are swathed i n d r a p e r y t h a t
conceals t h e i r sexual attributes, i f occasionally n o t t h e i r bellies. T h e i r
m e d i u m m o l d e d t e r r a c o t t a ( I u n d e r s t a n d t h a t some pieces have been
analyzed a n d s h o w n t o be made o f E g y p t i a n c l a y ) w a s n o t a favorite
i n E g y p t , as i t h a d been i n Greece, a n d the statuettes' general style a n d
m o d e s t y seem t o speak i n favor o f m a n u f a c t u r e b y i m p o r t e d Greek

from Shatby. Limestone. T h i r d

century B.C. H : 50.2 cm.
Alexandria, Graeco-Roman
M u s e u m 1332.

Kozloff

FIG.

"Queen vase" w i t h p o r t r a i t
of Berenike n , probably from
Alexandria. Faience. 2 4 6 - 2 2 2 B.C.
H : 22.2 cm. N e w York, Barbara
and Lawrence Fleischman
collection.

FIG. 5
Grave stela for N i c o . Limestone.
M i d - t h i r d century B.C. Cairo, The
Egyptian M u s e u m .

253

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ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Griffin r h y t o n , from T u k h elQuarmous. Silver. Ca. 270 B . C .

H : 17 cm. Cairo, The Egyptian
Museum J E 38093.

craftsmen, t h o u g h some o f m y later arguments m a y t i p the balance i n

favor o f native artisans.
Traces o f l o c a l influence have crept i n . As i n N i c o ' s stela,
m a n y o f the figures h o l d o r p l a y m u s i c a l instruments rather t h a n p a r t i c i
pate i n t r a d i t i o n a l Greek feminine pursuits. T h e drapery o n one figure is
s c u l p t u r e d l o w t o reveal a w e l l - r o u n d e d breast, a b i t of peekaboo m o r e
suited t o the n e w A l e x a n d r i a n taste t h a n t o the t r a d i t i o n a l Greek one.
M a n y o f the figures w e a r earrings, necklaces, a n d snake bracelets i n
a m o u n t s standard f o r E g y p t i a n w o m e n b u t n o t t y p i c a l o f Greek w o m e n
before the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . I f precious-metal currency was restricted
t o r o y a l hands, g o l d j e w e l r y m u s t also have been a perquisite o f the
Ptolemaic n o b i l i t y , u n d o u b t e d l y given as gifts by the palace, m u c h as i t
h a d been i n dynasties p a s t .

30

O n e o f the m o s t spectacular Ptolemaic hoards ever recorded

includes pieces o f g o l d j e w e l r y f o u n d i n 1905 near Bubastis i n the D e l t a ,
w i t h early t h i r d - c e n t u r y B . C . coins p r o v i d i n g the t e r m i n u s post quern
(fig. 6).

31

T h e b r i l l i a n t objects f r o m this treasure m i x Persian, Greek, a n d

Egyptian motifs,

32

leaving t h e i r place (or places) o f m a n u f a c t u r e an open

q u e s t i o n . O n e piece i n p a r t i c u l a r , a silver r h y t o n w i t h a griffin p r o t o m e ,

is c o n v i n c i n g l y A s i a t i c i n style, yet reliefs o n the w a l l s o f the t o m b o f
Petosiris at T u n a el-Gebel near H e r m o p o l i s i n U p p e r E g y p t leave n o
d o u b t t h a t w o r k s o f a r t i n this foreign style were being made i n E g y p t
d u r i n g the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . (fig. 7 ) .
M o r e t y p i c a l o f the shape a n d d e c o r a t i o n o f H e l l e n i s t i c sil
ver f o u n d i n E g y p t are several b o w l s i n the C a i r o m u s e u m a n d one i n

Kozloff

FIG.

Detail of relief sculpture from the

t o m b of Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel
(Hermopolis Magna). Limestone.
M i d - f o u r t h century B.C.

B r o o k l y n , w h i c h was r e p o r t e d t o have been f o u n d i n E g y p t w i t h coins o f

the late t h i r d c e n t u r y

B.C.

3 3

A n d , indeed, i t is difficult t o date any Ptole

maic silver after the t h i r d century. C o i n c i d e n t a l l y this is the p o i n t at

w h i c h the Ptolemaic issues o f silver coinage became rarer because o f the
expense o f i m p o r t i n g the ore f r o m a b r o a d .
O n the other h a n d , few Ptolemaic bronze statuettes can be
a t t r i b u t e d before the t h i r d century B . C . , despite the huge numbers o f
bronze cats, ibises, i c h n e u m o n s , a n d a l l m a n n e r o f sacred animals t h a t
were made p r e v i o u s l y d u r i n g the Late p e r i o d . Few i f any H e l l e n i s t i c stat
uettes f r o m E g y p t can be dated early, a c c o r d i n g t o archaeological evi
dence, a n d the circle o f bronze statuettes once dated by style t o the
f o u r t h o r t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . is g r a d u a l l y s h r i n k i n g because the statuettes
i n m u s e u m collections, l i k e the ones studied b y M a r i o n True i n The
Gods

Delight,

34

are being redated t o the late H e l l e n i s t i c o r early I m p e r i a l

p e r i o d . A rare e x c e p t i o n is the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m ' s Dancer (exc o l l e c t i o n W a l t e r B a k e r ) , w h i c h True attributes t o A l e x a n d r i a , a n d

3 5

whose sensuous, curvaceous line is one beloved i n ancient E g y p t i a n a r t .

36

255

256

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

T h e Ptolemies first gained c o n t r o l o f C y p r u s a n d its copper

mines i n the early t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e o n they g r a d u
ally began r e p l a c i n g silver coinage w i t h bronze. By 2 1 0 B . C . , o n l y the
large bronze slugs c o u l d be used w i t h i n E g y p t . Is i t possible t h a t the
Ptolemies restricted use o f t h e i r C y p r i o t copper t o the p r o d u c t i o n o f
cheap l o c a l currency a n d l i m i t e d the f a b r i c a t i o n of bronze statuettes i n
E g y p t i n those early years? T h e m e t h o d o f m a n u f a c t u r e o f the t e r r a c o t t a
figurines

i n the A l e x a n d r i a m u s e u m t h a t date t o the t h i r d a n d second

centuries B . C . was s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f bronze statuettes, w h i c h is t o say,

piecemeal casting a n d t h e n assemblage o f the p a r t s .
figurine

37

D i d the t e r r a c o t t a -

i n d u s t r y s u p p l a n t bronze casting i n E g y p t , at least d u r i n g the

t h i r d a n d second centuries B . C . ?
Clearly, the Ptolemaic e c o n o m y was based o n e x p o r t i n g as
m u c h as possible a n d o n i m p o r t i n g as l i t t l e as possible. I f the manufac
t u r e o f silver vessels a n d bronze statuettes can be t i e d t o the economic
p o l i c y o f the Ptolemies, t h e n very possibly the issue raised earlier a b o u t
the p o o r q u a l i t y o f stone sculpture i n the r o u n d a n d i n relief stems f r o m
this p o l i c y as w e l l . T h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f fine m a r b l e sculpture o r even r a w ,
u n c a r v e d m a r b l e w o u l d n o t have served the Ptolemaic e c o n o m y w e l l .
Bryaxis's m o n u m e n t a l Serapis, i m p o r t e d perhaps before the p o l i c y was
i n place, w o u l d have been one o f the rare exceptions t o the r u l e .
T h i s p o l i c y w o u l d also e x p l a i n w h y corrections were made i n
gesso a n d plaster t o the m a r b l e sculpture t h a t does exist. I t was s i m p l y
t o o expensive t o t h r o w o u t mistakes a n d t o start over w i t h a n e w b l o c k .
I t also explains w h y so m u c h E g y p t i a n limestone was used i n A l e x a n d r i a ,
even t h o u g h the E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n was t o use limestone o n l y i n funerary
contexts. L o c a l E g y p t i a n stone was cheap, since i t w o u l d have been
b o u g h t w i t h g r a i n o r Ptolemaic bronze. M o r e o v e r , one c o u l d imagine
t h a t the c o l o r e d stones d i d n o t appeal t o the Greeks, even t h o u g h they
d i d eventually capture the R o m a n fancy.
T h e p r o t e c t i o n i s t economic p o l i c y of the Ptolemies was n o t
new. I t was perhaps invented by, a n d c e r t a i n l y h a d been p r a c t i c e d f o r
m i l l e n n i a by, p h a r a o h s o f the past, even the wealthiest ones such as
A m e n h o t e p i n . H e i m p o r t e d very l i t t l e f r o m a b r o a d , even silver, a l
t h o u g h he h a d m o r e t h a n one r o y a l f a t h e r - i n - l a w i n the East, w h e r e sil
ver was f o u n d . For the m o s t p a r t , A m e n h o t e p i n a n d other pharaohs
used the materials t o w h i c h they h a d e c o n o m i c a l access a n d w h i c h they
p r o b a b l y preferred aestheticallyelectrum a n d g o l d , f o r e x a m p l e a n d
o n w h i c h they m a i n t a i n e d a r o y a l m o n o p o l y .
T h e bronze-statuette i n d u s t r y d i d seem t o blossom i n E g y p t
again late i n the second c e n t u r y B . C . W e start seeing figures o f dwarves,
Hellenistic-style H o r u s boys w e a r i n g d o u b l e c r o w n s a n d c a r r y i n g c o r n u
copia,

38

Isis figures, a n d Serapises c o p y i n g Bryaxis's lost o r i g i n a l . T h e

M a h d i a a n d A n t i k y t h e r a shipwrecks testify t o the degree t o w h i c h H e l -

Kozloff

lenistic bronzes traveled, a n d , thus, A l e x a n d r i a n bronze statuettes c o u l d

have traveled t h r o u g h o u t the late H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d . Just because stat
uettes w i t h e x o t i c subject matter, inlays, a n d E g y p t i a n attributes can be
f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t the late H e l l e n i s t i c w o r l d does n o t m e a n , however,
t h a t they a l l came there f r o m A l e x a n d r i a , as True p o i n t e d o u t i n 1 9 8 8 .

3 9

By n o w , E u r o p e , western A s i a , a n d N o r t h A f r i c a were b e c o m i n g parts o f

the R o m a n E m p i r e , a n d bronze w o r k s h o p s were being f o u n d e d every
w h e r e i n t h a t r e a l m , a l l t u r n i n g o u t s i m i l a r sorts o f statuettes.
A n o t h e r m e d i u m also f l o u r i s h e d : glass. C o r e - f o r m e d glass
vessels a n d t h e i r offshoots, m i l l e f i o r i glass, a n d so o n , began t o be m a n u
factured i n large numbers i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C . (fig. 8). Because the
vessels o f this date are entirely classical i n shape a n d have been f o u n d i n
large numbers a r o u n d the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , scholars have suggested t h a t
they were n o t m a n u f a c t u r e d i n E g y p t .

40

I f faience "queen b o t t l e s " i n

o i n o c h o e shape were made i n E g y p t , however, a n d i f a l l m a n n e r o f o b

jects were being made i n Classical style i n E g y p t , there is n o reason w h y
glass bottles c o u l d n o t have been made i n A l e x a n d r i a o n the palace
g r o u n d s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l o c a t i o n f o r glass w o r k s h o p s i n shapes t h a t
w o u l d have pleased the Ptolemies.
Remember t h a t at the height o f the i n d u s t r y d u r i n g the
Bronze A g e , m a n y o f A m e n h o t e p i l l ' s M a l k a t a Palace glass vessel shapes
FIG.

Alabastron, from the Mediter

ranean area. Core-formed glass.
Late f o u r t h - e a r l y t h i r d century
B . C . H : 16.5 cm. The Cleveland
Museum of A r t , Purchase from
the J. H . Wade Fund 94.9.

bore l i t t l e resemblance t o the shapes o f native E g y p t i a n p o t t e r y . I n fact,

one o f the favorite N e w K i n g d o m shapes was the l e n t o i d flask, a shape
i m p o r t e d f r o m C y p r u s . T h e E g y p t i a n glass versions were t h e n t r a d e d
a b r o a d a n d have been f o u n d as far away as C y p r u s a n d Greece.
Every student a n d lover o f A l e x a n d r i a bemoans the fact t h a t
l i t t l e o f the c i t y has been excavated o r at this late date even retains very
m u c h w o r t h finding. B u t there is one i m p o r t a n t source o n A l e x a n d r i a n
a r t t h a t is often o v e r l o o k e d : the lovers o f a r t a n d archaeology w h o g r e w
u p there, people w h o saw objects washed u p o n the subsiding beach or
d u g u p i n the f o u n d a t i o n pits o f n e w b u i l d i n g s or i n the p l o w f u r r o w s o f
D e l t a fields. A s k t h e m i f there is such a t h i n g as A l e x a n d r i a n style, a n d
they answer i n the affirmative. A s k t h e m w h a t makes A l e x a n d r i a n style,
a n d they answer, each one echoing the other, " Q u a l i t y . " W h e n pressed
t o be m o r e specific o n the subject o f bronzes, one A l e x a n d r i a n said t o me,
"It's the q u a l i t y o f the craftsmanship o f d e t a i l s l o o k at t h e i r h a n d s . "
I a p p l i e d t h a t premise t o objects i n other m e d i a , f o r e x a m p l e ,
t o the Tazza Farnese (fig. 9 ) , w h i c h is f r o m a g r o u p o f objectsagate
vesselsthat c o u l d have been made i n A l e x a n d r i a . T h e hands, indeed,
are b r i l l i a n t l y achieved, a n d they r e m i n d me o f hands i n m a n y E g y p t i a n
b a n q u e t i n g scenes, one o f the m o s t famous versions h a v i n g been pre
served i n the t o m b o f T u t a n k h a m e n , o n the back o f the king's t h r o n e .
I n the end, A l e x a n d r i a n style is p r o b a b l y just w h a t w e
t h o u g h t i t was a l l a l o n g : a basically E g y p t i a n f o u n d a t i o n , f o r m a t t e d i n

257

258

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

FIG.

Cameo b o w l , the so-called Tazza

Farnese, possibly from Alexandria.
Banded Indian sardoynx. Ca. 100
B.C. D i a m . : zo cm. Naples, Museo
Nazionale Archeologico.

H e l l e n i s t i c style, w i t h a n overlay o f E g y p t i a n touches i n the f o r m of at

t r i b u t e s , figural details, a n d surface enhancement. B u t exactly w h i c h
m e d i u m was being developed at any given t i m e changed f r o m one cen
t u r y t o the n e x t , a c c o r d i n g t o the materials available w i t h i n Ptolemaic
e c o n o m i c restraints. T h r o u g h i t a l l there is one c o n s t a n t o f A l e x a n d r i a n
style, at least i n the smaller arts, a n d i t is t h a t constant t h a t separates
A l e x a n d r i a n a r t f r o m its copyists: q u a l i t y o f craftsmanship. I t was i n
perfectly g o o d E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n .
The Cleveland Museum of Art
C L E V E L A N D ,

O H I O

Kozloff

Notes

I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k B i r i Fay, Betsy M . B r y a n ,

I I

See D i o d o r u s Siculus 1 7 . 5 2 ; S t r a b o

17.1.6-10

( 7 9 1 - 9 5 ) for descriptions of A l e x a n d r i a .

L a w r e n c e M . B e r m a n , a n d J o h n Ross f o r p r o
v i d i n g photographs or for helping me o b t a i n
12

them.

See J. J. P o l l i t t , Art in the Hellenistic

(Cam

Age

bridge 1986), p. 280, for a translation of

2

E . M . F o r s t e r , Alexandria:

A History

K a l l i x e i n o s ' s a c c o u n t o f P t o l e m y n's f e s t i v a l

and a

p a v i l i o n and procession.

i n t r o d u c t i o n by L . D u r r e l l ( N e w York

Guide,

1 9 8 2 ) , p . 1 2 5 ; see also p . 3 9 : " G r e e k a n d E g y p

t i a n m o t i v e s d i d n o t b l e n d i n A r t as t h e y d i d i n

13

Herodotos

2.149-50.

14

J u s t b e f o r e c o m i n g t o E g y p t , A l e x a n d e r suffered

R e l i g i o n ; a t t e m p t s o c c u r , b u t t h e y are n o t n o
table a n d o n the w h o l e the c i t y f o l l o w s the gen
eral Hellenistic tendencies o f the t i m e . "

l o c a l r i d i c u l e at T y r e f o r t h e m a s s i v e efforts
i n v o l v e d i n his c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n e a r t h - m o l e

The Cleveland M u s e u m of A r t 63.507. M . True,

m i l i t a r y s t r u c t u r e . See G r e e n ( n o t e 6 a b o v e ) ,

i n A . R K o z l o f f a n d D . G . M i t t e n , eds.,

pp. 2 5 2 - 5 4 .

Gods

Delight:

Figure

in

Classical

e x h . cat. ( T h e C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m o f

Bronze,

The Human

The
15

R . O . F a u l k n e r , i n C . A n d r e w s , e d . , The

A r t 1 9 8 8 ) , n o . 2 0 , p p . 1 2 8 - 3 1 . See e n t r y f o r

cient

previous bib.

1 9 9 0 ) , p . 36-

For a discussion o f the history and o r g a n i z a t i o n

o f p h a r a o n i c n a m e s , see S. Q u i r k e , Who
the Pharaohs?

16

Were

Book

of the Dead

I n v . n o . 1, i a 3 0 0 0 . See Aus
mern

( L o n d o n 1 9 9 0 ) , esp. p p . 4 0 - 4 1

Egyptian

Eurasiens:

Meisterwerke

An

(Austin

den

Schatzkam-

antiker

Kunst,

e x h . cat. ( K u n s t h a u s Z u r i c h 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 1 9 0 - 9 1 .

a n d 7 4 - 7 7 for A l e x a n d e r a n d the Ptolemies.

17
5

E . J. O w e n s , The
World

City in the Greek

and

See B r y a n ( n o t e 1 0 a b o v e ) , p . 1 2 7 .

Roman

(London 1992), pp. 6 8 - 6 9 .

18

G i s e l a R i c h t e r ' s assessment o f E g y p t i a n p o r t r a i
t u r e as s p o r a d i c c r e a t i o n s , c o m p l e t e l y f o r m u l a i c ,

R G r e e n , Alexander
A Historical

of Macedon,

Biography

B.C.:

356-323

a n d i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e features o f a specific p e r

(Berkeley 1991), p . 275.

s o n , as s t a t e d i n G . M . A . R i c h t e r , The
of the Greeks,

Owens (note 5 above), p. 69.

Portraits

a b r . a n d rev. b y R . R . R . S m i t h

( I t h a c a , N . Y . , 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 3 5 , m u s t be p u t aside.
T h e a u t h o r refers t h e r e a d e r t o B r y a n ( n o t e 10

8
9

Green (note 6 above), p. 276.

above).

A m o d e r n village a n d f a r m l a n d n o w cover the

19

ancient ruins, preventing m u c h excavation, yet

T h e l i g h t e s t s t o n e used w o u l d h a v e been t h e
s a n d s t o n e o f t e m p l e w a l l r e l i e f s . E v e n t h i s is

p a r t i a l e x p l o r a t i o n has r e v e a l e d t h e e n c l o s u r e o f

a g o l d e n b r o w n , several shades d a r k e r t h a n

t h e vast T e m p l e o f P t a h a n d a n avenue l e a d i n g

the island m a r b l e a p p a r e n t l y preferred by the

f r o m i t past a n o r t h e r n sacred enclosure w i t h

Ptolemies. Relief sculptures were generally

finds o f D y n a s t y x x v i a n d D y n a s t y x x x , t h e l a t

p a i n t e d , t h e male's s k i n r e d , a n d t h e female's

ter d a t i n g t o the f o u r t h c e n t u r y B . C .

s k i n y e l l o w . T h i s a l s o c o u l d have d i s p l e a s e d

the

G r e e k s , w h o left t h e m a r b l e s k i n o f t h e i r o w n
10

W e p r o b a b l y k n o w less a b o u t M e m p h i s ' s d e s i g n

p a i n t e d statues u n p a i n t e d .

than we do about Alexandria's, but ancient

T h e b e s , f o r e x a m p l e , w i t h its ensembles o f

20

O . M o r k h o l m , i n P. G r i e r s o n a n d U . W e s t e r -

t e m p l e s a n d l o n g p r o c e s s i o n a l w a y s , is c o m p a r

m a r k , eds., Early

atively w e l l K n o w n , a n d there one can w a l k

the Accession

t h r o u g h the ancient b u i l d i n g s a n d a l o n g the

Apamea

p r o c e s s i o n a l w a y s even t o d a y . See B . M . B r y a n ,

pp. 102, 104.

i n A . P. K o z l o f f a n d B . M . B r y a n , eds.,
Dazzling

Sun: Amenhotep

HI and His

Memphis,

vol. 1 (London 1985).

(336-188

Coinage
to the Peace

from
of

B.C.) ( C a m b r i d g e 1 9 9 1 ) ,

Egypt's
World,

21

e x h . cat. ( T h e C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m o f A r t 1 9 9 2 ) ,
p p . 7 3 - 1 1 5 ; D . G . Jeffreys, The Survey

Hellenistic

of Alexander

I a m indebted t o Leo M i l d e n b e r g for advice a n d

suggestions.

of
22

M o r k h o l m (note 20 above), p. 66.

259

260

ARTS

OF HELLENISTIC

ALEXANDRIA

23

M o r k h o l m (note 20 above), pp. 1 0 5 - 6 .

24

R . S. B i a n c h i , i n R . A . F a z z i n i et a l . ,

silver f r o m Tell e l - M a s k h u t a ( P i t h o m ) , n o w i n
Brooklyn.

Egypt:

Cleopatra's

e x h . cat. ( T h e

Age of the Ptolemies,

34

True (note 3 above).

35

True (note 3 above), p p . 4 4 - 4 5 .

36

For example, a Dynasty x v n i t o m b painting;

B r o o k l y n M u s e u m 1 9 8 8 ) , p . 1 4 0 , cat. n o . 4 5 .
25

B i a n c h i (note 24 above).

26

See D . B . T h o m p s o n , Ptolemaic
Portraits

in Faience:

Aspects

Oinochoai

of the

and

see A . P. K o z l o f f , i n K o z l o f f a n d B r y a n ( n o t e 1 0

Ruler-Cult

above), p p . 267, 347, 350.

( O x f o r d 1 9 7 3 ) . As for the recognizability of the

p o r t r a i t s t h e m s e l v e s , T h o m p s o n seems t o a d m i t

37

True (note 3 above), p . 4 5 .

t h a t o n l y t h r e e o f h e r g r o u p are r e c o g n i z a b l e as
i n d i v i d u a l i z e d p o r t r a i t s ; see i b i d . , p . 8 1 .

38

The Cleveland M u s e u m of A r t 72.6 H a r p o k r a t e s . See T r u e ( n o t e 3 a b o v e ) , n o . 2 1 ,

27

See S, B.. P o m e r o y , Women

from

Alexander

in Hellenistic

to Cleopatra

p . 16,5. B . S. R i d g w a y , Hellenistic
v o l . 1 , The Styles

Egypt

pp. 132--36.

(New York 1984),

39

Sculpture,
B.C. ( M a d i s o n

of ca. 331-200

True (note 3 above), p p . 4 3 - 4 5 ; n o . 14,

p p . 1 0 2 - 6 ; no. 19, pp. 1 2 4 - 2 7 ; n o . 20,

1990), p. 364.

pp. 1 2 8 - 3 1 ; no. 2 1 , pp. 1 3 2 - 3 6 ; no. 22,

p p . I 3 7 - 4 ; n o - M , PP- 1 4 7 - 5 ;
1

28

H . Schafer, i n E . B r u n n e r - T r a u t , e d . ,
ciples
figs.

of Egyptian

Art

Prin
40

F o r f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t y p e a n d b i b . , see B i a n c h i
(note 24 above), nos. 1 1 2 - 1 4 , p p . 2 2 0 - 2 2 ;
a n d m o r e recently, D . Said, "Tanagra Ladies:
T h e Tanagra C o l l e c t i o n (of the A l e x a n d r i a
M u s e u m ) , " Franco

Maria

Ricci

57 ( A u g u s t

1992): 1 3 1 - 4 4 .
30

P o m e r o y ( n o t e 2 7 a b o v e ) , p . 4 2 , discusses t h e
H e l l e n i s t i c idea t h a t h o n o r i n g wives h o n o r s
t h e i r h u s b a n d s as w e l l .

3I

See H . H o f f m a n n a n d P. F. D a v i d s o n ,
Gold:

Jewelry

from

Greek

the Age of Alexander,

exh.

cat. ( M u s e u m o f Fine A r t s , B o s t o n , 1 9 6 6 ) ,
n o . 6 4 ( b r a c e l e t w i t h Isis b u s t ) , p p . 1 7 3 - 7 4 , f o r
h i s t o r y a n d b i b . ; a l s o , S. C u r t o a n d A . R o c c a t i ,
Tesori

dei Faraoni,

e x h . cat. (Palazzo D u c a l e ,

V e n i c e , 1 9 8 4 ) , n o s . 6 2 - 6 7 ( c o l o r i l l s , o f pec
t o r a l , t w o bracelets, three statuettes), p p . 1 8 5 89; also P o l l i t t (note 12 above), p . 255 ( r h y t o n
and bowl).
32

V e r y s i m i l a r i n s t y l e t o t h i s find are s m a l l c l o i
sonne animals i n the Walters A r t Gallery, Balti
m o r e , a n d i n the M u s e u m o f Fine A r t s , B o s t o n .
See A . P. K o z l o f f , " A N e w Species o f A n i m a l
F i g u r e s f r o m A l e x a n d r i a , " American
Archaeology

33

Greek

Journal

of

80 (1976): 1 8 3 - 8 5 .

See A . O l i v e r , Silver
and Roman

- 5>
2

( O x f o r d 1974), p. 139,

1 1 9 , 1 2 0 a , 1 2 1 ; p . 1 4 0 , figs. 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 .

D . F. G r o s e , The Toledo
Ancient

29

pp. 151-53-

for the Gods:

Silver,

800 Years

e x h . cat. ( T o l e d o

M u s e u m o f A r t 1 9 7 7 ) , n o . 1 1 , p . 4 1 ; see a l s o
n o s . 7 , 8, p p . 3 2 - 3 4 , f o r f o u r t h - c e n t u r y - B . c .

of

Glass

Museum

of Art:

Early

( N e w Y o r k 1 9 8 9 ) , p . 1 1 0 . See

further discussion below.

The Continuing Influence

of Alexandria

This page intentionally left blank

263

Late Antique Alexandria

G . W.

Bowersock

A few years ago some lines f r o m an unfinished p o e m by one o f the great

est of a l l the A l e x a n d r i a n poets, Constantine Cavafy, were p u b l i s h e d f o r
the first t i m e i n an I t a l i a n j o u r n a l o f Byzantine studies. T h e lines were
1

w r i t t e n i n 1 9 1 6 as the b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w p o e m , a n d they go as f o l l o w s :
M y imagination takes me n o w
not to Alexandria of the Ptolemies,
but of the fifth and sixth century
I love its every f o r m and moment.
N i n e years later, i n revising his p o e m , Cavafy changed the c h r o n o l o g i c a l
frame t o the s i x t h a n d the seventh centuries, d o w n t o w h a t he called the
a r r i v a l of "the p o w e r f u l A r a b i s m "

(0 Kparaidg

'Apafiicr/uLOs).

Cavafy was

one o f the few m o d e r n admirers o f ancient A l e x a n d r i a t o prefer the late

antique p e r i o d t o the H e l l e n i s t i c one. T h e city's c u l t i v a t i o n o f Greek c u l
ture a n d its lively conflict between p o l y t h e i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y o n the
eve o f the A r a b conquest were m o r e congenial t o a Greek of the late
nineteenth a n d early t w e n t i e t h centuries t h a n the p r o u d a n d confident
H e l l e n i s m o f the c a p i t a l o f the Ptolemies. Late antique A l e x a n d r i a was a
t o t a l l y different place f r o m the c i t y t h a t fell t o O c t a v i a n i n 30 B . C .
To understand just h o w different, we have t o l o o k briefly at
the m o r e t h a n three centuries i n t e r v e n i n g between the collapse of the
Ptolemies a n d the emergence i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y o f the c i t y t h a t
Cavafy a d m i r e d so m u c h . U p o n the establishment o f the R o m a n E m p i r e ,
A l e x a n d r i a was n o longer a r o y a l c a p i t a l . B u t i t was a c i t y t h a t retained
its physical splendor. Its economic i m p o r t a n c e was u n d i m i n i s h e d as the
g u a r d i a n o f t w o o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t h a r b o r s i n E g y p t . T h e geographer
Strabo, r e l y i n g o n his o w n experience i n E g y p t i n the c o m p a n y o f his
f r i e n d , the prefect A e l i u s Gallus, described a c i t y f u l l o f magnificent
b u i l d i n g s (especially i n the o l d r o y a l q u a r t e r ) , crossed by w i d e streets
t h a t c o u l d accommodate the m o s t l u x u r i o u s vehicles. T h e m i x e d p o p u
2

l a t i o n o f Egyptians, Jews, a n d Greeks made c i v i l disturbances inevitable.

A l e x a n d r i a became n o t o r i o u s f o r its u n r u l y citizenry. W i t h a d i m i n i s h e d
p o l i t i c a l role i n the w o r l d at large, A l e x a n d r i a c o u l d devote itself t o its
o w n i n t e r n a l enthusiasms a n d animosities.

264

CONTINUING

INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

I n an address t o the A l e x a n d r i a n s , delivered either under Ves

pasian o r under T r a j a n (for o u r purposes the date is i m m a t e r i a l ) , the
r h e t o r a n d p h i l o s o p h e r D i o o f Prusa chastised the people o f the c i t y f o r
their f r i v o l i t y a n d unruliness. H e began his speech w i t h a question:
3

" G e n t l e m e n , w o n ' t y o u be serious for just a m o m e n t a n d give me y o u r

a t t e n t i o n ? " H e signaled f o r p a r t i c u l a r c o m m e n t their enthusiasm f o r
c h a r i o t races a n d for performances o n the k i t h a r a . T h e latter predilec
t i o n was n o d o u b t w h y the emperor N e r o was so f o n d o f A l e x a n d r i a ,
a n d the f o r m e r represents an early stage i n a passion t h a t was t o become
a conspicuous feature of late antique A l e x a n d r i a . E t h n i c tensions, par
t i c u l a r l y between Greeks a n d Jews, are w e l l d o c u m e n t e d i n the p a p y r i
of the J u l i o - C l a u d i a n p e r i o d a n d above a l l i n the w r i t i n g s o f the Jewish
p h i l o s o p h e r P h i l o . H i s in Flaccum

shows t h a t r a c i a l tensions c o u l d easily

be exacerbated by the A l e x a n d r i a n s ' fondness for p u b l i c entertainments.

Public spectacles i n c l u d e d Jews being scourged, hanged, t u r n e d o n the
w h e e l , maltreated, a n d led t h r o u g h the m i d s t o f the theater o n their w a y
t o death. A f t e r this, a c c o r d i n g t o P h i l o , came performances by dancers,
m i m e s , a n d flute players.

Just as the p o l i t i c a l influence o f A l e x a n d r i a declined sharply

d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , so, t o o , d i d its c u l t u r a l i n f l u
ence. T h e c i t y played almost n o role i n the m o v e m e n t k n o w n as the
Second Sophistic. N o n e o f the Sophists registered by Philostratos came
5

f r o m the city, a n d few i n s c r i p t i o n s o f Sophists of the p e r i o d show any

A l e x a n d r i a n c o n n e c t i o n . O b v i o u s l y , there were teachers a n d schools, b u t
the hegemony o f A l e x a n d r i a n intellectuals i n the Hellenistic p e r i o d h a d
come t o an end. Yet by the t h i r d century, A l e x a n d r i a h a d acquired a n e w
k i n d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n . T h e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r was Platon i s m , whose p h i l o s o p h y was mastered a n d interpreted by N e o p l a t o n i s t s
a n d Christians a l i k e . C l e m e n t a n d O r i g e n , the t w o greatest fathers of the
early C h u r c h under the influence o f Platonic t h o u g h t , b o t h w o r k e d i n
A l e x a n d r i a . S i m i l a r l y A m m o n i u s Saccas, the teacher o f Plotinus, h e l d his
school there. T h e r i v a l r y between the p o l y t h e i s t N e o p l a t o n i s t s a n d the
6

C h r i s t i a n Platonists effectively set the stage for the struggles t h a t charac

terized A l e x a n d r i a i n the centuries ahead.
Yet even w i t h such distinguished figures as Clement, O r i g e n ,
a n d A m m o n i u s Saccas i n the t h i r d century, A l e x a n d r i a c o n t i n u e d t o be a
m a r g i n a l c i t y w i t h i n the R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e emperor Caracalla, w h o
d i s l i k e d philosophers, felt free t o c a r r y o u t a massacre there i n 2 1 5 , a n d
he abolished f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t for the M o u s e i o n . T h e i n v a s i o n o f the
7

Palmyrenes i n A . D . 2 7 2 b r o u g h t substantial damage t o the m o n u m e n t s

of the c i t y a n d m a y even have led t o the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the M o u s e i o n
c o m p l e x itself. T h e c i t y was o v e r w h e l m e d a t h i r d t i m e i n A . D . 295.* T h e
8

p r o m i s e o f A l e x a n d r i a for the future was certainly n o t b r i g h t .

I t was a l l the m o r e r e m a r k a b l e t h a t A l e x a n d r i a managed t o

Bowersock

rise f r o m the r u b b l e so successfully i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t i t n o t o n l y

recovered b u t even surpassed its earlier r e n o w n as an i n t e l l e c t u a l center
i n the early t h i r d c e n t u r y so as t o challenge C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , A n t i o c h ,
Beirut, a n d Athens f o r leadership i n the Greek w o r l d of late a n t i q u i t y .
Cavafy, g o o d A l e x a n d r i a n t h a t he was, u n d e r s t o o d a l l this very w e l l . I n a
p o e m concerned w i t h the t h i r d - c e n t u r y city, he evokes a student of A m m o n i u s Saccas w h o g r e w b o r e d w i t h his studies.
He stayed as a student of A m m o n i u s Saccas for t w o years,
but he grew tired b o t h of philosophy and of Saccas.
A n d so he turned to politics.
But he gave that up too. The prefect was such a fool.
N e x t the y o u n g m a n t r i e d the C h u r c h a n d t h o u g h t of b e c o m i n g baptized
as a C h r i s t i a n ; b u t , r e a l i z i n g t h a t his parents w o u l d disapprove a n d cut
off his allowance, he gave u p t h a t o p t i o n as w e l l a n d t u r n e d t o selling his
body.

10

Cavafy has r i g h t l y discerned i n this p o e m that the m o s t p r o f i t

able careers i n A l e x a n d r i a at t h a t t i m e lay, w i t h i n the confines of de

cency, i n p h i l o s o p h y , p o l i t i c s , a n d the C h u r c h . I n subsequent centuries
the s i t u a t i o n was n o t m u c h different, except t h a t p h i l o s o p h y , p o l i t i c s ,
a n d the C h u r c h c o u l d sometimes be fused i n t o a single c a l l i n g .
Perhaps the m o s t eloquent ancient t e s t i m o n y f o r late antique
A l e x a n d r i a comes near the b e g i n n i n g o f the age i n the pages o f A m m i a nus M a r c e l l i n u s . H e declared A l e x a n d r i a t o be the pinnacle o f a l l cities
(vertex

omnium

civitatum)

i n its n o b i l i t y a n d magnificence." There, says

A m m i a n u s , salubrious breezes blew, a n d the air was gentle. There was

h a r d l y a day o n w h i c h the citizens d i d n o t see the sun. A m o n g the p r i n
c i p a l sites were the celebrated lighthouse a n d the c o n n e c t i n g H e p t a s t a d i o n a n d m o r e t h a n one large l i b r a r y housed i n the great Serapeion, a
temple that i n its magnificence c o u l d be equaled o n l y by the c a p i t a l at
R o m e . For A m m i a n u s these libraries d i d n o t constitute the H e l l e n i s t i c
A l e x a n d r i a n l i b r a r y , w h i c h he believed c o n t a i n e d 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 volumes t h a t
were b u r n t u p i n the t i m e o f Julius Caesar. B u t as D i a n a D e l i a has re
cently argued, the damage f r o m a c o n f l a g r a t i o n under Caesar seems t o
have been greatly exaggerated i n some sources.

12

A m m i a n u s ' s praise o f c u l t u r a l life o f A l e x a n d r i a has a some

w h a t elegiac t o n e .

13

T h i s was perhaps inevitable because the greatest

days o f the late antique c i t y were t o come l o n g after A m m i a n u s h a d

w r i t t e n . I n his t i m e the best he c o u l d say was t h a t " n o t even n o w " (ne
nunc quidem)

were various fields o f l e a r n i n g unrepresented i n the city.

T h e teachers of disciplines were still alive " i n a certain w a y "

modo

spirant),

(quodam

a n d geometry was still studied. N o t yet, says A m m i a n u s ,

h a d music altogether d r i e d o u t (exaruit)

i n A l e x a n d r i a , n o r was h a r m o n y

silent. A n d there was study of the m o t i o n s o f the earth a n d the stars a n d

of mathematics. M e d i c i n e comes i n f o r p a r t i c u l a r praise. A d o c t o r w h o

265

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INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

p r o c l a i m e d t h a t he was t r a i n e d i n A l e x a n d r i a was e n t i t l e d t o special

appreciation.
A m m i a n u s d i d n o t k n o w t h a t s h o r t l y after he w r o t e his lines
a b o u t A l e x a n d r i a the c i t y w o u l d be convulsed i n a c i v i l u p r i s i n g led
by the p a t r i a r c h t h a t w o u l d destroy the great Serapeion a n d b r i n g the
C h r i s t i a n a n d p o l y t h e i s t segments o f the p o p u l a t i o n i n t o o p e n a n d v i o
lent conflict. T h i s happened i n 3 9 1 .

1 4

T h e libraries o f the Serapeion m u s t

have been e l i m i n a t e d a l o n g w i t h the temple. T h e date m a r k s the begin

n i n g o f the era t h a t Cavafy m u s t have h a d i n m i n d w h e n he t h o u g h t o f
A l e x a n d r i a i n the fifth, s i x t h , a n d early seventh centuries. I t h a d already
become evident i n the f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t C h r i s t i a n A l e x a n d r i a n s saw i n
the patriarchate o f t h e i r c i t y an o p p o r t u n i t y , t h r o u g h the structure o f the
C h u r c h , t o restore A l e x a n d r i a t o a grandeur c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f the
Hellenistic p e r i o d . T h e repeated returns o f Athanasius t o the c i t y sym
b o l i z e d its i m p o r t a n c e i n the e v o l v i n g struggle over the nature o f C h r i s t .
By the m i d - f i f t h c e n t u r y the A l e x a n d r i a n p a t r i a r c h was a c k n o w l e d g e d as
the leader o f M o n o p h y s i t e C h r i s t i a n i t y .
Together w i t h the g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f the p a t r i a r c h came
a s t r o n g r e v i v a l i n pagan l e a r n i n g , e x e m p l i f i e d i n the early fifth c e n t u r y
by the eloquent teacher H y p a t i a , whose lectures even eminent C h r i s
tians, such as Synesius, praised. T h e m u r d e r a n d d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f
H y p a t i a i n w h a t is perhaps the m o s t n o t o r i o u s o f a l l A l e x a n d r i a n r i o t s
t u r n e d this p h i l o s o p h e r a n d teacher i n t o a m a r t y r o f the pagan cause
a n d a heroine o f f e m i n i s t movements o f m o d e r n t i m e s .

15

B u t her death

by n o means e x t i n g u i s h e d p o l y t h e i s t l e a r n i n g i n the city. T h e younger

H o r a p o l l o n , f r o m a distinguished pagan f a m i l y i n A l e x a n d r i a , c o n t i n u e d
t o teach a n d c o n d u c t his research o n E g y p t i a n antiquities w e l l i n t o
the last years o f the fifth c e n t u r y .

16

H i s s u r v i v i n g treatise o n the inter

p r e t a t i o n o f the h i e r o g l y p h i c symbols was a v a l i a n t a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n

the ancient inheritance o f E g y p t i n the l i n g u a franca t h a t Greek h a d
n o w become.
I n a c o m p a n y t h a t is b o t h h i g h l y k n o w l e d g e a b l e a n d cre
atively diverse I m i g h t venture at this p o i n t t o m e n t i o n an o p i n i o n o f
m i n e t h a t I c a n n o t prove b u t t h a t seems w i t h every passing year t o have
m o r e a n d m o r e t o be said f o r i t . T h e example o f H o r a p o l l o n a n d his
b r e t h r e n suggests t h a t the l i v i n g p o l y t h e i s m o f late antique E g y p t was
r o o t e d i n the o l d E g y p t i a n cults. By contrast, wherever p u r e l y classical
Greek p a g a n i s m t u r n s u p i n literature o r a r t ( A p o l l o , D i o n y s o s , H e r a kles, Zeus, a n d so o n ) , i t appears t o be an elegant or erudite pleasure of
C h r i s t i a n s . I t h i n k o f the marvelous f o u r t h - c e n t u r y D i o n y s o s t e x t i l e at
the A b e g g Stiftung f r o m a C h r i s t i a n b u r i a l ,
of N o n n o s i n the fifth c e n t u r y ,

18

1 7

p r o b a b l y the

Dionysiaca

a n d above a l l the Greek poems o f

D i o s k o r o s o f A p h r o d i t o i n the s i x t h c e n t u r y .

19

Genuine p o l y t h e i s m i n

Bowersock

late antique E g y p t , as opposed t o aesthetic p o l y t h e i s m , was f u n d a m e n

tally Egyptian.
A l e x a n d r i a ' s aspirations i n the h i e r a r c h y of the C h u r c h were
dealt a severe, i f n o t t e r m i n a l , b l o w by the C o u n c i l of C h a l c e d o n i n 4 5 1 ,
w h e n the A l e x a n d r i a n p a t r i a r c h D i o s k o r o s was defeated i n his a t t e m p t
t o ensure the a u t h o r i t y of M o n o p h y s i t e d o c t r i n e . U n t i l t h a t m o m e n t the
A l e x a n d r i a n s h a d dared t o hope t h a t , at least i n the c o m m u n i t y o f the
C h u r c h , A l e x a n d r i a c o u l d be a r i v a l c a p i t a l t o C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ; b u t , w i t h
the v i c t o r y of the C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n d o c t r i n e at C h a l c e d o n i n 4 5 1 ,
A l e x a n d r i a c o u l d n o longer hope f o r preeminence. H o s t i l i t y t o C o n s t a n
t i n o p l e g r e w over the years t h a t f o l l o w e d . T h e r i v a l r y o f the t w o cities
as centers o f overseas Greek c u l t u r e never altogether d i e d , a n d this, t o
a substantial degree, explains Cavafy's fascination w i t h late antique
Alexandria.

20

T h e m o s t valuable descriptions of A l e x a n d r i a i n the postC h a l c e d o n i a n p e r i o d are the Syriac Life

Scholasticus a n d the Greek Life

of Isidore

of Severus by Zacharias
by Damascius. I n b o t h o f

these precious biographies we can see a c i t y t h a t is still i n t e l l e c t u a l l y ex

c i t i n g i n the pagan a n d C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s alike. I t is a c i t y f u l l of
churches a n d even u r b a n monasteries. A c c o r d i n g t o the Life

of

Severus,

Greek a n d L a t i n were b o t h t a u g h t i n A l e x a n d r i a , a n d m a n y of the great

polytheist teachers lectured, l i k e H y p a t i a , t o Christians as w e l l as pa
gans. H o r a p o l l o n is m e n t i o n e d by name, as is Isidore. O t h e r s , such as
H e r a i s k o s a n d A s k l e p i o d o t o s , w h o are also k n o w n f r o m other sources
( i n c l u d i n g e p i g r a p h i c a l ones), are n a m e d a m o n g the leading teachers of
the late fifth c e n t u r y .

21

D u r i n g his student days i n A l e x a n d r i a , Severus

w e n t o n an e x p e d i t i o n t o the o u t s k i r t s o f the c i t y t o i n t i m i d a t e a n d
f o r c i b l y d i s r u p t a pagan c o m m u n i t y . Zacharias described this ungener
ous m i s s i o n i n d e t a i l . We hear o f the h i e r o g l y p h i c i n s c r i p t i o n s o n the
w a l l s o f the house o f the pagans a n d o f the i n t e r i o r w a l l t h a t was b u i l t
u p t o conceal the idols. T h e C h r i s t i a n m i l i t a n t s b r o k e i n t o the h i d i n g
place o f the pagan gods a n d discovered b o t h the idols themselvesim
ages of E g y p t i a n deities, n o t Greek onesand an altar covered w i t h
b l o o d . I n an excess o f pious zeal, Severus a n d his friends destroyed v i r
t u a l l y a l l these objects a n d d i d their best t o convert the pagans o f the
village as w e l l as t o p r o p u p the w a v e r i n g sentiments o f those C h r i s
tians w h o h a d some l i n g e r i n g belief i n the p o w e r o f idols. O n Easter
Sunday m o r n i n g
all the people of Alexandria at the time of mass were made to
hear thousands of imprecations against H o r a p o l l o n . A n d they
cried out that he should no longer be called H o r a p o l l o n but
Psychapollon"he w h o destroys souls" . . . the patriarch of
G o d made k n o w n to everybody i n his sermon the description of

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INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

the idols that we had taken out, w h a t they were made of, and
their number. As a result the people were inflamed and brought
together all the idols of pagan gods, wherever they could be
f o u n d i n the baths or i n the housesand they put them on a
pile and set fire to them.
B u t the Christians o f A l e x a n d r i a were n o t a l l destructive b u l
lies. Indeed i t is n o t altogether clear w h e t h e r raids o f the k i n d described
i n the Life

of Severus were m u c h m o r e t h a n student h i g h j i n k s . T h e c i t y

i n the late antique p e r i o d is p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l k n o w n f o r its C h r i s t i a n

c h u r c h w o r k e r s (perhaps social w o r k e r s ) called philoponoi.

T h e y appear

several times i n Syriac t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n i n the Life of Severus.

22

T h e y are

perhaps best k n o w n t h r o u g h the name attached t o one o f A l e x a n d r i a ' s

m o s t distinguished late antique philosophers, J o h n P h i l o p o n o s , whose
extensive commentaries o n Plato a n d A r i s t o t l e have o n l y recently begun
t o receive the detailed a t t e n t i o n they deserve. T h e u n i o n o f service a n d
h i g h i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n i n J o h n P h i l o p o n o s may w e l l reflect a recog
n i t i o n o n the p a r t o f the patriarchate o f A l e x a n d r i a t h a t M o n o p h y s i t e s
m i g h t as w e l l give u p aspirations t o universal a u t h o r i t y a n d concentrate
o n w o r k at h o m e .
I n any case, the future o f E g y p t i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y n o longer lay
i n A l e x a n d r i a b u t i n the countryside a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y farther s o u t h i n
the y o u n g c h u r c h o f the C o p t s , f o u n d e d by the great Shenoute t w o cen
turies before. M o n o p h y s i t e h o s t i l i t y t o C o n s t a n t i n o p l e also meant t h a t
Christians o f this persuasion were m o r e i n c l i n e d t o s u p p o r t the enemies
of the Byzantine emperors. I n A l e x a n d r i a t h a t meant the A r a b s . T h e
best c h r o n i c l e t h a t we possess o n the final century o f Greek A l e x a n d r i a ,
the era o f P h i l o p o n o s , is the account o f J o h n o f N i k i o u , k n o w n t o us
o n l y t h r o u g h an E t h i o p i c t r a n s l a t i o n of an A r a b i c t r a n s l a t i o n of his
o r i g i n a l t e x t . B u t even at such a distance his narrative gives us a v i v i d
glimpse i n t o the still r i c h Greek c u l t u r e o f A l e x a n d r i a o n the eve o f the
A r a b conquest.
W h e n the t e x t o f J o h n o f N i k i o u was first p u b l i s h e d , i n 1 8 8 3 ,
its greatest r e v e l a t i o n was the p r i m a r y role t h a t the A l e x a n d r i a n s played
i n the o v e r t h r o w o f Phokas a n d the elevation of H e r a k l i o s i n the years
609 a n d 6 1 0 .

2 3

N o one w o u l d have credited o r h a d credited A l e x a n d r i a

w i t h so i m p o r t a n t a r o l e , a n d the circus factions i n s u p p o r t o f the c h a r i

oteersthe so-called Greens a n d Bluesare e x p l i c i t l y associated w i t h
the o v e r t h r o w o f Phokas. As A l a n C a m e r o n recognized i n his study o f
the factions i n the early Byzantine p e r i o d ,

2 4

the A l e x a n d r i a n Greens a n d

Blues were m a j o r players, b u t together a n d n o t i n o p p o s i t i o n t o one an

other. B o t h s u p p o r t e d Nicetas, the l o c a l sponsor o f H e r a k l i o s . T h a t
factions i n the eastern cities occasionally played a p o l i t i c a l role was i n
evitable: they were organized, r o w d y , a n d experienced i n r i o t s . B u t they

Bowersock

h a d n o p l a t f o r m a n d n o fixed p o l i t i c a l positions. T h e case o f A l e x a n d r i a

as s h o w n by J o h n of N i k i o u p r o v e d t o be one of the m o s t instructive
examples for the w h o l e o f late a n t i q u i t y .
T h i s has t o be said because the excellent p u b l i c a t i o n of
graffiti f r o m the theater at A l e x a n d r i a by the Polish scholar Z b i g n i e w
B o r k o w s k i i n c l u d e d a v a l i a n t t h o u g h u l t i m a t e l y unsuccessful a t t e m p t t o
i n t e r p r e t inscriptions o f the Greens a n d the Blues i n terms of p o l i t i c a l d i
visions w i t h i n the c i t y of A l e x a n d r i a .

25

O v e r a l l , of course, we have rea

son t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y grateful for the Polish excavations at A l e x a n d r i a

n o t o n l y for the theater texts o f the Greens a n d the Blues b u t for the
o n l y physical evidence t h a t we have o f the late antique c i t y : the theater
itself, some baths, p a r t of the necropolis, a n d some residential quarters.
For the years f o l l o w i n g the accession of H e r a k l i o s , the Life
Almoner,

of John

the

w h o was p a t r i a r c h at the t i m e , affords precious glimpses i n t o

the c i t y precisely where even the t e x t o f J o h n o f N i k i o u fails us because

of a lacuna. T h e already m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n was substantially enlarged by
the a r r i v a l o f refugees f r o m Syria a n d Palestine fleeing the Persian i n
vaders.

26

T h e safe haven they f o u n d lasted o n l y a short t i m e .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y n o circus factions or r i o t i n g students c o u l d

stem the tide w h e n the A r a b s came i n 6 4 2 . T h e e x t a n t t e x t of J o h n o f

N i k i o u gives the w h o l e story a n d blames the fall o f A l e x a n d r i a o n the
failure o f the C h u r c h t o espouse the M o n o p h y s i t e cause. A c c o r d i n g t o
J o h n , " a l l these things fell o u t because they d i v i d e d C h r i s t i n t o t w o na
tures." For the c h r o n i c l e r the supporters o f C h a l c e d o n i a n i s m were n a t u
r a l l y w e a k o f s p i r i t , a n d i t was n o surprise t o h i m t h a t m a n y p r o m p t l y
converted t o I s l a m :
N o w many of the Egyptians w h o had been false Christians de
nied the holy o r t h o d o x faith and life-giving baptism and em
braced the religion of the M o s l e m , the enemies of G o d , and
accepted the detestable doctrine of the beast. . . . One of them,
named John the Chalcedonian of the Convent of Sinai, embraced
the faith of Islam, and, quitting his monk's habit, he t o o k up the
sword and persecuted the Christians w h o were faithful to O u r
L o r d Jesus C h r i s t .

27

F r o m a C h a l c e d o n i a n a n d C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n perspective the
c o n t i n u i n g a n i m o s i t y of M o n o p h y s i t e A l e x a n d r i a t o the central govern
m e n t h a d played i n t o the conqueror's hands. I n any case, the A r a b c o n
q u e s t w h a t Cavafy called "the p o w e r f u l A r a b i s m " a b r u p t l y h a l t e d
t h a t c o m p l e x c u l t u r e , e m b r a c i n g b o t h Greek a n d E g y p t i a n t r a d i t i o n s ,
t h a t h a d been the g l o r y of A l e x a n d r i a even i n its darkest days at the end
of the t h i r d century. Cavafy h i m s e l f is the best p r o o f t h a t i t never dis
appeared altogether. Late a n t i q u i t y h a d seen a n e w v i t a l i t y at A l e x a n d r i a
t h r o u g h its patriarchs, its N e o p l a t o n i s t a n d C h r i s t i a n philosophers, its

269

270

CONTINUING

INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

o l d E g y p t i a n p o l y t h e i s t cults t h a t refused t o die, a n d its t w o great circus

factions. A l e x a n d r i a n life reached a k i n d o f fever p i t c h t h a t made the
c i t y u n i q u e i n the Byzantine w o r l d . Its p r o u d independence a n d fierce
r i v a l r y w i t h the g o v e r n m e n t i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e were p a r a d o x i c a l l y t o
be its u n d o i n g .
I n another p o e m , Cavafy described the i m p a c t o f the A r a b
conquest f r o m a Greek perspective i n a m o v i n g p o e m n a m e d f o r a fic
t i o n a l character called A e m i l i a n u s M o n a i .

2 8

I n the t i t l e Cavafy e q u i p p e d

his " A e m i l i a n u s M o n a i , an A l e x a n d r i a n , " w i t h dates f o r b i r t h a n d death,

" A . D . 6 2 8 - 6 5 5 . " I n other w o r d s , M o n a i was b o r n i n the final years o f
the Greek c i t y a n d died a l i t t l e over a decade after the A r a b s a r r i v e d .
T h i s y o u n g Greek is the speaker as the p o e m begins. H e says t h a t he w i l l
c o n s t r u c t a s p l e n d i d suit o f a r m o r f o r himself, a suit of a r m o r composed
of " w o r d s , appearance, a n d m a n n e r s " (jme Xoyca, /ne ^vaioyviOfiCa,
rpoirovs).

/ue

W i t h these he w i l l be able t o h o l d o u t against evil m e n . These

were the c o m p o n e n t s o f Greek c u l t u r e , as Cavafy u n d e r s t o o d i t . B u t

they h a r d l y sufficed against an e x t e r n a l invader. T h e p o e m ends w i t h
the y o u n g A e m i l i a n u s M o n a i d y i n g i n Sicily at the age of twenty-seven.
H e left his city, p r e s u m a b l y i n 6 4 2 w h e n the A r a b s came. T h e poet
asks himself,
I wonder i f he ever used this suit of armor;
in any case, he didn't wear i t for l o n g .

29

Institute for Advanced Study

P R I N C E T O N ,

N E W

J E R S E Y

Bowersock

Notes

mance t o Rhetoric: T h e Alexandrian L i b r a r y i n

R . L a v a g n i n i , " S e i t e n u o v e poesie b i z a n t i n e d i
C o s t a n t i n o K a v a f l s , " Rivista

di studi

Classical a n d Islamic T r a d i t i o n s , "

Historical

25 (1988): 2 1 7 - 8 1 , f o r t h e p r e s e n t

neoellenici

t e x t 2 7 6 - 7 7 :
I

bizantini

'

D e l i a ( t h i s n o t e ) : 1458 n o t e 38, says t h a t A m -

m i a n u s , at 22.16.13, " c o n f u s e d m a i n a n d Sera-

" .

p e u m l i b r a r i e s . " N o t necessarily: t h e t e x t is

t r o u b l e d here, b u t the p l u r a l

Strabo 17.1. 6 - , 7 9

D i o P r u s . Orat.

I -

bybliothecae

is n o t i n d o u b t , n o r t h a t these l i b r a r i e s

fuerunt
2

American

97 (1992): 1 4 4 9 - 1 4 6 7 .

Review

w e r e in t h e S e r a p e i o n (in quo). T h e n u m e r a l

5 C

duo i s , h o w e v e r , i n d o u b t .
The Roman

32, o n w h i c h see C . P. Jones,

World

of Dio Chrysostom

13

(Cam

A m m . M a r c . 22.16.17-18.

b r i d g e , M a s s . 1978), p p . 3 6 - 4 4 . See m o s t r e
14

cently H . Sidebottom, " T h e Date o f D i o o f

Historia

F o r t h e d a t e , see n o w t h e f u l l d i s c u s s i o n b y
T . D . B a r n e s i n h i s r e v i e w o f J. F. M a t t h e w s ' s

Prusa's R h o d i a n a n d A l e x a n d r i a n O r a t i o n s , "
41 (1992): 4 0 7 - 1 9 ( f o r a T r a j a n i c

w o r k o n A m m i a n u s , Classical

(1993): 6 1 - 6 2 . A s a r e s u l t o f Barnes's a r g u

and the ' M o b ' : D i o Chrysostom a n d the W o r l d

m e n t s , I w i t h d r a w m y e a r l i e r s u p p o r t f o r 392.

o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s , " Historia

42 (1993): 8 2 -

103 ( f o r a V e s p a s i a n i c d a t e a n d d e p r e c i a t i n g t h e

15

value o f Dio's testimony).

F o r a recent account, pending the f o r t h c o m i n g

b o o k o n H y p a t i a b y M a r i a D z i e l s k a , see
P. C h u v i n , A Chronicle

4
5

88

Philology

date), a n d W . D . Barry, "Aristocrats, O r a t o r s ,

P h i l o in Flaccurn

8 5.

A s n o t e d i n G . W . B o w e r s o c k , Greek
ists in the Roman

of the Last

Pagans

( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . 1990), p p . 8 5 - 9 0 .
Soph

16

( O x f o r d 1969),

Empire

C f . G . W . B o w e r s o c k , Hellenism

in Late

An

( A n n A r b o r a n d C a m b r i d g e 1990),

tiquity

pp. 20-21.

p p . 6 0 - 6 1 . S t i l l i m p o r t a n t is J. M a s p e r o ,

O n t h e P l a t o n i s m o f C l e m e n t a n d O r i g e n , see

Bulletin

H . C h a d w i c k , Early

orientale

" H o r a p o l l o n et l a f i n d u p a g a n i s m e e g y p t i e n , "
6

Classical

Christian

Thought

and the

de Caire

frangais

d'archeologie

11 (1914): 1 6 4 - 9 5 .

( O x f o r d 1966), p p . 3 1 - 9 4 .

Tradition

F o r A m m o n i u s Saccas, see J. M . D i l l o n , The

Middle

de ITnstitut

17

( L o n d o n 1977), p p . 3 8 0 - 8 3 .

Platonists

D . Willers, "Dionysos u n d Christusein

archaologisches Zeugnis zur 'Konfessionsangeh o r i g k e i t ' des N o n n o s , " Museum

Cassius D i o 7 8 . 2 2 - 2 3 ; H e r o d i a n 4 . 9 . 4 - 8 ;
Historia
Chron.

Augusta,

6.2-3; Malalas

Carac.

4.590.

18

P. C h u v i n , " N o n n o s de P a n o p o l i s e n t r e p a g a
n i s m e et c h r i s t i a n i s m e , " Bulletin

A m m . M a r c . 2.2.16.15. C f . Scriptores
Augustae,

Quadriga

M a l a l a s Chron.

Historiae

tion

3.1.

4.601; J o h n o f N i k i o u 77.1-6

19

Bude

L . M a c C o u l l , Dioscorus
Work

K . P. K a v a f i s ,

Guillaume

de

VAssocia

45 (1986): 3 8 7 - 9 6 , a n d

also W i l l e r s ( n o t e 17 a b o v e ) .

(Charles).
10

Helveticum

49 (1992.): 4 - 5

(1919-1933),

ed.

20

G . P. Savidis ( A t h e n s 1991), p p . 3 4 - 3 5 . T h e

and His World

of Aphrodito:

His

( B e r k e l e y 1988).

A t t h e age o f n i n e t e e n , o n 23 J u n e 1882, C a v a f y
w e n t t o Constantinople w i t h his mother twelve

lines q u o t e d c o m e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

days after t h e s o - c a l l e d " m a s s a c r e o f t h e C h r i s

p o e m : "

t i a n s " at A l e x a n d r i a . C a v a f y b e g a n a n E n g l i s h -

Svd

"

l a n g u a g e d i a r y e n t i t l e d Constantinopoliad

Epic,

an

w h i c h w i l l be e d i t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d b y

Diana Haas.

I I

A m m . M a r c . 22.16.7.

21

Z a c h . Vit. Seven,

12

I b i d . , 22.16.7 12. C f . D . D e l i a , " F r o m R o -

22

E . g . , Z a c h . Vit. Seven,

p p . 1 6 a n d 22 ( K u g e n e r ) .
p . 12 ( K u g e n e r ) , pyl-

271

272

CONTINUING

INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

pwnw.

A l s o n o t e p . 2 6 : tgm'

pwnw

[sic] (the rdy/na

hw dmtqr'

dpylw-

c a l l e d [ray/ma]

o f the

<f)L\6irovoL).

23

See R . H . C h a r l e s , The
690 A.D.),

Coptic

Chronicle

Bishop

of John

(c.

(London

ofNikiu

1916), p. iv.
24

A . C a m e r o n , Circus
at Rome

25

and

Factions:

Z . B o r k o w s k i , Alexandrie,
des factions

Blues

(Oxford

Byzantium

and

Greens

1976).

v o l . 2,

Inscriptions

(Warsaw 1981), pp.

a Alexandrie

5 9 - 7 0 . B o r k o w s k i ' s case d e p e n d s l a r g e l y o n his

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f his t e x t n o . 39 ( s h o w i n g t o t a l
v i c t o r y o f the Greens over the Blues). T h e w o r d
[sic] is a p p l i e d t o t h e G r e e n s , a n d

yevvecoraTcov

B o r k o w s k i believes t h a t t h e use o f
f o r fortissimus

yevvaLOTaros

i n p a p y r i proves that a m i l i t a r y

a c t i o n is r e c o r d e d h e r e .
26

L e o n t i u s o f N e a p o l i s , Life

of John

the

Almoner

de

Chypre,

6 . 1 - 2 ( A . J. F e s t u g i e r e , Vie de Jean
'E7ri

dit I'Aumdnier):
61 Wepaai

awv,
TTJV

TrXr/Bovs

TCOV

^kXegavSpeiav

Tpocjycbv

COLS

TCOV

Uep-

KaTaXa/jL^avovroq

Kal aTevcocrecos
TOV TToraphv

KOI
Tov

e/c

(frevyovrcov

cbs TJSTJ TrpoXiXeKrai,

rod JULT) dveXBelv

rod iv ay

alx/JMXdiTevcrav
with 11.8-12,

iTrpeSevaavXvpCav,
d/wBr/Tov

TOVTOV

dveXOopreg

TTOXXT)<;

Kara

avvr/Beiav

yevopevrjg.

27

John of N i k i o u 1 2 1 . 1 0 - 1 1 (Charles).

28

K . P. K a v a f i s , T\oi7)iona

(1897-1918),

G . P. S a v i d i s , e d . ( A t h e n s 1 9 9 1 ) , p . 8 4 .
29

L o c . c i t . , lines 1 1 - 1 2 : 'Ev Traajj

8ev <f)6pcre
XtKcXCa

TTOXV.

ireBave.

WLKOCTL

kirra

irepiirrcjo-eL,
xpovtb,

arr/v

273

Medieval Alexandria: Some Evidence from the

Cairo Genizah Documents
Abraham

L.

Udovitch

A m o n g historians of a generation ago, the r e p u t a t i o n of A l e x a n d r i a

i n the early Islamic p e r i o d h a d fallen o n h a r d times. By c o m p a r i s o n t o
its dazzling brilliance d u r i n g the Hellenistic a n d R o m a n periods, t o
its t u r m o i l a n d v i t a l i t y i n the early Byzantine era, a n d t o its c o m m e r
c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l resurgence i n the nineteenth a n d early t w e n t i e t h cen
turies, A l e x a n d r i a i n the h i g h M i d d l e Ages seemed l i k e a sleepy t o w n
indeed. A number o f E g y p t i a n historians w r i t i n g d u r i n g the past t w e n t y
years or soone m i g h t call t h e m A l e x a n d r i a n " p a t r i o t s " h a v e v a l
i a n t l y t r i e d t o restore t o medieval Islamic A l e x a n d r i a a m o d i c u m o f its
f o r m e r (departed?) glory. I a m t h i n k i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r of such estimable
historians o f medieval Islamic Egypt as A b d a l - A z i z Salim a n d Jamal
c

a l - D i n al-Shayyal.

I n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o his 1967 b o o k entitled (in A r a b i c ) The

History

of the City of Alexandria

during

the Islamic

Era, Shayyal p r o

tests against those scholars w h o p o i n t t o A l e x a n d r i a ' s Islamic p e r i o d

o n l y t o "demean its i m p o r t a n c e a n d unjustly characterize i t as an era o f
decline, backwardness, a n d evanescence," a n d he asserts quite e x p l i c i t l y
a n d w i t h o u t apologies that the purpose of his study is t o re-establish
the city's r e p u t a t i o n d u r i n g these medieval Islamic centuries. Yet even
Shayyal is perplexed by certain a n o m a l o u s features concerning A l e x a n
dria's medieval past. H o w is i t , he asks, that "the A r a b s d i d n o t compose
any special h i s t o r y for this i m p o r t a n t border o u t p o s t [thaghr]

d u r i n g the

Islamic period? . . . w h i l e [at the same t i m e ] they d i d n o t leave any of

their cities, large or s m a l l , w i t h o u t its o w n c h r o n i c l e . "

For a variety of c u l t u r a l a n d religious reasons, l o c a l histories

celebrating the m o n u m e n t s , climate, scholars, h o l y m e n , a n d other n o
tables of a t o w n , city, or r e g i o n p r o l i f e r a t e d i n the medieval Islamic c o n
t e x t . I d e n t i f y i n g w i t h the accomplishments of l o c a l scholars a n d saints
was one o f the ways the very l o c a l , i n d i v i d u a l believer c o u l d bridge the
gap between himself a n d G o d . N o t o n l y were such m a j o r centers as
Baghdad, Damascus, A l e p p o , a n d Q a y r a w a n the subject o f one or sev
eral local histories, b u t the same was true for d i s t i n c t l y m i n o r t o w n s
such as Qus or T i n n i s . Consequently, i t is surprising indeed that no l o
3

cal h i s t o r y o f medieval A l e x a n d r i a , n o r any significant b i o g r a p h i c a l c o m -

274

CONTINUING

INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

pilation of its scholars and notables, has come down to us. ShayyaTs ex
tensive search in medieval Arab bibliographic sources (for example, Ibn
Nadim's Fibrist

and Hajji Khalifa's Kashf

al-zunun)

yielded only a single

reference to a fourteenth-century local history, now apparently lost, and

mention of a few short treatises of the fada'il

category, praising the city's

merits and virtues.

While it may have had no exclusive local history of its own,
Alexandria was by no means neglected or forgotten by medieval writers.
Considerable information about the city is to be found in chronicles,
geographic literature, and other contemporary literary and, as we shall
see, documentary sources. We have no extant local histories, however,
nor any of the usual collections of biographies of local scholars, notables,
and holy men. Is it possible that medieval Alexandrians and their Egyp
tian contemporaries viewed the city somewhat differently from other
urban agglomerations?
In what follows, I do not pretend to offer any definitive an
swers or explanations to this enigma. I do believe, however, that focus
ing on medieval Alexandria's incontestable status as Egypt's second

city,

subsidiary to Cairo i n almost every significant respect, may help us un

derstand some apparent anomalies concerning its history during the Is
lamic period. I propose, therefore, first, to explore some of the structural
changes brought about by the advent of a new Islamic political and cul
tural system that placed Alexandria in a strategically subordinate posi
tion vis-a-vis its inland rival; and, second, to examine some new evidence
for the eleventh and twelfth centuries garnered from the documents of
the genizah i n Cairo concerning Alexandria's very distinctly subsidiary
role in economic and commercial matters.
In its transition from the late antique and Byzantine spheres
to that of Islam, Alexandria's geographic position did not change in any
way. Its natural advantages in terms of its harbor, its location, and its
relationship to other important Mediterranean ports remained as favor
able as they were when the city was first established at its site in 3 3 2 B . C .
What did change radically was Alexandria's relationship to the center of
political and military power in Egypt and in the region. Since its incep
tion, Alexandria served, in one manner or another, as a capital city, ei
ther of an empire or of a region, or, at the very least of a country and/or
major province, that is, Egypt. W i t h the advent of the Arab conquests,
Alexandria's situation changed in almost every respect. It was displaced
as a political and military focal point, and its importance as a regional
center of religious power and administration declined considerably.
A similar statement can be made about its role in Mediterranean com
merce, which, even i f it did not completely disappear as claimed by Henri
Pirenne in his famous thesis, certainly entered a phase of contraction
during the seventh and eighth centuries.

U dovitch

Alexandria's changed and relatively diminished position fol

lowing the Arab conquests was not peculiar to that city alone but was
a fate shared w i t h most pre-Islamic coastal towns of the eastern and
southern Mediterranean. A n examination of the distribution of urban
centers in the Middle East during the Middle Ages reveals a rather strik
ing fact: no major political or administrative center was located on the
seacoast. Furthermore, even though there were numerous Islamic coastal
towns of some economic and commercial importance, the major entre
pots of trade and economic life were invariably located some distance
inland. On the Mediterranean coastline that came under Islamic domi
nation in the seventh and eighth centuries, Antioch and Caesarea gave
way to Damascus and Ramleh; Alexandria yielded to Fustat-Cairo, and
Carthage to Qayirawan.
5

A n ambivalence and wariness w i t h regard to the sea and other

maritime matters characterized the pre-Ottoman Muslim polities of the
Mediterranean basin. The sea was a menacing frontier to the early Mus
lim rulers of the Middle East. This view of the sea and the cautious and
defensive policies that it engendered are a motif of Islamic political and
military thinking from the earliest years of the Islamic hegemony until
the advent of the Ottomans in the early sixteenth century. The few in
stances in which Islamic rulers adopted a relatively sustained, confident,
and aggressive naval policy in the Mediterranean are only the exceptions
that prove the rule. Uneasiness and anxiety about the sea derived not
from the unpredictable dangers of its winds, storms, and waves. These,
after all, were risks shared by all people, of all creeds, who went down
to the sea in ships. The threat, or perceived threat, of the sea to the me
dieval Islamic world of the Mediterranean was a "strategic" one. The sea
was the one vulnerable frontier from which Islamic control of the lands
bordering on the Mediterranean could be seriously threatened.
c

In the early years of Islam, during the reign of the caliph

Umar ( A . D . 6 3 4 - 6 4 4 ) , he reportedly recommended
that the Muslims be kept away from seafaring. [And, indeed,] no
Arab travelled by sea except those who did so without Umar's
knowledge or they were punished by him for it. Umar thus pun
ished 'Afrajah ibn Harthamah al-Azdi, the chief of the Bajilah
[tribe]. He sent him on a raid against Oman, and he learned
[later] that he had raided it by sea. He disapproved of his having
made the raid by sea, and told him so in no uncertain terms.
c

Urnar refused repeated requests by the future caliph M u a w i yah, at that time his military commander in Syria, for permission to raid
the island of Cyprus. In his futile attempt to persuade the caliph Umar,
Mu awiyah maintained that the Byzantine-held outposts on Cyprus were
so close to the Muslim-held Syrian coast that the Muslims could hear
c

275

276

CONTINUING

INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

"the barking of the dogs of the Christians." Our sources abound w i t h

many other instances of the caliph Umar's displeasure and distress at
c

any attempt of Arab tribal warriors to traverse large bodies of water in

pursuit of their conquests. Ibn Khaldun attributes Umar's policy to his
c

recognition of the fact that "the Arabs were not skilled in navigation and
seafaring," skills that their adversaries at that timethe Byzantines and
7

European Christianspossessed to a high degree.

In subsequent centuries, the Muslims of the southern and
eastern coasts of the Mediterranean did indeed acquire many of the
maritime skills of their predecessors and adversaries and ventured forth,
w i t h intermittent boldness and success, onto the waters of the great
middle sea. This is exemplified by the stunning victory of the Umayyad
fleet over the Byzantine defenders of Constantinople in the Battle of the
Masts in A . D . 6 5 5 . Nevertheless, ambivalence toward the sea and naval
activity persisted. Throughout the Middle Ages, the coastal towns of
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were regarded as frontier outposts. Tyre,
Sidon, Ascalon, Damietta, and Alexandria were invariably designated by
the Arabic term thaghr (frontier fortress), the identical term used to des
ignate the march areas of raids and counterraids on the shifting borders
separating Islam from Christendom. Crete, Cyprus, Sicily, and other
Mediterranean islands held by the Muslims were similarly called althughur

al-jazariyya

(island frontier fortresses). Even at such points as

Alexandria and Damietta, where the Mediterranean coastline for hun

dreds of miles in either direction had been firmly under Muslim control
for many centuries, the hostile and threatening area was perceived as
beginning at land's end.
The naval efforts of successive Muslim states bordering on the
Mediterranean were sporadic in character. For long periods there was no
permanent navy or fleet. Throughout the medieval period, the coasts of
8

Syria, Egypt, and N o r t h Africa not only were vulnerable but were actu
ally attacked frequently by Christian raiding parties. Muslim policy was
reactive. Flurries of naval activity, as occurred in Egypt, for example,
during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil ( 8 4 7 - 8 6 1 ) or
c

under the early Fatimids ( 9 6 9 - 1 1 8 7 ) , alternated w i t h long periods of

quiescence. The successful role of naval power in bolstering the Cru
9

sader presence in the Levant for approximately two centuries not only
reinforced Muslim wariness of the sea but gave rise in the eastern Medi
terranean to a distinct aversion on the part of Muslim powers to naval
confrontations. Beginning w i t h Saladin in the late twelfth century and
culminating in the period of Mamluk rule (ca. 1 2 5 0 - 1 5 1 7 ) , the attitude
of indifference toward the sea turned into one that David Ayalon has
aptly characterized as "decidedly negative." Indeed, the Mamluks em
barked upon a systematic policy of destroying the fortifications of the
cities and towns of the Syro-Palestinian coast, thereby denying to any

Udovitch

potential enemy a coastal foothold from which he might then penetrate

inland and threaten the very foundations of their power. Ports and
coastal towns of Egypt were not as severely affected by this policy as
those on the Syrian coast.

10

In a section of his Muqaddima

devoted to the requirements

for town planning, Ibn Khaldun offers the following advice and analysis:
In connection with coastal towns situated on the sea, one must
see to it that they are situated on a mountain or amidst a people
sufficiently numerous to come to the support of the town when
an enemy attacks it. The reason for this is that a town that is
near the sea but does not have within its area tribes who share
its group feeling, or is not situated in rugged mountain territory,
is in danger of being attacked at night by surprise. Its enemies
can easily attack it with a fleet and do harm to it. They can be
sure that the city has no one to call to its support and that the
urban population, accustomed to tranquility, has become depen
dent on others for its protection and does not know how to
fight. Among cities of this type, for instance, are Alexandria
in the East, and Tripoli, Bone, and Sale in the West. . . . Alexan
dria was designated a "border city" (tbaghr) by the Abbasids,
c

although the Abbasid sway extended beyond Alexandria to

c

Barqah (in Libya) and Ifriqiyya (Tunisia). The designation of

Alexandria as a "border city" expressed Abbasid fears that at
c

tacks against Alexandria could be made from the sea. Such fears
were justified in the case of Alexandria because of its exposed sit
uation. This situation was probably the reason why Alexandria
and Tripoli were attacked by the enemy in Islamic times on nu
merous occasions.

11

In this passage Ibn Khaldun expresses an insight distilled from the me

dieval Islamic experience, to w i t , that the sea and its coastline were to
tally dependent on the hinterland for their safety and protection. This
strategic reality had profound military, naval, and political implications;
it also affected the pattern and organization of trade, especially in the
eleventh and later centuries, when international commerce across the
Mediterranean was in a period of full expansion. Militarily it meant that
in Fatimid Egypt, for example, Cairo rather than Alexandria would serve
as the primary naval base for warships. Similarly, in the commercial
sphere, it was Fustat-Cairo rather than Alexandria that served as the
focal point of an extensive network of Mediterranean exchange, even
though Alexandria was the port through which most of the merchandise
constituting this trade was carried.

12

H o w did Alexandria's peripheral political and commercial

status affect the city's life and institutions? For the eleventh through

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thirteenth century the documents of the genizah in Cairo offer us some

original and unmediated insights into this question. These documents
were found i n an abandoned storage room of an ancient synagogue in
Old Cairo (Fustat), stored there together w i t h tens of thousands of nolonger-usable fragments of religious and ritual texts. According to Jew
ish custom, these were intended for interment in the hallowed ground of
an adjacent cemetery. For reasons unknown, the discarded papers were
left to accumulate above ground for a period of over eight centuries. The
bulk of the documentary material, such as letters, contracts, and court
records, dates from the eleventh through thirteenth century. Most were
written i n Judaeo-Arabic, that is, the Arabic language expressed in He
brew characters. In addition to specifically religious material, this trove
contains voluminous and uniquely valuable material bearing on social,
economic, and other aspects of what we might term "secular" life. A l
though the letters derive from a Jewish milieu, the practices and reality
they mirror were those of the general society in which these Jewish mer
chants lived and worked. Numerically, the largest component of this
latter category of documentary material consists of business letters
exchanged between merchants and others involved in the expanding
Mediterranean trade of the times as well as the commerce between the
Mediterranean world and the lands bordering the Indian Ocean. Their
geographic provenance includes numerous ports and inland towns ex
tending all the way from Spain to India. A n inordinately large propor
tion of these letters, perhaps as much as twenty percent, passed between
Alexandria and Fustat.
In discussing Egyptian urban life in the high Middle Ages,
S. D . Goitein has written that "the unmistakable testimony of hundreds
of Geniza letters proves that Fustat, the inland city, was also the com
mercial and financial capital of the country on which Alexandria, the
originally Greek maritime town, was economically dependent in every
respect." W i t h the exception of its important port facilities, the image
of Alexandria emerging from this voluminous correspondence is that of
a very provincial town. In administrative and technical matters relating
to trade and exchange, Alexandria depended on Fustat.
13

Fustat was Egypt's money market and banking center. For

eign currency, even from regions w i t h which Alexandria had maritime
ties, was available primarily i n Fustat. When they were i n need of such
currencies, Alexandrians had to look to Fustat for their supplies, and
when they had such currencies in their possession, they were obliged to
send them to Fustat to exchange them for coins that were accepted and
legal tender in Egypt. Typical in this respect is a passage from a letter
sent from Alexandria to Fustat in or around 1050: " I sent you two
purses containing 205 Nizariyya dinars, coined i n al-Mahdiyya. Kindly

Udovitch

work to exchange them into local tender and hold the money thus ob
tained until my arrival."

14

In another letter from about the same time, an Alexandrian

trader addresses his associate in Fustat as follows:
I sent you a purse with fifty dinars, which are no longer current
here in Alexandria but are excellent and first-class in Fustat.
Please exchange them for Syrian dinars, whose legends are ar
ranged in lines. These should be coins of good quality of the type
you usually procure. . . . Your commission shall be one dinar for
every hundred changed. I shall send you another purse by the
end of the holidays. Please execute the order immediately, for I
need these coins urgently.
15

Some banking and exchange activity must certainly have oc

curred in medieval Alexandria's marketplace, yet these passages and the
many others like them found in business letters sent from Alexandria
make it abundantly clear that most serious banking and financial trans
actions relating to international commerce took place in Fustat rather
than in Alexandria.
What: was true for money and finance was also true for the
major commodities on which international trade was based. Fustat was
the emporium, the entrepot of the entire region. Merchandise from all
corners of the globe was amassed and stored there and subsequently re
distributed from Fustat. Its markets were rich, well supplied, and cos
mopolitan. This was in contrast to the markets of Alexandria, which in
terms of variety were much less well furnished. Even commodities from
Mediterranean countries that were imported via Alexandria often had to
be obtained from Fustat when they became scarce in Alexandria.
In a late eleventh-century letter written from Alexandria to
Fustat, the writer tells his associate in Fustat:
Please take note that neither pepper, cinnamon, nor ginger are
available in Alexandria. If you have any of these commodities
then keep them, for the Byzantine merchants are keen solely on
them. All the Byzantine merchants are about to leave for Fustat.
They are only waiting for the arrival of two additional ships
from Constantinople.
16

This excerpt clearly illustrates that the important transactions

of international commerce took place in Fustat rather than in Alexandria.
Alexandria was a point of entry and departure for goods and people in
volved in Mediterranean commerce, but it was much less a center of dis
tribution and exchange. Also, its markets were much less well stocked
than those of Fustat in the major commodities of long-distance maritime

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trade. I n another letter from Alexandria written somewhat earlier in the

century, the addressee in Fustat is instructed to hold his date-palm fiber
until the arrival of the foreign merchants, thus confirming the relative
poverty of medieval Alexandrine markets.

17

One should definitely not infer from these examples that large
and significant commercial transactions w i t h European and other foreign
merchants never took place in Alexandria. They did, and the genizah
texts testify to many such occurrences. I n the latter half of the eleventh
century and during the twelfth century the demand emanating from Eu
rope was quite powerful, and foreign merchants coming to Egypt were
voracious in their eagerness to acquire merchandise for their home mar
kets wherever they could find goods. The commercial correspondence of
the genizah, however, leaves no doubt that, w i t h the possible exception
of raw silk, Alexandria was distinctly a secondary supply marketone
might even say, a distant secondwhen compared to Fustat-Cairo.
Prices for such staples of the trans-Mediterranean trade as
pepper, silk, and sal ammoniac were apparently higher in Alexandria
than in Fustat.

18

This would tend to confirm our contention that it was

in Fustat, to the exclusion of Alexandria, that the "wholesale," largevolume market for these goods was located.
The narrower choice of goods and their limited availability
on the Alexandrian markets extended beyond the major commodities of
Mediterranean trade. Ordinary commodities for daily life such as shoes,
certain kinds of clothing, parchment, ink, and implements of different
sorts were regularly acquired by Alexandrians in the bazaars of Fustat.
Apparently they were not available in such variety and quality in Alex
andria. A refrain in many genizah letters from Alexandria, referring to
their markets, is "Nothing is worthwhile buying here."

19

This phrase

often prefaces requests to friends in Fustat to send various supplies to

Alexandria. I n a letter from about 1060, Ibrahim b. Farah, the represen
tative of the merchants (waktl al-tujjar)

in Alexandria, ordered two

ounces of ink to be bought in Fustat "from the Persian at the gate of the
mosque."

20

Although a resident of Alexandria, Ibrahim b. Farah was a

frequent commuter between that city and Fustat and was, as this passage
indicates, intimately familiar w i t h the markets of the capital city. For
merchants like Ibrahim, Alexandria was functionally very much akin to
a suburb of Cairo.
The supply of goods Alexandrian merchants kept in stock
does not seem to have been very large. One genizah letter reports that
during a Muslim festival, no decent item of clothing was available in the
town since everything had been sold out.

21

Throughout the eleventh and for most of the twelfth cen

turies, flax was probably the single most important commodity exported
from Egypt to the West. Acquiring sufficient supplies of this commodity

Udovitch

in the Egyptian countryside where it was produced was a major pursuit

of the genizah merchants during the winter months. From October
through February they fanned out into the towns and villages of the
Delta and the Faiyum to buy raw flax in anticipation of the trading sea
son beginning in the early spring. In the context of eleventh-century
Mediterranean trade this was a crucial activity. Quite a number of letters
concerning these flax-gathering expeditions have been preserved in the
genizah, including many to and from traders who were from Alexandria.
Virtually all the flax acquired during this period of feverish activity was
destined for markets in Europe and N o r t h Africa, and many of the bales
would be shipped by sea via Alexandria. Yet, the entire endeavor was
coordinated, administered, and financed not from Alexandria but from
Fustat, and the hundreds of bales of flax purchased in the countryside
were sent first to depots in the Egyptian capital to be stored until they
were sold or reshipped via Alexandria. In the export of flax as w i t h so
many other trade commodities Fustat was the entrepot and distribution
center, and Alexandria was basically a port and transit point.
22

A somewhat similar tendency toward transience is discernible

among the Mediterranean merchants who hailed from Alexandria. We
can compile an impressive list of eleventh- and twelfth-century traders
who settled or made their permanent base in Alexandria. Yet by compar
ison to those whose base was in Fustat, the Alexandrian merchants
tended to travel and move around much more. They were what Goitein
has called "peregrinators." The center of sedentary trade and sedentary
traders was Fustat-Cairo.
For foreigners as well, Alexandria was a more transitory place
than Fustat. People from abroad stayed for shorter periods, just to do
their business and then leave. In Fustat, foreign merchants would fre
quently spend a large part of the trading season and occasionally stay
over the entire winter. The very temporary and transitory nature of the
foreign presence in eleventh- and twelfth-century Alexandria may have
contributed to the rowdiness, drinking, and similar behavior to which the
genizah documents occasionally attest. Unruliness and unrest among the
ordinary people within the Jewish community of Alexandria and among
the general Alexandrine population seem to have been characteristic.
23

One could translate Alexandria's medieval condition into

Braudellian terms by stating that during this period there was a disjunc
tion between its long-term structural ( = geographical) position and its
middle- and short-term distance from the center of political and eco
nomic power. This disjunction was bridged, at least in commerce, by a
"community of information" between the two cities. During the eleventh
and twelfth centuries the genizah documents attest to an intense ex
change of people and information.

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The commercial mail service between Alexandria and Cairo

in the latter half of the eleventh century was regular and prompt. Several
mail couriersboth Muslims and Jewsoperated on fixed schedules be
tween the two cities, thus providing an active and frequent service. Let
ters carried by the regular mail service took from four to six days to
travel from one city to a destination in the other; there was, as well, a
fay] tayyar, a "flying courier," who provided an express service, and one
special messenger is recorded as having made the round-trip between
Cairo and Alexandria within seven days.

24

In addition to the commercial

mail service, merchants availed themselves of the services of colleagues,

friends, and travelers who regularly journeyed between Cairo and Alex
andria to carry letters, news, and goods from one place to the other.
It was not only letters that were exchanged frequently. There
seems to have been an unending stream of merchants traveling back and
forth between Alexandria and Fustat. Plans for travel from one city to
the other are mentioned in almost every business letter.
The frequency of personal and epistolary communication cre
ated a community of information on a wide range of economic, commer
cial, and financial matters. This community of information, so clearly
reflected i n the genizah letters, was largely responsible for making the
commercial distance between Alexandria and Fustat significantly smaller
than the geographical distance between the two cities.
M u c h of the discussion at the conference that gave rise to the
present volume was framed by the notion of Alexandria

ad

Aegyptum:

Alexandria by Egypt. In the fields of art, culture, ideology, and religion,

we were exposed to a variety of perspectives concerning the extent to
which Hellenistic and Roman Alexandria was either by or of Egypt or,
more plausibly in my view, both by and of Egypt. W i t h the coming of
Islam in the seventh century, the notion of Alexandria

ad Aegyptum

was

radically transformed. Alexandria was designated by the Arabic term

thaghr: border or march city. This transformation entailed the slight
northward shift of Alexandria's imaginary boundary from the southern
edge of its city limitsa boundary that though porous was thought
somehow to separate and distinguish Alexandria from Egypt while still
leaving it connected to other parts of the Mediterranean worldto the
very edge of the sea. While the geographical distance covered by this
shift i n boundaries was almost negligible, the cultural and historical
distance this border shift entailed was enormous, since it reversed the
Hellenistic and Roman cultural and political topography of the city. It
erased forever the imaginary line that separated Alexandria from Egypt
while complicating its relationship to the rest of the Mediterranean. The
language of Alexandria and the language of Egypt were no longer dis
tinct but became one and the same. W i t h i n a century of the conquest of
Alexandria by the Muslims, Arabic became the dominant language of

Udovitch

the city and of the region. While in some instances Greek and Coptic
bilingualism lingered for some time, Arabic quickly achieved the status
of the common medium of exchange. W i t h a new common language
came a new shared social and intellectual culture. The religious transfor
mation progressed more slowly. It appears that it was not until sometime
in the eleventh century that a majority of Egyptians adopted Islam.
As far as we know, Alexandria was no different from the rest
of Egypt in this respect. In its diversity, in its slow movement toward islamization, it conformed to the general trends discernible in the rest of
Egypt. Thus, with the coming of Islam, Alexandria moved definitively
from being by Egypt to becoming permanently in and of Egypt. It re
mained so throughout the Middle Ages, throughout the pre-modern
period, and even throughout its fascinating cosmopolitan phase in the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. I believe that it is safe to con
clude that the change the city experienced in the seventh century was
irrevocable and that Alexandria forevermore w i l l be in and o f Egypt.
Princeton University
P R I N C E T O N ,

N E W

J E R S E Y

283

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C O N T I N U I N G

I N F L U E N C E

OF

A L E X A N D R I A

Notes

Jamal al-Din al-Shayyl, Ta'rikh madinat aliskandariyya fVasr al-islam (Alexandria 1 9 6 7 ) ;

Al-Sayyid Abd al- Aziz Slim, Ta'rikh madinat
al-iskandariyya wa-hadaratiha ft al- asr alislarni, 2 n d ed. (Cairo 1 9 6 9 ) . The books cited
here are comprehensive surveys of Alexandria's
history during the Middle Ages. Both Shayyl
and Slim have contributed many other articles
and book-length studies on the history of the
city during the early Islamic period.
c

Both quotations are from Shayyl (note 1

above), introduction, p. iii.

For a concise but highly informative survey

of local histories in the medieval period, see
F. Rosenthal, A History of Muslim Historiogra
phy, 2 n d rev. ed. (Leiden 1 9 6 8 ) , pp. 1 5 0 - 7 2 .

H . Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne

(London 1 9 5 8 ) .
See S. D. Goitein, "Cairo: An Islamic City,"
in I . M . Lapidus, ed., Middle Eastern Cities
(Berkeley 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 8 2 ; idem, A Mediterranean
Society, vol. 4 (Berkeley 1 9 8 4 ) , pp. 6 - 1 0 ;
A. L. Udovitch, "A Tale of Two Cities," in
D. Herlihy, H . A. Miskimin, and A. L. Udovitch,
eds., The Medieval City (New Haven 1 9 7 7 ) ,
pp. 1 4 4 - 4 8 ; also Al-Sayyid Abd al- Aziz Slim,
Takhtit madinat al-iskndariyya wa-'umrnih
bil- asr al-islmi (Dar al-ma rif, Lubnn 1 9 6 4 ) ,
c

Ibn Khaldn (note 6 above), pp. 2 4 8 - 4 9 . 1 have

slightly altered Rosenthal's translation in some
instances.

12

A. M . Fahmy, Muslim Naval Organization

in the Eastern Mediterranean (Cairo 1966),
pp. 4 8 - 5 0 ; S. D . Goitein, A Mediterranean So
ciety, vol. 1 (Berkeley 1 9 6 7 ) , p. 2 9 6 ; Al-Maqrizi
(note 8 above), p. 1 9 3 .

13

Goitein, A Mediterranean Society (note 5

above), p. 7 .

14

Oxford University, Bodleian Library, MS. Heb.

fol. 1 0 8 , 1 . 1 1 ; Goitein (note 1 2 above),
p. 2 3 4 .
d68,

15

Cambridge University Library, T.S. 8 J 1 8 ,

fol. 27,11. 5 - 1 0 ; Goitein (note 1 2 above),
p. 2 3 8 .

16

Goitein (note 1 2 above), p. 4 4 ; ref. is to Cam

bridge University Library, T.S. 1 2 , fol. 3 6 9 V ,
11. 9 - 1 6 .

17

Palm fiber reference is to Cambridge University

Library, T.S. 1 0 J 1 6 , fol. 2 , 1 . 1 8 .

18

For pepper, see Goitein (note 1 2 above), p. 2 2 1 ;

silk: ibid., p. 2 2 3 ; sal ammoniac: ibid., p. 2 2 9 .

19

Jewish Theological Seminary Library (New

York), ENA 1 8 2 2 , fol. 4 7 , 1 . 2 3 . This letter, dat
ing from the latter half of the eleventh century,
was sent from Alexandria to Fustat in midwin
ter by the well-known Alexandrian merchant
Isaac Nisbri; concerning him, see S. D. Goi
tein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders (Prince
ton 1 9 7 3 ) , p. 2 4 4 . Earlier in the same letter, the
writer complains of the sluggishness of the
Alexandrian markets.

20

Goitein, A Mediterranean Society (note 5

above), p. 3 4 9 n. 2 2 , referring to Cambridge
University Library, T.S. 13 J 1 7 , fol. 1 5 V , 11. 8 - 9 .

21

Goitein (note 1 2 above), p. 1 9 5 .

22

Goitein (note

23

Goitein (note 1 2 above), p. 1 7 .

24

Goitein (note

50-55-

pp.

I I

1 2 5 0 and 1 5 0 0 , many of his ideas are relevant

to earlier periods as well.

Ibn Khaldn, The Muqaddima: An Introduction

to History, vol. 2 , trans. F. Rosenthal (Princeton
1 9 7 0 ) , p.

39-

Ibid.

See, for example, the Egyptian chronicler AlMaqrizi's compact and perceptive summary of
the naval history of the Islamic world up to his
time (fifteenth century) in his Al-mawa iz walitihr bi-dhikr al-khitat wal-athr, vol. 2 (Buc

laq

9
10

A . H . 1 2 7 0 ) , pp.

189-97.

Ibid., p. 1 9 .
See D . Ayalon, "The Mamluks and Naval
PowerA Phase of the Struggle between Islam
and Christian Europe," in Proceedings of the
Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities,
vol. 1 , no. 8 ( 1 9 6 5 ) . This brief, lucid paper is a
seminal contribution to our understanding of
medieval Islamic attitudes toward naval mat
ters. Although Ayalon focuses on Egypt between

12

12

above), pp.

above), pp.

224-28.

285-90.

285

Alexandrian Culture in Modern Times:

Egyptian Identity and Cosmopolitan Aspects
Mohamed

Ghoneim

The arrival of Mohammed A l i in Alexandria in 1805 set in motion a

chain of events that would see a small, desolate townvictim of cen
turies of Ottoman neglectdevelop into a major trading city. This town,
aided and abetted by its ancient foundation and associations, was, a
century and a half later, to develop an almost mythical status as the epit
ome of Levantine cosmopolitanism. Alexandria, the ultimate polyglot,
a mixture of languages, races, and religions, has become one of the most
potent of metaphors, a symbol of cross-cultural dialogue, the focus of
nostalgia for something that, i f it ever did exist, existed in too small a
measure ever to be quantified.
This paper explores the realities behind the mythical city. I
shall examine the metropolitan development of the city from the arrival
of Mohammed A l i until the early years of the present century. I n so
doing, I hope to demonstrate both the emergence of a clear Egyptian
identity w i t h i n this most promiscuous of cities and the importance of the
dialectical relationship between the Egyptian residents of the city and
their foreign counterparts in establishing the ambience that has allowed
Alexandria to be so lionized.
Mohammed A l i , Viceroy of Egypt, intended "the gradual
modernization of (Egyptian) society along Western lines" to go hand in
hand w i t h "the Egyptianization of the life of the nation." I t was a policy
that saw Alexandria thrust into the limelight, since Alexandria was
Egypt's Mediterranean port, and no modern nation-state could emerge
in the nineteenth century without establishing trading credentials.
1

September 19, 1807, saw the evacuation of British troops

from Egypt. The first phase of superpower rivalry over Egypt was com
pleted. Napoleon's ill-fated Egyptian expedition had come to an inglori
ous endmilitarily at leastand the British had begun the process that
eventually was to establish Egypt as their province. But in the meantime,
the house of Mohammed A l i was to come into its own. He arrived in
Alexandria the day after the British evacuation, ushering in a period that
was to see the gradual erosion of Alexandria's position as a direct depen
dency of Istanbul. For centuries the Ottomans had viewed the city as
2

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little more than an extension of their own capital, much as in an earlier

period the Greeks had considered Alexandria "ad Aegyptum"

an exten

sion of their own homeland. It was the beginning of the long process of
integration whereby Alexandria, historically isolated from the rest of
Egypt, was to become the nation's second city.
The most potent symbol of that integration was perhaps the
cutting of the Mahmoudiya Canal. Alexandria was at last to be linked
w i t h its Egyptian hinterland. A n d the canal, providing a channel for
trade, an improved water supply, and the potential to increase the area
of arable land through increased irrigation, was to provide the founda
tion for the modern development of the city.

Between 1 8 1 0 and 1839 Mohammed A l i saw the fruition of

many of his plans. Alexandria's harbor was widened and deepened, the
famous shipyard established, the lighthouse constructed, and w i t h the
completion of the arsenal, the city emerged as both a military and a
naval base. As Mohammed A l i pursued his policy of establishing Egypt
as a preeminent trading nation, so the city began to attract foreign mer
chants and entrepreneurs.
When Mohammed A l i first came to Alexandria, it was a town
of seven or eight thousand inhabitants. When the viceroy died i n 1 8 4 8 ,
4

it was a city whose population exceeded a hundred thousand. This de

5

velopment was ad hoc but not an outgrowth of economic shantytowns.

Indeed, in 1845 James Augustus St. John was able to write in Nubia
Egypt

and

that Alexandria, after such hasty development, was "a residential

place without any doubt preferable to all other cities in Egypt. I n some
respects . . . it could even hold up in comparison w i t h the ports of Italy
and France."

Foreign C o m m u n i t i e s and t h e Beginnings of t h e

I M l a n i f f e s t a t i o n s off t h e C o s m o p o D i t a n S p i r i t

At the start of the French expedition to Egypt (1798 - 1 8 0 1 ) , the number

of foreigners living in Alexandria did not exceed one hundred. But by
1833, due to the favorable circumstances created by the viceroy, Alexan
dria had almost five thousand foreign inhabitants. They were attracted
7

by the preferential treatment they were accorded by the viceroy, includ

ing concessionary taxes for foreign merchants that saw them paying less
than the rates imposed on Egyptian traders.

Foreigners were encouraged to invest in the city's markets,

which became major trading venues for a vast array of commodities, and
a number of foreign consulates began to spring up in the city. By the late
18 20s Britain, Russia, Austria, Sardinia, Holland, Spain, Sweden, Tus
cany, Sicily, Denmark, Prussia, Greece, the United States of America, and
France had all established consular relations in Alexandria.

From the beginning in 1 8 0 7 to the end of his reign in 1 8 4 8 ,

G honeim

Mohammed Ali's policies toward Alexandria were geared toward the es

tablishment of an international trading center. He was careful to secure
an environment that would be hospitable to Europeans. Accordingly, all
restrictions on the freedoms of Christians were removed. Church bells
were allowed to ring out over the city, and many religious foundations
were established. As the city expanded, a commercial zone was estab
lished to the southeast of the old town containing consulates, offices,
hotels, restaurants, coffeehouses, foreign churches, and hospitals. These
ambitious urban developments more often than not were planned by
foreigners commissioned by the viceroy to oversee the development of
his modern, "European" city. Along the north-south axis of the M a h moudiya Canal foreigners were granted plots of land on which to build,
and a residential suburb was established consisting of large houses set in
spacious gardens."
10

But foreign influence was not to be restricted to the physical

appearance of the city. The influx of foreigners was to affect every sphere
of civic life: not least, the foreign communities, particularly the French,
were to leave their imprint on the education system. In addition to the
founding of elementary and secondary schools, a medical school was es
tablished, together with naval and maritime academies.
12

Alexandria's second great period of urban development oc

curred during the reign of Ismail Pasha ( 1 8 6 3 - 1 8 7 8 ) . It was the khedive
Ismail who was to announce that Egypt no longer belonged to Africa
but was a part of Europe. And certainly, to all appearances, Alexandria
was the quintessential northern Mediterranean port.
Ismail was, i f anything, more anxious to modernize than his
grandfather, Mohammed A l i . But his plans needed capital investment.
Banks began to spring up all over Alexandria, investing capital in the
city that by 1873
processing ninety-four percent of Egypt's exports.
Foreigners continued to flock into the city, and a further expansion was
necessary. The Rami suburb developed, as villas and mansions were built
in an eclectic mixture of European styles, from Baroque and Venetian
Gothic to the most austere Classicism.
w

13

As a European city, Alexandria centered on Mohammed A l i

Square (previously La Place des Consuls), officially inaugurated in i 8 6 0 ,
three years before the ascension of Ismail. To the southeast were the Ex
change Market building (destroyed by fire in 1977) and the Banco di
Roma, imposing architectural monuments to a period of mercantilist op
timism. In 1 8 7 2 a bronze statue of Mohammed A l i was erected in the
square named after him, a fitting monument to the founder of modern
Egypt, lying at the heart of the europeanized city he did so much to cre
ate. It seems somehow appropriate that the statue should be by a French
sculptor, Jacquemont.
14

Ismail, too, left his monuments, not least among them the

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Nouzha Public Gardens. It was during Ismail's reign that "the Europeans
became not only part of Alexandrian society but also partners in the mu
nicipal administration. The police force included 50 foreigners, the ma
jority of them Swiss." But it is important to remember that the real
nature of the bilateral relations between European governments and
Egypt during Ismail's reign was less geared toward mutual cooperation
than toward European economic domination. Van Bemlen, a Dutch
judge sitting on the Mixed Court of Alexandria, realized this when he
characterized such relations as being aimed solely at the implementation
of a European policy whose objective was to protect the interests of
European governments and their citizens resident in Egypt. The policy
was, he concluded, utterly selfish, since it barely took Egyptian interests
into account.
15

16

But times were changing. The emergence of the revolutionary

nationalist movement led by Orabi in 1 8 8 1 - 1 8 8 2 was aimed as much
against foreign hegemony as against the despotism of the khedive Tawfik.
Orabi's movement constituted the first real threat to the foreign commu
nities in Egypt, a threat that was fully realized by the European govern
ments. In 1 8 8 2 the British and French fleets arrived at Alexandria, and
tensions finally reached the surface on June 11 when thirty-eight foreign
ers and eleven Egyptians were killed in the Alexandrian Massacre.
W i t h i n a week, thirty-two thousand foreigners had evacuated the city.
By July 1 1 , when the British began to bombard Alexandria, over sixty
thousand foreigners had leftpractically the entire foreign population.
17

The foreign communities only returned after the British occu

pation of the city. By 1 8 9 7 foreigners constituted some fifteen percent
of the city's total population, according to the census of that year. The
Greek community alone consisted of over fifteen thousand people. There
were also sizable communities of Italians (over eleven thousand), Brit
ish (eight thousand), and French (five thousand). By 1927, just thirty
years later, the total foreign population had expanded to almost a hun
dred thousand.
18

As Alexandria entered the twentieth century, it was a unique

melting pot, a city that consisted of numerous autonomous but inte
grated communities that preserved their ethnic traditions and were
allowed to practice their religious rites. These communities enjoyed a
sense of solidarity that was founded on a flourishing economy and that
was underwritten by the "Capitulations," treaties that exempted foreign
ers from Egyptian law and placed them under the jurisdiction of their
own courts.
19

What image of Alexandria did these foreign communities

produce? Certainly in the literary outpourings that the city inspired one
finds very little acknowledgment of the social realities that underwrote
the existence of the foreign literati. Rather, Alexandria becomes a reposi-

G honeim

tory of feelings, of responses that are not necessarily directed toward the
city as it was: rather they encompass a place that had, to some extent,
become the victim of its own mythology.
In assessing the cultural impact of Alexandria's foreign com
munities, it is perhaps most convenient to look at the practical ramifica
tions of the foreign presence first and then to move on to the various
Active accounts of the city.
From its earliest days Alexandria had been linked, both prac
tically and imaginatively, w i t h Greece (the city was, after all, founded by
Alexander the Great). It was therefore hardly surprising that the Greek
community should be among the largest and most influential of the for
eign groups inhabiting the city. Their influence had been noticeable in a
number of spheres, not least in the field of education. In addition to es
tablishing primary and secondary schools, they also founded an evening
school specializing in the study of foreign languages. Serving the Greek
community was an active publishing industry. Daily and weekly news
papers were produced in Greek, together w i t h less frequent periodicals.

20

Publishing houses consolidated their activities, producing an extensive

list of titles, including a Greek-Arabic dictionary that appeared in 1 8 9 8 ,
and three translations of the Holy Quran. Between 1 8 6 2 and 1 9 7 2 some
five thousand titles appeared. The Greek reading public was well
21

served, both in the dissemination of news and in their access to cultural

and literary periodicals. Further enriching the cultural life of the commu
nity were the numerous associations that organized a wide variety of
events, ranging from conferences and exhibitions to amateur dramatic
productions.

22

If there existed a historical precedent for Greek influence in

the city, there was a similar precedent for Italian influence. Alexander
may well have founded the city, bequeathing it to his general, Ptolemy,
but the Ptolemaic dynasty ended when Cleopatra and her lover, M a r k
Antony, were defeated by Octavian.
By the end of World War 1 the number of Italians in Egypt ex
ceeded fifty thousand, half of w h o m resided in Alexandria. Their com
munity was well organized within the civic structures of the city, and,
largely because they arrived early in the nineteenth century, the Italians
had become extraordinarily well integrated in the city's social and eco
nomic fabric. They retained long-established links w i t h the Egyptian
community, which facilitated their economic life. The Italians in Alexan
dria were chiefly tradespeople, some wealthy, some not so wealthy. They
comprised, so to speak, the trading middle classes, technicians and craft
workers, as well as the more usual professionals and entrepreneurs.
They established a number of schools, the most famous being
the Don Bosco Institute; they published the Italian-language newspaper
17 Messaggero

Egiziano;

and they founded the Italian Hospital.

23

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Along w i t h the Greeks and Italians, the French, too, played

an important role in the development of the Mediterranean character of
Alexandria. Their influence was felt most strongly in the field of educa
tion. Some thirty educational institutions, including La Mission Laique,
which governed Le Lycee d'Alexandrie, and the Frere des Ecoles Chretiennes, which controlled both the Saint Marc and Saint Catherine col
leges, contributed to a thriving francophone community.

24

Although far less well integrated socially, the British, too, left
an overwhelming impact on the city. They displayed a tendency to "keep
themselves to themselves," a characteristic that marked the experience
of British colonialism for many countries. Nevertheless, they did estab
25

lish a number of schools; hospitals; and social, literary, and sporting

clubs, whose influence on the tone of the city's cultural life was immense.
The vast majority of these institutions continued to operate until the ab
dication of King Farouk i n 1 9 5 2 and the subsequent establishment of the
republic, which effectively brought an end to British control of Egypt.
Among the most significant British institutions established in Alexan
dria were Victoria College (which was open to pupils of all nationali
ties), Saint Andrew's School, the Scottish School for Girls, the British
Boys' School, the British Book Club, the Society for Amateurs of Drama
and Music, the Sporting Club, the Union Club (whose first president
was Lord Cromer), the British Boat Club, and scout troops for boys
and girls.

26

The foreign communities already mentioned enjoyed a ho

mogenous identity based on national origin. The same cannot be said
about the Jewish community in the city, whose identity was based on re
ligion, though this does not mean that we can disregard their impact and
influence on the cultural and socioeconomic life of the city. The number
of Jews i n Alexandria began to increase during the reign of Mohammed
A l i . By 1 8 5 0 the community was sufficiently strong to warrant a new
synagogue, and the Eliahou Hannabi Synagogue was established. A
newspaper published in French but financed and controlled by Jewish in
terests, La Liberte,

was initially established in support of the Egyptian

Nationalist Movement led by Saad Zaghloul against British occupation.

This newspaper is perhaps the most eloquent testimony to the degree of
integration achieved by the Jewish community in the centuries in which
they played an active part in the civic life of Alexandria.

27

A l l the communities contributed, on a day-to-day level, to the

cosmopolitanism that had characterized the city since its initial expan
sion under Mohammed A l i . But it is to writers that we must turn i f we
want to understand just how that image came to be fixed in the imagina
tion, particularly i n the imagination of non-Egyptians.
Let us first examine the work of Constantine Peter Cavafy,
since he provides the paradigm for many later literary outpourings that

Ghoneim

base themselves ostensibly on a contemporaneous response to the au

thor's experience of Alexandria.
Cavafy was born in Alexandria in 1863. Two years after the
death of his father in 1 8 7 0 , Cavafy left w i t h his family for England, only
to return to the city in 1879. What distinguishes the poetry of Cavafy is
its complex intermingling of the Alexandria he knew w i t h its ancient
past. The city operates, metaphorically at least, as the location of the
meeting between past and present.
"Cavafy gave," according to Jane Lagoudis Pinchin, "the city
a new mythology and Alexandria gave the poet a history and a setting in
which he could ground his poems and hear his voice."
28

The past remains eternally present, time enters into a flux

which, exploited in the description of psychological moods, precludes
any clear definition between what has been and what is.
Cavafy's characters are, more or less, linked w i t h Alexandria.
He is much praised by critics for
his realistic descriptions of everyday life in Cosmopolitan
Alexandria of his time, as well as his ambiguous impressions
concerning the Egyptian landscape ("Morning Sea"). From the
beginning of the twentieth century, there is also a poem by him
which constitutes protest at bloody actions undertaken by the
British colonial rule against the Arab population ("27 June,
1906, 2 p.m.").
29

In his historical poems, Cavafy remains always a Hellenist.

Strange then that he should have chosen M a r k Antony to represent the
defeated Greek hero who "no longer deserting oriental Hellenism in dis
gust, no longer deserting his city, is now a true Greek, w i t h the courage
to watch Alexandria abandon him, and the knowledge that nothing that
beautiful would ever appear again." In the poem "The God Abandons
Antony" Cavafy reaches a final synthesis between past and present,
between myth and reality, between history and actuality, and, most
significantly, between poet and hero. M a r k Antony is, after all, none
other than Cavafy.
30

When at the hour of midnight

an invisible choir is suddenly heard passing
with exquisite music, with voices
Do not lament your fortune that at last subsides,
your life's work that has failed, your schemes that
have proved illusions.
Bui: like a man prepared, like a brave man,
bid farewell to her, to Alexandria who is departing.
Above all, do not delude yourself, do not say that

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it is a dream,
that your ear was mistaken.
D o not condescend to such empty hopes,
like a man for long prepared, like a brave man,
like to the man w h o was w o r t h y of such a city,
go to the w i n d o w firmly,
and listen w i t h emotion,
but not w i t h the prayers and complaints of the coward
(Ah! supreme rapture!)
Listen to the notes, to the exquisite instruments
of the mystic choir,
and b i d farewell to her, to Alexandria w h o m y o u are losing.

31

I f we take Cavafy as the p a r a d i g m , i t is precisely because o f

this c o n f u s i o n between an i n v i o l a t e past i n f o r m i n g the present i n such a
w a y t h a t the nostalgia prevents any t a r n i s h i n g of the surface. A l e x a n d r i a
is, t o Cavafy, e v e r y t h i n g . T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t a c t u a l i t y plays n o p a r t at
a l l i n Cavafy's art. B u t w e have t o v i e w Cavafy's c i t y n o t just f r o m the
perspective o f the poet, i n itself deliberately confused, b u t f r o m a per
spective t h a t contains its o w n nostalgias, propagated t h r o u g h the w r i t
ings o f others.
N o t everyone was quite as noble as Cavafy w h e n i t came t o
b i d d i n g a fictional farewell t o the city, least o f a l l Lawrence D u r r e l l ,
whose f o u r novels, Justine

( 1 9 5 7 ) , Balthazar

a n d Clea ( i 9 6 0 ) together f o r m the Alexandria

( 1 9 5 8 ) , Mountolive
Quartet.

(1958),

T h e massive

success o f these novels, p u b l i s h e d i n r a p i d sequence after the Suez crisis,

c o u l d w e l l be a t t r i b u t e d t o the functions they served i n e x p l a i n i n g t o an
entire generation the reasons w h y the sun h a d set over the empire o n
w h i c h i t was supposed t o shine eternally.
B u t before e x a m i n i n g the role o f D u r r e l l i n fixing the image
of the c i t y f o r a vast English-reading p u b l i c , we s h o u l d examine the
w o r k o f . M . Forster. I n m a n y ways Forster is m u c h closer t o Cavafy
t h a n he is t o D u r r e l l , a n d i t is n o coincidence t h a t i n Pharos

and

Pharil-

lon, Forster's second b o o k o n A l e x a n d r i a (published i n 1 9 2 3 ) , there

s h o u l d appear an essay o n the Greek poet.
Forster a r r i v e d i n E g y p t i n 1 9 1 5 , at the height o f W o r l d W a r 1.
As a R e d Cross volunteer, he was stationed i n A l e x a n d r i a . H i s fascina
t i o n w i t h the c i t y resulted i n Alexandria:

A History

and a Guide,

which

is often l a u d e d as the finest g u i d e b o o k ever w r i t t e n . I n c o m p i l i n g his

guide, Forster was m u c h influenced by Cavafy's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the
city's past. B u t u n l i k e Cavafy, Forster does n o t restrict h i m s e l f t o A l e x a n
dria's classical heritage. H e does n o t s h i r k the Islamic p e r i o d , a n d he
refutes the classical predilections o f so m a n y o f his contemporaries w h e n
he w r i t e s : " T h e A r a b s were a n y t h i n g b u t barbarians; their o w n great
c i t y o f C a i r o is sufficient answer t o t h a t c h a r g e . "

32

Ghoneim

Despite the emphasis on establishing a historical perspective,

the content of Forster's first book on Alexandria does not belie its title.
Amid the undeniably literary impressions of the city are comprehensive
maps and plans of the most important sites, together w i t h meticulous
descriptions of the squares and streets, the palaces and gardens, mosques
and churches, monuments and museums, banks and casinos, baths and
bathing places that formed the physical environment in which Forster
lived. Even after seven decades, Forster's guide retains a startling imme
diacy for anyone who knows the city.
Pharos

the second of Forster's literary excava

and Pharillon,

tions, in fact consists of pieces that first appeared in the Egyptian

Mail.

Again the book is organized around the Cavafian conceit that Alexandria
now is merely an amalgam of its past. The first part of the book,

Pharos,

deals exclusively w i t h times past. Personal impressions and contempo

rary history are allowed to impinge only in the second part of the book.
Forster's empathy w i t h Egyptians was unusual within the
British community. In fact, upon his return to England, he wrote a pam
phlet whose opposition to the British occupation of Egypt almost cer
tainly contributed to the pressure that would enable Viscount Allenby,
the high commissioner for Egypt, to force British recognition of Egyptian
sovereignty in 1 9 2 2 .

33

Durrell also arrived in Egypt during a time of war. He entered

the country in 1 9 4 1 , fleeing before the Nazi invasion of Greece. For
three years he lived in Cairo, working at the British Embassy, before be
ing transferred to Alexandria. It was Durrell's knowledge of Greek that
persuaded his superiors to send him there. From the start his attitude to
the city that was to provide the setting for his best-known works was
ambivalent. In the poem "Conon in Alexandria," he describes the city as
an "ashheap of four cultures."

34

For Durrell they were already cultures

in decay. Alexandria was for him always a poor replacement for the
Greece he loved.
Capitally, what is this city of ours? What is resumed in the
word Alexandria? In a flash my mind's eye shows me a thousand
dust-tormented streets. Flies and beggars own it todayand
those who enjoy an intermediate existence between either.
So opens Justine,

35

the first novel in the quartet. If, throughout

the novel sequence, Alexandria remains present, Durrell's major pre

occupation was, as G. S. Fraser explains, always "centered on his am
bivalent characters, for w h o m the city, being a genius loci, played havoc
w i t h their lives and relations."

36

Throughout the Suez crisisan event that saw the whole

hearted realization of Egyptian nationalismas the government sought
to acquire control of Egyptian assets, Gamal Abdel Nasser was systemati-

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OF

ALEXANDRIA

cally demonized in the British press. Hardly surprising then that Durrell's
Alexandria

Quartet

should find such an appreciative public. For what,

after all, does Durrell do but demonize the city? I f in the past Alexandria
had been culturally promiscuous, she was now little better than a whore.
It is the image of the prostitute that dominates Durrell's depiction of the
city in which he was forced to live. It is a place imagined, and it is i m
portant to remember that the first volume of the quartet appeared a full
decade after Durrell had abandoned the city. In her study of Durrell's
Quartet,

Mona Anis hits on a key point when she writes that any ac

count of the novels should "take into consideration, besides the artistic
value of the Quartet,

the necessity of that work and its mythologylike

Egypt as a means of defying the reality of the end of the British Empire
and the Suez w a r . "

37

Unlike both Forster and Cavafy, Durrell clearly had an axe to

grind. The imprecision that Cavafy had exploited in using the city as his
confessional, as the means to articulate personal states of being, takes on
an ideologically loaded direction in Durrell.
In the work of Giuseppe Ungaretti, we find an eloquent testi
mony to the lingering inspiration provided by the polyglottal city. Un
garetti was born in Alexandria of Italian descent in 1 8 8 8 . His father ran
a bakery in the Moharram Bey district. Typically in this multilingual
city, Ungaretti first began writing poetry in French. He soon moved on
to translating Edgar Allan Poe. I n 1 9 1 2 , he abandoned Alexandria for
Paris, where he was to become involved w i t h many leading exponents of
Modernism, among them Henri Bergson, Guillaume Apollinaire, Pablo
Picasso, Georges Braque, Fernan Leger, Giorgio De Chirico, Amedeo
Modigliani, and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Marinetti is himself an ex
ample of the fact that cultural traffic was not entirely one way. The
leader of the Italian Futurists was himself born in Alexandria.

38

It is to be expected that Alexandrian cosmopolitanism should

have its casualties. Ungaretti was shocked by the suicide in Paris in 1913
of his closest Egyptian friend, Mohammed Shehab. H o w did Ungaretti
rationalize the death of his friend? The formula was concise: he said
quite simply that his friend "no longer had a home-land."

39

Though distance intervened, Ungaretti himself was never to

face this dilemma. His emotional ties to the city of his birth sustained
both the man and his poetry until his death in 1 9 7 0 . The tone of Ungaretti's work is explicit in its nostalgia. This is perhaps clearest in the
poem Vase:
Walk walk
I've rediscovered
the well of love
In its thousand-and-

Ghoneim

one-nights eye
I've rested
Upon the abandoned gardens
she alit
like a dove
Inside the air
of a noontide
that was a single swoon
I picked her
oranges and jasmine.

40

Despite Alexandria's constant reappearance in his poetry,

Ungaretti was to revisit the city only twice between 1 9 1 2 and 1 9 7 0 .

41

Such is the potency of this dream city.

T h e A s s e r t i o n off E g y p t i a n (Identity as
Manifested in A l e x a n d r i a n C u l t u r e

Whatever the position of Alexandria as a literary metaphor, whatever its

status as a dream city, a city remembered more for what it might once
have been than for what it was, Alexandria the place could not escape
the exigencies of realpolitik.
It had never, in fact, been anything other than an Egyptian
city, inasmuch as it was located in Egypt, even though its complexion
might at times have seemed more Levantine than purely Egyptian. This
might seem a mundane comment to make, but behind its outward ba
nality lies the fact that Alexandria was always inhabited by a majority
of Egyptians.
Like their compatriots all over Egypt, the Egyptians in
Alexandria, throughout the reign of Mohammed A l i and his successors,
adopted, more or less, "those traditional patterns which were common
among Egyptians prior to the introduction of European manners and
customs." A "true" Egyptian is the natural offspring of his richly di
versified ancient past. Yet he has proved to be, from a historical perspec
tive, the legitimate son of closely connected Islamic and Arab cultures.
To a "true" Egyptian the monotheistic faith of Islam and its noble hu
mane principles of peace, love, justice, dignity, and tolerance are the
main achievements to strive for, and these principles are therefore inte
grated into the Egyptian self as sound behavioral patterns and beliefs. In
effect, many devout Egyptians "identify with the great figures of the
Arab past. The clemency of A b u Bakr, the noble self-effacement of Umar,
the intrepitude of Khalid Ibn Al-Walid, the glitter of Harun Al-Rashid,
the chivalry of Saladinthese are not simply historical personalities, but
ideal types."
42

43

More important still is the indisputable role that the Holy

295

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ALEXANDRIA

Quran has played in spreading, preserving, and reviving the Arabic lan
guage and culture. Other Egyptian qualities assimilated from the trea
sures of Arab heritage are epitomized in the glorification of manliness,
w i t h its significant characteristiccourageand its sharp sense of hu
mor. A l l these attributes have been absorbed and reshaped in an Egyp
tian mold unique in itself.
44

From the earliest days, the political w i l l of "Egyptian"

Alexandria accorded neatly w i t h that of the rest of Egypt. Alexandrians
were as supportive of Mohammed A l i in his struggles w i t h both the
Mamelukes and the Turks as any other Egyptian faction, in spite of the
fact that such support ran counter to the w i l l of the Porte in Istanbul. By
supporting Mohammed A l i in his struggles against his nominal overlord,
the Ottoman sultan, the people of Egyptnot least among them the
Egyptian inhabitants of Alexandrialaid the cornerstone for the grad
ual movement that by 1919 exploded into a full-scale nationalist revolt.
Of course, Alexandria's position would seem ambivalent at
times, and just as her support of Mohammed A l i was to mark the first
push toward Egyptian independence, so many of Mohammed Ali's ac
tions after he assumed control of Egypt were to result in the foreign
domination of Alexandria despite which the Egyptian population of the
city never quite lost sight of that ultimate goal, independence.
Egypt had, for centuries, been colonized. It had suffered in
numerable invasions, by the Hyksos, the Persians, Greeks, Romans,
Turks, French, and British. Yet throughout this, Egyptians, in a very real
sense, maintained an idea of their own identity as Egyptians, as a people
having a profound realization of their own distinct cultural and national
identity. Egyptians have always been proud of their contributions to
human history and have been fully aware of their Arab and Islamic heri
tages. They developed, one might argue, an uprooted sense of possessing
a proverbial cultural entity as well as an extreme ability to absorb and
assimilate foreign cultural influence without losing their cultural or na
tional character. National character is the key phrase. For in examining
the gradual emergence of Alexandria's Egyptian identity, one is in fact
plotting the emergence of the nationalist movement that exploded onto
Egypt's streets on 23 July 1 9 5 2 .
45

Alexandria was to play an important part in the emergent na

tionalism. During the rule of Tawfik ( 1 8 7 9 - 1 8 9 2 ) , Egyptian determina
tion to shake off the yoke of foreign oppression finally gelled into action
w i t h the nationalist revolution led by Orabi in 1 8 8 1 - 1 8 8 2 . Ismail had
been deposed, a victim of the financial machinations of the great powers.
During Orabi's revolution, Alexandria backed the nationalists to the hilt
against first the khedive and later the British.
The struggle against British occupation was, to a great extent,
conducted in Alexandria. The city was the scene of Mustafa Kamel's

Ghoneim

most important speeches directed against British imperialism. On 22 Oc

tober 1907 he delivered in the Zizinia Theatre his celebrated speech that
included the much-quoted nationalist slogan, " I f I had not been born
Egyptian, I would have longed to be Egyptian."

46

Under Khedive Abbas Helmi 11 ( 1 8 9 2 - 1 9 1 4 ) , the Egyptian

political arena opened up to a degree of political pluralism. Amongst
the several emergent parties were the Umma and the National Party.
The former produced a manifesto based on the assertion of national
independence:
Egypt could not be liberated except by the Egyptians themselves
and through reform. The Khedive's power . . . should be as
sumed by the representatives of the people. (Turkey was regarded
as helpless and actual Turkish rule was out of the question.) For
eigners in the service of the government should be gradually re
placed by native Egyptians.
47

When the British deposed the khedive Abbas Helmi 11 in

1914, declaring Egypt a protectorate, they must have hoped that their
action would bring an end to nationalist agitation. It did, however,
rather predictably, have the opposite result. It contributed to the resent
ments that were to culminate in Saad Zaghloul's revolution in 1 9 1 9 , the
seminal event of Egypt's early modern history. The British were not tardy
in realizing the threat posed by Zaghloul. Almost immediately he was
exiled to Malta w i t h three of his followers. Yet the movement of which
he was spokesman had gained its own momentum. In reaction to
Zaghloul's deportation, the nationalists organized a "systematic sabo
tage of communications, followed by a general strike and political boy
c o t t . " Alexandria was in the forefront of this resistance.
48

By 1 9 2 2 , when Britain recognized limited Egyptian sover

eignty, a large number of Alexandrians had been killed in the battle for
independence. Yet, amid the politicking, day-to-day life continued. The
period leading up to 1 9 2 2 saw the emergence of a specifically Egyptian
cultural movement in fields as diverse as painting and operetta. Given
Alexandria's traditional dominance of Egyptian cultural life, it is not
surprising that the major figures in the cultural renaissance should be
Alexandrian.
If the ambitions of the great Egyptian reformers of the nine
teenth century, exemplified in the works of Rifa'a El-Tahtawi ( 1 8 0 1 1873), were simply one aspect of a wider project whose main target was
the assertion of national identity, we see these ambitions reaching frui
tion in the early years of this century in Alexandria.
In colonized countries, nationalism goes hand in hand w i t h
modernization. The nascent Egyptian nationalist movement maintained
its hold on its traditional supporters while at the same time propagating

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social and cultural projects whose informing elements were anything but
traditional. M e n such as Imam Mohammed Abdu were promoting lib
eral religious reforms, and the Alexandrian Qassim Amin was initiating
the call for the emancipation of women.
The press was instrumental in articulating this new sense of a
cohesive national culture. Alexandria was particularly well served in this
respect. Between 1873
published.

49

a n

d 9 9
x

3 journals and periodicals were

Early publications had been controlled largely by Syrian

and Lebanese immigrants, people such as the Takla brothers, Selim and
Bishara, who founded Al-Ahram

Daily in Alexandria in 1 8 7 5 . N o less

important is the figure of Abdallah El-Nadim ( 1 8 4 5 - 1 8 9 6 ) , the popular

satirist born in Alexandria, who later became the spokesman during
Orabi's revolution.
El-Nadim was perhaps the first Egyptian to realize the power
of the popular press. He used journalism as the vehicle to attack the
British occupiers and to criticize the Egyptian government. His magazine
Al-Tankeet

wal Tabkeet

was one of the most articulate opponents of

British rule. It was followed by his weekly newspaper

Al-Taif.

so

Alexandria's thriving press doubtlessly spent a good deal of

space covering the city's diverse cultural activities. Alexandria was, after
all, the birthplace of Egyptian theater. Before Selim Naqqash formed his
company in Alexandria, theater had been viewed as little more than
staged prostitution. It became a respectable art form, not in Cairo, until
today home of the National Theater, but in Alexandria.

51

Alexandria also profoundly influenced the course of modern

Egyptian music. Though he died at the age of thirty-one, Sayed Darwish
(1892-192.3) revolutionized not just the form but also the content of
Arabic music. He established a tradition that has been a source of inspi
ration to several generations of Egyptian musicians. In examining his
works, it is impossible to ignore the nationalist overtones. Darwish was
the first musician to use popular, folkloric themes. He applied harmony
and counterpoint to traditional melodies, and in so doing opened up the
horizons of Arabic music. He admired both Verdi and Wagner, whose
influences can be seen in many of the twenty-two operettas he com
posed. It is quite appropriate that Egypt's current national anthem
52

("Beladi Beladi") should have been composed by this fervent nationalist.

There is no doubt that Darwish deserves the title bestowed upon him by
everybody in the country: "The Musical Composer of the People."

53

In his librettos, Darwish elegantly combined Egyptian collo

quial and classical Arabic. The movement toward a vernacular literature
was further advanced by Mahmoud Bairam Al-Tunsy. Born in Alexan
dria in 1 8 9 3 , Al-Tunsy died in Cairo in 19 6 1 . Throughout his lifetime,
Al-Tunsy often found himself in opposition, both to the British and to
Egypt's ruling family. His parody of King Fouad resulted in his exile to

G honeim

France in 1 9 2 0 . Perhaps the most important of his poems are those in

formed by the nationalist rebellion against the British, and the group
that celebrates the daily life of ordinary Egyptians. Ironically, his bestknown poem, "El-Maglis El-Baladi," is written in classical Arabic, a bit
ing repudiation of Alexandria's civic authorities and their decision to
impose yet heavier taxes on the city's Egyptian population. In fact,
Al-Tunsy wrote poetry not only as an artistic means of expression but
also as an effective political tool that paves the way for justice and na
tional liberation.
54

55

If Alexandria was to dominate the musical and literary repre

sentation of an emergent Egypt, it was equally to dominate the visual
representation of this new land, this Egypt for Egyptians. Among the
proto-Modernists who did so much to revitalize the plastic arts in Egypt,
the names of Mohamed Nagui and Mahmoud Said are preeminent.
These two artists used Alexandria, that most promiscuous of cities, as a
vehicle for their articulation of what constitutes Egyptianness:
The world represents mysterious unknown forces that govern
human fates. States of nature form a part of the eternal and sem
piternal laws. In order to survive, all that man can do is to reach
for a common formula of the psychological balance with nature.
Thus, he reflects the traditional culture which formed an impor
tant part of the Egyptian temperament through generations. It is
a culture which his social status helped to deepen. It became one
of the basic elements of "the Egyptian character."
56

The above was written about Mahmoud Said and his view of
the organic relationship between culture and the people. In many ways,
it may serve as a paradigm for both Said and Nagui since what is being
articulated in both artists' work (by Nagui in paintings such as "The
School of Alexandria" and "The Procession of Isis," and by Said in
"The Alexandrian Women," "Girls from Bahari," "The Family," "The
Town," and "Bathing Girls") is less the development of the image of a
specific place than the delineation of an Egyptian character.
Foreign Cultural Relations
C A I R O

299

300

CONTINUING

INFLUENCE

OF

ALEXANDRIA

Notes

L . S. E l - H a m a m s y , " T h e A s s e r t i o n o f E g y p t i a n

19

R a m a d a n (note 2 above), p. 119.

Identity," i n G. De Vos and L . Romanucci-Ross,

eds., Ethnic

Identity:

Cultural

Continuities

and

20

K . T r i m i a n d E. Y a n n a k a k i s , "Les Grecs: ' L a

parikia' d ' A l e x a n d r i e , " i n R. Ilbert and E. Yan

(Palo A l t o , Calif., 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 2 8 3 .

Change

n a k a k i s , eds., Alexandrie
2

A . A . Ramadan, "Alexandria: French Expedi

dele ephemere

t i o n t o t h e M o d e r n A g e , " i n G . L . Steen, e d . ,

identite

Alexandria:

The Site and the History

1860-1960,

de convivialite:

Un

mo

Communautes

et

(Paris 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 8 4 - 8 5 .

cosmopolite

(Milan

1992), p. 115.

21

R a m a d a n (note 2 above), p . 122.

Ibid.

22

T r i m i a n d Yannakakis (note 20 above),

R. Ilbert, "Le symbole d'une Mediterranee ou-

pp. 8 4 - 8 5 .
verte a u m o n d e , " i n R. Ilbert a n d E. Yannakak i s , eds., Alexandrie
ephemere
identite

1860-1960,

de convivialite:

Un

23

Communautes

1860-1960,

et

(Paris 1 9 9 2 ) , p . 1 2 .

cosmopolite

A . L a z a r e v , " I t a l i e n , i t a l i a n i t e et f a s c i s m e , " i n
R . I l b e r t a n d E . Y a n n a k a k i s , eds.,

modele

Un modele

lite: Communautes

Alexandrie

ephemere

et identite

de

convivia

cosmopolite

(Paris 1 9 9 2 ) , p p . 9 3 - 9 7 5

Ibid., p. 14.

Q u o t e d i n Ilbert (note 4 above), p . 13. Trans

24

R a m a d a n (note 2 above), p. 122.

lated by the author.

25

Sobhy (note 7 above), p . 383.

H . M . Sobhy, " A l - M o a t h i r a t A l - O u r o u b e y y a

26

Sobhy (note 7 above), p p . 3 8 5 - 8 6 .

27

Sobhy (note 7 above), p p . 3 8 9 - 9 3 .

28

J. L . P i n c h i n , Alexandria

fi M o g t a ' m a a A l - I s k a n d a r e y y a fi A l - A s r A l H a d i t h , 1 8 0 5 - 1 8 3 9 , " i n Mogta'maa

dareyya

Abr AWOusour

Al-Iskan

(Alexandria 1973),

p. 350.

and
8

Ibid., p. 349.

Sobhy (note 7 above), p p . 3 4 9 - 5 0 .

29

Cavafy

Still:

Forster,

G . K e c h a g i o g l o u , " C . P. C a v a f y a n d M o d e r n
Greek Orientalism i n Literature," i n
Kavafis

10

Sobhy (note 7 above), p. 348.

11

A . A . R a m a d a n , " A l - I s k a n d a r e y y a fi A l - O u s o u r

Durrell,

(Cairo 1989), p. 34.

International

Symposium,

First

Cairo and

Alexandria 1991.
30

P i n c h i n ( n o t e 28 a b o v e ) , p . 5 5 .

A l H a d i t h a , " u n p u b l i s h e d paper, 1990, p . 22.

3I

Q u o t e d i n E . M . F o r s t e r , Alexandria:
and a Guide

12

Sobhy (note 7 above), p p . 3 6 4 - 6 7 .

13

R a m a d a n (note 2 above), p. 118.

14

R. Ilbert, " U n e certaine c i t a d i n i t e , " i n R. Ilbert

History

( L o n d o n 1982), p. 104, trans.

G. Valassopoulo.

a n d E . Y a n n a k a k i s , eds., Alexandrie
1960,

Un modele

Communautes

15

ephemere

et identite

de

1860-

32

Forster (note 3 1 above), p . 86.

33

J. R o d e n b e c k , " L i t e r a r y A l e x a n d r i a , " i n
Today

convivialite:

cosmopolite

Monthly

34

R a m a d a n (note 2 above), p. 118.

35

Ibid.: 66.
L . D u r r e l l , The Alexandria
Balthazar,

Sobhy (note 7 above), p . 376.

17

R a m a d a n (note 11 above), p p . 2 5 - 2 6 .
Sobhy (note 7 above), p p . 3 8 0 - 8 1 .

Mountolive,

Quartet:
Clea

Justine,

(London 1991),

p. 17.
36

M . Saad E l - D i n a n d J. C r o m e r , Under
Spell:

18

Cairo

10.6 (1989): 65.

(Paris

1992), p. 22.

16

Magazine

The Influence

of Egypt

on Writers

Egypt's
in

G h onei m

English

from

the Eighteenth

Century

(London

1991), p. 197.
37

M . Anis, "The W o r k i n g of Imperialist Ideology

i n t h e Alexandria

Quartet"

( P h . D . diss., Essex

University, 1976).
38

R o d e n b e c k ( n o t e 33 a b o v e ) :

62-63.

39

R o d e n b e c k ( n o t e 33 a b o v e ) : 6 3 .

40

R o d e n b e c k ( n o t e 33 a b o v e ) :

41

R o d e n b e c k ( n o t e 33 a b o v e ) : 6 4 .

42

E l - H a m a m s y (note 1 above), p. 2 9 8 .

43

E l - H a m a m s y (note 1 above), p . 3 0 2 .

44

E l - H a m a m s y (note 1 above), p p .

299-303.

45

E l - H a m a m s y (note 1 above), p p .

299-303.

46

M . M . El-Sourougy, " M o g t a m a a A l - I s k a n -

63-64.

dareyya W a A l - H a r a k a A l - W a t a n e y y a , " i n
Mogta'maa

Al-Iskandareyya

Abr

Al Ousour
J

(Alexandria 1973), pp. 4ioff.

47

M . Z a y i d , " T h e O r i g i n s o f the L i b e r a l C o n s t i
t u t i o n a l P a r t y i n E g y p t , " i n P. M . H o l t , e d . ,
Political

and Social

Change

in Modern

Egypt

(London 1968), p. 338, quoted from ElH a m a m s y (note 1 above).

48

E l - H a m a m s y (note 1 above), p. 289.

49

M . Z . E l - A s h m a w y , Al-Adab
Hayat

50

Wa Keyam

Al-

(Beirut 1980), p. 140.

Al-Mo'asera

N . Youssef, Aalam

Mina

Al-'lskandareyya

(Alexandria 1969), pp. 2 3 6 - 4 1 .

51

E l - A s h m a w y (note 49 above), p . 143.

52

M . Saad E l - D i n , " C u l t u r a l A l e x a n d r i a " ( u n p u b

lished paper, 1990), p p . 3 6 - 3 7 .

53

M . M i t w a l l y , " A l - M o u s i k a r A l - S h e i k h Sayed
D a r w i s h W a A l H a r a k a A l - W a t a n e y y a , " i n Al-

54
55

Zikra

Al-Mi'awayya

Sayed

Darwish,

Al-Mousikar
( C a i r o 1 9 9 2 ) , p . 7.

Youssef ( n o t e 5 0 a b o v e ) , p p . 3 3 7 - 4 0 .
K . Saad, Bairam
Al-Misreyya

56

Li-Milad

1892-1992

Al-Tunsy:

A sifa

E . E l - D i n N a g u i b , The Dawn
ern Painting

min

(Cairo 1993), pp.

Al-'Hara

5-6.
of Egyptian

(Cairo 1992), p. 82.

Mod

301

302

Reigns of the Ptolemies

P t o l e m y I Soter

305-282

B.C.

285-282

B.C.

P t o l e m y n Philadelphos

282-246

B.C.

P t o l e m y i n Euergetes i

246-222

B.C.

Ptolemy i v Philopator

222-205

P t o l e m y v Epiphanes

205-180

Ptolemy v i Philometor

180-164

a n d P t o l e m y n Philadelphos

163-145

Ptolemy v n Neos Philopator

1 4 5 B.C.

P t o l e m y v i n Euergetes n

170-163

- -

B.C.
B.C.

B.C.

145-116

B.C.

P t o l e m y i x Soter n

I 1 6 - I O 7

B.C.

Ptolemy x Alexander I

IO7-88

P t o l e m y i x Soter n

8 8 - 8 0

Ptolemy x i Alexander n

8 0 B.C.

Ptolemy x n Neos Dionysos

80-55

B.C.

5 5 - 5 1

B.C.

5I-3O

B.C.

and Ptolemy x i n

51-47

B.C.

and Ptolemy x i v

4 7 - 4 4

B.C.

a n d P t o l e m y Caesarion

4 4 - 3 0

B.C.

Cleopatra v n

and

B.C.

and

B.C.
B.C.

and