Transducers

01. Basics of Transducers

01.
Sol:
Transducers can be classified
Based upon transduction principle
as primary and secondary transducers
as passive and active transducers
as analog and digital transducers
as transducers and inverse transducers

Based upon transduction principle

The transducers can be classified on the basis
of principle of transduction as resistive,
inductive, capacitive etc., depending upon
how they convert the input quantity into
resistance,
inductance
or
capacitance
respectively.
Primary and Secondary Transducers:
The first transducer which converts physical
phenomenon into displacement, pressure,
velocity etc. which is to be accepted by next
stage is known as Primary Transducer.
The output of the primary transducer is
converted subsequently into a usable output
by a device called Secondary Transducer
Passive and Active Transducers:Passive transducers: They derive the power
required for transduction from an auxiliary
power source.
Eg: Resistive, inductive and capacitive
transducers.
Active transducers: They do not require an
auxiliary power source to produce their
output. They are also known as self
generating type since they develop their own
voltage or current output.
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Eg: piezoelectric, photovoltaic etc.

Analog and digital Transducers: Analog transducers: These transducers
convert the input quantity into an analog
output which is a continuous function of
time.
Eg: LVDT, thermocouple etc.
Digital
Transducers:-These
transducers
convert the input quantity into an electrical
output which is in the form of pulses.
Transducers & Inverse Transducers
Transducer: A transducer can be broadly
defined as a device which converts a non
electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
Inverse transducer: An inverse transducer
is defined as a device which converts an
electrical quantity into a non electrical
quantity.
02. Resistive, Capacitive,
Inductive Transducers
01.
Sol: POTs are resistive elements with a sliding
wiper. The method of sliding contact may be
translationalor rotational..
Under No load:
Consider the translational POT as shown in
figure
ei = input voltage; e0= output voltage
xt = total length of translational POT
xi = displacement of wiper from its zero
position.
RP = Total Resistance of POT.

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: 360 :

The Resistance per unit length is

divided. The potential dividers is device

for dividing the potential in a ratio
determined by the position of the sliding
contact.

Rp
xt

Output e 0

Input
xi

Sensitivity of POT (S)

Transducers

Equation (1) is based upon the

assumption that there is no loss at the
output. However in practice, the output
terminal of the POT as connected to a
device which impedance is finite. i.e.
when an electric instrument which
forms a load for the POT and is
connected a cross output terminals the
indicated voltage is less than that given
by equation (1).

The error which is referred to as a

loading error, is caused by the input
resistance of the output device.

Rp
+
ei

xt

xi

e0

The output voltage under ideal conditions

x
will be
e0 i e i
xt

= k ei (1)
(Zero-order system)

Where, ei is the total voltage and xt is total

displacement.

The characteristics potentiometer

shown in the figure below.

kRp

ei

is

e0

ei

Rp= total resistance

of potentiometer
Wiper
[Rp-kRp]

Rm

eL

From Equation (1)

(0,0)

xi

xt

x
e 0 ke i k i
xt

With Load:

Rp= Total resistance

Rp
+
ei

This part is a fraction of Rp that is k.Rp.

So the resistance for the combination is

xt
xi Rm

eL

kRp|| Rm
RL

kR R
kR R
p

The output voltage is a fraction input

voltage that means input voltage is

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m
m

The total resistance will be

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: 361 :

R R p kR p

kR R
kR R
p

So for industrial use internal resistance of

voltage measuring device is to be least 15
times greater than the resistance of the
transducer

m
m

kR p R m R p k 2 R 2p kR m R p kR m R p
2

kR R
p

02.
Sol:

Resistance from source side

kR p 1 K R m R p
2

R m kR p

k
eL
k(1 k) R p
R

1
eL k
k(1 k) R p
R

.e i

1

Linearity & sensitivity:

In order to achieve good linearity, the
resistance of POT Rp, should be low and Rm
should be high.

.e i ------ (2)

The above equation shows there exists a

non-linear relationship between output
voltage and input displacements xi.
To get linear characteristics we will have to
Rp
0 hence Rm =
make
Rm
That means the load should have infinite
resistance which is practically not possible.

Rp

where
Rp=
Resistance
of
Rm
potentiometer, Rm= Resistance of load
(meter)
So for better linearity RP should be less and
as Rm = .
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For potentiometer
under no load
condition the
output equation is
x
e0 i e i = k ei
xt
where e0 is output voltage , ei is input
voltage,
xt is total length of translational POT
xi is displacement of wiper from its
zero position

under load the output of the linear

potentiometer is

1
eL k
.
Rp

k(1 k)

R 1

e0ei In order to get a high

sensitivity the output e0 should be high
which inturn requires a high input ei.
Due to limitation of power dissipation it
is clear the input voltage is limited by
resistance of POT e i P.R p .

In order to keep the power dissipation at

low level the input voltage should be
small and Rp should be high. Thus for a
high sensitivity, the input voltage Ri
should be large and this calls for a high

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: 362 :

Transducers

When Linearity increases sensitivity

decreases
and
when
Sensitivity
increases linearity decreases, so linearity
& sensitivity are two conflicting
requirements.

The operation of an electrical resistance

strain gauge is based on the fact that
when a conductor is subjected to
mechanical deformation, its length and
diameter are altered and a change in its
resistance occurs. The resistance change
is measured and correlated to strain or
the physical effect causing strain.

The figure shown below represents the

relation ship between the resistance and
strain

03.
Sol: When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile
loading, there occurs an increase in length of
the bar in the direction of the load. Strain
refers to the relative change in dimension of
the bar under load and it is prescribed as the
ratio of the change in length to the
unstressed length of the bar.

The strain is usually expressed in units

of mm per mm and consequently is
dimensionless. In practice, it is often
stated as micro strain or
-strain
which means that the ratio is referred to
10-6.
An increase in length of the bar in the
direction of applied load is also
accompanied by a decrease in the lateral
dimensions perpendicular to the load.
The ratio of the strain in the lateral to
that in the axial direction is defined as
Poissons ratio.

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If

change in length
L
strain ()

unstressed length
L

L
as the axial strain, D/D as the
L
transverse or lateral strain;
D / D
Then Poisson' s ratio( )
L / L
This ratio is particular to any metal or
alloy; its value is 0.2 for metals and 0.3
for wires.

value of Rp. On the other hand if we

consider the linearity. The RP should be
as low as possible. If we do so the
power dissipation goes up with the
result that we have to make the ei as
small to keep the power dissipation to
acceptable level which results in lower
sensitivity.

The resistance of a conductor of length

L, uniform cross-section A and uniform
resistivity is given by
L
A
We can rewrite the above equation as
R

logeR = loge +logeL logeA

After differentiation we will get
dR d dL dA

L
A

The area may be related to the

square of some transverse dimension,
such as diameter D of the conductor.

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1 R
VB V
0.05
2 2R

dA 2dD

A
D
Where C is a constant; its value being unity
for a square cross-section of dimension D

and
for a circular cross-section of
4
diameter D.
Thus:
dR d dL 2dD

L
D
Dividing throughout by dL/L
A CD 2 and

dR / R d /
2dD / D

1
dL / L dL / L
dL / L
d /

1 2
dL / L
(or)
Gf

dR / R
1 2
dL / L
Resistance
change
due to length
change

04.
Sol:

Resistance
Change
due to area
change

Now substitute VB value in equation (1)

VC 0.52 V VC V0

0
R
10 R

0.5 V 0.52 V 0.5V V0

0
R
10 R

V0

= 0.3 V

05.
Sol:

B
350

350

d /
dL / L

Resistance
Change
due to piezo
resistance
effect

Active
gauge
C

350
350

Dummy
gauge

D
10V

By V.D.R
R V
VA V

R R 2

VA = VB = VC (By V.G. concept)

V
VA VB VC
2

=143010-6

1450 m/m.
Even though strain gauges are present, only

By Nodal analysis at VC

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Vs = 4

Strain gauge BC subjected to strain of

R R
VB V

2R

VC VB VC V0

10 R

Given
Gf = 2.03

0 (1)

one gauge is participating actively for strain,

hence its a quarter bridge voltage of quarter
bridge output

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: 364 :

VBridge

Vs
R

4 R 2 R

Transducers

R G f R
6

= 2.03 1450 10 350

The displacement is to be measured is

applied to the arm attached to the soft iron
core.

Principle of operation:
A.C. Excitation

Now

VBridge = 7.314 10 _ 3 V

Primary
winding
Arm

06.

Core

Sol:

Displacement

LVDT is an inductive transducer which

converts linear motion into electrical
signals.

ES1
S1

Sec.windings

The basic construction of LVDT is shown

in the figure below.
Secondary Primary
Winding S1 Winding P

As the primary winding is excited by an

alternating current source it produces an
alternating magnetic field. Which in turns
produces alternating current voltages in
secondary windings.

The induced voltage in secondary winding

s1 is Es1 and secondary winding s2 is Es2.
As 2 coils are connected in series
opposition the output voltage is the
difference between induced voltage.

S2
Former

Arm
Soft iron core
Displacement

The transformer consists of a single

primary winding p and two secondary
windings s1 and s2 wound on a cylindrical
former.
The secondary windings have equal
number of turns and are connected in
series opposition.
The primary windings is connected to an
alternating current source and a movable
soft iron core is placed inside the former.

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ES2
S2

A.C. Excitation

Primary
winding
Core
Displacement

E S1

E S2

E0
Differential output E0 = E s1 E s 2

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When the core is at null position as shown

in fig. The flux linking with both
secondary windings is equal and hence
equal emf are induced in them. Thus, at
null position Es1 = Es2. The output voltage
of transducer is difference between two
voltages and value E0 = 0.

When the core moved to left of the null

position more flux linked with winding
s1 and less with s2 and the output voltage
E0 = Es1 = Es2.

When the core moved to right of null

position more flux links with s2 and less
flux links with s1. Which results Es2 is
greater than Es1 so the output voltage E0
= E2 Es1.

Characteristics:
The output voltage of an LVDT is a
linear function of core displacement with
in a limited range of movement.
The graph given below shows the
variation of output voltage with respect to
displacement of the core.

Linear
range

Output voltage,
E0
=60o

=180o

Residual
voltage
B

C
Displacement

When the core is at C the output voltage

is 0 as Es1 = Es2.
When core moves to 1 Es1 is greater than
Es2.
When core moves to 1 Es2 is greater than
Es1.

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Features:
Advantages:
LVDT has high range for measurement of
displacement.
As in LVDT core not came in contact
with coils it is a frictionless device.
Resolution of LVDT is purely infinite.
As it is a transformer it maintains
complete isolation between the excitation
voltage given to the primary winding and
output voltage produced from the second
windings.
Sensitivity of LVDT is high and it shows
low hysteresis.
Disadvantages:
Large displacements are required for
measurable differential output.
Performance of LVDT disturbs due to
vibrations.
The recoding instrument should operate
on a.c.
Uses:
Acting as a primary transducer LVDT
converts displacement into an electrical
output.
Acting as a secondary transducer it can
be used as a device to measure force,
weight and pressure.
07.
Sol:
a) for a displacement of 0.5mm, the output
is 2mv, so the
Sensitivity (s) = 2/0.5 mv/mm
= 4mv/mm
b) for the whole setup, the sensitivity is
S = 150 4mv / mm
= 1v/mm

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c) Given that,
The output of the voltmeter is 5v with
100 divisions which means that each
division = 5v/100 = 0.05V
The minimum voltage that can read is
1/5th of a division, so the minimum
voltage is
0.05v
=
0.01V
5
Which corresponds to
Resolution R = 0.01mm
08.
Sol:

0.01mm

so

The equivalent circuit diagram of LVDT

is
shown in figure below

Transducers

E ex i p .R p LP
E s1 M 1

di p
dt

(1)

di p
dt

E s2 M 2

di p
dt

E diff E s1 E s2 M 1 M 2

di p
dt

(2)

Differential voltage is directly proportional to

the difference
between
two mutual
inductance (M1M2)
So Ediff (M1M2)
Apply Laplace transform to equation (1) and (2)
Eex(s) =Ip(s) RP+ LPSIp(s)

RP

M1

fex>fx
Eex

Ns1

iP
Lp

E s1 E
dif

M. fex.
M2

N s2 Es2

Fx

When displacement x=0 , mutual

inductance M1 = M2.
When core is above the null position
then M1 greater than M2
When core is below the null position
then M1 less than M2

(3)

Ediff(s) = (M1M2) S.IP(s)

(4)

Eex(s)= (RP+LPs) IP(s)

Now

E diff s M 1 M 2 s M 1 M 2

.
E ex s
R P LPs
RP

Lp
RP

s
L
1 s P
RP

Time constant

E diff s M 1 M 2

.
2
E ex s
RP
1

From the circuit

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Phase Shift Error:

phase

Tan 1
2

To get accurate and error free phase relation

ship between differential and
excitation
voltages following frequency has to be
applied.

Excitation frequency should be 10 times

greater
than
displacement
frequency.
Normally frequency of excitation is in the
range of 2 KHz to 20 KHz.

The output frequency of LVDT is in the range

of fex fx

The output signal of LVDT is modulated

signal containing displacement as message
signal and excitation voltage as carrier signal.

09.
Sol:
Differential arrangement:- A linear
characteristic can be achieved by using a
differential arrangement for capacitive
displacement transducer.
Fixed
Plate P1

P1 & P2 are fixed plates and M is movable

plate to which the displacement to be
measured is applied.
A
A
and C 2
C1
d
d
An alternating current voltage E is applied
across plates P1 and P2 and difference of the
voltages across two capacitances is measured.
When the movable plate is in middle
C1 = C2 ; E1 = E2 = E/2.
E E
E diff E 1 E 2 0 when x = 0
2 2
When the movable plate M moved up due to
displacement x then,
A
A
C1
; C2
dx
dx
A
EC2
dx
dx
E1

E
C1 C 2 A A
2d

d x dx
dx
Similarly E 2
E
2d
Now the differential voltage
x
E E 2 E 1 E
d
Output voltage varies linearly
displacement x.
E E
Sensitivity S

x d

C1, E1

x
d

C2, E2

as

Fixed Plate P2

From the diagram

E C2
C1 C 2
E C1
E2
C1 C 2
E1

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The differential method can be used for

displacements of 108 mm to 10 mm with
an accuracy of 0.1%.

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03. Piezo Electric Transducers

01 & 02.
Sol:
If a force is applied to any crystal, then the
crystal atoms are displaced slightly from
their normal positions in the lattice. This
displacement x is proportional to the
applied force F: i.e., in the steady state,
1
(1)
x F
k
The stiffness k of the crystal is large,
typically 2 109 Nm1. The dynamic
relation between x and F can be represented
by the second-order transfer function:

1/ k
(2)
1
2
F

s 1
2n n
where n = 2fn is large, typically fn = 10 to
kHz, and is small, typically 0.01.
In a piezoelectric crystal, this deformation
of the crystal lattice results in the crystal
acquiring net charge q, proportional to x,
i.e.
q=Kx
(3)

Thus from equation (1) and equation(3) we

K
have will get q F dF
(4)
k
where d = K/k coulombs N1 is the charge
sensitivity to force. Thus a piezoelectric
crystal gives a direct electrical output,
proportional to applied force, so that a
secondary displacement sensor is not
required. The piezoelectric effect is
reversible; equation(4) represents the dirct
effect where an inverse effect where a
voltage V applied to the crystal causes a
mechanical displacement x, i.e.
x = dV
(5)
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Transducers

The inverse effect is important in ultrasonic

transmitters . The dimensions of d in
equation (4), i.e. coulombs N1, are identical
with the dimensions m V1 of d in
equation(5).
In order to measure the charge q, metal
electrodes are deposited on opposite faces
of the crystal to give a capacitor. The
capacitor. The capacitance of a parallel
capacitor formed from a rectangular block
of crystal of thickness t is given by:
A
(6)
CN 0
t
The crystal can therefore be represented as a
charge generator q in parallel with a
capacitance CN, or alternatively by a Norton
equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source iN in parallel with CN. The
magnitude of iN is:
dq
dx
iN
(7)
k
dt
dt
or, in transfer function form
i N
s Ks
(8)
x
where d/dt is replaced by the Laplace
operator s. We note that for a steady force
F, F and x are constant with time, so that
dx/dt and iN are zero.
If the piezoelectric sensor is connected
directly to a recorder by a cable , then the
complete equivalent circuit is show in fig.
The transfer function relating recorder
voltage VL to current iN is shown to be:
VL s
RL

(9)
V i N s 1 R L C N C C s
The overall system transfer function relating
recorder voltage VL to input force F is:

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: 369 :

i N
s VL i N x (10)
F
i N x F
From equation (2), (8)and (9) we have
VL
RL
s
Ks
F
1 R L C N C C s

1/ K
1
2

s 1
2 2
n
n s

(11)

R L C N C C s
K
1

k C N C C 1 R L C N C C s
1
1
2

s 1
2 2
n s
n

(12)

The second term is characteristic of all

elastic elements and cannot be avoided;
however, it causes no problems if the
highest signal frequency MAX is well
below n. The first term s/(s + 1) means
that the system cannot be used for
measuring d.c. and slowly varying forces.
To illustrate this we can plot the frequency
response characteristics G(j) and arg
G(j) for a typical system
Here Amplitude,

1
G j
2 2
2
1
2 2
2

1 2 4 2
n
n

(15)

Transfer function for basic piezoelectric

force measurement system

VL
s
1
s R L
C N C C 1 s 1 2
F
2 2
s 1
n
n s

(13)
Where, RL (CN+CC).
The above transfer function emphasizes the
two disadvantages of this basic system:
The steady-state sensitivity is equal to
d/(CN + CC). Thus the system sensitivity
depends on the cable capacitance CC, i.e.
on the length and type of cable.

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Figure shows the Approximate frequency

response characteristics and equivalent
circuit for a piezoelectric measurement
system
fn= 27 kHz
n = 1.7 105 rad/s1
= 0.01

G(j)
Amplitude
ratio
Charge amplifier
F = RFCF = 1

Cn = 1600 pF
CC= 600 pF
RL = 106
= 2.2 ms

1.0
1

0
+190o

10

10

Basic system
n
103

104

10

106

0o

The dynamic part of the system transfer

function (ignoring recorder dynamics) is:

G (s)

s
1
(14)
s 1 1 2
2
s 1

n
n

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90o

Charge amplifier
F = RFCF = 1

180o

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: 370 :

capacitance of the setup is shown in figure

below.

RF108

0
i=0

i=0
dq
i
N dt

1600
pF

CN

Piezoelectric
crystal

iI

i+ = 0

600
pF

CC

Cable

Cable
capacitanc
e

CF 104 pF
iF

Charge generator

V =0
i = 0

Transducers

10
RL
o

V out

Rleak

Ccryst

Ccable

Ramplifie
r

Out put

al

0
Charge amplifier

Crystal
resistance

Recorder

03.
Sol:
Piezo-electricity represents the property of a
number of crystalline materials that cause the
crystal to develop an electric charge or
potential difference when subjected to
mechanical forces or stresses along specific
planes. Conversely, the crystal would undergo
change in thickness when charged electrically
by a potential difference applied to its proper
axis. Elements exhibiting piezo-electric
qualities are sometimes known as electro
restrictive elements
The following fig indicates the schematic
arrangement and the equivalent circuit for a
piezoelectric measuring system.

C = Ccrystal +Ccable +Camplifier

The leakage resistance of the crystal Rleak and

the resistance of the amplifier Ramplifier are in
parallel, and the effective resistance R
becomes
R

R leak R amplifier
R leak R amplifier

Usually Rleak >> Ramplifier and therefore

R = Ramplfier .
The

Force F

Crystal
Amplifier Amplifier
capacitance capacitanc resistance
e

electrical

equivalent

circuit

of

Piezoelectric transducer is shown in the figure

Electrodes

Below

Output
VoltageE0
W

C
i1

l
Piezoelectric crystal
The various capacitances like Ccrystal, Ccable
and Camplifier are in parallel and the combined

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i3
Current
generator

V0

i2

Electric circuit for a

piezo-electric crystal

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: 371 :

The current generated by the crystal

i3

dQ d
dF
KF K
dt dt
dt

Where Q is the charge produced, K is the

crystal sensitivity and F is the force impressed
onto the crystal. From the figure
i3 = i1 + i2
K

device called as cathode follower between the

crystal and the amplifier.

The cathode follower is essentially a triode

which presents a high impedance at its input
to the crystal and a low impedance at its
output. This aspect also serves to avoid the
impedance loading problems particularly
when the amplifiers input impedance is small
compared to that of the crystal

dV
V
dF
C 0 0
dt
dt
R

(or) KR
(or)

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dV
dF
RC 0 V0
dt
dt

dV
K
dF
RC
RC 0 V0
C
dt
dt

dF
dV
(or) K
0 V0
dt
dt

Where = RC represents time constant for

K
the arrangement and K
denotes voltage
C
sensitivity constant. Using operator D for

d
, we get KDF 1 D V0
dt

The above first order differential expression

relates the input (force F) and output (voltage
V0) of the transducer.

From the above expression we can conclude

that the output of the transducer is zero for
static force .

For good frequency and transient response of

the system, the time constant should have a
high value and this can be attained by having
a high value of R and C or both. One of the
arrangement employs an impedance converter

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: 372 :

04. Measurement of Temperature

01.
Sol: Thermistors are generally composed of
semi-conductor materials although positive
temperature co-efficient of units are
available most thermistors have a negative
coefficient of temperature resistance.
Construction:
Thermistors are composed of sintered
mixture of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron
and uranium.
They are available in variety of sizes
and shapes the thermistors may be in the
form of beads, rods and discs as shown
in figure
Leads

Glass coated bead

Leads

Glass

bead
probe

Leads

Lead

Disc

Transducers

Resistance-Temperature characteristics:
The mathematical expression for the
relationship between the resistance of a
thermistor and absolute temperature of
thermistor is
1
1
RT1 = RT2exp
T1 T2
Where, RT1 = Resistance of the thermistor at
absolute temperature T1 in K
RT2 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute
temperature T2 in K
= a constant depending upon the material of
thermistor typically in between 3500K to
4500K
The resistance temperature characteristics of
a typical thermistor are shown in figure.
The resistance temperature characteristic of
figure shows that a thermistor has a very
high negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance, making it an ideal temperature
transducer.
The resistance temperature characteristics
of platinum which is a commonly used
material for Resistance thermistors. Let
us compare the characteristics of two
materials.

Rod
1010

A thermistor in the form of a bead is smallest

in size and the bead may have a diameter of
0.015mm to 1.25 mm
Beads may be sealed in the tips of solid glass
rods to form probes which may be easier to
mount than the beads.
Glass probes have a diameter of about 2.5mm
and a length which varies from 6mm to
50mm.
Discs are made by pressing material under
high pressure into cylindrical flat shapes with
diameters ranging from 2.5mm to 25mm

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108
106

Thermistor

104

Resistivity, m 10

10
102
104
106
108

Platinum
100

100 200 300 400 500

Temperature 0C

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: 373 :

Between 1000C and 4000C, the thermistor

changes its resistivity from 105 to 102m, a
factor of 107, while platinum changes its
resistivity by a factor of about 10 within the
same temperature Range.

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If change in temperature from 1 to 2 is

considered then
R1=R0(1+1)
R2= R0(1+2)

This explains the high sensitivity of

thermistors for measurement of temperature.

The characteristics of thermistors are nonlinear but a linear approximation of the

resistance temperature curve can be
obtained over a small range of temperature.
For a limited range of temperature, the
resistance of a thermistor varies as given by
R = R 0 [1 + 0]

02.
Sol:
Most metals becomes more resistant to the
passage of electric current as they become
hotter, i.e., their resistance increases with
growth in temperature. The relation between
resistance and temperature is given by
Rt = R0 (1+t +t2)

We can write

2 1

The linear relationship implies that changes is

resistance are directly proportional to changes
in temperature.

The thermometer comprises a resistance

element or bulb, suitable electrical leads, and
an
indicating-recording
or
resistance
measuring instrument.

The resistance element is usually in the form

of a coil of very fine platinum, nickel or
copper wound non-conductively onto an
insulating ceramic former which is protected
externally by a metal sheath.
Leads

Where Rt is resistance at any temperature t0C,

R0 is resistance at Zero 0C, and are
constants depending on the material. The
constants R0, and are determined at the
ice, steam and sulphur points respectively.
Over a limited temperature range around zero
0
C, the following linear relationship is equally
valid. R 1 R 0 1 1
Where is the temperature coefficient of
resistance in 0C1 and is temperature relative
to 00C.
The value of temperature coefficient of
resistance is 0.00390C1 for platinum,
0.00430C1 for copper and 0.0068 0C1 for
nickel.

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R 2 R1 R 2 R1
;
R 0
R 0
2 1

Platinum
sensing
coil

Glass or
pyrex bulb
laboratory type

A laboratory type of resistance thermometer

is often wound on a crossed mica former and
enclosed in a pyrex tube . The tube may be

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: 374 :

Transducers

evacuated or filled with an inert gas to protect

the metal wire. Care is to be taken to ensure
that the resistance wire is free from
mechanical stresses. A metal which has been
strained will suffere a change in the resistance
characteristics, the metal is therefore usually
annealed at a temperature higher than that at
which it is so operate.

The accuracy attainable with a platinum

resistance thermometer is of the order of
0.10C upto 12000C. Because of accuracy,
stability and sensitivity, the platinum
resistance thermometer has been used to
define international temperature scale from
the 182.90C to the freezing of antimony
630.50C.

Leads are taken out of the thermometer for

the measurement of changes in resistance in
order to determine the value of temperature.
The change in resistance is usually measured
by a wheat stone bridge which may be used
either in the null condition or in the deflection
condition. For steady state measurements, null
condition
suffices
whereas
transient
conditions usually require the use of the
deflection mode.

Advantages:-

Industrial resistance thermometers, often

referred to as resistance temperature detectors
(RTD) are usually made with elements of
platinum, nickel and copper and copper.
Leads

Metal sheath

Resistance
wire

Ceramic former
Industrial type

For precise temperature measurements,

platinum is preferred because it is physically
stable and has high electrical resistance
characteristics.
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Simplicity and accuracy of operation

Easy installation and replacement of

sensitive bulb

Easy check on the accuracy of the

measuring circuit by substituting a
standard resistance for the resistance
element

Flexibility with regard to the choice of

the measuring equipment, and inter
changeability of element and assembly of
components

Possibility of much large distance

between the temperature sensitive element
and the indicating element than that with
the pressure actuated thermometers

Absence of any reference junction, and so

more effective at room temperature when
compared to a thermocouple

Possibility of average temperature

measurements by suitably connecting the
temperature sensitive element

A positive temperature coefficient of

resistance is relatively well-behaved
function compared with the output of
thermocouple

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Disadvantages:

Resistance change due to temperature

changes of measuring resistors

More lag because the thermometer is

invariably enclosed in a protecting sheath

Possibility of current leakage between the

resistance element and the ground

Generation of thermoelectric emf at the

junction of similar metals; its elimination
requires the use of only copper switches
and copper wire connections.

Current through sensor is restricted is 30mA

Voltage across AB terminals
=30[400 + 401.26]103
= 24.038
24V (DC supply)
Thevinins equivalent resistance across AB
terminals = (400 + 401.26)||(400 + 400)
= (801.26)||(800)
=

04.
Sol:

801.26 800
801.26 800

= 400.3147
Given
R1=R2=R3=R4 = 400;

= 0.042/oC

T = 30C;
A

I = 30mA

= 24[0.5 0.499] = 0.0188V

I through the meter

RTD

400

400
400
Vth = 24

800 801.26

Rth

I=30mA
400

C
R

Vth

24V

400

400

I=

=
Due to temperature rise of 300C, increase in
the resistance of sensor by = 0.042 30

Im(100) Rm

Vth
R th R m
0.0188
= 37.58A
400.3147 100

Deflection of the meter = 37.58 2

= 75.16

= 1.26

So resistance of sensor branch become

= 400 + 1.26
= 401.26
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05. Measurement of Flow

Transducers

01.
Sol:
Advantages of the venture meter:
High pressure recovery is attainable, i.e.,
loss of head due to its installation in the
pipe lines is small.
Because of smooth surface, the meter is
not much affected by wear and abrasion.
Well established characteristics; years of
applicational experience.
Less likelihood of becoming clogged with
sediments.
Due to low value of losses, the coefficient of discharge is high and
approaches unity under
favourable
conditions
Long laying length; space requirements
are more
Venturi meters are ideally suited for
measurement of :
Large flow of water
Process fluids, i.e., fluids used in
industrial processes
Industrial wastes
Gases
Suspended particles, slurries and dirty
liquids Orifice
Advantages of orifice meter
Low initial ease of installation and
replacement.
Characteristics are well known and
predictable ; years of applicable
experience.
Requires less space as compared with
venturi meter
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Can be used in wide range of pipe size

(1.25cm to 150cm)
Pressure recovery is poor. The overall
pressure loss varies from 40 to 90% of the
differential pressure.
Necessity of providing straightening
vanes upstream.
Coefficient of discharge has a low value.
Sucessity of providing straightening vanes
upstream.

02.
Sol: For a variable head flow meter for in
compressible fluid
m = fluid mass flow in certain time,
p1 = static pressure at inlet
p2 = static pressure at outlet
v = specific volume,
V1 = average flow velocity at inlet,
V2 = average flow velocity at outlet,
A1= area at inlet
A2= area at outlet
1=density of fluid at inlet
2=density of fluid at outlet
By Bernoullis equation we can write
2
2
P1 V1
P2 V2

...........(1)
1
2
2
2
The continuity relation for the flow
is m 1 A 1 V1 2 A 2 V2

situation

Where 1 = 2 = for incompressible fluid

flow from section 1 to section 2. This yields
V1 = (A2/A1)V2.(2)
Solution of equations (1) and (2) gives out
flow velocity

V2

1
1 A 2 / A 1

p1 p 2

............(3)

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: 377 :

The downstream fluid velocity V2 as given

by equation shown above has been derived
without considering any losses and so it is the
ideal or hypothetical velocity at the minimum
section. The actual velocity can be obtained
by multiplying the theoretical velocity by a
factor Cv called the coefficient of velocity.
The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of
actual mean velocity to the ideal mean
velocity which would occur without any
friction loss.
Cv

actual mean velocity

ideal mean velocity

V2 actual C v

1 A 2 / A1

2p1 p 2

For obtaining the volume flow rate, we apply

the continuity equation.
Discharge = area velocity
Q A 2Cv

2p1 p 2

1
1 A 2 / A 1

During flow through an orifice meter, the

fluid jet on leaving the orifice contracts to
minimum area at a section called venacontracta. Area of fluid jet ar vena contracta is
less than area of the orifice and the two are
related by the equation:
Area of jet at vena contracta = Cc orifice
area
Where Cc is the co-efficient of contraction.
Thus if the orifice area is A2, then the area at
minimum section which controls the flow rate
and where the path of particles becomes
parallel again would be Cc A2.
Actual discharge

Q C c A 2 C v

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1
1 A 2 / A 1

2p1 p 2

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For venturi meter and flow nozzle, there is

almost no formation of vena contracta and the
coefficient of contraction can be taken as
unity.
Combining Cv and Cc into a single factor Cd
called the coefficient of discharge, the
volumetric flow rate through the meter can be
written as

Q Cd

A2
1 A 2 / A 1

2p 1 p 2
...........(4)

The discharge coefficient Cd is not constant; it

depends primarily on the flow Reynolds
number and the channel geometry.
For given meter, A1 and A2 have definite
values and so the quantity 1 A 2 / A 1

Is constant for the meter. This parameter

allows for the additional kinetic head of the
approaching fluid and is called velocity of
approach factor ; its value is always greater
than unity. For upstream velocity V1 equal to
zero, the velocity of approach factor M=1.0.
Q C d MA 2

2p1 p 2

For venture meter, the factors Cd and M are

applied separately but for nozzles and orifice
plates these factors are combined into a single
factor known as the flow coefficient and
designated as K.
2p1 p 2
Qactual C d MA 2

For venturi meter

2p1 p 2
KA 2

For nozzles and orifice plates

The area A2 is usually determined from

measurements obtained at room temperature

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: 378 :

but in use this area in influenced by the

temperature of the fluid flowing through the
meter. The actual discharge is essentially
worked out from the relation
2p1 p 2
Qactual C d MA 2 E

For venturi meter.

2p1 p 2
= KA 2 E

For nozzles and orifice plates.

Where E is thermal expansion correction
factor. If the density is replaced by specific
weight w, equation can be written as:
Qactual C d MA 2 E

2g
p1 p 2
w

For venturi meter

MA 2 E

2g
p1 p 2
w

For nozzles and orifice plate.

03.
Sol:
Venture meter is simple and reliable
device finds an extensive use for water
flow measurement, particularly in large
size pipes and for large flow rates.
entry

Converging
cone

Diverging
section

Throat

Advantages and Limitations:

Chapter than a standard venturi meter and
can be installed in an existing main
without great difficulty.
Increased coefficient of discharge when
compared with orifice.
Physical length is less compared to
venturi meter.
Widely
accepted
for
highpressure/temperature steam flow.
Good for fluid containing solids that
settle.
Discharge of liquids into the atmosphere
can be metered. The down stream pressure
p2 in that case is atmospheric pressure and
we need
to measure the difference between
upstream pressure p1 and atmospheric
pressure.
Pressure recovery is poor and so cannot be
used where available pressure head is
small or where pressure recovery is a
must. The pressure loss is, however, less
than that of an orifice plate.
Compared to orifice meter, it is expensive
and also difficult to install.
flow nozzle
Nozzles are used in engineering practice for
the creation of jets
D

0.5D

1 = 21020
2 = 50 to150
Pressure
sensing
holes

Transducers

Flow nozzle

and streams for all purposes as will as for

fluid metering. When placed in or at the
end of a pipe line as metering devices,
they are called flow nozzles
Venturi flow meter

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: 379 :

Advantages and Limitations:

Chapter than a standard venturi meter and can
be installed in an existing main without great
difficulty.
Increased coefficient of discharge when
compared with orifice.
Physical length is less compared to venturi
meter.
Widely
accepted
for
highpressure/temperature steam flow.
Good for fluid containing solids that settle.
Discharge of liquids into the atmosphere can
be metered. The down stream pressure p2 in
that case is atmospheric pressure and we need
to measure the difference between upstream
pressure p1 and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure recovery is poor and so cannot be
used where available pressure head is small or
where pressure recovery is a must. The
pressure loss is, however, less than that of an
orifice plate.
Compared to orifice meter, it is expensive
and also difficult to install.
Limited to moderate pipe size ; not available
above 120cm.
orifice meter

The orifice meter consists of a thin, circular

metal plate with a hole in it. The plate is held
in the pipe line between tow flanges called
orifice flanges. The flow characteristics of the
orifice differ from those of a nozzle in that
minimum section of the stream tube occurs
not within the orifice but downstream from
the orifice edge. This minimum area is called
vena contracta and it is at this area where
minimum pressure is obtained. It is not
feasible to locate the down stream pressure
connection at the vena contracta because the
location of vena-contracta depends on
Reynolds number, area

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Orifice plate

Ratio between orifice and pipe, the roughness

of the pipe and the compressibility of the
fluid. It is also sensitive to the upstream
velocity profiles and to the sharpness of the
upstream edge of the orifice plate.
Accordingly downstream pressure tapping is
taken at a fixed proportion of the pipe
diameter and correction for vena contracta is
made.

Advantages and limitations

Low initial
replacement.

Characteristics are well known and

predictable ; years of applicable experience.

Requires less space as compared with venturi

meter

Can be used in wide range of pipe size

(1.25cm to 150cm)

Pressure recovery is poor. The overall

pressure loss varies from 40 to 90% of the
differential pressure.

Necessity of providing straightening vanes

upstream.

Coefficient of discharge has a low value.

Sucessity of providing straightening vanes

upstream.

Tends to clog; not suitable for slurries or

entrained particles.

ease

of

installation

and

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: 380 :

04.
Sol:
The operation of electromagnetic flow-meters
is based on Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, which states that an emf of e volts
is induced in a conductor of length l metres
when it moves with a transverse velocity of v
m/s across a magnetic field of strength B
wb/m2 and the induced emf in the conductor
is given by the expression e = Blv volts

Transducers

the magnetic field strength, B

the distance between the electrodes, d
the average velocity of the conductive fluid
flowing through the non-conductive tube.

If the magnetic field strength B and the

distance between the electrodes d are kept
constant the voltage induced will be directly
proportional to the flow-rate of the flowing
fluid.

Advantages:

The main advantages of the electromagnetic

flow-meter are that it does not obstruct the
flow in any way that may cause pressure
drops.

It has no moving part that may cause friction

It is insensitive to viscosity, density, and flow

disturbances (as long as the velocity profile is
symmetrical).

It has a wide linear range of 10 : 1 with good

accuracy and reliability.

It is simple and rugged in construction.

Its response is fast and is independent of the

properties of the fluid except for the electrical
conductivity.

Electrode
N
B
S

V0

d
V
Flow
Electrode

Electromagnetic flow-meter

Since the voltage induced depends on the rate

at which the conductor moves through the
magnetic field, the magnitude of voltage
induced can be used as an indication of the
flow-rate of liquid.

The flowing fluid through the pipe should be

conductive and should have a conductivity at
least about 103 mho per meter.

As the conductive fluid flows through the

insulated tube through the magnetic field, a
voltage is induced across the electrodes.

The voltage induced across the electrodes

varies directly in proportion to

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: 381 :

06. Measurement of Pressure

01.
Sol:
Absolute pressure (Pabs): Pressure has been
defined as te force per unit area due to
interaction of fluid particles amongst
themselves. A zero pressure intensity will
occur when molecular momentum is zero.
Such a situation can occur only when there
is a perfect vacuum, i.e., a vanishingly
small population of gas molecules or of
molecular velocity. Pressure intensity
measured from this state of vacuum or zero
pressure is called absolute pressure.
(ii) Gauge pressure (Pg) and vacuum (Pvac) :
Instruments and gauges used to measure
fluid pressure generally measure the
difference between the unknown pressure P
and the existing atmospheric pressure Pat as
shown in

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02.
Sol: In the resistance thermometer (Pirani) gauge,
an estimate of the filament temperature and
hence pressure of the gas is made by
employing the following alternate techniques
:
Maintenance of constant voltage on the
wire, and noting change in the current as a
function of pressure.
Maintenance of constant resistance and
hence the temperature of the wire, and
noting change in the energy input as a
function of pressure.
Maintenance of constant current, and
observing change in filament resistance as
a function of pressure.
The last technique is recommended as
being the most sensitive for making
pressure measurements. The resistance of
the filament can be measured by the
Wheatstone bridge arrangement.
Heater element
Vacuum

When the unknown pressure is more than

atmospheric pressure., the pressure recorded
by the instrument is called gauge pressure.
A pressure reading below the atmospheric
pressure is known as vacuum, rarefaction or
negative pressure. Actual absolute pressure
is then the algebraic sum of the gauge
indication and the atmospheric pressure.
Gauge
pressure

|Absolute pressure
(greater pressure)
greater than
atmospheric

Atmospheric
pressure line

Fig. Pirani vacuum gauge

Vaccum
Absolute pressure
(less than atmospheric)

Milli
ammeter

Atmospheric
pressure

Pirani gauges cover the range about 105 to 1

torr.

Absolute
zero pressure
Relation between absolute, gauge and atmospheric pressure

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Advantages and limitations:

Rugged, more accurate but expensive than
thermocouple gauges.
Wide pressure reading range.
Fast response to pressure changes.
Linearity dependent on the part of the
range used; it is linear from 5103 to 101
mm Hg.
Possibility of process control and
remoting reading.
Need for individual and frequent
calibration for different gases.
Operation requires electrical power.
03.
Sol:
Bellows gauges:
The bellows is a longitudinally expansible
and collapsible member consisting of
several convolutions or folds. The
generally
acceptable
methods
of
fabrication are :
(i) turning from a solid stock of metal,
(ii) soldering or welding stamped annular
rings, (iii) rolling a tubing, and (iv)
hydraulically forming a drawn tube.
Material selection is generally based on
considerations like strength or the
pressure range, hysteresis and fatigue,
corrosiveness of the bellows environment,
ease of fabrication etc. Most common
materials chosen for bellows fabrication
are : trumpet brass, stainless steels,
phosphor bronze and beryllium copper.

Transducers

measuring devices are used for pressures

less than the lower limit of the bourdon
tube gauge (35 kN/m2). Ranges are of the
order of about 125 mm water gauge to
about 1.05 MN/m2 with an accuracy of 0.5
to 1%.
Advantages :
Simple and rugged construction
Good for low to moderate pressures
Available for gauge, differential and
absolute pressure measurements
Moderate cost
Limitations:
Greater hysteresis and zero shift problems
Unsuitable for transient measurements
due to a longer relative motion and mass.
Needs
spring
for
accurate
characterization.
Require compensation for ambient
temperature changes.
Diaphragm gauges
In its elementary form, a diaphragm is a thin
plate of circular shape clamped firmly around
its edges. The diaphragm gets deflected in
accordance with the pressure differential
across the side; deflection being towards the
low pressure side. The deflection can be
sensed by an appropriate displacement
transducer i.e., it may be converted into
electrical signal or may undergo a mechanical
amplification to permit display of the output
of an indicator dial.

The unit is very sensitive; changes of

pressure of vacuum causing a proportional
change in the effective length. Like
diaphragm gauges these low pressure

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: 383 :

Diaphragm types :
The diaphragms can be in the form of flat,
corrugated or dished plates; the choice
depending on the strength and amount of
deflection desired. Most common types of
diaphragm are shown in Fig.

Dish

Corrugated

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Flat

Capsule

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Advantages :
Relatively small size and moderate cost.
Capability
to
withstand
high
overpressures, and maintain good linearity
over a wide range.
Availability of the gauge for absolute and
differential-pressure measurements
Minimum of hysteresis and no permanent
zero shift.
Limitations:
Needs protection from shock and
vibration.
Can not be used to measure high
pressures.
Difficult to repair.

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: 384 :

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Transducers

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