11 - Measurements IES Postal PDF

Electrical & Electronic
Measurements
ML2 T 2 ML2 T 2 I 2 ML2 T 3 I 1
a
ML T
01. Error Analysis, Units & Standards
a be
01.
1 2
at
2
S = L = distance traveled.
L
U=
= Initial velocity.
T
L
a = 2 = acceleration.
T
1
R.H.S = Ut + at 2
2
L
L
= T 2 T2
T
T
=L
Sol: S = Ut +
02.
Sol: P = I R4
Dimensionally we can write
P = ML2T3
R = ML2T3I2
ML2T3 = I x (ML2T 3I 2 ) y
= M y L2 y T 3 y I 2 y x
By comparing on both sides
y = 1 and 2y + x = 0
x=2
P = I2R
03.
Sol: Td M am V b Ze
Td KM V Z
Where K is a dimensionless constant number
Td ML2T 2
a
m
M ML2T 2 I 2
V ML2T 3I 1
Z ML2T 3I 2
ACE Engineering Academy
2(a b e)
I 1
2 a 3 b 3 e 2 a b 2 e
L
T
I
=M
By comparing on both sides
a+b+e=1
......(1)
2a b 2e = 0 ......(2)
2a + 3b + 3e = 2 ......(3)
From (2)
2a + b + 2e = 0
2(a + e) + b = 0
2(1 b) + b = 0 b = 2
From (3)
2a + 3(2) + 3e = 2
2a + 3e = 4
a + e = 1
2a + 3e = 4 .... (4)
2a + 2e = 2 .... (5)
From equation (4) (5)
e=2
a=1
The torque developed by dynamometer
wattmeter Td = MV2Z2
04.
Sol: Mean = 41.97
SD =
d 2n
n
d1 = -0.27
0.272 0.032 0.172 0.032 (0.13) 2

0.072 0.532 0.032 0.132 0.172
10
= 0.2128
Probable error = 0.6745 SD = 0.143
05.
Sol: Dial resistance of 1000
0.02
Error = 4000
0 .8
100
Dial resistance of 100
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: 328 :
0.05
0.15
100
0 .1
Error = 20
0.02
100
0 .2
Error = 5
0.01
100
Hence total error =(0.8+0.15+0.02 + 0.01)
= 0.98
Error = 300
07.
500
1% 2.27%
220
250
V
0.5% 1.09%
115
5
I
0 .5 % 1 %
2 .5
P
cos =
VI
cos 1
2
P
VI 575
cos P
88
2
V
V I 13225
cos P
176
2
I
575
VI
Maximum uncertinity in
Sol: P
Relative limiting error

0.98
=
1 2.26 10 4
4325
06.
Sol: Internal impedance of 1st voltmeter
100V
= 20 k
5 mA
Internal impedance of 2nd voltmeter
= 100 250 /V = 25 k
Internal impedance of 3rd voltmeters,
= 5 k
Total impedance across 120 V
= 20 + 25 + 5 = 50 k
50 K
Sensitivity =
416.6 / V
120 V
Reading of 1st voltmeter
20 K
=
= 48 V
416.6 / V
Reading of 2nd voltmeter
25 k
=
= 60 V
416.6 / V
Reading of 3rd voltmeter
5 k
= 12 V
4166 / V
Measurements
cos
2 cos
2 cos
2
PF
P
I
V
2
88
176 1
2
2

5
1.25

575
13225
575 40
= 0.0207
08.
Sol: Given data
R1 = 10 k
R2 = 15 k
R3 = R1+R2 = 10+15=25 k (connected in
series)
RR
10 15
R4 1 2
= 6k (connected in
R1 R2
25
parallel)
R1 = Uncertainty in resistor R1
5 10
0 .5 k
100
R 2
Uncertainty
in
resistor
R2
10 15
1 .5 k
100
: 329 :
2
R
R
R 3 3 R 12 3
R 1
R 2
R 3
R
1, 3 1
R 1
R 2
R3
2. Electromechanical Indicating
Instruments
2
R 2
0.5 1 1.5 1.58k

2
1.58
100 6.32%
25
For R4 also we can follow the same method
R3
R4
R
4
R 1
R
R 12 4
R 2
R 22
R 1 R 2 2
01. Ans: 32.4 and 21.1

Sol: I1 = 5 A, 1 = 90
I2 = 3 A, 2 = ?
I2 (as given in Question)
(i) Spring controlled
I2
2 I2

1 I1
R 22
R 4 R 1 R 2 R 2 R 1 R 2
R 1
R 1 R 2 2
IES Postal Coaching Solutions
2 3

90 5
2 = 32.4
15 2
252
(ii) Gravity controlled

sin I2
2
sin 2 I 2

sin 1 I 1
= 0.36
R 4
R 12
10 2
0.16
R 2 R 1 R 2 2 252
sin 2 3

sin 90 5
sin 2
0.36
1
2 = sin1 (0.36) = 21.1
2
R4
0.36
0.5 0.16 1.5

2
= 0.3 k
R4
0.3k
100 5%
6k
09.
Sol: W1 = 50 1.5%;
W2 = 125 05%
1.5% is Guarantee accuracy error
1 .5
error =
150 2.25
100
W1 = 50 2.25 ........(1)
W2 = 125 0.62 .........(2)
From (1) and (2)
175 2.87
2.87
Limiting error =
100 1.64%
175
Total power = 175 1.64%
02. Ans: 3.6 M

Sol: Vm = (0 200) V ; S = 2000 /V
V = (0 2000) V
Rm = s Vm
= 2000 /V 200 V = 400000
R se R m
1
Vm
2000
400000
1
200
= 3.6 M
: 330 :
03.
Sol: Total resistance of moving iron voltmeter
= (Rm + Rse) = 500 + 2000 = 2500
When used for DC, there is no inductance
effect.
The current drawn corresponding to 250V
d.c is
250 V
I dc
0 .1 A
2500
When used for AC voltage, reading of
voltmeter will be affected by inductance of
coil.
At 50 Hz, impedance of instrument is
Z (R m R se ) 2 (2fL m ) 2
Measurements
250 V
Im
R ( L m ) 2
2
m
250 V
(2500) 2 (2 50 0.6) 2
= 0.0997 A
In case (ii),
Im
250 V
(R m R se ) 2 (L m ) 2
0.0997 A
500 V
(2500 R se ) 2 (2 50 0.6) 2
(2500 R se ) 2 35.53 10 3
(2500) 2 (2 50 1) 2 2520
Current drawn by the voltmeter when

connected to 250 AC, 50 Hz supply
250 V
I ac
0.0992 A
2520 A
500
0.0997
(2500 R se ) 2 35.53 10 3 5.015 10 3

Rse = 2511.5
05. Ans: 0.1025 F
Sol:
04. Ans: 2511.5

Sol:
Rse
Lm = 0.6H
250V, 50Hz
V
R m , Lm
Rm = 2500
Rsc = ?
0.41 L m
R se2
0.41 1
C
0.1025 F
(2 K) 2
C
(i)
Lm = 0.6H
500V, 50Hz
Rm = 2500
(ii)
Current is same in case (i) & (ii)

In case (i),
06. Ans: 125

Sol: Dynamometer type Ammeter
I 2 dM

K C d
25 2
0.2 10 6 125
6
10
: 331 :
Resistance of coil winding

Rc = 0.3 20 = 6
Length of mean turn
Lmt = 2(l + d) = 2(30 + 25) = 110 mm.
07.
400 mv
Sol: Rm =
20
20mA
Rm
20 mA
200 A
m=
10 103
20 mA
400 mV
R
R sh m
m 1
20
Rm=20
10 103 1
Rse
2 m
R se R m (m 1)
1000V
1000 V
m
400 mV
Where
10
10 3 2500
4
= 20 (2500 1) 49980 = 49.98 k
Let a be the area of cross section of wire and

be the resistivity.
Resistance of coil, Rc = NLmt/a
Area of cross section of wire
100 1.7 10 8 110 10 3
a=
10 6
6
= 31.37 103 mm2
Diameter of wire, d = [(4/)(31.37103)]1/2
= 0.2 mm
09.
Sol: An expression for the torque of a moving
08.
Sol: Voltage across instrument for full scale
deflection = 100 mV.
Current in instrument for full
deflection
V 100 10 3
I=
= 5 103 A
R
20
Deflecting torque
Td = NBldI
=100B3003 25103 5 103
= 375 108 m.
Controlling torque for a deflection
= 120,
Tc = K = 0.375 106 120
= 45 106 N-m
At final steady position,
Td = Tc or 375 106B = 45 106
Flux density in the air gap
B=
45 10 6
= 0.12 Wb/m2
6
375 10
scale
iron instrument may be derived by

considering the energy relations when there
is a small increment in current supplied to
the instrument. When this happens, there
will be a small deflection d and some
mechanical work will be done.
Let Td be the deflecting torque.
Mechanical work done = Td.d
Alongside, there will be a change in the
energy stored in the magnetic field owing to
change in inductance.
d
dL
dI
e LI I
L
dt
dt
dt
The electrical energy supplied eIdt
= I2dL+ILdI
The stored energy changes from
1
1
2
= I 2 L to I dI L dL
2
2
Hence, the change in stored energy
1 2
1
I 2IdI dI 2 L dL I 2 L
2
2
Neglecting second and higher order terms in
1
small quantities, this becomes ILdI I 2 dL
2
: 332 :
From the principle of the conservation of

energy, electrical energy supplied = increase
in stored energy + mechanical work done.
1
I 2 dL ILdI ILdI I 2 dL Td d
2
1
Td d I 2 dL
2
dL
Td I 2
2 d
The moving system is provided with control
springs and it turns. The deflecting torque Td
is balanced by the controlling torque
TC = K
K = spring constant Nm/rad
= deflection: rad
At equilibrium, TC = Td
1 I 2 dL
2 K d
10.
Sol: Given k = 0.4 106N-m/degree
1 I
2 k
dL

d
From given data = 45,

366.5 355.5
dt
1.1H / deg ree

50 40
d 45
63.02 H / rad
1
I2
63.02 10 6
6
2 0.4 10
2 45 0.4 10 6
36
2
I
6
63.02 10
63.02
I 0.75 A
45
Tc = k
= 0.4 10 6 45
= 18 106 N-m
11.
Sol: Distance between plates d = 4 mm
Area of plates A = d 2
4
2
= 0.08
4
= 5.026 103 m2
Voltage V =
2Fd 2`
EA
Given data:
I = 5A,
K = 24106Nm/rad
L = (20+1022)
dL
10 4H / rad, K
d
24 10 6 Nm / rad
1
52

10 4 10 6
2 24 10 6
(1+2.083) = 5.208
= 1.689 rad
= 96.77
Measurements
2 0.002 4 10 3
=
8.85 10 12 5.026 10 3
= 1200 V
12.
Sol: Given data, = 80 = 80
rad
180 9
1 V 2 dc
2 k d
The rate of change of capacitance
4
2
7.06 10 6
dc 20k
9
d V 2
30002
= 2.19 1012 F/rad

Change in capacitance when instrument
reads from 0 to 3000 V
4
=
2.19 PF
9
= 3.05 PF
: 333 :
3. Measurement of power and

Energy
From phasor diagram IR vs. VRY = 30
01 and 02
Sol: The power of a 3-phase, 3-wire unbalanced
load can be measured by using two
wattmeter as shown below,
W1 = ILVL cos (30)

Similarly for wattmeter W2, we can write
(W2 = IBVBY cos (IB vs. VBY))
TPST switch
R
W2 = IBVBY cos (30 + )

W2 = ILVL cos (30 + )
To get active power p
W1
L
W1 = IRVRY cos(30)
Here IR = ICC = IL, VRY = VPC = VL
W1+W2 = ILVL cos(30) + ILVL cos (30+)

= ILVL [cos (30) + cos (30 + )]
3- lagging load
= ILVL.2.cos30cos
= VLIL2
C
B
M
3VL I L cos = P
V
W2
W1+W2 =
P = W1 + W2 =
From the equation of wattmeter power

P = ICCVPCcos(ICC vs. VPC) ---------- (1)
For wattmeter, W1
ICC = IR, VPC = VRY
Sub ICC, VPC in equation (1)
W1 = IRVRY cos (IR Vs VRY)
From the phasor diagram of 3 - system
3 VLIL cos
Similarly for reactive power Q

W1W2 = VLIL cos(30 ) VLIL cos(30+)
= VLIL [cos(30) cos(30+)]
= VLIL [2sin30.sin]
= VLIL2
1
sin
2
W1 W2 = VLIL sin
3 VLIL sin
But Q =
VRY
3
cos
2
Q =
3 (W1 W2) =
3 VLIL sin
Similarly for power factor
VR
IR
tan =
300
600
1200
300
VY
3 ( W1 W2 )
= tan W1 W2
VBY
Power factor = cos
VY
IB
Q Re active power
P
Active power
VB
3 ( W1 W2 )
W
1
2
= cos Tan 1
: 334 :
03.
Sol: Assumption: Supply voltage is equal to the
VL I L
cos cos( )
RP
V I
Pm = L L cos cos( )
RP
V I
Pt = L L cos
RP
P
Correction factor CF = t
PM
cos
C.F. =
<1
cos cos( )
1
% error =
1 100
C.F
cos . cos( )
% error =
1 100
cos
% error = + (tan.tan) 100

Td =
load voltage i.e., drop in the current coil is

zero
Circuit diagram:
C.C C.C
P.C
1-
AC
Supply
L
O
A
D
XP
RP
ZP
XP
Similarly for leading loads
RP
Impedance Triangle
From the impedance triangle

- Pressure coil impedance angle.
For the above circuit, phasor diagram can be
drawn as follows.
VL
Ip
IL
From the equation of deflecting torque of a

wattmeter
dM
Td = ILIp cos ().
dQ
dM
Here
= constant under steady state.
d
V
Td = IL. L cos( )
ZP
R
Here
ZP = P
(From impedance
cos
triangle)
Measurements
% error = (tan .tan) 100

04.
Sol: From given data
Supply voltage V = 240V

Measured power when wattmeter with P.C
of 2 phase angle = 700W
i.e. VLIL coscos () = 700W
VLIL cos2cos (2) = 700W
VLIL cos ( 2) = 700.42
IL cos ( 2) = 2.918 ------------------(1)
Power measured when wattmeter with P.C.
having 1 phase angle is used = 620W
i.e. ILVL cos.cos () = 620W
620
IL cos (1) =
240 cos10
IL cos (1) = 2.583 ---------------- (2)
By dividing equation (1) with (2)
I L cos( 2) 2.918
I L cos( 1) 2.583
: 335 :
cos (2) = [cos (1)]1.1293

cos.cos2 + sinsin2
= (coscos1 sinsin1)1.1293
0.99939cos + 0.03489sin
= 1.1291cos 0.0197sin
0.0546sin = 0.1297cos
sin
= 2.3756
cos
Sol: For the calibration of a wattmeter, a circuit
similar to figure shown below may be used

Such an arrangement, however, results
in a considerable consumption of power
especially, when the wattmeter has a
large rating.
In order to save expenditure of power,
arrangement of figure below used.
The current coil of wattmeter is supplied
from a low voltage supply and a series
rheostat is inserted to adjust the value of
current
The potential circuit is supplied from the
supply. A volt ratio box is used to step
down the voltage for the potentiometer
to read
This type of arrangement is known as
phantom loading. The voltage V, and
the current, I are measured in turn with
the potentiometer employing a double
pole double throw (DPDT) switch.
A
Regulating
rheostat
Low voltage
supply
Standard
Current coil resistor
S
Potential divider
Pressure coil
High voltage
supply
Volt-ratio box
V2
D.P.D.T
V
To Potentiometer
05.
The true power is then VI and the

wattmeter reading may be compared
with this value.
I
= tan-1(2.3756)
= 67.170
Power factor = cos = 0.387
2.583
Equation. (2) IL =
= 6.393
cos(67.17 1)
True power = VLIL cos
= 240 6.393 0.387
= 593.84 W
06.
Sol: From given data
VL = 230V
IL = 5A
cos = 0.1
RP = 10,000
ZP
XP
RP
True power = VLIL cos = 230 5 0.1 = 115W

i) Error due to pressure coil inductance of
100mH
L = 100mH
XP = L = 2fL (Assume f = 50Hz)
= 2 50 100m
XP = 31.415
RP = 10,000
From impedance triangle of P.C
ZP =
X 2P R 2P
XP
RP
XP
= tan R
P
tan =
31.415
tan 1
10,000
= 0.180
Error = tan.Tan
= tan (0.18).Tan (cos1(0.1)
= 3.141 103 9.949 = 0.3125W
: 336 :
Measurements
08.
Sol: Construction
of
wattmeter:
1. FIXED Coils:
electrodynamometer
The fixed coils carry the current of the

circuit. They are divided into two halves.
The reason for using fixed coils as
current coils is that they can be made
more massive and can be easily
constructed to carry considerable current
since they present no problem of leading
the current in or out.
The fixed coils are wound with heavy
wire. This wire is stranded or laminated,
especially when carrying heavy currents
in order to avoid eddy current losses in
conductors.
The fixed coils of earlier wattmeters
were designed to carry a current of 100A
but modern designs usually limit the
maximum current ranges of wattmeters
to about 20A.
For power measurements involving large
load currents, it is usually better to use a
5A wattmeter in conjunction with a
current transformer of suitable range.
In the case of precision watt-meters, the
two halves of the fixed coil, which are
connected in series for a basic measuring
range, can be connected in parallel to
increase the wattmeter current range to
twice its original value.
Shunts are not used for extension of
current range since they are subject to
temperature errors.
2. Moving Coil:
The moving coil is mounted on a pivoted

spindle and is entirely embraced by the
fixed current coils.
Spring control is used for the movement.
Figure
below
shows
an
electrodynamometer type wattmeter.
The use of moving coil as pressure coil
is a natural consequence of design
requirements. Since the current of the
moving coil is carried by the instrument

springs, it is limited to values which can
be carried safely by springs without
appreciable heating.
A series resistor is used in the voltage
circuit, and the current is limited to a
small value, usually up to 100mA
Both fixed and moving coils are air
cored. The voltage rating of the
wattmeter is limited to about 600V by
the power requirements of the voltage
circuit.
Since most of the power is absorbed by
the resistance in series with the moving
coil, considerable heat is generated. For
higher voltages, the pressure coil circuit
is designed for 110V, and a potential
transformer is used to step down the
voltage.
Moving Coil
60
30
I1
2
3. Control: Spring control is Iused
for the
I3
instrument
V3
4. Damping: Air friction damping
V3 is used.
The moving system carries
V23 a light
V13
aluminium vane, which moves
in a
V2
sector shaped box. Electromagnetic
or
V1
eddy current damping is not
used, as
V3
introduction of a permanentVmagnet
(for
1
Fixed distort
damping purposes) will greatly
coils
the weak operating magneticfield
field.
5. Scales and pointers: They are equipped
with mirror type scales and knife edge
pointers to remove reading errors due to
parallax
: 337 :
Let V and I be the r.m.s values of voltage

and current being measured.
Instantaneous value of voltage across the
pressure coil current
2V sin t
If the pressure coil circuit has a very high
resistance, it can be treated as purely
resistive.
Current ip in the pressure coil is in phase
with the voltage and its instantaneous value
is
2V
ip V / R p
sin t 2I p sin t
Rp
1 T
Ti dt
T 0
1 T
dM
I P Icos cos2t
.dt
0
T
d
Td
I P I cos . dM / d
VI / R P cos .dM / d
dM
Td VI / R p cos .
d
09
Sol: Reactance of a pressure coil = 0.4% of its
resistance
X
tan P
rp
i p 2I sin t
Instantaneous torque
Ti 2I p sin t 2I sin t dM / d
= 2IpI sint sin(t )dM/d

= IpI(cos cos(2t))dM/d
C.C
XP
0.04rp
ZP
rp
= tan1 (0.04)
= 2.2906
cos = 0.707
rP
-1
o
= cos (0.707) = 45
tan = tan(45o) = 1
% error = +(tantan100)
= (10.04100) = 4
% error = 4
cos
Correction factor
cos cos
0.707
cos2.2906 . cos45 o 2.2906

= 0.963
Correction factor = 0.963
And Rp = resistance of pressure coil circuit.

The current in the current coil lags the
voltage in phase by an angle .
Instantaneous value of current through
current coil is
V
Here I P P (rms value of current in
Rp
pressure coil current)
It is clear from above that there is a

component of power which varies as twice
the frequency of current and voltage
10.
Sol: Assumption: Supply voltage is equal to the
iC
load voltage i.e., drop in the current coil is

zero
IP
Circuit diagram:
P.C
Supply
RP
C.C C.C
Load
1-
AC
Supply
P.C
XP
RP
L
O
A
D
Average deflecting torque

: 338 :
ZP
XP
4. Bridge Measurement of R,L&C
RP
Impedance Triangle
From the impedance triangle

- Pressure coil impedance angle.
For the above circuit, phasor diagram can be
drawn as follows.
VL
Measurements
01.
Sol: This is a Schering bridge
b
C1
R3
r1
D
c
R4
C2
Ip
C1
d
IL
From the equation of deflecting torque of a

wattmeter
dM
Td = ILIp cos ().
dQ
dM
Here,
= constant under steady state.
d
V
Td = IL. L cos( )
ZP
R
Here, ZP = P (From impedance triangle)
cos
V I
Td = L L cos cos( )
RP
V I
Actual reading, Pm = L L cos cos( )
RP
VL I L
pm
-------- (1)
RP
cos cos( )
V I
But True power Pt = L L cos
RP
From (1),
True power
cos
cos cos ( )
actual wattmeter reading
R
72.6
C1 C 2 4 500
pF
300
R3
C = 121 pF
Dielectric loss angle
tan 1 C 4 R 4
tan 1 2 50 72.6 0.148 10 6
= 0.194
02.
Sol: Given
R3 = 1000
0r A
2.3 4 10 7 314 10 4
C1
0.3 10 2
d
C1 = 30.25 F
= 9 for 50 Hz
tan = C1 r1 = L4R4
r1 = 16.67
C
Variable resistor R 4 R 3 1
C2
: 339 :
03.
G
d
0.4343 20
Sol:
100
300 10 12 log10
80
= 29.8 104 M
q
04.
Sol: Given data:
R
n
r
I
Rb
B
Z1
I
E
R3
D
R2
p
Eac
PQ
(p q)r
Eac = I R S
p q r
p ( p q ) r
Eamd = I R
p q p q r
pr
= I R
p q r
For zero galvanometer deflection, Eab = Eamd

(Or)
P
(p q)r
pr
I R S
= R
PQ
p q r
p q r
P
qr P p
R = S
Q
p q r Q q
P p
P
Now if
then R = .S
Q q
Q
Above equation indicates resistance
measurement, which is free from lead and
contact resistance r
Accurate measurement will occur.
Given Data:
V = 100 V, v = 80 V,C = 300 pF
t = 20 sec
0.4343 t
Insulation resistance R =
V
C log10
v
C4
C2
Now, Eab =
R3 = 10, R2 = 842, C2 = 0.135 F,

C4 = 1 F, f = 100 Hz
Under balance condition
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
Z1 is the combination of R1 and L1
R 1 jL1
1
j C 4
1
R 3 R 2
j C 2
L 1
R 2R 3
C 4
L1 = R2R3C4 = 84210 1 10-6 = 8.42 mH
R1 = R3
C4
C2
= 10
1 10 6
0.135 10 6
= 74.07
Phasor diagram
I2
I2R2
I1
C 2
E1=E2
I1L1
I1R1 E = I R
3
1 3
=I2
I1
: 340 :
05.
Sol: I = 0, means, the potential difference
between ab and ad is same, so the bridge
is balanced.
a
L1
R2
R1
I
d
b
R
Measurements
At balance condition, Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 and phase

angles are also equal.
Here, phase null condition means phase
angles are equal.
L 1
1 tan 1
R1
tan 1
C4
R3
c
tan C tan 3
L1
R 2R 3
C4
Similarly, for phase angles will also be equal
for
2 3 1 4
RR 4
L 1
1
tan 1
0 0
tan
R
C
R
4
4
1
L 1
1
tan 1
tan 1
R1
C 4 R 4
1
L 1
1
R1
C 4 R 4
06.
Sol: Hay Bridge:
b
R2
L1
1
C 3 R 3
1 = 3 (because 3 is negative)
L 1
1
R1
C 3 R 3
Q
L 1
1
R1
C 3 R 3
Here
1
C 3 R 3
Take I is the current flowing in R 3 and

C3.
I
So, Q
C 3 IR 3
R1
I
1
C 3 IR 3
The potential drop in C 3

D
L 1
Quality factor
R1
R4
At bridge balance condition Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
R jL1 R 4 1 R 2 R 3
j C 4
(Or)
I
VC3
C 3
Voltage across C3
R3
R4
C3
d
IR3 = voltage across resistor R3
Voltage across C 3
Voltage across R 3
E
: 341 :
1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

01.
Sol:
Electron gun
Deflection
Plates
Vy
Vx
Grid
A1 A2 A3
Post deflection
acceleration
Aquadag
Resistive
helix
Screen
Isolation
shield
+Va
2k V
2.050 V 2 kV
+6.3 V
+12 kV
Power supply
(i) Electron gun assembly:

Electron beam generator & beam
focusing lenses are combinely known as
Electron gun assembly.
Beam generator consists of heater
filament, cathode and control grid.
Cathode is a nickel cylinder with a flat,
oxide coated electron emitting surface.
Control grid is a nickel cup that holds
cathode. Cathode heating is provided by
an inside filament. The thermally heated
cathode emits electrons due to thermo
ionic emission. These emitted electrons
experience a repulsion force from the
inner cylindrical sidewalls of control
grid (that holds cathode) since grid
potential is negative. The repelled
electrons are directed towards the
pinhole in control grid and stream out of
the pinhole as a beam. The control grid
provides an axial direction for the
electron beam and by adjusting grid
voltage, the user can adjust intensity of
electron beam and in turn the brightness
of image displayed on the screen.
Electrostatic focusing lenses are

focusing the e- beam into a sharp
electron beam. It consists of 3 anodes
namely pre accelerating anode (A1),
focusing anode (A2) and second
accelerating anode (A3). The function of
these lenses is to focus the electrons to a
fine point on the screen of the tube.
A1 & A3 are held at a positive potential
(+Va) and A2 is applied with adjustable
negative potential. Due to the potential
differences
between
anodes,
equipotential surfaces are formed inside
of these anodes. On crossing such
equipotential plane, the electrons
experience a force that changes their
direction of travel toward right angles
with respect to equipotential plane. As
such, the electron beam diverges and
then converges into a sharp beam.
(ii) Deflection system assembly:
The deflection system consists of two
pairs of parallel plates referred to as the
vertical and horizontal deflection plates.
One of the plates in each set is
permanently connected to ground, where
as the other plate of each set is
connected to input signals.
The top & bottom plates are horizontally
mounted. Unknown test signal is
applied to top plates. The e-beam is
deflected vertically up & down due to
the signal voltage applied to these
plates. As such, these plates are
known as vertical deflecting pair of
plates.
Test signal
Top plate
Bottom plate
: 342 :
The plates on left & right sides are

vertically mounted. The e-beam is
deflected horizontal left & right due to
voltage applied to these plates as such,
these plates are known as horizontal
deflecting pair of plates
X input
Horizontal
singal
Measurements
fed to vertical input & a known sinusoidal

signal is fed to horizontal input, simple
frequency ratios result in lissajious figures
that are easy to interpret. Therefore, the
known signal frequency should be adjusted
to obtain such lissajious figure. Consider
below given lissajious pattern displayed on
the screen in X Y display mode of
operation
Horizontal signal can be either sweep

signal (internally generated) or external
signal.
02.
Sol: The oscilloscope is well suited for frequency
& phase measurements because it responds
instantly & faithfully to input signals applied
to it.
One of the simplest methods of frequency
measurement is using sweep mode of
operation of oscilloscope. The unknown
signal is fed to the vertical input of the scope
and sweep controls are adjusted for a
stationary pattern of one cycle or for a
pattern of several cycles
Exs:
The below given steps illustrate how the

unknown frequency is calculated
A horizontal line AB is drawn touching the
pattern at two points, and a vertical line AC
is drawn, touching the pattern at one point.
The points of contact on line AB are caused
by vertical excursions of the e-beam and are
therefore related to the frequency of the
signal applied to the vertical input of the
scope. The points of contact on line AC
(only one in this example) is caused by
horizontal excursions of the beam and is
therefore related to the frequency of the
signal applied to the horizontal input.
A
fy
n
x
fx ny
The frequency of the unknown signal can

then be measured using the following
relation.
fsingal =
1
No. of Horizontal diversions percycle Time / div
Another technique available for frequency

measurement is using lissajious figures. To
get a lissajious figure on the screen, the
internal sweep system of CRO is turned off
and two different sinusoidal signals are fed
to the inputs. Unknown sinusoidal signal is
Where fy = vertical input signal frequency

(unknown)
fx = horizontal input signal frequency
(known)
nx = no. of peaks as touched by horizontal
line i.e., no. of horizontal tangencies
ny = no . of peaks as touched by vertical line
i.e., no. of vertical tangencies
: 343 :
03.
Sol: Phase difference between 2 sinusoidal
signals can be measured by oscilloscope in
its sweep mode of operation and X Y
display mode of operation
In sweep mode of operation, if both the
signal waveform are displayed on the screen
then phase difference can be measured by
comparison.
2
(t 1 t 2 )
T
Case 2. 00 < < 900 say, = 450

Y
Eq (1) reduces to:
V2
V V 2Vx Vy
2
This equation represents an ellipse as given
above
This ellipse has major axis in 1st & 3rd
Quadrants
Y
Case 3. = 900
2
x
2
y
Phase measurement can also be measured

using lissajious figures.
Consider two sinusoidal signal Vsint &
Vsin (t + ) are applied to both horizontal
& vertical inputs of CRO then the lissajious
figure displayed is ellipse represented by
equation
Vx2 Vy2 2Vx Vy cos V 2 sin 2 ---- (1)
Eq.(1) reduces to : Vx2 Vy2 V 2

This equation represents a circle as given
above
Case 4. 900 < < 1800, say = 1350
Case 1. = 00
Y
Y
X
450
Eq.(1)
Eq. (1) reduces to: Vx2 Vy2 2Vx Vy 0

(Vx Vy)2 = 0
Vx = Vy
reduces
to
:
2
V
Vx2 Vy2 2Vx Vy
2
This equation represents an ellipse as given
above
Y
Case 5. = 1800
450
This equation represents a straight line with

slope 450 as given above
: 344 :
Eq. (1) reduces to : Vx2 Vy2 2Vx Vy 0

(Vx + Vy)2 = 0
Vx = Vy
This equation represents a straight line with
a slope of 450 with ve X axis, as given
above.
04. Refer question (2) solution
Solution for problem: fy
nx
fx
ny
5
1000Hz = 2500 Hz
2
05.
Sol: We know: tm =
t s2 t 02 or ts =
t 2m t 02
Where tm = measured rise time.

ts = Actual or true rise time of signal
t0 = oscilloscope rise time
Given that: t0 = 20ns & tm = 25ns
ts =
t 2m t 02 (25ns) 2 920ns) 2
= 15ns
Therefore, the true rise time of signal is 15ns
06.
Sol: Refer ECE previous conventional book,
page no: 206 and Question no:03
07.
08.
Measurements
2. Digital Electronic Voltmeters

01.
Sol: Advantages:
1. Digital meters offer very high input
resistance in the order of M.
2. Digital meters cause minimum loading
on the quantity to be measured due to
their high resistance and in turn they
provide a reading with less error.
3. Digital meters offer better Accuracy in
the order of 0.005%.
4. Digital meters offer superior resolution in
the order of 1:106
There are no moving parts in digital
meters, hence no frictional errors.
5. Digital meters offer facilities like over
ranging, auto ranging, auto polarity.
6. Digital meters display the measured
value on a digital readout. As such, the
reading speed of user increases; and
observational errors will be eliminated.
Digital meters can be programmed &
well suited for computerized control.
7. In digital meters, output can be further
processed (like storage) since it is
available in
digital form (like pulses
or BCD code or 7 segment code). This
digital output can be
directly fed into
memory of modern digital instruments.
02.
Sol: Principle of operation:
Dual slope integrating type DVM works on
the principle of voltage to time
conversion. An integrating capacitor is
charged for a fixed time period and then
discharged with a fixed current.
09.
: 345 :
This counter is allowed to count up to full

count irrespective of Vm .
Functional block diagram:
Electronic
Switch
+Vm
Vref
Internal
oscillator
VC
VO
GATE
Z.C.D
Control
circuit
reset pulse
Control signal for

automatic switching
Scale of
10Ncounter
Display
Drivers
Digit
Display
Vm = Analog DC voltage to be measured

Vref = Reference voltage
F = Frequency of clock pulses generated
by internal clock generator
N = No. of Digits in the display
Vc = voltage across integrating capacitor
Vo = output voltage of integrator
say, At t = t1, counter has reached to its full

count and overflows. The reset pulse
produced by counter is fedback to input side
and used to throw the electronic switch in
down direction automatically
At t = t1 integrator is connected to -Vref
automatically due to counter overflow.
Now, the integrating capacitor starts
V
discharging with a fixed current ref . The
R
clock pulses are still allowed to pass through
the GATE as it is open (i.e., not affected by
counter overflow). Counter restarts counting
and continues to count up.
Once the capacitor is completely discharged
at t2, Z.C. D produces a stop pulse since Vo
crosses OV for the 2nd time. This stop pulse
closes the GATE and in turn clock pulses
are not allowed to pass through the GATE.
Counter stops counting at t = t2.
Say, the accumulated count is n
Relation & between Vm & n
R & C are Integrators Resistance &

Capacitance Values
Operation:
At t = 0, integrator is connected to V m by
throwing the electronic switch manually in
up direction
As such, the integrating capacitor starts
V
charging with a variable current m .
R
ZCD produces a start pulse at t = 0, since Vo
crosses 0V. This start pulse opens the
GATE and in turn clock pulses generated
internally pass through the GATE. Counter
starts counting these clock pulses from t = 0
onwards.
Period
output of integrator
At t = 0
0 < t < t1
T1
Vo=0 V (1st zero crossing)

1 t1
Vo =
Vm dt
RC
Vm 1
dt
RC 0
t
( assuming zero initial

voltage)
At t = t1
Vm
(t1 0)
RC
Vm
V01=
T1 ---- (1)
RC
V01 =
: 346 :
t1 < t < t2
T2
At t = t2
1 t2
( Vref )dt = 0
RC
1 t2
+ V01 +
Vref dt
RC t1
t2
V
Vo = ref dt V01
RC t1
V02 = 0
V0 =
V
ref t 2 t 1 V01 0
RC
V
V
ref T2 m T1 0
RC
RC
V
V
m T1 ref T2
RC
RC
Vm T1 = Vref T2
V
Vm ref
T1
T2
Where,
T1 = 1st integration time
period. = 10N tclk
T2 = 2nd integration time
period
= Deintegration time
period
= n tclk
V
Vm = N ref n t clk
10 t clk
V
Vm refN n
10
Features of Dual slope Integrating DVM:
High measurement accuracy
High noise rejection
High stability
Less hardware complexity
High conversion time & low operating
speed.
Measurements
Timing waveforms:
Vc
Vm T
1
RC
0
t1
Ist Z.C
of Vo
t2
2nd Z.C of Vo
- Vm T
1
Vo
RC
Z.C.D
output
Stop
pulse
Start
pulse
0
T1
t1
T2
t2
Counter
output
10Nclocks
n clocks
Advantages of dual slope DVM

V
In this DVM, Vm = refN n
10
There is no dependency on R, C, tclk.
The only possible source of error is
reference voltage. This DVM can be
designed to offer high measurement
accuracy if a highly stable DC source is
provided in the design.
Dual slope integrating DVM measures
true average value of input. As such, any
AC component riding on DC voltage to
be measured (supply noise or power line
noise) will be averaged out to zero. This
is due to integration carried out on Vm
for fixed time period.
Dual slope integrating DVM offers high
noise rejection and is highly stable
even if used in noisy environment
Dual slope integrating DVM has less
hardware complexity compared to other
DVMS.
: 347 :
Design criterion
to reject power line
noise
T1 Ts i.e. T1 = n Ts
Where,
T1 = 1st integration time period
Ts = Time period of sinusoidal component
riding on DC voltage to be measured
n1
Ex: The integrating time interval
recommended for integrating A/D converter
to eliminate 50Hz ripple can be calculated
as:
1
T1(min) = 1 Ts = 1
= 20ms
50 Hz
Disadvantage:
The disadvantage of dual slope type DVM is
its Operating speed.
Conversion time = T1 + T2 = (10N + n )tclk
Dual slope DVM has high conversion time.
As such, it is the slowest DVM compared to
other types.
Solution to the problem:
1
The count range of 3 digit DVM is from 0
2
to 1999, i.e., 2000 counts.
1
Due to adding digit, the 1V range of this
2
DVM extended to 2V and 10V range
extended to 20V.
1
resolution of 3 digit DVM

1
2V
2
3
2
10
in 1V range of operation
2V
=
2000 counts
= 1 mV
03.
Sol: An electronic counter is a digital electronic
device that measures the frequency of an
input signal. It may also have been designed
to perform related basic measurement
including the period of the input signal, ratio
of the frequency of two input signals, time
interval between two events and totalizing a
specific group of events.
The block diagram of a counter set to
frequency mode of operation is shown
below.
input Signal
signal shaper
Digital
Display
fS
Tg
Tg
GATE
Nf Cascaded
Decade
counter
GATE
Control
Tb =
1
tb
TIME BASE
The incoming signal whose frequency is to

be measured is first converted into pulses by
signal shapers. The time base circuitry
provides the start and stop pulses for the
GATE. The duration of the GATE control
signal is equal to the period of time base
signal i.e., Tg = Tb. GATE is opened for
this fixed time duration and the pulses
shaped up from the input signal are passed
through the GATE and are counted.
The number of pulses counted.
Nf = Tg fs fs =
Nf
Tg
resolution of 3 digit DVM

1
20V
2
2 10 3
in 10V range of operation
Where fs is unknown input signal frequency;

Tg = GATE open time
20V
= 10 mV.
2000 counts
Accuracy of the measurement is directly

affected by the uncertainty in gating. Hence,
Nf = Accumulated count
: 348 :
Measurements
a time base with high accuracy, precision &

long term stability is needed.
04.
Sol: A Digital frequency meter (DFM) measures
an unknown signal frequency by counting
no. of cycles of that signal in a precisely
controlled time period.
A Digital frequency meter block diagram is
given below which consists of an accurate
timing source (time base), digital counting
circuits, circuitry for shaping input
waveform and a circuit for gating the shaped
waveform to the counter.
Input
Signal
Digital
Readout
Signal
Conditioning
Circuit
(Amplifier /
attenuator)
BCD to
7Segment
Decoders
Latches
Wave
Shaping
Circuit
Time
Base
GATE
Decade
counting
units
Q
Flipflop
from a flip-flop. As such, the pulses are

passed through the GATE only when the
flip-flops Q output is high. The flipflop is controlled by the timing circuit
(time base)
The counting circuits are toggled by the

pulses from the wave shaping circuit for
a duration of gating time (for which Q
output is high). The counting circuits are
reset to the zero count by the falling
edge (-ve going edge) of the Q output
from the flip-flop, such that the count
always starts from zero.
Latches & display drivers are employed

to make digital display readable. As
shown in figure, the latch circuits are
briefly triggered at the end of the
counting time (by rising edge of
Q output).
The display is corrected at this instant (if
necessary) and then remains constant
until the next trigger
Waveforms
TB
Time
Base
output
Q output
Counter resets
GATE control
The input signal is first amplified or

attenuated as necessary, and then fed to
wave shaping circuit. The output of
wave shaping circuit is pulse waveform
with the same frequency as input.
Q output
No
Counting
Counting
Latch triggered
The shaped pulse waveform is fed to one

input of GATE whereas the other input
of GATE is controlled by the Q output
: 349 :
05.
Sol: Digital voltmeters
diagram:
functional
circuit
06.
Range switch
07.
Display Driver
n|Vm|
ATTENU
Vm ATOR
ADC
Vin (Dual slope
type)
latches
and
Decade
counters
7447
ICS
7seg
code
Digital
Display

08.
Vm is the analog dc voltage to be measured.

This Analog voltage is first converted into
digital form and then displayed on a digital
display.
Analog voltage is first attenuated and then
fed to ADC.
Range switch (accessible to user) is for
selecting a voltage range of operation.
The most widely used ADC in the design of
digital voltmeter is Dual slope integrating
type ADC. This ADC converts (Analog
input) Vm into (digital output) clock pulses
where n Vm
The output of ADC is properly driven to
digital display via a display driver.
The display driver consists of Decade
counters, latches & 7447 I.CS.
Decade counters count the no. of clock
pulses produced by ADC and this
accumulated count in BCD form is
converted to 7- segment code and driven to
7-segment digital read out.
A Digital voltmeter offers very high input
resistance in the order of M. As such,
DVMS cause minimum loading effect on the
quantity to be measured and in turn provide
accurate reading.
09.
10.
3. Analog Electronic Voltmeters

01.
Sol: (i) Reading of true rms meter:
A true rms meter measures true rms
value of input
Vrms(true)
T0
1
T0
( t )dt
1 T0 2
V ( t )dt
2 0
1
2
/ 2
(3V ) 2 dt
1
2
/ 2
(1V ) 2 dt
9
1
( t ) 0 / 2
( t ) 2/ 2 V
2
2
: 350 :
9 1 3

V
2 2 2 2
9 3
V =
4 4
Reading
Measurements
Vdc
12
V
4
of
true
rms
meter
is
3 V i.e.,
1 / 2
2
0 3Vdt / 2 1Vdt
2
1
3V ( t ) 0 / 2 1V ( t ) 2/ 2
2
3
3V 1V
2
2
2
= 1.5 V
(ii) Reading of average measuring rms

indicating meter:
This meter consists of a full wave
rectifier at the primary stage, whose
output is fed to DC voltmeter and the
scale is calibrated to read rms of sine
wave.
Vrms(ind) = 1.11 1.5 V = 1.665 V

(iii)Reading of peak measuring rms
indicating meter:
This meter consists of a peak detector at
the primary stage whose output is fed to
DC voltmeter and the scale is calibrated
to read rms of sine wave
Reading = 1.11Vdc
reading = 0.707 Vdc
Where Vdc is average voltage of output

of FWR for given input.
Where, Vdc is average voltage of output

of peak detector for given input
input to FWR
3V
Input to peak
Detector
1V
3V
output of FWR
-1V
3V
Output of
Peak detector
1v
3
2
DC voltmeter measures Vdc of output of

FWR
3V
: 351 :
DC voltmeter measures Vdc of output of

peak detector
Vdc = 3V
Vrms(ind) = 0.707 3V = 2.121V
02.
Sol: Advantages of Electronic Voltmeters
1. Electronic voltmeters offer very high
input resistance in the order of M
2. Electronic voltmeters cause minimum
loading on the circuit under test because
of their
high input resistance and in
turn provide accurate reading.
3. Electronic voltmeters offer better
accuracy
4. Electronic voltmeters offer very high
sensitivity
5. Electronic voltmeters can detect or sense
low level input signals because of their
high sensitivity
6. Electronic voltmeters offer improved
dynamic input range
7. Electronic voltmeter take less power
from circuit under test as the power
required for deflection is provided from
the external circuit using amplifiers but
not from circuit under test. As such, their
power consumption is low.
8. Electronic voltmeters offer faster
response
9. Frequency range of operation of
electronic voltmeters is high
10. Electronic voltmeters are compact in
size and are more portable.
Circuit diagram:
D2
D1
Vin
Rse
Vrms
Iout
IdcFSD
D3
D4
Rm
Rv
Available PMMC ammeter ratings: 0 - I

dcFSD, Rm.
Required AC voltmeter range: 0 - VrmsFSD
The sinusoidal input voltage whose rms
value is to be measured is first fed to full
wave bridge rectifier. During the half cycle
of input, D2 & D4 conduct and current
passes through ammeter. Similarly during
ve half cycle of input, D1& D3 conduct and
current passes through ammeter (in same
direction)
I Via DC Ammeter
Iavg
Im
2 Im
But the design requirement is Vrms of Vin

Electronic Voltmeter using Bridge Circuit for
Full Wave Rectification
A full wave bridge rectifier type AC

voltmeter consists of full wave bridge
rectifier at primary stage whose output is fed
to PMMC indicating meter and the scale of
PMMC is calibrated to read rms voltage of
input sine wave
Vin
Vm
Vm
2
Vrms
rms
1
2
Vm
1
2
R v Im
: 352 :
Vrms
Rv
2 2
I avg
2
R v I avg
Vrms=1.11RvIavgscale
calibration
relation
Where,
Rv = input resistance of FWBR voltmeters
= 2Rd + Rse + Rm
Measurements
circuit using the amplifiers and not from

the signal to be measured.
6. Due to existence of active elements in
the design, EVMS offer faster response
and wide dynamic range of operation.
The response of EVMS practically can
be made independent of frequency.
Some of EVMs can measure voltages
from dc to the frequencies of order of
hundreds of ms.
Differential amplifier type EVM using
two FETS.
V
DD
This relation is used to calibrate the DC

current scale in terms of AC volts (rms
volts)
RD
RD
X
AC volt scale
VrmsFSD
V1
1.11Rv
DC current scale
10M
Rs
IdcFSD
VDD
03.
Sol: Advantages of electronic voltmeters over
conventional voltmeters
1. EVMS offer very high resistance in the
order of MS.
2. EVMS cause minimum loading on the
circuit under test because of their high
resistance, and inturn EVMS provide
accurate reading.
3. EVMS offer better accuracy
4. EVMS offer very high sensitivity in the
order of M/V.
As such they can sense very small inputs
also i.e., EVMS offer low level signal
detection (currents in the order of A &
voltages in the order of mV)
5. EVMS cause low power consumption
since the power required from the
deflection is provided from the external
Field effect transistors can be used to

increase the input
resistance
of a dc
voltmeter. This isolates the relatively low
meter resistance from the circuit under test.
The circuit shown above consists of two
FETS that should be reasonably matched for
current gain to ensure thermal stability of
the circuit. Therefore, an increase in source
current in one FET is offset by a
corresponding decrease in source current of
the other FET. The two FETS form the
lower arms of the bridge circuit and Drain
resistors RD together
form
the upper
arms. The meter movement is connected
across the drain terminals of the FETS,
representing 2 opposite corners of the
bridge.
: 353 :
The circuit is balanced when identical FETS

are such that for a zero input, no current
flows through the ammeter. If a negative dc
voltage is applied to the GATE of the FETI,
a current will flow through the ammeter in
the direction shown in above figure. The
magnitude of this current depends on the
magnitudes of the input voltage. Therefore,
the ammeter can be calibrated in volts to
indicate the input voltage.
Vout
g m (rd // R D )
V1
R TH R m 2(rd // R D ) R m
When RD << rd , this equation becomes

i
gmR D
V1
2R D R m
2(rd//RD)
The relation between the ammeter current

and the input dc voltage can be found using
Thevenins theorem the ammeter is
considered as the load.
gm (rd//Rd)VL
This equation relates ammeter current to the

input DC voltage. The assumption is that
both FETS are identical. For non identical
FETS, an approximate relation can be
obtained by using average value of gm and
rd.
If the ammeter is removed, then output

voltage under open circuit conditions across
X & Y is Vout = gm(rd//RD)V1
To find the Thevenin resistance at terminals
X & Y, set V1 and VDD equal to zero. Under
this condition, both FETS have a resistance
of rd as shown
RT
04.
4. Q-Meter
RD
RD
Y
Rs
rd
01.
rd
Sol: Given that: f1 = 3 MHz & C1 = 251pF

f2 = 6 MHz & C2 = 50pF
From this balance circuit and assuming Rs is

relatively large, the resistance between X&Y
terminals is RTH 2rd//2Rd = 2 (rd//RD)
The Thevenins equivalent circuit with the
ammeter connected as a load is shown
below
From this circuit, the ammeter current is
f2
f2
6MHz
=2
3MHz
After inserting the test coil into socket of

Q meter, the resonance is obtained for the
first time at 3 MHz with tuning capacitance
set to 251pF. Then, the frequency is doubled
(i.e., n = 2) and, the resonance is obtained
found as
: 354 :
for the second time at 6 MHz with tuning

capacitance set to 50pF.
We know: Cd
C1 n 2 C 2
n 2 1
251pF (2) 2 50pF

( 2) 2 1
251pF 200pF
3
Cd = 17pF.
The self capacitance or distributed
capacitance of coil is found to be 17pF.
02.
Sol: Q-meter is an instrument designed for the
measurement of Q factor of the coil. The
circuit schematic of direct connection of
Q meter is shown below.
Cd
Socket
Wide
range
oscillator
Vin
(50 kHz 50MHz)
v Volt
meter
Dial
VC v
Q-voltmeter
Rcoil
Measurements
is maximum equal to Q times of applied

voltage Vin at resonance.
V
As such, Q can be computed as: Q c max
Vin
Elements of Q meter:
A wide range, calibrated oscillator (50 KHz
50 MHz)
A very low valued shunt resistance (or)
insertion resistance (r = 0.02 or 0.05)
A true rms voltmeter across r, to track Vin
A variable capacitor (turning or resonating
capacitor)
An electronic peak type AC voltmeter across
C
A socket to insert the given test coil.
Working of Q meter:
Insert the given test coil into socket of Q
meter. Set Vin, f and vary C (by adjusting
dial which has a scale calibrated in terms of
capacitance) till the circuit is tuned into
resonance condition.
The voltmeter indicates maximum voltage
(Vc max) at resonance.
Q Can be calculated using the readings of
both voltmeters as follows:
Vc max
capacitor voltmeter reading
Q
Vin
sup ply voltmeter reading
The volt scale of capacitor voltmeter is
calibrated in terms of Q using relation:
Q
1
Vc max
Vin
Q-scale
0
The principle of operation of Q meter is
series resonance. A series RLC circuit
behaves as a voltage magnifier at
resonance. i.e., The voltage across capacitor
Volt scale
1
Vin
: 355 :
As such, the user can get the reading of Q

from calibrated Q scale.
This observed Q is not true Q of coil,
but is circuit - Q because of two errors,
namely self capacitance of coil [Cd] and
insertion resistance [r]. Therefore, observed
Q [i.e., circuit Q] is to be corrected to get
true Q coil as given below.
Qtrue = 1
Cd
Q meas
C
Where,
Qmeas = reading of Q taken from calibrated Q
Scale of Q voltmeter
Qtrue = Actual Q of coil
Cd = self or distributed capacitance of coil
C = resonating capacitance of coil
1530pF 1458pF
8
Cd = 9 pF
The self capacitance of the coil is 9 pF.
04.
Sol: Direct connection of Q meter can be used
for measuring distributed capacitance of a
coil.
The below given are the
measurement of Cd of coil.
steps
for
Step1:
Insert the given test coil into socket of Q
meter and resonate at f1 with C1.
Note down the readings from Q meter
Vin, f1, C1, Q1, VC1.
03.
VC1 = Q1 Vin
Sol: Refer previous Q for working of Q meter

given that: f1 = 1MHz & C1 = 1530 pF
f2 = 3 MHz & C2 = 162 pF
f
3MHz
n 2 =
=3
1MHz
f1
f1
After inserting the test coil into socket of Q

meter, the resonance is obtained for the
first time at 1MHz with tuning capacitor
adjusted to 1530PF. Then the frequency is
tripled (i.e.,n = 3) and the resonance is
obtained for the second time at 3MHz with
tuning capacitor adjusted to 162 pF.
We know: Cd
C1 n 2 C 2
n2 1
1530pF (3) 162pF
(3) 2 1
2 L ( C1 C d )
------------- (1)
Step2:
Resonate second time at f2 with C2 where f2
= nf, Note down the readings from Q- meter
Vin, f2, C2, Q2, VC2
VC2 = Q2 Vin
f2 =
1
2 L (C 2 C d )
------------- (2)
1
2 L(C1 C d )
eq (1)
f
Now,
1
1
f2
eq (2)
2 L(C 2 C d )
f1
nf1
L(C 2 C d )
L(C1 C d )
: 356 :
Measurements
C2 Cd
1
n
C1 C d
L
Squaring on both sides
C Cd
1
2
2
C1 C d
n
n2 C2 + n2Cd = C1 + Cd
n2 Cd Cd = C1 n2 C2
Cd(n2 1) = C1 n2 C2
Cd =
210pF 4 45pF
= 10 pF
3
1
(2 1MHz ) [210pF 10pF]
2
= 1.1510-4 H
Rcoil
2 1MHz 1.1513 10 4
100
= 7.245
C1 n 2 C 2
n2 1
Where, n =
f2
f1
05.
Sol: Given that: f1 = 1MHz, C1 = 210 pF,
Q1 = 100 and f2 = 2 MHz, C2 = 45 pF
n
2MHz
=2
1MHz
Cd =
210 pF 22 45pF
22 1

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Electrical & Electronic

01. Error Analysis, Units & Standards

ACE Engineering Academy

0.272 0.032 0.172 0.032 (0.13) 2

Relative limiting error

0.5 1 1.5 1.58k

01. Ans: 32.4 and 21.1

IES Postal Coaching Solutions

(ii) Gravity controlled

0.5 0.16 1.5

02. Ans: 3.6 M

Current drawn by the voltmeter when

(2500 R se ) 2 35.53 10 3 5.015 10 3

04. Ans: 2511.5

Current is same in case (i) & (ii)

06. Ans: 125

Resistance of coil winding

Let a be the area of cross section of wire and

ACE Engineering Academy

IES Postal Coaching Solutions

iron instrument may be derived by

From the principle of the conservation of

From given data = 45,

= 2.19 1012 F/rad

IES Postal Coaching Solutions

3. Measurement of power and

From phasor diagram IR vs. VRY = 30

W1 = ILVL cos (30)

W2 = IBVBY cos (30 + )

W1+W2 = ILVL cos(30) + ILVL cos (30+)

From the equation of wattmeter power

Similarly for reactive power Q

Similarly for power factor

Power factor = cos

% error = + (tan.tan) 100

load voltage i.e., drop in the current coil is

Similarly for leading loads

From the impedance triangle

From the equation of deflecting torque of a

% error = (tan .tan) 100

Supply voltage V = 240V

cos (2) = [cos (1)]1.1293

Sol: For the calibration of a wattmeter, a circuit

similar to figure shown below may be used

ACE Engineering Academy

The true power is then VI and the

IES Postal Coaching Solutions

True power = VLIL cos = 230 5 0.1 = 115W

The fixed coils carry the current of the

The moving coil is mounted on a pivoted

ACE Engineering Academy

moving coil is carried by the instrument

Let V and I be the r.m.s values of voltage

Sol: Reactance of a pressure coil = 0.4% of its

= 2IpI sint sin(t )dM/d

cos2.2906 . cos45 o 2.2906

And Rp = resistance of pressure coil circuit.

It is clear from above that there is a

IES Postal Coaching Solutions

load voltage i.e., drop in the current coil is

Average deflecting torque

4. Bridge Measurement of R,L&C

From the impedance triangle