Stephanie Rtzke

"On site and online tests for power transformers"

Abstract
Power transformers are the most expensive links in transmission network. The demand for electrical
energy and also the average age of transformers is increasing. Low costs are now a focus of electrical
utilities in the liberalized energy market. The utilities try to postpone investments for replacing
transformers by using condition based maintenance instead of time based strategies. Therefore reliable
diagnostics of power transformers are highly demanded. Several tests can be performed to determine the
condition of power transformers. Routine tests are for example oil analysis, like measuring the breakdown
voltage and acidity of the oil or the DGA. Also some electrical values like winding and insulation
resistance, no load current or capacitance and dissipation factor (DF) at mains frequencies were
measured on site periodically.
Online monitoring systems were introduced to gather current data about e.g. the voltage, current or the
temperature. Such systems can help to recognize rapid changes of the transformer condition very early.
Not every test can be performed online, but for example online monitoring systems for the oil, tap
changer, cooling system or the bushings are already available.
This contribution focuses furthermore on two advanced diagnostic tests: The dielectric response analysis
and the partial discharge measurement. It is discussed how measuring the dielectric response over a wide
frequency range can provide valuable information about the moisture content in the solid insulation and
the oil condition. The partial discharge measurement is presented as a practical test for early detection of
failures in a transformer. New approaches can also help to localize the problem inside the tank.

1 Introduction
Nowadays we are facing a growing demand for electrical energy as well as an increasing average age of
power transformers in our distribution networks. Due to the liberalized energy marked, electrical utilities
focuses on low costs. Since power transformers are the most expensive links in the transmission network
they try to postpone investments for replacements of power transformers. This can be done, if critical
defects are observed before a failure happens. New maintenance strategies based on the transformer
condition are introduced, instead using periodical measurements or refurbishments. For such condition
based maintenance of transformers, reliable transformer diagnostics are needed.

Relative failure frequency

0,05
Active component
40

0,04

Unidentified

30

Bushing

20

0,03

10
0
Tap
changer

0,02

Tank

0,01
Secondary
system

Cooling

0
0

10

20

30

40
50
Operating time / a

110 kV

220 kV

380 kV

(b)
(a)
Figure 1: Failure statistics for Germany from [1] showing a decreasing failure frequency for
higher operation times (a) and failure causes (b)

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Figure 1 shows the failure statistics for power transformers in Germany. The risk of a failure is increasing
for ages higher than 30, which is similar or even less than the average transformer age. Causes for such
failures can be found in the bushings, tap changers, the active parts, the tank or in the secondary system
[1], [2]. To test such systems, different routine measurements can be done like the analysis of an oil
sample during service. For most electrical routine test the transformer has to be switched off. To monitor
changes of the transformer condition more closely, online monitoring systems for power transformers
were developed. The following paper discusses different measurement techniques, their applications and
which information can be derived from them.

2 Periodical and Routine Tests on Power Transformers

2.1 Oil analysis
Oil samples can be taken during service. Different tests can be performed on oil samples to get
information about the transformer condition Error! Reference source not found.[4]. Already the color is
measurand. New oils are clear as water. If ageing takes place, the oil is getting darker. Usually the
breakdown voltage is tested. Typical trigger values for breakdown voltages are given in [4]:
Ub > 50kV
Ub > 40kV
Ub > 30kV

at
at
at

Ur > 170kV
Ur > 72,5kV
Ur < 72,5kV

Another important factor influencing the oil quality is the moisture. The moisture in oil can significantly
reduce the breakdown voltage. Also the ageing of the cellulosic insulating material inside the transformer
is significantly accelerated in presence of water. The IEC 60422 classifies the oil according to its moisture
saturation:
Dry
< 6%
Moderately wet
7 21%
Wet
21 30%
Very wet
> 30%
More information can be gathered by measuring the dissipation factor at 90C, the interfacial tension or
the neutralization number. Typical values as well as a classification are given in the IEC 60422.
Very often the Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) is used for condition monitoring. This test gives information
not only about the oil itself. Discharges or overheating destroys the oil as well as cellulosic insulation
material. The resulting gases become dissolved in oil and are measured. The composition of gases is
characteristically for different failures.
methane

ethylene

acetylene
Figure 2: DGA Interpretation by Duval Triangle with an example for a thermal fault

If the DGA is performed in a laboratory, the analysis is often done by gas chromatographs giving most
detailed information about the gas composition. Onsite usually photo-acoustic spectroscopy is done. For
online DGA, different sensors are available analyzing a reduced number of key gasses like H2, carbonic
gases or atmospheric gases. The interpretation can be done based on different tables or the Duval
Triangle (Figure 2). They all refer to typical chemical products, which were produces for different failures:

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Corona or partial discharges

The reaction of the oil produces hydrogen H2. The cellulose is producing hydrogen, carbon
monoxide CO and carbon dioxide CO2.

Pyrolysis, deterioration of cellulose

For oil at low temperatures methane CH4 and ethane C2H6 is produced. Oil at high temperatures
produces ethylene C2Hh and hydrogen. The deterioration of cellulose is producing carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide.

Arcing
In this case hydrogen and acetylene C2H2 is produced.

Some parts of the DGA are still in research stage. For example new online sensors or the influence of
diffusion time and temperature on DGA are investigated. Also the DGA interpretation for ester fluids is a
research topic.

2.2 Electrical Measurements

Typical routine tests for transformers are the measurement of winding resistance, insulation resistance
and no load current. A static resistance measurement provides information about the tap changer
contacts, like the diverter switch contacts, tap selector switch contacts and the connection clamps.
Furthermore a capacitance and dissipation factor can give more information about the insulation
condition. The ideal insulation has a pure capacitive behavior. The dissipation factor is the tangent of the
angle between the sum current I and the capacitive current IC and is therefore indicating the quality of a
dielectric.
Different dielectrics can be measured in a transformer providing detailed information about different parts:
Bushings

- Partial breakdowns between layers

- Oil at cracks of RBP bushings

Winding to winding

- Change of the geometry

Windings to tank

- Displacement of the active part

Windings to core

- Displacement of the winding or the core

(if the core ground can be disconnected)

Core to tank

- Movement of the core

(if the core ground can be disconnected)

Voltage source

=
A

Instrument

Instrument

Usually the insulation between high and low voltage windings contains the main part of the cellulose and
therefore is recommended for the measurement of the dissipation factor. Examples for such measurement
setups are given in Figure 3.

Current sense 1

=
A

Guard

Guard

CHL

LV

CH

CT

HV

Voltage source
Current sense 2

CL

Current sense 1

CLT

LV
(a)
Figure 3: Measurement setup for dissipation factor measurement
(a) at a two winding transformer
(b) at a three winding transformer

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CHL

MV

(b)

HV

3 Advanced Diagnostic Measurements

When routine tests showed some unusual results, advanced diagnostic measurements of e.g. the
transmission ratio or the short circuit impedance can help for further analysis.
During the Frequency Response Analysis FRA, the frequency dependent transfer function of the
transformer is analyzed. The FRA can help to detect changes in the geometry like axial and radial coil
deformation or buckling of windings. Faults on magnetic cores, like shorted laminates can be found. Also
electric failures broken or open internal connections, shorted or open windings or even faulty screen
connections can be identified.
Furanes in oil are used to get information about the degree of polymerization in the cellulose material
without opening the tank and taking samples. It bases on the correlation between measured furanes and
paper degradation. The furane analysis is still investigated by several researchers. Different literature
sources give slightly different relation functions. Practical examples have shown some contradictionary
results.
The next sections of this chapter will focus on two advanced diagnostic methods, the dielectric response
measurement and the partial discharge measurements.

3.1 Dielectric Response Measurement

Pressboard

Oil
conductivity

Insulation
Geometry

Pressboard

The measurement of the dielectric response helps to determine ageing, moisture in paper and the
conductivity of oil inside a power transformer. The measurement can be performed in time domain (PDC
method) by measuring the polarization and depolarization current or in frequency domain (FDS method)
by measuring the dissipation factor. The measurement setup is the same as for typical dissipation factor
measurements (Figure 3). The analysis usually done in frequency domain.
The dielectric response of oil-paper-insulated power transformers consists of three components: The
dielectric response of the cellulose insulation (paper, pressboard), the dielectric response of the oil and
the interfacial polarization effect. The superposition of these three components follows in a typical sshaped curve for a power transformer (Figure 4).

0.30
0.10
0.03
0.01

DF

0.001

0.010

0.100

1.000

10.000

100.000

f/Hz

Figure 4: Typical dielectric response measurement for a dry transformer

The frequency range of 1000-10 Hz is dominated by the pressboard. Oil conductivity causes the steep
slope at 1-0.01 Hz. The insulation geometry (ratio of oil to pressboard) determines the interfacial
polarization effect. Interfacial polarization is typical for non-homogeneous dielectrics with different
permittivity or conductivity. Here charge carriers such as ions accumulate at the interfaces, forming clouds
with a dipole-like behavior. This kind of polarization determines the local maximum or "hump" at 0.003 Hz.
Finally, the properties of pressboard appear again at the frequencies below 0.0005 Hz. The frequency
limits correspond to Figure 4, but will vary in a wide range with moisture, oil conductivity, temperature and
amount of conductive aging by-products. Examples for a wet and a hot, wet transformer is given in
Figure 5.
The dielectric response in a wide frequency range allows the analysis of the different parts of the curve.
As mentioned before, the shape of the "hump" is determined by the interfacial polarization. Therefore
information about the insulation geometry can be get from this area of the measured curve. The steep
linear slope is giving information about the oil conductivity. Moisture especially increases the losses in the
low frequency range of the dielectric response of pressboard. Thus, data on the left-hand side of the area
dominated by interfacial polarization are required for a reliable moisture determination.

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DF
10.00

DF

5.00

1.00

1.00
0.50

0.20
0.10

0.10
0.05

0.02
0.01

0.01

f/Hz
0.001

0.010

0.100

1.000

10.000

100.00

0.001

0.010

0.100

1.000

10.00

100.00

f/Hz

(a)
(b)
Figure 5: Dielectric response for different transformers
(a) Wet and aged transformer at 20C (3% moisture and 10 pS/m oil conductivity)
(b) Hot, wet and aged transformer at 50C (3% moisture and 43 pS/m oil conductivity)

3.2 Partial Discharge Measurement

According to the IEC 60270 partial discharges are "localized electrical discharge that only partially bridges
the insulation between conductors and which can or can not occur adjacent to a conductor". They appear
usually prior to a complete breakdown in inhomogeneous fields, which makes it possible to detect defects
before the failure happens. It is therefore a diagnostic method to prevent of early failures due to
production issues, ageing or unsuitable design.
Manufacturers are advised to do partial discharge measurements for quality insurance according to some
standards like the IEC 60076. However, it was also found to be very useful during designing,
manufacturing itself and testing. The partial discharge measurement can detect weak points or high
stresses in an insulation. The determination of the partial discharge type as well as the localization can
deliver important information for improving the whole process. Also for diagnosis of aged transformers the
place, type and size of the defect gives information about the insulation condition.
The different partial discharge types can occur. Surface discharges appear at the boundary of different
insulation materials. Corona discharges occur in gaseous dielectrics in the presence of inhomogeneous
fields and internal discharges occur in voids or cavities within solid or liquid dielectrics. If the internal
discharges are continuous, they can have an impact on solid dielectrics forming discharge channels
(treeing) in organic materials.
Different phenomenon can be used for the detection of partial discharges:
Phenomenon
- Light emission
- Mechanical waves
- Chemical deterioration
- Electric impulses
- EM pulses

Measurement technique
- UV-Camera
- Acoustic localization
- DGA
- Apparent charges (pC)
- UHF probes

The common way to describe the electrical behavior of partial discharge faults is the equivalent diagram
shown in Figure 6 (a). The dielectric breakdown of a small cavity will cause a current flow that can be
measured as a charge transfer at the outer terminations A and B. Every local breakdown, this means
every partial discharge, can be detected as a short duration charge pulse, the so-called apparent charge
which is shown in Figure 6 (b). Every discharge type has characteristically patterns (current impulses in
relation to the phase of the applied voltage).

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(a)
(b)
Figure 6: Partial discharges occurring at a cavity
(a) equivalent circuit
(b) characteristic voltage and current impulses
The localization of defects can be done in different ways. The characteristic patterns from the
measurement of the electric impulses can be used to distinguish between different partial discharge types.
The type itself give information, whether the discharges appear at surfaces or inside a dielectric. Further
localization can be done e.g. with an acoustic measurement. In case of a transformer, acoustic sensors
are placed on the transformer tank. Due to the different delay time of the recognized acoustic impulses,
the place of the discharge can be calculated.

Figure 7: Separation of PD and Corona Sources at Different Locations with 3PARD (Three
Phase Amplitude Relation Diagram)
Another possibility is a simultaneous measurement of electric impulses in all three phases. For every
measured impulse a vectorially addition of the three phases is done and the impulse is marked in a
diagram like Figure 7. Measurements over some seconds deliver a cluster of enhanced activity for every
defect. A defect in L1 causes high impulses measured in L1, whereas the measured impulses in L2 and
L3 are rather low. The addition gives a cluster near to L1 (cluster 1 in Figure 7).The same is valid for L2
(cluster 2, 4 and 5) and L3 (cluster 3). External noise cause similar impulses in all three phases. The
vectorially addition causes a cluster in the center of a diagram (cluster 6). This method can therefore help
to recognize external noise, which is the main problem for partial discharge measurements.

6/7

4 Online Monitoring on Power Transformers

For many measurements, the power transformers have to be switched of and disconnected from the
network. Continuous online monitoring allows to collect reliable measurement data. The transformer can
stay in service and errors can be diagnosed before the failure appears. It is an useful tool, if utilities want
to establish condition based maintenance. Such tools are measuring characteristic values of different
transformer parts. All data are collected in a monitoring unit and saved to connected server. From this
server, the user can see the history as well as recent changes. This enables a fast reaction if critical
values are reached and an alarm message is send out.
The monitoring of voltages, load currents and temperatures is already well known. Some systems are
available to do an online DGA for the transformer oil. Online monitoring can be used to observe different
units like the cooling system, tap changer or the bushings. The CIGRE Working Group A2.27 gives
recommendations for condition monitoring and condition assessment facilities for transformers:
Active part

- top oil and bottom oil temperature

- gas in oil content
- moisture in oil
- partial discharges
- DC neutral current
- magnetic current

Cooling system

- cooler operation
- cooling medium temperature
- cooler inlet and outlet oil temperature

Tap changer

- tap position
- active power consumption of motor drive
- diverter switch/selector compartment oil temperature
- main tank temperature near tap changer
- diverter oil level and condition

Bushing

- voltage at bushing tap

- load current
- oil pressure

5 Conclusion
The establishment of condition based maintenance strategies lead to a high demand of reliable diagnostic
measurements. Routine tests can result in contradictionary findings. Advanced diagnostics can help to
further investigate the condition of a transformer. Two of them, the dielectric response measurement and
the partial discharge measurement are discussed in detail. Furthermore online monitoring is regarded as
a useful tool for observing changes of transformer values in time, enabling a fast reaction time in case of a
defect.

6 Literature
[1] M. Gernandt: Auswertung von Strungen und Gas-in-lanalysen bei HochspannungsTransformatoren, ETG Fachbericht 104, Kassel 2006
[2] Cigre SC 12 WG 12.05 Electra, No.88, 1983
[3] I. Hhlein, A. J. Kachler, S. Tenbolen, M. Stach, T.Leibfried: "Transformer Life Management
German Experience with Condition Assessment"; Contribution for Cigr SC12/A2 Merida
Kolloquium, June 2-4 2003
[4] IEC60422 " Mineral insulating oils in electrical equipment Supervision and maintenance
guidance"; International Electrotechnical Commission; Geneva, Switzerland October 2005

7/7

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