Log Analysis for Mining Applications Simplified

Log Analysis for Mining
Applications
David Firth
edited by
Peter Elkington
Foreword
Thousands of boreholes are drilled every year in the search for fossil fuels and mineral
resources. They vary in depth from a few metres to several thousand metres, and vary
in diameter from a few tens of millimetres to several hundred millimetres. They also
vary in orientation from vertically down to vertically up, some being horizontal and
some having complex trajectories. Some are smooth with circular cross sections,
others are rugose with non-circular or irregular sections. And some contain air or gas,
whilst others are filled with liquids ranging from clear, fresh water to heavy, saline
drilling muds.
In every case the same questions are asked: where are the zones of economic interest,
how thick are they, what is the distribution of material in each zone, what is its
quality, and are the rock properties conducive to economic extraction ?
The answers come in large measure from wireline logs (also known as well logs,
borehole logs and electric logs). The first such log was run in an oil well in 1928, and
it was the oil industry that drove developments for the following forty years. Most
texts dealing with log analysis continue to be written from an oil company
perspective.
Slimline logging, the subject of this book, is associated with the lower cost
environment of the coal and non-hydrocarbon minerals industries. The slimline name
was coined by the BPB company which, more than any other has promoted the use of
logs within these industries. Crucially it was the realisation in the 1960s that coal can
be delineated accurately by high-resolution density, neutron and gamma ray logs that
opened up this new market, and BPB Instruments was established in 1970 to exploit
these ideas commercially.
Today the company operates as Reeves Wireline Services, and has itself expanded into
oilfield logging, giving it a unique perspective that comes from the cross-flow of ideas
between scientists working in diverse disciplines.
This book is nevertheless written for the minerals log analyst. Its content reflects the
importance of coal in the development of logging for mining applications, but the
principles are equally applicable to other mining activities.
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction
1.1 What is logging?
1.2 A Brief History of Logging
1.3 Applications
1.4 Surface Equipment
1.5 Downhole Equipment
The Measurements
13
2.1 Nuclear Measurements
13
2.2 Acoustic Measurements
17
2.3 Electrical Measurements
18
2.4 Other Measurements
19
2.5 Calibration
20
2.6 Signal Processing
22
Wireline Log Layouts
25
3.1 Header Information
25
3.2 Scale Section
30
3.3 Log Data
31
3.4 Scale Section
32
3.5 Logging/Calibration Constants
32
3.6 Log Trailer
32
3.7 Repeat Sections
34
Borehole Environment
35
4.1 Open Hole - Fluid Filled
35
4.2 Open Hole - Air Filled
39
4.3 Cased Hole - Fluid Filled
42
ii
5.
6.
7.
4.4 Cased Hole - Air Filled
46
4.5 Summary
47
Identification of Lithology
49
5.1 Gamma Ray
49
5.2 Bulk density
50
5.3 Neutron Porosity
52
5.4 Sonic Transit Time
54
5.5 Resistivity
55
5.6 Manual Techniques
56
5.7 Cross-Plots
58
5.8 Computer Techniques
59
5.9 Computed Lithology Analysis
60
5.10 Complex Lithology Analysis
62
Bed Boundaries and Thickness
67
6.1 Bed Resolution Density (BRD)
67
6.2 Gamma Ray
68
6.3 Long Spaced Density (LSD)
69
6.4 Caliper
73
6.5 Higher Resolution
74
6.6 VECTAR Processing
75
6.7 Summary
77
6.8 True Thickness from Apparent Thickness
78
Inter-Borehole Correlation
79
7.1 Neutron Porosity Log
79
7.2 Gamma Ray Log
80
7.3 Density Log
80
7.4 Sonic Log
80
7.5 Resistivity Log
80
iii
8.
9.
10.
7.6 Borehole Caliper Log
80
7.7 Correlation in Practice
80
7.8 Correlation Example
82
Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing
85
8.1 Measurement Principles
85
8.2 Interval Correlation Parameters
85
8.3 Correlograms and Correlation Surfaces
87
8.4 Structural and Stratigraphic Analyses
88
8.5 Tadpole Pattern Classification
89
8.6 Other Considerations
91
8.7 Dipmeter Interpretation Example
91
8.8 Horizontal Stress Regimes
96
8.9 Borehole Navigation
98
Scanners and Image Processing
101
9.1 Introduction
101
9.2 Theory and Physical Parameters
101
106
9.4 Travel Time & Amplitude Detection
107
9.5 Surface Equipment & Field Processing
107
9.6 Computer Centre Interpretation
109
9.7 Image Enhancement
110
9.8 Dip Computation
114
9.9 Dip Statistics & Interpretation
116
9.10 Examples
107
Rock Strengths
129
10.1 Composite Elastic Moduli Analysis
129
10.2 Alternative Methods
132
iv
11.
12.
10.3 Applications
135
Coal and Coal Bed Methane
137
11.1 Commercial Coal Classification
137
11.2 Ash Content
137
11.3 Coal Seam Evaluation
140
11.4 In Seam Seismic
143
11.5 Coal Bed Methane
147
Seismic Time to Depth Conversion
149
12.1 Surface Seismic
149
12.2 Vertical Seismic Profiling
150
12.3 Seismic Reference Survey (SRS)
154
12.4 Low Velocity Layer (Weathering Layer) Survey
158
12.5 Wireline Sonic Log Calibration
158
12.6 Synthetic Seismogram
160
Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 What Is Logging?
A wireline log is a continuous record of measurements made in a borehole by a probe
able to respond to variations in some physical property of the rocks through which
the borehole is drilled. Logs are traditionally displayed on gridded paper - Figure 1.1.
Today, however, the primary record is likely to be a digital representation, paper logs
being used primarily to help summarise results, and as a secondary archive medium.
Figure 1.1 A typical log example combining raw data and computed volumetrics
Introduction
In Slimline logging, the tool is usually referred to as a sonde, and the log is normally
made with the sonde moving out of the borehole (which allows for greater control
over the logging speed). The weight of the sonde is carried by an armoured steel cable
or wireline, and the electrical signals brought to the surface through one or more
conducting wires within the wireline.
A winch mounted in the surface logging unit controls movement of the sonde into
and out of the borehole. The logging unit also supplies power to the sonde, takes the
electrical signals from the wireline, processes them, then displays and records the
results as a log. Modern logging units are also capable of analysing the data, and
presenting evaluated results or answer products.
1.2 A Brief History Of Slimline Logging

Small diameter logging tools have been used by the extractive industries for many
years, but it was their use in coal exploration and evaluation during the 1970s and 80s
that produced a dramatic growth in the number and variety of tools. It was during
this period that BPB (now Reeves Wireline) coined the phrase "Slimline Logging", a
term now synonymous with small tool logging.
Early tools were used primarily to determine depth to coal seams and seam thickness.
As tools became more sophisticated, more quantitative analysis became possible. Coal
ash content, roof and floor rock strength, and sedimentary dip were all routinely
evaluated from logs.
The dramatic growth in the availability and sophistication of Slimline tools meant
that they became increasingly common in non-coal applications - base and precious
metal deposit evaluation, iron ore, evaporite evaluation, geotechnical and civil
engineering work, environmental and hydrogeological logging, tar sands and oil
shale evaluation accounting for much of these.
In all these applications, the ability of the technique to produce a continuous and
objective record of subsurface formations is its greatest asset. It removes many of the
uncertainties associated with the interpretation of chipping records and incomplete
core.
By the 1980s the specialised nature of minerals logging meant that Slimline
equipment was in many important respects different to its larger or "conventional"
oilfield counterpart. However, in the 1990s as oil companies all over the world
struggled to reduce their costs, small diameter oil wells became increasingly
common.
In order to evaluate these smaller wells, a new generation of compact equipment
has evolved incorporating many of the sophisticated communications and
processing techniques used in larger tools. This is starting to blur the distinction
between conventional and Slimline equipment.
Introduction
1.3 Applications
The reasons given for running logs invariably include one or more of the following:
depth to lithological boundaries
lithology identification
minerals grade/quality
inter-borehole correlation
structure mapping
dip determination
rock strength
in-situ stress orientation
fracture frequency
porosity
fluid salinity
1.4 Surface Equipment

1.4.1
Winch And Depth Control
Slimline surface systems need to be self-contained, typically skid-mounted for ease
of transportation. For land work, they are normally housed in a vehicle, whilst for
offshore or remote location work they are placed in a small cabin (dog box) or on a
skid suitable for helicopter lifting.
Land units require some level of off-road capability. Their size is governed by the
deepest borehole likely to be logged, since this dictates the size of winch, and
indirectly the number of tools it is likely to carry.
The winch itself comprises a cable drum, motor and gearbox. The motor is typically
electric, and together with the gearbox must be capable of running a tool into and
out of a borehole quickly, and of winding the cable slowly and smoothly during
data acquisition.
Cable diameters between 0.1 and 0.25 inches are used; selection is controlled by
cable length and the load it needs to carry. Most cables are monocore, that is they
contain a single electrical conductor. Signals are taken from the cable by slip rings
on the drum spindle.
Introduction
The length of cable wound to or from a drum is measured with a depth wheel over
which the cable passes; as the wheel rotates it interrupts a magnetic field or light beam
producing a series of electronic pulses. These are interpreted by the depth control
system, and converted to linear depth. Setting the tool depth to zero at a surface
datum point allows borehole depth to be read continuously as cable is spooled in and
out - Figure 1.2.
LOGGING
SKID UNIT
POWER
SUPPLY
WINCH &
DEPTH
CONTROL
SYSTEMS
WINCH, SLIP
RINGS &
CABLE
DRUM
WIRELINE
CABLE &
CABLE
HEAD
SONDE &
DEPTH
INTERFACE
SYSTEMS
DISPLAY
SCREEN
COMPUTER
KEYBOARD
PRINTER/
PLOTTER
DATA
STORAGE
LOGGING
TOOL
(SONDE)
Figure 1.2 Schematic of wireline logging surface and downhole equipment
Introduction
Figure 1.3 shows the arrangement for logging boreholes over which the drill rig still
stands; boreholes over which there is no rig are logged with the arrangement shown
in Figure 1.4.
TRAVELLING
BLOCK
DRILLING
DERRICK
DRILL
FLOOR
CASING
SHOE
BOREHOLE
WALL
TOP PULLEY AND

DEPTH WHEEL
WINCH DRUM
AND MOTOR
SURFACE
ELECTRONICS
BOTTOM
PULLEY
SURFACE
CASING
ROAD-GOING
LOGGING VEHICLE
WIRELINE CABLE
AND CABLE HEAD
GAMMA RAY
DETECTOR
BOREHOLE
CALIPER
DETECTOR
DENSITY
DETECTOR
DOWN-HOLE
LOGGING TOOL
OR SONDE
RADIOACTIVE
SOURCE
Figure 1.3 Typical wireline logging setup in a deep mine environment using a
gamma ray, density and caliper tool
Introduction
WINCH DRUM
AND MOTOR
BOOM
CASING
SHOE
SURFACE
CASING
SURFACE
ELECTRONICS
ALL-TERRAIN
LOGGING VEHICLE
BOREHOLE
WALL
WIRELINE CABLE
AND CABLE HEAD
GAMMA RAY
DETECTOR
BOREHOLE
CALIPER
DETECTOR
DENSITY
DETECTOR
DOWN-HOLE
LOGGING TOOL
OR SONDE
RADIOACTIVE
SOURCE
Figure 1.4 Typical wireline logging setup in a shallow exploration environment

using a gamma ray, density and caliper sonde
1.4.2
Data Acquisition and Plotting
Signals from the tools are transmitted up the logging cable then decoded and
merged with depth information in the Slimline Computer Interface (SCI) before
being passed to the surface computer for processing. Generally, data at this stage
comprises raw transducer outputs, namely count rates, voltages and so on. These
are normalised, and processed into engineering units (such as such as grams/cc or
ohm-m) by the acquisition computer.
Normalisation ensures that different tools of the same type give the same processed
output when logged over the same formation, and in the same borehole
environment. The logging industry has historically called this process calibration,
and the calibration record is printed as a calibration table or "tail". Strictly speaking,
however, calibration encompasses a broader range of procedures, and these are
discussed in Chapter 2.
The acquisition computer also generates the hard copy plots that are essential for
quality control and quick-look style analysis. The plotting device is typically a high
speed thermal plotter; these have the advantage of not requiring ink (they use heatsensitive paper or film), and have a minimum of moving parts (which contributes to
their reliability).
Introduction
Data and plots generated in this way constitute field data; in the case of simple
logging jobs, this may be the final product. Frequently, however, further processing
may be needed, for example, to merge data from different logging runs, or to
generate interpreted results. This is often done at a base location, and the result is
the final log.
1.4.3
Data Storage
Digital field data are written to file in a proprietary binary format that makes the
most efficient use of available storage capacity - see Chapter 3. Customer data files
are delivered in one of the internationally recognised formats, this requiring a
format conversion from the field format. Two common digital formats are LIS (Log
Industry Standard) and LAS (Log ASCII Standard). The latter is the most commonly
used format, except for image and waveform data (which have multiple data values
per depth increment).
LIS is preferred by the oil business. It handles large volumes of data efficiently, but
requires relatively complex software. It is the prime digital format for image and
waveform data.
LAS is a much simpler digital format accessible to any text editing software or
spreadsheet application. Data are recorded in columns, the first being depth, usually
incremented at the same frequency as the original data, with subsequent columns
containing the other log data. A simple header contains basic identification
information.
Figure 1.5 shows a typical LAS format file listing of 10 cm incremented data
acquired from a gamma ray, caliper, density, sonic and neutron porosity suite of
logs. The data from three logging tools has been merged together prior to the
production of the LAS file. The LAS file in Figure 1.6 is from interactively produced
formation dip tadpoles on a Slim Acoustic Scanner log. Alongside the irregularly
incremented depths are formation dip magnitude, formation dip azimuth and
correlation value (in this case, correlation values reflect only any user inputted
tadpole classifications).
Introduction
~Version Information
VERS.
2.00:
CWLS log ASCII Standard VERSION 2.00
WRAP.
NO:
One line per depth step
#
#
~Well Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT
Data Type
Description
#
STRT.M
740.000
:START DEPTH
STOP.M
737.000
:STOP DEPTH
STEP.M
0.100
:STEP
NULL.
999.250
:NULL VALUE
COMP.
:COMPANY
WELL.
:WELL
FLD .
:FIELD
LOC .
:LOCATION
PROV.
:PROVINCE
SRVC.
Reeves Wireline
:SERVICE COMPANY
DATE.
5FEB1999
:LOG DATE
UWI .
:UNIQUE WELL ID
#
#
~Curve Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT API Codes
Curve Description
#
DEPT.M
00 001 00 01:
DEPTH
GRDE.GAPI 00 000 00 00:
GAMMA FROM DENSITY TOOL
CADE.IN
00 000 00 00:
CALIPER FROM DENSITY
DENB.G/C3 00 000 00 00:
DENSITY SHORT SPACED
MC2F.MS/M 00 000 00 00:
20 CM TRANSIT TIME
RPOR.PERC 00 000 00 00:
SANDST NEUTRON POROSITY
#
#
~A Depth
GRDE
CADE
DENB
MC2F
740.000
53.238
3.868
2.869
216.864
739.900
48.119
3.867
2.909
215.551
739.800
47.957
3.867
2.983
210.521
739.700
45.748
3.869
3.027
205.381
739.600
52.107
3.870
3.019
201.006
739.500
48.011
3.872
3.035
199.366
739.400
49.089
3.870
3.064
201.662
739.300
52.322
3.870
3.088
213.692
739.200
64.985
3.867
3.102
227.373
739.100
89.287
3.864
3.270
240.934
739.000
101.195
3.866
3.819
255.698
738.900
95.591
3.864
4.743
266.951
738.800
76.139
3.869
5.282
268.701
738.700
70.912
3.867
5.046
256.780
738.600
84.707
3.869
4.057
241.032
738.500
93.544
3.867
3.218
231.190
738.400
88.209
3.867
2.824
225.066
738.300
82.066
3.864
2.788
221.457
738.200
78.241
3.858
2.830
216.426
738.100
69.942
3.862
2.870
210.630
738.000
61.752
3.863
2.913
207.240
737.900
54.316
3.874
2.882
207.896
737.800
56.202
3.881
2.880
212.380
737.700
67.733
3.890
2.862
216.864
737.600
71.451
3.892
2.926
221.271
737.500
80.180
3.887
2.919
226.061
737.400
86.539
3.888
2.886
233.716
737.300
93.921
3.889
2.833
238.714
737.200
108.470
3.892
2.780
240.048
737.100
101.195
3.889
2.799
235.783
737.000
95.107
3.889
2.820
231.201
RPOR
27.595
23.691
22.778
25.485
29.152
29.897
28.789
26.901
25.622
23.463
22.556
24.073
24.010
23.838
23.005
23.679
24.226
22.566
24.810
25.935
25.666
25.313
24.805
25.703
24.289
24.361
22.985
22.536
24.780
25.989
28.623
Figure 1.5 Layout of a typical LAS file showing 10 cm incremented curves
Introduction
~Version Information
VERS.
2.00:
CWLS log ASCII Standard VERSION 2.00
WRAP.
NO:
One line per depth step
#
#
~Well Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT
Data
Description
#
STRT.M
86.975:
:START DEPTH
STOP.M
74.975:
:STOP DEPTH
STEP.M
0.000:
:STEP
NULL.
999.250:
:NULL VALUE
COMP.
:COMPANY
WELL.
:WELL
FLD .
:FIELD
LOC .
:LOCATION
PROV.
:PROVINCE
SRVC.
Reeves Wireline
:SERVICE COMPANY
DATE.
05FEB1999
:LOG DATE
UWI .
:UNIQUE WELL ID
#
#
~Curve Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT
Curve Description
#
DEPT.M
:
DEPTH
DIPA.
:
DIP ANGLE
AZIA.
:
DIP AZIMUTH
CORA.
:
DIP CORRELATION
#
#
~A Depth
DIPA
AZIA
CORA
86.975
59.455
316.257
7.008
86.920
69.515
306.027
15.992
86.760
54.682
343.519
7.008
86.750
58.593
340.587
15.992
86.725
81.826
301.895
7.008
86.585
82.595
318.608
7.008
86.445
83.362
318.562
7.008
86.370
83.421
316.127
7.008
86.325
44.851
322.441
7.008
86.285
83.293
322.484
7.008
85.410
82.669
355.579
17.992
81.155
86.916
86.378
9.008
81.130
86.889
102.965
15.992
80.800
87.588
286.332
15.992
74.975
85.542
223.582
18.992
Figure 1.6 LAS file listing showing irregularly incremented dip tadpoles
(dip magnitude, azimuth and classification) from an interactive analysis of
Slim Acoustic Scanner data.

The downhole end of the cable terminates in a cable head. This is a special
connector that provides rapid electrical and mechanical coupling to the logging
tool. It also contains a weak point that will fail at a pre-determined load, allowing
retrieval of the cable in the event of the tool becoming stuck. In this situation, the
tool would be retrieved using special fishing equipment.
10
Introduction
he tools themselves typically contain a variety of transducers with their associated

power supplies, measurement systems, analogue-to-digital converters, processors
and communications electronics, encased in a stainless steel pressure casing.
The tools vary in length from about 1m to 6m (about 3ft to 20ft), the longer tools
being divided into sections or subs for ease of handling and transportation.
Figure 1.7 summarises the range of slimline logging tools and their associated
measurements.
Introduction
Tool
11
Dia.
Measurements
Open
Fluid Air
DD1
DD2
DD3
1 /8
1 /2
1 /8
SGS
DR1
1 /16
11
Cased
Fluid
Air
Gamma Ray, Long Spaced Density

Bed Resolution Density & Caliper
q
q
q
q
Gamma Ray, Long Spaced Density

& Bed Resolution Density (or High
Resolution Density)
w
q
q
q
Gamma Ray, Long & Short Spaced

Densities & Caliper
q
q
q
q
Spectral Gamma Ray (K, Ur & Th)
q
q
Gamma Ray, Bed Resolution Density,

Micro-Focussed Resistivity & Caliper
Gamma Ray, Micro-guard Resistivity

& Caliper
MG1
1 /8
GO1
1 /2
Neutron-Gamma Ray
q
q
q
q
NO1
1 1/2
Long/Short Spaced Neutron Porosity
q
q
q
q
NN1
1 1/2
Gamma Ray, Long & Short Ratio

Neutron Porosity
q
q
q
q
RO1
1 1/2
Medium Spaced Resistivity
RR1
1 1/2
Shallow & Deep Resistivities
RR2
1 1/2
High Resolution Shallow & Deep

Resistivities
Gamma Ray, Spontaneous

Potential, Shallow & Deep
Induction Resistivities
q
q
Gamma Ray, Temperature, Array

Induction Resistivities &
Spontaneous Potential
q
q
IGS
2 /4
SAI
2 /4
RS1
1 /16
Spontaneous Potential
IP1
Induced Polarisation
MSU
1 /16
Magnetic Susceptibility
q
q
Despiked & undespiked Sonic Transit

Times (MS2 - compensated) at
various spacings
11
MS1/2 2 1/2
Figure 1.7 Slimline logging tools and measurements
12
Introduction
Tool
Diam.
Measurements
Open
Fluid Air
SR1
SR2
2 3/8
2
SS1
VO2
HAV
GYR
Fluid
Air
Acoustic Transit Time between

surface sesimic source &
down-hole seismic geophone
Acoustic P-wave & S-wave

Transit Times & Waveforms
11
Borehole deviation & direction
q
q
*
11
High accuracy borehole deviation

& direction
q
q
*
Borehole Deviation & Azimuth

in steel cased boreholes
q
q
q
q
Formation Dip & Azimuth plus

VO1/VO2 outputs
2 /4
1 /16
1 /16
1.8
DV1
DV2
2
1
2 /2
SQD
As DV1/2
As DV1/2 plus circumferential Acoustic

Amplitude & Transit Time images
Gamma Ray, X- & Y-Calipers plus

VO1/VO2 outputs
SAS
Cased
2 /4
2 /4
1
BGT
2 /4
CO1
1 /2
Diameter from 3-Arm Caliper
q
q
q
q
GC1
Gamma Ray, 3-Arm Caliper &

Casing Collar Locator (CCL)
q
q
q
q
1 /2
GL1
1 /2
Gamma Ray & CCL
q
q
q
q
TT1
1 /2
Absolute & Differential Temperature
q
q
q
q
FT1
11
Absolute & Differential Temperature

plus Absolute & Differential Fluid
Conductivity
q
[
13
Fluid flow
q
[
Fluid sample
q
[
Gamma Ray, Acoustic Travel Times

& Amplitudes plus CCL
[ q
Free point indicator
[ q
[
FM1
1 /16
1 /16
FS2
1 /4
CBL
2 /8
FP1
11
1 /16
* Can be logged through plastic casing.
Figure 1.7 (continued).
The Measurements
13
2 The Measurements
2.1 Nuclear Measurements
2.1.1
Gamma Ray
This records naturally occurring gamma radiation. It originates from the radioactive
isotope of potassium, K40, and from isotopes in the decay chains of uranium 238 and
thorium 232. Among clastic rocks, these tend to have low abundance in sandstones
(and indeed in coals), but generally high abundance in clay minerals.
Most Gamma Ray tools measure total abundance, and are calibrated to read in API
units. One API unit is defined as 1/200th of the difference between the low and high
activity zones in the American Petroleum Institute gamma pit at Houston.
2.1.2
Spectral Gamma
Spectral Gamma tools record not only the number of gamma rays, but also their
energy. This allows the elemental concentrations of K, U and Th to be deduced.
As with total spectrum gamma logs, the response over a particular sand/shale sequence
may produce a characteristic signature that can help correlate the sequence between
boreholes. The Spectral Gamma Ray can, with other log data, help identify clay
mineral types. It can also help differentiate uranium enriched permeable sandstones
from potassium rich shales.
2.1.3
Density Logs
Modern compensated density tools comprise a gamma ray source (usually Cs 137)
and two gamma detectors, typically about 0.15m and 0.40m from the source. Both
source and detectors are heavily shielded and collimated in order to ensure that
emitted and detected gammas travel through formation materials, with a minimum of
interaction with the borehole.
Gamma rays interact with atomic electrons in three ways:
1. pair production occurs when incident gamma rays create electron-positron pairs.
The minimum incident gamma ray energy for this interaction is 1.02 MeV, well above
the 662 keV energy of gamma rays from Cs-137 used in most density tools. Pair
production can therefore be ignored except where high-energy sources are used.
2. photoelectric effect is the absorption of low energy gamma rays by atomic electrons
coupled to spontaneous photon emission. The photoelectric cross section index, Pe,
in barns per electron, computed from the ratio of low to high energy gamma rays, is a
measure of the probability of this interaction occurring. and is strongly dependent on
the atomic number Z of the nucleus of the target atoms. This makes Pe sensitive to
rock chemistry. However, the pressure casings used in most small diameter density
tools filter out these low energy gamma rays, so Pe is available only from
PhotoDensity type tools.
14
The Measurements
3. Compton scattering is the main interaction of interest in density logging. Incident

gamma rays collide with, and are scattered by, orbital electrons, losing some of their
energy in the process. The number of scattered gammas available for detection
depends on the electron density, re, of the material through which they have passed.
It will be apparent that density logs respond to electron density, not bulk density.
Fortunately, the two are connected by a simple equation:
re=2 Z rb
A
rb being bulk density, and Z/A the ratio of atomic number to atomic mass, which is
typically 0.5 in common rocks and minerals.
In most cases, the difference between electron and bulk densities can be ignored. An
important exception is water, whose Z/A is 0.555, and whose electron density is
therefore 1.11 gm/cm3. This means that in porous rocks, a small correction must be
made to the electron density to arrive at a correct bulk density. All Reeves density logs
in soft rock environments are processed with this correction applied.
The correction assumes that rocks heavier than 2.71 gcm-3 have no porosity, so that
rb = re = 2.71 gcm-3
whilst at 100% porosity we have:
rb = re - 1.11
This leads to the simple relationship:
rb = 1.0688 re - 0.1863
which permits correct porosity to be derived from log density and the bulk density of
the pore fluid.
For coals, this correction is somewhat too large, so for electron densities less than
1.752 gcm-3 (which is below the density of most porous rocks), it is fixed at a value of
0.065 gcm-3. No Z/A correction is applied to densities greater than 2.71 gcm-3.
Another important departure from the Z/A = 0.5 assumption occurs in hard-rock
applications such as iron ore and base metals. For example, Z/A values for magnetite
and galena are, respectively, 0.475 and 0.410. Interpretations in these environments
are made simpler if electron densities are used throughout.
The response of each tool is determined in two parts: the single detector response,
and the compensated response using two detectors.
In its simplest (isotropic) form, the response of a single detector is given by:
The Measurements
15
-mrd
I = A re
where
I = detector count rate

r = density
m = mass absorption coefficient
d = source-detector spacing
A = a constant
For slim tools this equation must be modified to take account of counts coming from
the borehole, not all of which can be eliminated by the limited amount of shielding
that is available. For any particular tool type, the small number of constants in the
modified equation is determined by taking measurements in rock blocks of known
density.
Dual detectors allow a correction to be made for standoff (mudcake) based on the fact
that the detectors have different depths of penetration. We are interested in the twopart case of mudcake and formation, and write:
ra = G rmc + (1 - G) r
where
ra = apparent (measured) density

r
mc
mudcake density
r= formation density
G = geometric factor
The G in this equation is associated with the mudcake. Assuming it to be a simple
linear function of radial distance, r, we have:
G = k'r
where
k' = a constant
and:
ra = k'r r + (1-k'r)r
mc
Using both detectors and eliminating the common standoff, r, we have:
-1
-1
r = raS (1- kS ) + raL (1- kL)
kL
kS
16
The Measurements
where subscripts S and L refer to short and long spacings. Note that the penetration
constants KS' and KL' appear only as a ratio: it does not matter if they vary individually
with density, so long as their ratio is constant (a reasonable assumption to first order).
For a typical penetration ratio of 4 we therefore have:
or:
r = 4 raL - 1 ra S
3
3
r = rL + D
where D, the degree of compensation, can be derived from the above.

For typical standoffs these equations perform well. A more general form of the
-kr
geometric factor G = 1-e , obeys the boundary conditions r = rmc for large
standoffs. The approach can also be extended to include the effects of heavy muds.
2.1.4
Neutron Porosity Logs
The most common neutron porosity logs are based on dual spaced thermal neutron
detection. Fast (high energy) neutrons from a chemical source are slowed to thermal
(low) energies through collisions with nuclei in surrounding materials. Most energy is
lost in collisions with nuclei of similar mass, so the mean distance travelled during this
phase, the Slowing Down Length, LS, is controlled largely by the density of hydrogen
nuclei. Once at thermal energies, the neutrons are available for capture or detection
in one of the two helium-3 detectors. The mean distance travelled by thermal
neutrons prior to capture is the Diffusion Length, LD. The principal control on LD is
the chlorine population, chlorine being the most common of the high capture cross
section nuclei.
Measurements made with one detector of thermal neutrons are, then, sensitive to
both LS and LD. In fact, count rates in such a system are related to the Migration
length M, where M2= LS2+ LD2
The ideal neutron porosity log should be sensitive to LS only. Chlorine and the other
high capture cross section poisons are responsible for large environmental effects in
single detector systems; in particular, salty muds cause large borehole effects.
An obvious way of making a log insensitive to LD is to detect epithermal neutrons
only. Whilst this is sometimes done, counting rates are typically a tenth of those for
thermal neutrons, resulting in poor repeatability. The more usual way is to measure
thermal neutron flux at two detectors. Traditionally, the ratio of near to far counts
has been transformed directly to porosity.
The justification for dual thermal detection comes two group diffusion theory. This
gives the thermal flux, C, at a large distance r from the source as:
-r/L
Cr
QL d2
e s
4pD (L s2-L d2)
r
The Measurements
17
where Q is the source intensity and D the diffusion coefficient for epithermal
neutrons.
Taking a ratio of counts at two distances r1 and r2 gives:
Cr1
Cr2
r2 -(r -r )/Ls
e
r1
1
In other words, the ratio is sensitive to LS only.

Neutron tools are calibrated so that they read true porosity in clean, fresh water filled
limestones. However, hydrogen is also present in bound water associated with clay
minerals, and so the neutron log can be a sensitive shale indicator.
2.2 Acoustic Measurements

Acoustic measurements are made by a class of tool known as sonic tools, which are
concerned with measuring velocity and other attributes of acoustic pulses in the near
wellbore environment.
2.2.1
Velocity Measurements and Acoustic Waveforms
Velocity is determined by timing a sound pulse as it traverses a known distance
through the rock. The pulse is generated from one or more acoustic transmitters.
Sound energy propagates as a compressional wave through the borehole fluid until it
encounters the borehole wall, at which point part of the incident energy is refracted
into the rock where it initiates compressional and shear wave particle motion. The
associated wavefronts travel at different speeds, compressional waves being faster than
shear waves.
At each point along the borehole, energy is radiated back into the fluid as
compressional energy (fluids do not support shear modes), and some of this is
detected by receivers spaced along the tool. The first arrival corresponds to the
wavefront that travels most quickly in the rock, namely the compressional wave.
Shear energy within the rock leaks back into the borehole as compressional energy
provided the rock shear velocity is greater than the fluid's compressional velocity.
Measuring the time difference between arrivals at two receivers eliminates the
common time spent by the signal in the borehole, leaving the time spent in the rock.
This gives an interval transit time, or delta-t log. When divided by the receiver
separation, the log becomes an inverse velocity or slowness log. Units of slowness are
microseconds/m or microseconds/ft. Typical values are 200 microseconds/m (60
microseconds/ft) for a low porosity sandstone, and 425 microseconds/m (130
microseconds/ft) for bituminous coal.
The acoustic energy that arrives at each receiver is rather complex. This is because of
the finite duration of the emitted pulse, and because energy is being radiated back into
the borehole along the whole path of the energy pulse. This gives rise to a waveform
18
The Measurements
which can be recorded by some tool types and presented as a Variable Density Log
(VDL) presentation analogous to that used to display seismic sections.
Most sonic tools simply detect the earliest arrival within the waveform using a
threshold crossing technique. This gives the compressional (or P-wave) slowness.
Detection of shear (S-wave) arrivals is more difficult because (assuming they exist at all
within the borehole) they sit on top of the P-wave energy packet. Whilst a number of
sophisticated techniques are available to help extract the shear arrival, visual
inspection of waveforms displayed continuously in depth is also also extremely useful.
The MS2 records first arrivals. The Sidewall Sonic tool sends enough of the waveform
to the surface to enable the S-wave transit time to be determined.
2.2.2
Cement Bond Log
Cement Bond Logs (CBLs) couple waveform display with a log of first arrival
amplitude in a special presentation used to assess the integrity of the cement around a
cased hole. A high amplitude represents poor cement bond (the casing rings when not
constrained by cement), and low amplitude represents good bond. The specific value
of amplitude is commonly used (together with the waveform) to interpret the
percentage of the casing circumference that is bonded. The amplitude may be
normalized to provide attenuation from which the bond strength can be inferred.
2.3 Electrical Measurements

2.3.1
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
Naturally occurring earth currents exist because of ionic activity between borehole
fluid and rock formation, and between adjacent formations with different chemical
compositions. The SP log is obtained by moving a simple electrode along a borehole,
and recording its potential with respect to a reference, usually at the surface. The log
is displayed on a millivolt scale. Its primary uses are in correlation and the
identification of permeable zones.
2.3.2
Guard Logs
These are designed to measure the electrical resistivity of formations. This varies
depending on rock type, porosity, and the nature of the fluid in the pore spaces.
In the simplest electrode arrangement, current flows from a small sense electrode to a
return at the surface, or on the cable armour. Long guard electrodes either side of the
sense are connected together and are at the same potential. This has the effect of
focussing the sense current into a thin sheet which penetrates the formation rather
than flowing straight up the borehole. By measuring the magnitude of the current,
and the potential of the sense electrode, a resistance is calculated, which is related into
resistivity via a known tool constant.
In the RR2 tool, two measurements are made simultaneously using short and long
guards. This focuses the current, and provides logs with two different depths of
penetration beyond the borehole wall, namely the Shallow Resistivity and Deep
Resistivity measurements.
The Measurements
19
These logs agree in isotropic formations, but diverge in mechanically damaged or

permeable formations invaded by drilling fluid.
2.3.3
Induction Logs
Induction logs measure conductivity in boreholes containing air or other nonconductive drilling fluid.
A simple induction tool comprises a transmitter coil and single receiver. Alternating
current in the transmitter coil causes small eddy currents to flow in the surrounding
media; these in turn induce currents in the receiver coil. The magnitude of the eddy
currents is proportional to the media conductivity; a much larger signal (typically
about 106 times larger) is induced by the transmitter directly into the receiver, and is
independent of formation conductivity. A major objective in the design of any
induction tool is the elimination of this direct mutual coupling signal. The extent to
which the direct signal is eliminated, and the stability of the elimination with changes
in temperature and time, are major influences on the ultimate accuracy of induction
tools.
In a balanced tool (in which the direct signal has been eliminated), the apparent
conductivity is given by:
sapp= Induced Voltage / k
where
k = tool coefficient ( or k-factor)
The Slim Array Induction (SAI) has four balanced coil pairs giving four direct
measures of conductivity. These are normally inverted and displayed on a logarithmic
resistivity scale.
2.4 Other Measurements

2.4.1
Caliper
This is a mechanical arm with a hardened tip that is driven open against a spring
when the logging tool is drawn upwards. As the borehole diameter varies, the arm
moves in and out causing changes in resistance within the variable resistor to which it
is mechanically connected.
Calibration is performed in jigs of known diameter and output in inches or
millimetres.
The caliper log is an input to borehole size correction algorithms for other logs, and is
used in quality control of other log curves, where caving may prevent correct
identification of features. Also used to enable the cementing company to calculate the
quantity of cement required to close off the borehole. It can also be used as a crude
rock strength indicator.
20
The Measurements
2.4.2
Borehole Verticality
This is a measurement of the position in three dimensions of any point in the
borehole. Direction is calculated from X, Y and Z axis magnetometers which measure
the strength of the earth's magnetic field in three dimensions. Tilt is measured using X
and Y axis level cells, whose outputs vary linearly with inclination of the borehole. If
the borehole is lined with steel casing, gyroscopes are used to provide verticality data.
Outputs are in degrees with respect to true, magnetic or grid north and degrees from
vertical. From this, X-Y and radial co-ordinates can be calculated plus True Vertical
Depth (TVD).
2.4.3
Borehole Geometry
Boreholes often elongate in a direction perpendicular to the maximum horizontal
stress orientation. This "breakout" can be measured using X and Y calipers in
conjunction with borehole verticality data (above), or, alternatively, using the 3600
acoustic caliper produced by acoustic scanning devices.
2.5 Calibration
Calibrations encompass a range of procedures whose objectives are to ensure that log
data represents a true record of the physical properties being measured, and in
particular that their values are traceable to those of standards whose properties are
known to a high level of accuracy. These procedures are designation, normalisation,
characterisation and combination.
Designation is the identification of a new tool type, or level of modification to an
existing type, which causes it to have a new and unique set of response characteristics.
Normalisation is the process that ensures all examples of the same tool type respond
in the same way to a common stimulus.
Characterisation is the process of relating normalised tool outputs to the formation
property of interest, and of defining the environmental perturbations on that
response.
Combination refers to the manner in which individual measurements are brought
together to form a compensated measurement.
In the logging industry, calibration is frequently a colloquial reference to
normalisation. In particular it is common practice to present normalisation
information in a calibration tail. In this context, normalisation and calibration are
used synonymously; similarly, they are derived using calibration jigs or calibrators.
Designation, characterisation and combination are intimately related to tool design
and the transformation from raw units into engineering units. Whilst the end user has
no control over these aspects of calibration, he needs to be assured that proper
account has been taken of them.
The Measurements
21
Designation by measurement principle is obvious. However, tools which are

nominally the same typically encompass a range of designs. This is because more than
one design may have been made to cover a range of operating conditions, or more
generally because tool designs are not static; modifications and improvements are
being made all the time. The question arises - at what level of modification does a tool
become a new tool with a new response function? Any change to the tool geometry is
likely to result in a change to the response function. So, for example, a spacing or
collimation change will require the designation of a new tool type, whilst a discrete
electronic component change will not. An example of a grey area would be changing
the pressure tube around a NaI crystal from steel to titanium.
In this case the spectrum presented to the crystal during calibration changes causing a
potential count rate change; whether this will change the borehole correction, for
example, would have to be investigated, and if it did, a new tool would need to be
designated.
Once a generic tool type has been designated, its formation and environmental
response characteristics must be defined; this need only be done once for one tool,
since it is assumed that all tools of the same type share the same set up response
characteristics. However, no two tools are ever identical, so provision must be made
to equalise their outputs to a common reference standard. This is the process of
normalisation.
Differences between tools are both random and systematic. Examples of random
variation are manufacturing tolerances, and variations in the thickness of pressure
casings caused by wear. An example of a systematic variation is the decay of a
radioactive source (Cs-137, for example, decays 2.3% per year).
The process of normalisation is intended to correct for differences of this type that are
small. The raw responses from all tools of the same type (counts, volts and so forth)
are assumed to be related to each other in a simple way, usually in a linear fashion.
In the general case, the linear transformation from raw units into normalised units
uses both a gain term and an offset. In other words:
Normalised Unit = m . Raw Unit + c
where m and c are gain and offset respectively. They are derived by subjecting the
tools to a standard input or environment. For example, some resistivity tools are
normalised using precision resistors, whilst nuclear tools are generally subjected to
standard fluxes.
In order to define both m and c it is necessary to have two reference points. In some
cases it can be determined that c is zero (or less than the normalised error) in which
case only one non-zero reference is used. This is sometimes called a one-point
normalisation.
The normalisation procedure is therefore to record raw output whilst subjecting the
tool to the two references in turn. This gives the simultaneous equations:
Reference 1 = m . Raw 1 + c
22
The Measurements
Reference 2 = m . Raw 2 + c
whence
m = Reference 2 - Reference 1
Raw 2 Raw 1
and
c = Reference 1 - m.Raw 1
In the case of nuclear logs, the measurements are made over a sufficiently long period
of time to allow the uncertainty due to counting statistics to be ignored.
The reference standards used to characterise the response of a tool are unique. They
are held at a central location typically far removed from field operations, and
constitute the primary calibration set. The standards used during normalisation are
also commonly referred to as calibrators. These, however, are replicated at each
operating base and their values referenced to the central standard. They are the
secondary or base standards.
In some cases the base standards may themselves by bulky, or it may be inconvenient
to transport and use them in the field. Consequently the check measurements may be
performed using tertiary or field standards which are themselves calibrated against a
base standard.
2.6 Signal Processing

Signal processing in the modern logging context refers to the way in which digital
data streams are manipulated during the preparation of displayed log curves. It has a
major impact on the perceived vertical resolution of a log, and on the precision over a
given depth interval.
The ideal log would faithfully reproduce all the variations in the formation parameter
of interest. In reality, however, these variations are always averaged or smeared by
virtue of the tool geometry, and this governs the tool's ultimate vertical resolution.
Moreover, in most modern logging systems, continuous logs are reconstructed from
discrete depth samples. Consequently, the realisation of a tool's ultimate resolution is
contingent upon an appropriate sample rate. Other factors which have an impact on
vertical resolution and measurement precision, are the way in which individual
measurements are combined in compensated logs, and the filters traditionally used to
smooth statistical variations.
The vertical resolutions of common logs span about two decades, and this needs to be
reflected in the sample rates used. In practice, it is not always convenient to record
mixed sample rates from one tool, and the rate used tends to reflect the highest
resolution measurement in the string. This means that some curves may be
oversampled, whilst those used in combination with lower resolution logs may
actually be undersampled. It also means that a small number of sample rates can be
defined which cover all the logging measurements.
The table in Figure 2.1 shows the sample rates used by Reeves.
The Measurements
23
Sample Rates Increment

samples/m
mm
10
40
100
200
500
100
25
10
5
2
Typical Application
General rate
High resolution nuclear
Detail rate, dipmeter and acoustic scanner
Dipmeter and acoustic scanner
Dipmeter
Figure 2.1 Sample increments used by Reeves
25
3 Wireline Log Layouts

Slimline data storage is split across two file types. Those with extension .DAT are
binary files that contain the log curve values; each has an associated file with
extension .CIB which is an ASCII file containing a description of the data in the DAT
file. The CIB (Curve Identification Block) file also contains all the borehole and
logging operation data plus curve identifications, scales, depth corrections and
calibrations.
When plotted, this pair of files produces seven distinct sections:
Header information
Scale section
Log data
Scale section
Logging/Calibration Constants
Log trailer
Repeat Section (if present)
3.1 Header Information

Referring to Figures 3.1 and 3.2, the following is a brief description of each item on
the Header.
1.
Log Title
Brief description of main log

curves plus depth scale
2.
Client
Logging operation identification

parameters supplied by the client
3.
Borehole
As 2 above
4.
Field
As 2 above
5.
Province/County
As 2 above
6.
Country
As 2 above
7.
Permit number
As 2 above
8.
Location
Latitude, Longitude, grid references
26
9.
LSD/SEC/TWP/RGE
Section/Township/Range
10.
Other Services
Other logging tools used
11.
Permanent datum
Ground Level, Mean Sea Level, etc.
12.
Elevation
Altitude of Permanent Datum above

M.S.L. (AMSL)
13.
Log measured from
Metres or feet above Permanent

Datum
14.
Drilling measured from
Kelly Bushing, Drill Floor, Ground

Level or MSL
15.
KB
Altitude of drill rig Kelly Bushing

above Permanent Datum
16.
DF
Altitude of drill rig Drill Floor

17.
GL
Altitude of drill rig Ground Level

18.
Date
Date of logging operation
19.
Run Number
Each continuous visit to the site is

a Run - the remaining three columns to
the right are for information for further
logging runs
20.
Depth - driller
Maximum depth reached by the driller
21.
Depth - logger
22.
First reading
Deepest depth recorded by the bottom

sensor on logging tool
23.
Last reading
Shallowest depth recorded by the

bottom sensor on logging tool
24.
Casing - driller
Casing shoe depth as recorded by the

driller
25.
Casing - logger
Casing shoe depth as recorded by

the logger
26.
Bit size
Smallest drilling bit diameter used
27.
Hole fluid type
Fluid or mud used by the driller
Maximum depth reached by the

logging tools
27
e.g. water, bentonite

28.
Dens.
Specific gravity of drill mud in g cm-3
29.
Visc.
Viscosity of drilling mud, in seconds
30.
PH
Acidity/alkalinity of drilling mud
31.
Fluid loss
Rate of loss of mud filtrate into the

formation as mud cake is deposited on the
borehole walls
32.
Sample source
Source of drilling mud sample:

normally the Flowline
33.
Rm @ meas Temp
Resistivity of drilling mud, at

measured temperature, in ohm- metres
34.
Rmf @ Meas Temp
Resistivity of drilling mud fluid, at

measured temperature, in ohm-metres
35.
Rmc @ Meas Temp
Resistivity of drilling mud cake, at

measured temperature, in ohm-metres
NB. Mud is the whole sample (Rm). This
is placed in a Mud Press to squeeze the
liquid (Rmf) from the sample. What solid
remains is called the mud cake (Rmc)
36.
Source: Rmf
Normally the Mud Press
37.
Source: Rmc
Normally the Mud Press
38.
Rm @ BHT
Drilling mud resistivity, at Bottom

Hole Temperature, in ohm-metres
39.
Time Since Circ
Elapsed time from last drilling mud

circulation in the borehole to the moment
each logging tool reaches maximum depth
40.
Max Rec Temp
Maximum temperature recorded by

each sonde - made by maximum reading
thermometers on each tool
41.
Equipment
Logging Vehicle identification number
42.
Base
Base location of logging vehicle
43.
Recorded by
Logging engineer's name
44.
Witnessed by
Client representative's name
45.
Last line comments
For additional information
28
46.
Run Number
As 19 above
47.
BIT
As 26 above
48.
From
Top depth where drilling began with

bit size in 47
49.
To
Bottom depth where drilling finished

with bit size in 47
50.
Size
Smallest casing diameter used
51.
Weight
Weight in lbs/ft of casing in 50
52.
From
Uppermost depth of casing in 50
53.
To
Lowermost depth of casing in 50
54.
Equipment
Logging tool mnemonic
55.
RUN 1
Serial number(s) for 54
56.
RUN 2
Serial number(s) for Run 2
57.
RUN 3
58.
RUN 4
59.
Remarks
Additional information. First line as 1

above. Subsequent lines are for engineer
or client comments
60.
Standard disclaimer
29
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
12
13
14
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
Figure 3.1 Log Header information - items 1 to 45
15
16
17
30
46
47
48
54
49
55
50
56
51
52
57
53
58
59
60
Figure 3.2 Log Header information - items 46 to 60
3.2 Scale Section

Refer to Figure 3.3 for location of these features:
1.
Logging tool run identification.
e.g. MAIN LOG or REPEAT SECTION
2.
Data may be sampled in time or depth. Calibrations are time sampled, whilst
most logs are depth sampled
3.
Data is sampled every 1cm or 10cm when depth based
4.
Logging date and time when logging commenced for each tool
5.
Unique identification of CIB file
6.
Plotting date and time
7.
Depth units in Metres or Feet
8.
To indicate cumulative volume of the borehole in imperial or metric units

(Hole Volume Integration)
9.
To indicate number of depth units logged every 60 seconds
10.
To indicate number of depth units travelled by sound in 1 milli-second
11.
Depth scale: in this case 1cm of log represents 100 cm of borehole
12.
Log curve names, units, scaling across the track and lineweights linear scale)
31
13.
As 12 above (linear scale)
14.
As 12 above (linear scale)
15.
As 12 above (logarithmic scale)

2
1
5
8
12
10
11
13
14
15
Figure 3.3 Scale Section
3.3 Log Data

The layout of log grids conforms to the API (American Petroleum Institute) standard.
The main features are illustrated in Figure 3.4:
1.
Linear grid: at 1:100 depth scale, depth lines are every 0.5m; at 1:200 every
1m. Linear scale grid divisions are plotted every inch, giving ten divisions
across a full 2 inch track.
2.
Depth annotation: at 1:100 depths are annotated every 5 metres, at 1:200

every 10m, etc.
3.
Log curve on linear grid
4.
Log curve on logarithmic grid
5.
Timing marks annotated every 60 seconds: in this case the tool was logged at
2m/min
6.
Sonic transit time ticks every milli-second.
32
7.
Hole Volume Integration ticks every 10 cubic feet or 1 cubic metre
8.
Back-up scale
5
3
5
Figure 3.4 Standard API log format showing data curves superimposed on linear,
blank and logarithmic grids
3.4 Scale Section

This is identical to that described in 3.2 and depicted in Figure 3.3.
3.5 Logging/Calibration Constants

This section reports the calibrations for each sensor, plus other parameters that the
software requires for data processing. These include tool type, mud weight, bit sizes
and depths, water-level and so forth. A typical example is shown in Figure 3.5
3.6 Log Trailer

This concludes the log plot. It shows borehole, client and field names, plus area and
country identification. An example is shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.5 Logging and calibration constants table
Figure 3.6 Log trailer information
33
34
3.7 Repeat Sections

Standard practice is to record a Repeat Section over a depth interval of 30m or so
from total depth. The Main Log is then run and log curves compared with the Repeat
Section to check for repeatability. A complete log consists of all the sections described
- see Figure 3.7.
On some high intensity, shallow resource projects where log repeatability has been
established and is well understood, Repeat Sections may be dropped in favour of a
reduction in overall operating time.
LOG HEADER
INFORMATION
SCALE SECTION
MAIN LOG
DATA
SCALE SECTION
SCALE SECTION
REPEAT SECTION
DATA
SCALE SECTION
LOGGING/CALIBRATION
CONSTANTS
LOG TRAILER
Figure 3.7 Typical log presentation
35
4 Borehole Environment
Boreholes are rarely perfect. Drilling techniques and outcomes vary, giving variations
in borehole wall quality from smooth to rugose. Rock type and strength also heavily
influence the integrity of the borehole. Sometimes these factors dictate that casing
must be inserted, or that the drill string be left in the borehole. Moreover, some
boreholes retain drilling fluid, whilst others lose it; indeed shallow drilling often takes
place above the water table.
Tools are calibrated for specific borehole conditions. Whilst modest departures from
these standard conditions can often be tolerated and/or corrected for, best results are
always obtained when the actual conditions are as close to standard as possible. This
usually means an open-hole, fresh water-filled environment.
With this in mind, we shall now look at four commonly encountered environments:
Open hole - fluid filled
Open hole - air filled
Cased hole - fluid filled
Cased hole - air filled
4.1 Open Hole - Fluid Filled

This is the most common environment, for which most tools are designed.
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show DD3 and MS1 logs from a typical coal-bearing sequence in
this environment. Where borehole walls are smooth, all log responses are clear and
unambiguous. Note the detail provided by the BRD log within the coal seams due to
its high vertical resolution. This is in contrast to the LSD density log which has a
much lower resolution.
The differences in resolution become clearer where the caliper log indicates that
caving has occurred. The density tool is prevented from side-walling, introducing fluid
between the borehole wall and the density detectors, resulting in a significant decrease
in density in the caved zones. The LSD density is affected to a lesser extent than the
BRD due to its longer vertical resolution and greater depth of penetration. In extreme
caving conditions, both may be adversely affected, though this is uncommon. Under
such circumstances anomalously low densities may be mis-identified as halite or coal.
Inspection of gamma ray, LSD, BRD and caliper in combination reduces uncertainty
over identification in caved situations. It should be noted that coal seams themselves
rarely cave, rather the roofs and floors above and below: this can be a useful indicator
of the presence of coal.
36
Gamma ray responses are unaffected by caving in most situations and absolute
magnitudes may be used to locate changes in lithology.
GR/RHO IN OPEN HOLE

DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM.
FILENAME: DD3OPH20.CIB
RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN OPEN HOLE
0-------------API-----------200
775
PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
34500-----------------------SBRDU------------------------14500
11----INS-----6
COAL
SEAM
780
GAMMA RAY-->
DENSITY
(GM/CC)-->
BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY(SBRDU)-->
GAMMA RAY
RESPONSE TO
COAL SEAM
COAL
SEAM
785
CAVED
ZONE
CALIPER-->
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO COAL SEAM
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO CAVED ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795

FILENAME: DD3OPH20.CIB
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN OPEN HOLE

GR/RHO IN OPEN HOLE
Figure 4.1 Open, fluid-filled borehole environment - gamma ray, dual density
and caliper responses
37
MS2 IN OPEN HOLE

FILENAME: MS2OPH20.CIB
RUN ID: MS2 IN OPEN HOLE

140-------------------------MS/FT---------------------------40
160----------MS/FT-----------60
775
COAL
SEAM
780
20 CM SONIC
TRANSIT TIME-->
SONIC RESPONSE
TO COAL SEAM
60 CM SONIC
TRANSIT TIME-->
COAL
SEAM
SONIC RESPONSE
TO COAL SEAM
785
SONIC RESPONSE
TO CAVED ZONE
CAVED
SONIC RESPONSE
TO CAVED ZONE
ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795

FILENAME: MS2OPH20.CIB
RUN ID: MS2 IN OPEN HOLE

MS2 IN OPEN HOLE
Figure 4.2 Open, fluid-filled borehole environment - 20 cm and 60 cm sonic

transit time responses
Neutron porosity responses under the same conditions are illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Caving effects are noticeable due to the additional amounts of borehole fluid present.
38
PHI-N IN OPEN HOLE

FILENAME: NN1OPH20.CIB
RUN ID: PHI-N IN OPEN HOLE
0-------------API-----------200

60----------------------------%------------------------------0
775
COAL
SEAM
780
GAMMA RAY-->
SANDSTONE
NEUTRON
POROSITY-->
COAL
SEAM
NEUTRON POROSITY
RESPONSE TO COAL
SEAM
785
CAVED
ZONE
NEUTRON POROSITY
RESPONSE TO CAVED
ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795

FILENAME: NN1OPH20.CIB
RUN ID: PHI-N IN OPEN HOLE

PHI-N IN OPEN HOLE
Figure 4.3 Open, fluid-filled borehole environment - gamma ray and neutron
porosity responses
Caving affects the response of the MS tools, due to longer travel paths. Longer sonic
travel times may resemble coal values. Figure 4.2 shows short-spaced (0.2m) and longspaced (0.6m) sonic logs over a coal-bearing sequence, clearly displaying coal and
caving responses. The differences in vertical resolution and susceptibility to caving
effects are similar to those encountered with the BRD and LSD density logs.
39
In all cases where caving affects the log it is true to say that the more extensive the
cave, the larger the effects. Examination of all available logs is needed where caving is
evident before any decisions are reached.
4.2 Open Hole - Air Filled

Where a borehole does not contain fluid, sonic and electrode-type resistivity tools
cannot be used - sound energy and electric currents both require a fluid path for these
tools to function. Resistivity can nevertheless be obtained from the induction tool.
In the absence of this data, reliance must be placed on gamma ray, density and
neutron porosity logs.
Density tools without this standard of collimation exhibit a similar character to fluidfilled responses, though density values will be appreciably lower due to the absence of
fluid. Where caving is present, density responses are exaggerated especially from the
short-spaced BRD.
Uncollimated density tools perform poorly in air-filled holes, particularly in the
presence of caving where they have an exaggerated cave response. Collimated tools
(DD3, DD4) perform well, although a small shift to lower density values is to be
expected. The amount of the shift depends on hole size and density value, and is often
accounted for in an empirical correction.
Very extensive caving produces an odd phenomenon: very high densities. This occurs
when the formation is beyond the reach of the detector (typically tens of inches) and
so only air is seen. No material is present to scatter radiation back to the detector
resulting in high densities. Due to the shallow depth of investigation this effect is more
common on the BRD than on the deeper reading LSD. Figure 4.4 shows an example
of this phenomenon, caused in this case by the borehole intersecting old mine
workings.
The gamma ray is similar in character to the fluid-filled log, though may be up to
20% greater due to larger amounts of back-scattered radiation from the density
source. This effect varies according to the density of the formations.
In materials of high density, a smaller effect is noted than in coal seams or caved areas
due to the greater amount of radiation absorption. Care is required with
interpretation, especially in larger diameter boreholes, where this phenomenon
becomes further exaggerated.
40
GR/RHO IN DRY HOLE

FILENAME: DD3OPDRY.CIB
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN DRY HOLE
0-------------API-----------200
775
<--GAMMA RAY
COAL
SEAM

1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
48500-----------------------SBRDU------------------------18500
11----INS-----6
<--BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY (SBRDU)
780
DENSITY-->
(GM/CC)
GAMMA RAY
RESPONSE TO
COAL SEAM
CALIPER-->
COAL
SEAM
785
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO COAL SEAM
CAVED
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO CAVED ZONE
ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
GAMMA RAY RESPONSE
TO OLD COAL WORKINGS
LONG SPACED DENSITY(GM/CC)LOW

OLD
IN OLD WORKINGS BUT BED RESOCOAL
LUTION DENSITY(SBRDU)VERY HIGH
WORKING
NO CALIPER DATA DUE

TO EXTREME SIZE OF
OLD COAL WORKINGS
795

FILENAME: DD3OPDRY.CIB
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN DRY HOLE

GR/RHO IN DRY HOLE
Figure 4.4 Open, non-fluid filled borehole environment - gamma ray, dual
density and caliper responses
Where a fluid level is encountered a discontinuity appears on the log. As the gamma
ray detector emerges from fluid to air, it immediately begins to detect back-scattered
radiation from the density source. The effect gradually increases until the density
source emerges into air, when the gamma ray increases significantly. This occurs
approximately 2m above the fluid level (the offset between gamma ray and density
source in a DD3) itself marked by an abrupt decrease in density values, as illustrated
in Figure 4.5.
41
FLUID LEVEL EFFECTS

FILENAME: DD3AWATR.CIB
RUN ID: FLUID LEVEL EFFECTS
6-------------INS------------11
0-------------API-----------200

3000-------------------------SDU-----------------------------0
2.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
10
GAMMA RAY-->
<--LONG SPACED
DENSITY (SDU)
<--CALIPER
FLUID
LEVEL
DENSITY (GM/CC)-->
20
FILENAME: DD3AWATR.CIB

FLUID LEVEL EFFECTS
Figure 4.5 Effects of emerging from fluid to air on the log responses of gamma
ray and dual density curves
The neutron porosity curve shows a very flat response in air due to the absence of
hydrogen nuclei that slow the neutrons down to thermal energy levels for detection
by the tool. Figure 4.6 shows this effect and the discontinuity when emerging into air
from the borehole fluid. Note the absence of any discontinuity on the gamma ray.
FLUID LEVEL EFFECTS

FILENAME: DSNGWATR.CIB
0-------------API-----------200

60%---------------------------SST---------------------------0%
10
<--GAMMA RAY
FLUID
LEVEL
<--NEUTRON POROSITY
(% SST)
20
FILENAME: DSNGWATR.CIB

FLUID LEVEL EFFECTS
Figure 4.6 Effects of emerging from fluid to air on gamma ray and neutron
porosity logs
42
4.3 Cased Hole - Fluid Filled

When steel casing is inserted into the borehole to guard against collapse of the
borehole wall, three effects are noted. Firstly, acoustic, electric and magnetic tools will
not read inside steel. Gamma ray, LSD and neutron porosity responses will all be
muted by the steel casing. Finally, interpretations should always proceed with caution
where an open hole caliper log is absent.
Comparison of LSD and BRD logs enables reasonable deductions to be made
concerning the condition of the borehole walls. Where both are reasonably consistent
with each other, it is reasonable to assume that the wall is fairly smooth. Conversely,
where a rugose borehole exists, the BRD will exhibit strong low density changes
whilst the LSD may not show much variation. Figure 4.7 shows an example of gamma
ray, LSD, BRD and caliper in a fluid-filled cased hole. Note that the degree of muting
of responses depends on drilling bit diameter, casing diameter and thickness of the
casing.
43
GR/RHO IN CASING
FILENAME: DD3CAH20.CIB
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN CASING
0-------------API-----------200
775

1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
24500-----------------------SBRDU-------------------------6500
10----INS-----5
COAL
<--DENSITY(GM/CC)
SEAM
780
GAMMA RAY-->
<--DENSITY(GM/CC)ON
BACK-UP SCALE OF
3.0 TO 5.0 GM/CC
BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY(SBRDU)-->
GAMMA RAY
RESPONSE TO
COAL SEAM
COAL
SEAM
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO COAL SEAM
CALIPER-->
785
CAVED
ZONE
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO CAVED ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795

FILENAME: DD3CAH20.CIB
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN CASING

GR/RHO IN CASING
Figure 4.7 Cased, fluid-filled borehole environment - gamma ray, dual density
and caliper responses
Logging through drill rods and some types of casing produce even further muting of
responses due to their greater wall thickness. Where joints are of greater thickness
than the rods or casing then low gamma ray and high density blips will be evident, as
typified in Figure 4.8. The amplitudes of the blips will depend on the actual joint
thickness.
44
GR/RHO IN DRILL PIPE

FILENAME: DD3RDH20.CIB
0-------------API-----------200
775
DRILL PIPE JOINT
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN DRILL PIPE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00

1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
24500-----------------------SBRDU-------------------------3000
8-----INS-----3
COAL
SEAM
<--GAMMA RAY RESPONSE

STEEL DRILL
PIPE JOINTS
<--DENSITY RESPONSES TO STEEL------>

DRILL PIPE JOINTS
780
<--DENSITY(GM/CC)ON
BACK-UP SCALE OF
3.0 TO 5.0 GM/CC
BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY(SBRDU)-->
DRILL PIPE JOINT
GAMMA RAY
RESPONSE TO
COAL SEAM
DRILL PIPE JOINT
COAL
SEAM
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO COAL SEAM
CALIPER-->
785
DRILL PIPE JOINT

CAVED
ZONE
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO CAVED ZONE
790
DRILL PIPE JOINT
CAVED
ZONE
DRILL PIPE JOINT
COAL
SEAM
795

FILENAME: DD3RDH20.CIB
RUN ID: GR/RHO IN DRILL PIPE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
GR/RHO IN DRILL PIPE
Figure 4.8 Fluid-filled borehole environment gamma ray, dual density and
caliper responses inside drill pipe
Neutron porosity values increase when logged through casing due to the reduced
counting rates. This is also the case when logging is undertaken through drill rods
where high porosity blips will be noted at the joints. Figure 4.9 shows a typical
example of logging through casing.
45
PHI-N IN CASING
FILENAME: NN1CAH20.CIB
RUN ID: PHI-N IN CASING
0-------------API-----------200

60----------------------------%------------------------------0
775
COAL
SEAM
780
GAMMA RAY-->
SANDSTONE
NEUTRON
POROSITY-->
COAL
SEAM
785
CAVED
ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795

FILENAME: NN1CAH20.CIB
RUN ID: PHI-N IN CASING

PHI-N IN CASING
Figure 4.9 Fluid-filled environment - gamma ray and neutron porosity responses
inside casing
A more common occurrence seen in logging is for surface casing to be set preventing
unconsolidated materials from blocking the borehole. Fluid-levels are generally
encountered inside this casing. There are thus changes in all log curves at this point.
Figure 4.10 typifies these changes, including a sonic log which reads 57 ms/ft (187
ms/m) when logged inside uncemented steel casing.
46
CASING SHOE EFFECTS

FILENAME: CASEDLOG.CIB
RUN ID: CASING SHOE EFFECTS

0-------------API-----------200
2.0----------GM/CC----------3.0 160----------US/FT-----------60
5-------------INS------------10
60-------------%--------------0
<---------CALIPER
IN CASING
25
DENSITY AND
POROSITY
RESPONSES
IN CASING
<--GAMMA RAY
IN CASING
<--60 CM SONIC
TRANSIT TIME LOG
(PLOTTED ON BACK
UP SCALE)READING
57 MICRO-SECS/FT
IN UNCEMENTED
STEEL CASING
CASING
SHOE
30
DENSITY AND
POROSITY
RESPONSES IN
OPEN HOLE
<--GAMMA RAY
IN OPEN
HOLE
<--NEUTRON
POROSITY
35
<--CALIPER IN
OPEN HOLE
<--60 CM SONIC
TRANSIT TIME
IN OPEN HOLE
<--DENSITY

FILENAME: CASEDLOG.CIB
RUN ID: CASING SHOE EFFECTS

CASING SHOE EFFECTS
Figure 4.10 Comparison of responses of gamma ray, caliper, density, neutron

porosity and sonic transit time logs in open hole and cased hole environments
4.4 Cased Hole - Air Filled

In this case, log responses are a combination of cased hole - fluid filled and open-hole
- air filled. Whilst readings are reduced by the steel casing, caving effects become
exaggerated due to the absence of borehole fluid. Note the absence of a caliper log the interpretation should proceed with caution.
Fluid level responses of gamma ray and density detectors are similar to the open-hole,
air-filled situation though on a smaller scale inside casing. Shallow, air-drilled
boreholes can exhibit dual fluid-levels if logged before equilibrium is established. In
this situation fluid-levels can occur inside and outside the casing at different depths.
Once equilibrium has been established, the fluid levels will stabilise at one depth.
47
Excessive caving (of the order of tens of inches) leads to the density reversal noted
above.
4.5 Summary
Environment
Tools not available
Anomalous effects
Open / fluid
None
None
Open / dry
Acoustic / Electric
(Except Induction)
Exaggerated caving effects

and no absolute values if
under-specification tools
are used
Cased / fluid
Acoustic / Electric / Magnetic
No absolute values
and no caliper log
Cased /dry
Acoustic / Electric / Magnetic
No absolute values / no
caliper log
Figure 4.11 Summary of borehole environments and their effects on wireline

logging suites and their responses
49
5 Identification of lithology
Some lithology identification in an open-hole environment may be undertaken from
gamma ray and density logs alone. This is the bare minimum and further analysis is
possible with the addition of a neutron porosity log and, where a fluid-filled
environment exists, sonic and resistivity logs. The borehole caliper log should be used
as a quality control for log readings, where applicable.
5.1 Gamma Ray

The measurement of the natural radioactivity of formation materials has long been
used as an indicator of different lithologies. In most sedimentary sequences, high
gamma ray levels are due to high levels of an isotope of potassium (K40), although
circumstances exist where uranium concentrations contribute to the majority of the
radiation emitted. K40 is present within mica lattices and in the clay minerals (clay and
shale are often used interchangeably within the logging industry). Typical shales have
Gamma values in the range 80 to 200 API units.
Formations of lower K40 content show reduced levels of gamma ray activity.
Sandstones, limestones, dolomites and coals vary from 0 to 50 API. Limestones are
generally the lowest, followed by dolomites, coals and sandstones. Overlaps in activity
exist, especially if shale contamination occurs, so that the gamma ray alone should not
be used for lithology identification.
Gamma ray levels between shale and the lower activity formations in sedimentary
sequences typically represent mixtures such as mudstones, siltstones, argillaceous
limestones or inferior coals.
Very high Gamma activity may be indicative of a marine band. These are generally
thin, distinctive and laterally extensive, making excellent marker horizons for interhole correlation (see Chapter 7). Higher gamma activity than a marine band indicates
the presence of a uraniferous shale.
Igneous and metamorphic materials are special cases where gamma ray activity may
range from very low to very high depending on their chemical composition.
Figure 5.1 illustrates some typical gamma responses in sedimentary formations,
including common evaporite minerals. This is a composite log that represents an
arbitrary geological situation.
50
0-----------------------------API---------------------------200
Figure 5.1 Typical gamma ray responses in sedimentary formations
5.2 Bulk Density

Whilst certain minerals have distinctive densities, (e.g. coals at about 1.3 gcm-3 and
halite at 2.03 gcm-3) most other sedimentary (or soft rock) materials are more similar
in value (typically 2.5 gcm-3 to 2.8 gcm-3) and should be evaluated in conjunction with
other logs.
Coals vary from about 1.1 to 1.5 gcm-3 according to rank, bituminous coals averaging
about 1.3 gcm-3. Further information relating to coal densities, quality and rank may
be found in Chapter 11. (Coal and Coal Bed Methane).
51
Pure silica sandstone has a log density of 2.65 gcm-3, limestone 2.71 gcm-3 and
dolomite 2.87 gcm-3. Near zero porosity sands, limes and dolomites can therefore be
differentiated from each other and from coal on the basis of density alone. In general,
porosity is not known, but these lithologies can still be differentiated if porosity can be
established from another log or log combination.
Shale densities also vary, and may depend on depth of burial. Due to their relatively
plastic nature, shales become compacted resulting in increasing densities with
increasing depths, typically falling in the range 2.2 to 2.8 gcm-3.
Evaporites are distinctive with densities of 2.03 gcm-3 (halite), 2.35 gcm-3 (gypsum)
and 2.98 gcm-3 (anhydrite).
Metamorphic and igneous rocks are generally high in density and may only be readily
distinguished from sedimentary formations in not following the identification criteria.
Figure 5.2 illustrates some typical density responses to various commonly
encountered sedimentary formations.
A basic lithology interpretation can be made by examination of gamma ray and
density logs (quality controlled by reference to the borehole caliper log). These are
available with a single logging pass in the borehole on the Lithology Log, presented at
1:100 or 1:200 metric depth scales (or their imperial equivalents).
52
1.0--------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
Figure 5.2 Typical density responses in sedimentary formations
5.3 Neutron Porosity

Neutron porosity tools are characterized for clean sandstones, limestones and
dolomites. The solids content of each rock type has different neutron absorption
characteristics, so that the same porosity will result in a different response from each.
For this reason, neutron logs may be presented in apparent sandstone, apparent
limestone or apparent dolomite porosity units. These correspond to true porosities in
clean formations of the same type. Fortunately, the transforms between each apparent
scale are straightforward.
53
When pure sandstone is present, neutron porosity is 0 p.u. on a sandstone scale, but a
pure limestone on the same scale would read 1.5 p.u. Similarly, pure limestone on a
limestone scale reads 0 p.u., but pure sandstone reads -1.5 p.u. At higher porosities
the separation increases from 1.5 p.u. to about 4 p.u.
Porosity values in shales are not true porosities since hydroxides in clays and micas are
detected resulting in high apparent porosities. As depth increases, the plastic nature of
shales allows water to be lost from the clay lattices leading to a decrease in porosity.
Typical values vary between 30 and 50 p.u. (porosity units).
Coal responses are similarly high due to the presence of hydrocarbons. Values
between 50 and 80 p.u. are possible depending on the quality of the coal.
Readings in igneous and metamorphic rocks do not reflect true porosities due to their
chemical constituents - hydrogen is measured not only in any pore spaces but in
hydroxides present, for example, in hornblende and the micas, biotite and muscovite.
Figure 5.3 shows some typical neutron porosity responses (on a sandstone porosity
scale) to various sedimentary formations.
54
45---------------------------SST %------------------------- -15
Figure 5.3 Typical neutron porosity responses in sedimentary formations - the

back-up curve has been shaded to prevent confusion
5.4 Sonic Transit Time

Sonic transit time or slowness (in ms/ft or ms/m) is broadly comparable to bulk density
in terms of lithology response: denser materials have lower transit times than less
dense materials. Borehole caving and formation fracturing anomalies must be
examined by reference to the caliper log.
In common with densities, sonic values vary with coal rank. Chapter 11 (Coal and
Coal Bed Methane) discusses further the relationship between density, sonic transit
55
time and coal rank. Coal values range from about 90 to 170 ms/ft depending on rank.
A typical bituminous coal has a slowness of 120 ms/ft.
Zero porosity sandstones, limestones and dolomites, have transit times of 55.5 ms/ft,
47.5 ms/ft and 43.5 ms/ft.
Shale slowness values range from about 70 to 110 ms/ft, with 90 ms/ft being typical of
a compacted shale.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks in general are hard due to the nature of their
formation, hence transit times are low.
5.5 Resistivity
Resistivity logs are influenced by formation porosity, formation water resistivity,
temperature, borehole diameter and borehole fluid resistivity. Figure 5.5 shows the
consequent broad ranges of values, especially in limestones and sandstones.
Of the coals, anthracites and lignites are generally low, whilst bituminous coals vary in
resistivity.
Low porosities generally give rise to higher resistivity values and vice versa.
Igneous and metamorphic materials typically have very high resistivity values
associated with them. For example, mica is a very good insulator.
Readings from resistivity tools should always be corrected to a common reference
using the response charts published. These remove the effects of borehole diameter,
borehole fluid resistivity, invasion and temperature.
56
140--------------------------MS/FT---------------------------40
Figure 5.4 Typical sonic responses in sedimentary formations
5.6 Manual Techniques

Figure 5.5 shows a summary of log responses in various formations, with their likely
ranges of values. This should be used as a guide only.
SST PU
0 0
10
100
1000
57
mS/FT
DENSITY
GM/CC
API
TIGHT
POROUS
LIMESTONE
ANHYDRITE
SALT
EVAPORITES
GYPSUM
SILTSTONE
TIGHT
POROUS
SANDSTONE
ANTHRACITE
LIGNITE
BITUMINOUS
INFERIOR
COAL
SHALE
MARINE
NON-MARINE
150 1.0
GAMMA RAY
3.0 140
SONIC
40 50
POROSITY
RESISTIVITY W-M
Figure 5.5 Summary of log responses in various lithologies

Although computer techniques have largely superseded hand interpretation, it is still
important that the principles are understood.
A suggested procedure for manual interpretation in a sedimentary sequence is as
follows:
58
1.
Examine the gamma ray log for formations of low activity. If these also have
low densities, they can be pencilled in as possible coal seams. Caution:
examine the caliper log for caving.
2.
Decide on an average gamma ray value through the shales and draw this on
the log. All formations at this value may be annotated as shales. This is called
the Shale Line.
3.
Anomalously high gamma ray activity above the Shale Line can now be
pencilled in as marine bands or Uraniferous Shales.
4.
Ignoring coals, pencil in a Sand Line indicated by gamma ray values typically
in the range 20 to 50 API. These formations may be tentatively labelled
sandstones. Local controls are important here. For instance, sandstones in
some basins may be quite gamma active (between 50 and 100 API), as happens
over much of Queenslands Bowen Basin.
5.
Formations with gamma activity below the Sand Line are likely to be
limestones or evaporites. Examination of gamma ray, density, neutron
porosity and sonic logs (in combination with caliper logs for quality control)
will reveal evaporites if they are present - see Figure 5.5.
6.
Remaining materials below the Sand Line are probably limestone. Cross-check
this interpretation against density (limestone generally higher than sandstone),
porosity (limestone generally lower) and sonic (limestone generally slower).
7.
The balance of the formations between the Sand and Shale Lines is a mixture
of rock types.
This basic interpretation technique can be refined by using combinations of logs in the
cross-plotting method.
5.7 Cross-Plots
We have seen that the value of a single log is in some cases a diagnostic of particular
rock types. If the rock type has been defined through external control - for example,
local knowledge or core data - then a single log may be used to calculate some
additional attribute such as porosity.
In general, however, a solution for lithology and porosity requires data from at least
two logs, and this is frequently presented in the form of a cross-plot.
In the simplest case of a clean, porous formation, we can join the points at 0% and
100 % porosity with lines, and mark off the intermediate values (such cross-plots are
normally supplied pre-printed by service companies). In the case of density-neutron
and neutron-sonic cross-plots, the lines for sandstone, limestone and dolomite are
well separated. The lithology and porosity of any pair of log values is readily
interpolated. An example is shown in Figure 5.6. Computers automate this
procedure.
59
Cross-plots are also very powerful tools for zoning more complex formations. They
provide an easy way of visualising and quantifying the sensitivity of each log to each
zone. Another way of using cross-plots is to graph log data against core data. This also
allows us to quantify the sensitivity of each log to the parameter of interest.
40
35
40
2.0
30
35
35
10
5
10
0
-5
2.8
-10
DENSITY POROSITY (Apparent Sandstone %)
25
M
IT
E
20
15
20
D
15 OL
O
10
5
30
25
NE
10
5
2.6
0
35
30
25
TO
ES
15
2.4
25
20
M
LI
15
SA
E
ON
T
S
ND
20
2.2
BULK DENSITY (gm/cc)
30
ma = 2.65 gm/cc
40
1.8
-15
ANHYDRITE
3.0
10
20
30
40
50
NN POROSITY
Fresh water : rf = 1.0 gm/cc
1 gm/cc = 1000 Kg/m
(Apparent Sandstone pu)
Figure 5.6 Porosity and lithology from a density/porosity cross-plot
Point A in Figure 5.6 represents 2.62 gcm-3 and an apparent sandstone neutron
porosity of 8 p.u. but plots on the limestone line at the 5 p.u. point. Thus, this
formation is pure limestone with a porosity of 5 p.u. Point B, at 2.6 gcm-3 and 15 p.u.
apparent sandstone porosity represents a limey dolomite of about 9 p.u.
5.8 Computer Techniques

Manual interpretations provide useful experience. However, most modern analyses
use computers to provide volumetric information. Two products are considered
60
here: the Computed Lithology Analysis uses data from one tool only (gamma ray,
density and caliper) to give a three-component analysis. The Complex Lithology
Analysis is a refinement with additional inputs of neutron porosity and/or sonic transit
time to give a more advanced seven-component analysis.
5.9 Computed Lithology Analysis

This software calculates matrix, shale and porosity volumetrics for every depthmatched point of gamma, density and caliper. The end points define 100% matrix,
shale and porosity in terms of gamma ray and bulk density. Figure 5.7 displays the
first stage of this technique, a crossplot of depth-matched gamma ray and density
data. The 100% porosity end point is water, i.e. 1.00 gcm-3 and 0 API gamma ray.
Similarly, the matrix density end point is fixed according to the desired matrix type,
i.e. 2.65 gcm-3 for a sandstone matrix, 2.71 gcm-3 for limestone, and so forth.
Other end points depend on lithology, depth and compaction, and are user
determined from a cross-plot. In the example shown, a gamma ray value of 40 API
has been chosen for the sandstone matrix end point and 170 API and 2.55 gcm-3 end
points for the shale.
Lines are drawn between the three sets of values - this triangle now encompasses
shale, matrix and porosity values. Coal lies within the triangle but can be identified
due to its unique combination of low gamma ray and low density.
COMPANY
WELL
FIELD
COUNTY
CIUNTRY/STATE
LOCATION
FILE
RUN ID
RUN DATE, TIME
DEPTH RANGE
61
FREQUENCY PLOT
PLOTTED
NO. POINTS ANALYSED
NO. POINTS OUT OF RANGE
MRGELIT3.CIB
MAIN LOG
2-JAN-94 16:56
735.00 - 694.00
4-MAR-94
9:49
410
0
M.
200.0000
160.0000
GAMMA RAY
API
SHALES
120.0000
80.0000
40.0000
SANDSTONES
COALS
.0000
1.0000
1.4000
1.8000
2.2000
2.6000
3.0000
DENSITY GM/CC
Figure 5.7 Gamma ray and density cross-plot used for the determination of end
points in the Computed Lithology Analysis shown in Figure 5.8
Coal is plotted where densities of, for example, less than 1.9 gcm-3 are found (this
being an average inflection point between coal and rock densities), together with
caliper values of less than the user inputted value; 4 inches in this case. This caliper
cut-off serves to prevent low densities due to caving being interpreted as coal.
Having identified the end points and any coal present, log values lying inside the
triangle must represent mixtures of the three components. Figure 5.8 depicts a final
output from this technique.
62
COMPUTED LITHOLOGY
FILENAME: QUARYLIT.CIB
RECORDED ON 18-MAR-1993 AT 11:47
RUN ID: COMPUTED LITHOLOGY
PLOTTED ON 26-AUG-1994 AT 11:19
SHADING KEY
SANDSTONE
POROSITY
SHALE
COAL
CAVING
0-------------API-----------200 1.0----------GM/CC---------3.0
11-----INS-----6
705
<--DENSITY(GM/CC)
<--GAMMA RAY
710
CALIPER-->
715

FILENAME: QUARYLIT.CIB
RUN ID: COMPUTED LITHOLOGY
RECORDED ON 18-MAR-1993 AT 11:47

PLOTTED ON 26-AUG-1994 AT 11:19
COMPUTED LITHOLOGY
Figure 5.8 Computed Lithology Analysis derived from the log data crossplotted in Figure 5.7
5.10 Complex Lithology Analysis

More detailed lithology analysis comes from a combination of three logs - gamma ray
or SP (spontaneous potential), density or sonic and neutron porosity. This allows
computation of the following volumetrics:
63
Shale
Limestone
Sandstone
Dolomite
Porosity
Halite
Anhydrite
The Complex Lithology Analysis is not normally used in coal holes - most coalbearing formations consist of shales, coals and sandstones - i.e. a relatively simple
lithology; indeed, unlike the simpler Computed Lithology Analysis, no allowance is
made for coal, which consequently appears as extremely porous sandstone.
Colour Miniplots at 1:500 or 1:1000 depth scales of the Computed and Complex
Lithology Analyses make very clear visual indicators of borehole to borehole
correlations - trends can be picked out very rapidly by virtue of the colour shadings
for each of the various materials that make up the formations.
Figure 5.9 is a typical example of a Complex Lithology Analysis that shows
limestone/dolomite formations and a porous sandstone section interleaved by a shale
bed.
64
Figure 5.9 Complex Lithology Analysis
65
67
6 Bed Boundaries and

Thickness
Once target horizons have been identified, the geologist needs to accurately determine
bed thicknesses for reserve calculations. This can be determined from inspection of
the core, though if recovery is less than 100%, then any thickness measurements must
be suspect. Similarly, if coring has not been undertaken, then thickness estimates from
cutting returns should be treated with great caution. Geophysical logging of the
borehole is the most reliable and accurate means of determining thickness of the
target horizon in these cases.
Whilst identification is commonly undertaken from the so called general log at a
typical depth scale of 1:100 (metric) or 1:120 (imperial) and logged at 9 m/min
(approximately 30 ft/min), superior plotting resolution is possible at expanded depth
scales and slower logging speeds. All the examples presented below show coal seams,
though the techniques are equally valid for use with other target horizons or bed
boundaries.
6.1 Bed Resolution Density (BRD)

The BRD is a high-resolution short-spaced (0.15m) density measurement. Where
borehole conditions are good (i.e. no caving) thickness measurements are most
accurate with the BRD. A caliper log should always accompany a BRD; it achieves
two things - quality control of the BRD thickness interpretation, and as a thickness
measurement in its own right. Coal roofs and floors are often weak and cave easily,
whilst the coals seldom collapse.
Under ideal conditions, thickness measurement from the BRD curve is simple.
inflection or interpretation point for curves scaled in SBRDU (Standardised
Resolution Density Units) or in gcm-3 is half-way between average base-line
average peak values since the response is almost linear. Figure 6.1 illustrates
alongside a caliper log to show the good borehole wall condition.
The
Bed
and
this
Where roof or floor caving is present, the BRD can still be used, though more
attention needs to be paid to the caliper, and suitable allowances made for the degree
of caving.
If caving is more extensive, then total reliance should not be placed on the BRD log. A
combination overview of the BRD, LSD, caliper and gamma ray logs is preferable.
68
Inter-borehole Correlation
BRD BED THICKNESS

FILENAME: QUARYBRD.CIB
6-------------INS------------11
RUN ID: BRD BED THICKNESS

748

34500-----------------------SBRDU-----------------------14500
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
HALF-WAY DISTANCE
BETWEEN AVERAGE
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM
BRD VALUES FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
749
<--CALIPER
750
<--BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY(SBRDU)
751
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
HALF-WAY DISTANCE
BETWEEN AVERAGE
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM
BRD VALUES FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
752
FILENAME: QUARYBRD.CIB
RUN ID: BRD BED THICKNESS

BRD BED THICKNESS
Figure 6.1 Bed boundary determination from the BRD log with caliper log
for caving indication and quality control
6.2 Gamma Ray

The gamma ray is largely unaffected by caving, but has a vertical resolution of about
0.5m, and so is not ideal for accurate thickness measurements. However, it can be
used as an initial estimate of thickness.
Figure 6.2 shows the procedure for defining the inflection points. Take an average
through the values immediately above and below the formation, also average the
values within the bed. The inflection points are then read one-third of the distance
from the higher end points chosen and the thickness calculated. Caution is required
where coal seams are bound by clean sandstone roofs or floors.
69
GAMMA BED THICKNESS

DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYGAM.CIB RUN ID:GAMMA RAY BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
748
200--------------------------API-----------------------------0
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
ONE-THIRD DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE GAMMA
RAY MAXIMUM FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
749
750
GAMMA RAY-->
751
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
ONE-THIRD DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE GAMMA
RAY MAXIMUM FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYGAM.CIB RUN ID:GAMMA RAY BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
GAMMA BED THICKNESS
Figure 6.2 Bed boundary determination from the gamma ray log
6.3 Long Spaced Density (LSD)

The LSD curve from the DD1 also has a maximum theoretical resolution of 0.48m.
(0.4m for the DD3). Old logs were presented as normalised count rates (Standard
Density Units, or SDUs) on a logarithmic scale. This accentuates low-density features
but suppresses higher density features. A graticule was printed next to the scale section
that allowed SDUs to be converted to density values for particular caliper values.
To interpret historic logs, delineate the seam boundaries and determine average SDU
values for the coal, and for the roof and floor beds. Using the graticule, convert the
SDU values to gm/cc, then compute the average density across each boundary and
70
convert back to SDU values. Transfer the SDU values to the log curve and read off the
roof and floor depths for thickness. As a rule of thumb, boundaries are located about
one-fifth of the SDU span from the high density end, as shown in Figure 6.3.
Modern logs use a linear bulk density scale, and inflection point interpretation is
simply halfway between the low and high density points, as shown in Figure 6.4. Note
that in both LSD presentations, the slopes of coal seam roof and floor are much
shallower than in the equivalent BRD log. This reflects differences in vertical
resolution, and can make interpretation of LSD logs a little more difficult.
Where caving is extensive enough to affect the deeper reading LSD, then a little
imagination is needed in order to effect an interpretation. Figure 6.5 shows an
example of the procedure where an interpolated curve has been drawn over the caved
boundary. Interpretation of seam thickness may then proceed as described above. The
example shown depicts a linear LSD response, although the same procedure applies to
a logarithmic LSD presentation.
71
LSD BED THICKNESS

FILENAME: QUARYLSD.CIB
RUN ID: LSD BED THICKNESS

748

10300------------------------SDU-----------------------------0
ONE-FIFTH DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE LSD
MINIMUM (SDU) FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
749
750
<--LONG SPACED
DENSITY OR
LSD (SDU)
751
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
ONE-FIFTH DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE LSD
MINIMUM (SDU) FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
752
FILENAME: QUARYLSD.CIB
RUN ID: LSD BED THICKNESS

LSD BED THICKNESS
Figure 6.3 Bed boundary determination from the logarithmic LSD log
72
RHO-B BED THICKNESS

FILENAME: QUARYDEN.CIB
RUN ID: RHO-B BED THICKNESS

748
1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
HALF-WAY DISTANCE
FOR INTERPRETATION
OF INFLECTION POINT
749
750
<--DENSITY
(GM/CC)
751
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
HALF-WAY DISTANCE
FOR INTERPRETATION
OF INFLECTION POINT
752
FILENAME: QUARYDEN.CIB
RUN ID: RHO-B BED THICKNESS

RHO-B BED THICKNESS
Figure 6.4 Bed boundary determination from the bulk density log
73
CAVE RHO-B THICKNESS

FILENAME: QUARYCAV.CIB
6-------------INS------------11
RUN ID: CAVE RHO-B THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00

748
200--------------------------API-----------------------------0
1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
34000-----------------------SBRDU-----------------------14000
749
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
SEAM ROOF DEPTH
ESTIMATED FROM A
COMBINATION OF ALL
TECHNIQUES
GAMMA RAY-->
<--CALIPER
<--DENSITY (GM/CC)
750
<--BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY (SBRDU)
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
751
SOLID BLACK LINE

REPRESENTS A HAND
DRAWN ESTIMATE OF
THE EDGE OF THE
COAL SEAM. IT HAS
THE ADDED BENEFIT
OF SHIFTING THE
SHALE DENSITIES
BELOW IT TO MORE
REALISTIC VALUES
THAT CORRESPOND
WITH SHALES IN
THE VICINITY
752
FILENAME: QUARYCAV.CIB
RUN ID: CAVE RHO-B THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
CAVE RHO-B THICKNESS
Figure 6.5 Thickness determination from caved density responses
6.4 Caliper
Whilst roof and floor materials are often weak and cave easily, coals themselves
seldom collapse. It is sometimes possible, therefore, to obtain a reasonably accurate
measurement of thickness from the caliper log, as shown in Figure 6.6. It should be
noted, however, that the caliper response at the top and bottom of a cave is
asymmetrical, due to the nature of the measurement.
As the tool is drawn upwards, the caliper springs outwards into the cave bottom quite
abruptly. As the cave top is approached, the caliper closes gradually, since the upper
part of the caliper arm rather than the tip touches the cave top first. Hence
interpretation of seam roof is straightforward, whilst seam floor is interpreted as the
point where the caliper reading ceases curving and continues at a constant value.
74
CALIPER BED THICKNESS

FILENAME: QUARYCAL.CIB
6-------------INS------------11
RUN ID:CALIPER BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
515
200--------------------------API-----------------------------0
1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
32500-----------------------SBRDU------------------------12500
GAMMA RAY-->
516
<--CALIPER
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
<--BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY (SBRDU)
517
CALIPER RESPONSE
TO COAL SEAM -FOR EXPLANATION
SEE TEXT
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
<--DENSITY (GM/CC)
518
519
FILENAME: QUARYCAL.CIB
RUN ID:CALIPER BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
CALIPER BED THICKNESS
Figure 6.6 Thickness determination from the caliper log
6.5 Higher Resolution

Whilst the BRD can accurately determine thicknesses of seams as thin as 0.5m, and
define a boundary to an accuracy of +/- 0.01m in most situations, better resolution
can be achieved from Focused Electric sondes. In these tools, the sense electrode is
0.1m in length, hence a theoretical resolution of 0.1m.
75
Where even higher vertical resolution is required, then a micro-resistivity

measurement may be used. This is available from the DV1 and DV2 (dipmeters),
MG1 (micro-guard sonde) and the DR1 (High Resolution Coal Sonde or HRCS). All
of these are capable of a vertical resolution of better than 0.05m. As an indicator of
the value of a micro-resistivity measurement, Figure 6.7 displays a 1:20 depth scale
comparison of the curves from the DR1 tool, which records gamma ray, BRD, microresistivity and caliper during a single logging pass in the borehole.
6.6 VECTAR Processing

High resolution devices suffer one major drawback: borehole effects become more
pronounced as vertical resolution increases. This means that rugose boreholes will
adversely affect results, and so detectors with longer spacings (and hence lower
vertical resolution, but reduced borehole effects) are normally preferred.
There is a way, however, to partially circumvent this dilemma. From any tool that has
at least two measurements, it is possible to extract the high resolution log and impose
it on the poorer resolution (generally compensated) log.
This is VECTAR processing. Its most notable application is in density logging where
it produces the ADEN high resolution compensated curve. The key to VECTAR
processing is in the digital filter used to smear the short spacing log to match the
resolution of the long (and also compensated) log. Subtracting the unfiltered short
spacing log from the smeared original leaves bed boundary information whilst
eliminating stickoffs die to borehole effects. Adding the boundary information to the
compensated curve (weighted by a function of the degree of compensation) gives an
unconditional improvement to the resolution of the compensated log.
76
Figure 6.7 Comparison of the vertical responses of BRD and micro-resistivity logs
at a depth scale of 1:20
77
6.7 Summary
The table in Figure 6.8 below summarises the choices available for thickness
measurement, together with some suggested alternatives in the event of adverse
borehole conditions.
Vertical
Log Curve
Tool Name
Adverse Condition
Alternatives *
Resolution
Name
Better than 5 cm
Micro-resistivity
DV1, DV2
MG1, DR1
Focussed Electric
(RO1, RR1, RR2,
RR3) or BRD (DD1,
DD2, DD3, DR1)
7 cm
Deconvolved BRD
DD1, DD2,
DD3, DR1
Not applicable
10 cm
Focussed Electric
RO1, RR1,
RR2, RR3
BRD (DD1, DD2,

DD3, DR1) or LSD
(DD1, DD2, DD3)
15 cm
BRD
DD1, DD2,
DD3, DR1
R1-R2 (MS1, MS2)
20 cm
R1-R2
MS1, MS2
GR or LSD (DD1,
DD2, DD3)
40 cm
R2-R4 (and LSD

from the DD3)
MS1, MS2
GR or LSD (DD1,
DD2, DD3)
48 cm
LSD
DD1, DD2,
DD3
GR (DD1, DD2,
DD3, MG1, DR1)
48 cm
Gamma Ray
DD1, DD2,
DD3, MG1,
DR1
Not applicable
* In this case, resolution will be that offered by the alternative
Figure 6.8 Summary of tools and vertical resolutions
78
6.8 True Thickness From Apparent Thickness

All the preceding guidelines for seam thickness determination are valid where the beds
are horizontal and the borehole is vertical. When either of these conditions is not met,
thickness calculations become incorrect to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the
relative orientations of formation and borehole.
In the simplest case of a vertical well intersecting a formation dipping at angle q to the
horizontal, we have:
True thickness = apparent thickness x sin (90-q)
In the more general case of an inclined borehole intersecting a dipping bed, their
relative orientations in three dimensions need to be considered.
79
7 Inter-Borehole Correlation
So far we have looked at the interpretation of logs from isolated boreholes. Yet it is
the distribution of strata in three dimensions that controls how a deposit is exploited,
and the cost of exploitation.
The orientations of strata around a single borehole can be measured with dipmeters
(see Chapter 8) and acoustic scanning tools (Chapter 9). Variations of dip as a
function of depth provide useful insight into the nature of the rock, and can identify
faults and other structures intersected by the borehole. However, extrapolation to a
large scale is dangerous, and we need to use other techniques to define the larger scale
structure.
The most basic of these alternative techniques is the correlation of logs from multiple
boreholes. It involves the identification of characteristic patterns or signatures within
the logs, and then matching these to the same or similar patterns in neighbouring
boreholes. his allows tie lines to be drawn between the boreholes which reflect general
variations in bed thickness and dip.
The best combination of logs for the correlation process will depend upon the nature
of the rocks being correlated. We shall consider the following logs:
Neutron porosity
Gamma ray
Density
Sonic
Resistivity
Borehole caliper
7.1 Neutron Porosity Log

Experience has shown that this is probably the most useful all-round log for interborehole correlation. Neutron logs are excellent lithology and porosity indicators.
They also respond in air-filled as well as cased boreholes, giving correlatable logs in
areas of bad ground and low water-table. Their sensitivity to clay mineral content
makes them particularly suited to correlating coal bearing strata.
80
7.2 Gamma Ray Log

The gamma ray is probably the most frequently run measurement. As such it is likely
to be available in most or all the logged boreholes in a prospect, and for this reason
alone, it has an important role in correlation. Furthermore, it is recorded in all types
of borehole conditions, and is a good lithology indicator.
Of particular importance is its response in marine bands. These are thin clay-rich
intervals that have high natural gamma activity; they cover large areas, and have been
important in correlating coal-bearing strata in the UK. However, gamma logs alone
may not be able to differentiate sandstones, limestones and coal seams.
7.3 Density Log

Some formations, notably coal, anhydrite and halite have density values that are
usually diagnostic, giving excellent fingerprinting potential.
The density of sandstones, limestones and shales is insufficient by itself to give an
unambiguous identification of rock type, but this does not preclude pattern matching.
Density logs should always be interpreted in conjunction with a caliper log.
7.4 Sonic Log

Sonic and density responses frequently share the same shape characteristics. Unlike
density logs, sonic travel time logs are confined to open, fluid-filled boreholes.
7.5 Resistivity Log

Resistivity logs are sensitive to the volume and salinity of formation waters, and to
clay mineral content. Guard logs have good vertical resolution and a wide dynamic
range; they are free of statistical noise, and are relatively insensitive to borehole
conditions. All these factors make them potentially useful correlation logs.
7.6 Borehole Caliper Log

On the face of it, caliper logs hold little promise as bed correlators. However, they
reflect variations in borehole size and shape that are controlled not only by drilling
processes, but by the mechanical strength of the rock. It is often the case that the same
formations fail in the same way, providing a caliper fingerprint that is correlatable
between holes. This is particularly apparent around certain coals; boreholes through
many coals tend not to cave, but seam roof and floor materials frequently do cave in a
repeatable way, giving the basis for correlation.
7.7 Correlations in Practice

A combination of density, neutron and sonic logs offers the greatest scope for reliable
inter-borehole correlation of coal seams, thick sandstone or limestone units, shales
and marine bands.
81
Figure 7.1 (gamma ray and neutron porosity), Figure 7.2 (sonic), Figure 7.3 (gamma
ray, density and caliper) and Figure 7.4 (BRD at 1:20 depth scale) show logs
correlated between two boreholes drilled in the UK. These holes were vertical; if they
had been deviated then TVD analyses should be examined to determine true vertical
depths and lateral co-ordinates of the coal seam.
This information (plus any other available data) enables a basic structure to be
established.
0---API--200
60-------%(SST)--------0
0-----API---200
60-----------%(SST)-----------0
740
710
<--SST NEUTRON
POROSITY
<--SST NEUTRON
POROSITY
GAMMA
RAY-->
GAMMA
RAY-->
750
720
760
730
770
740
Figure 7.1 Inter-borehole correlation using gamma ray and neutron porosity
140-------US/FT-------40
160-US/FT-60
140-------US/FT-------40
160-US/FT-60
740
710
20 CM
SONIC
CURVE-->
<--60 CM
SONIC
CURVE
<--60 CM
SONIC
CURVE
720
750
20 CM
SONIC
CURVE-->
760
730
770
740
Figure 7.2 Inter-borehole correlation using sonic logs
82
0---API--200
1.0-------GM/CC-------3.0
16---INS---6
0---API--200
740
1.0-------GM/CC-------3.0
16---INS---6
710
CALIPER-->
CALIPER-->
GAMMA
RAY-->
GAMMA
RAY-->
DENSITY(GM/CC)-->
750
DENSITY(GM/CC)-->
720
760
730
770
740
Figure 7.3 Inter-borehole correlation using gamma ray, density and caliper
6---INS---11
808
34000-----SBRDU-----14000
200--------API----------0
6---INS---11
836
34000-----SBRDU-----14000
200--------API----------0
838
810
<--BED
RESOLUTION
DENSITY
812
840
<--CALIPER
GAMMA
RAY-->
<--CALIPER
<--GAMMA
RAY
BED
RESOLUTION
DENSITY---->
Figure 7.4 Coal seam BRD and caliper log fingerprints at 1:20
7.8 Correlation Example

Parameters needed are the geographical co-ordinates of the surface location of each
borehole, altitudes above a common datum and depths of the target horizon.
83
Quantifying seam depths (after reduction to a common depth datum enables

calculation of an apparent dip and direction. To determine a true dip and azimuth, a
third borehole is required.
The following example uses data from two UK boreholes (Fillongley Hall and Chapel
Green) plus a third borehole.
Referring to Figure 7.5, coal seam floor depths were determined along with surface
surveying parameters of borehole elevations and grid references. After reducing the
floor depths to a common datum (in this case ground level at Chapel Green, but we
could have chosen Ordnance Datum), simple trigonometry is used to calculate
apparent dips in two directions from the borehole with the shallowest seam depth.
Plotting the apparent dips and directions on a Wulff stereographic net results in a true
dip of 60 at 2890 from north (or approximately WNW).
Mathematically, the true dip angle, d is given by:
d = tan
-1
tan a1
sin b
where b is the angle between the first apparent dip (a1)and the strike of the plane
containing the true dip.
b is given by:
d = cot-1
tan a2
- cot f
tan a1 sin f
where a2 is the second apparent dip, and f is the acute angle between the two
apparent dip directions. o avoid any ambiguity when the true dip does not lie between
the two apparent dip directions, choose:
a1 < a2
This interpretation assumes that a planar structure exists with no folding or faulting
present. his may be confirmed or otherwise by repeating the correlation process at
other depths in the boreholes using other coal seams, marine bands, and so forth. If
all of these follow the same pattern and produce the same dips and azimuths, then it is
a reasonable assumption that a planar structure exists with no tectonic disturbances.
Conversely, a more complex structure may become apparent if a consistent pattern
cannot be perceived. If this is the case, then further data is required, notably from a
dipmeter survey.
Dipmeters are considered in Chapter 8 (Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing). They
provide direct measurement of near-hole dip, and as such can augment interpretations
based on more straightforward correlation methods.
84
"3rd BOREHOLE"
APPARENT DIP OF 6 o
AT 300 o FROM NORTH
93
0m
CHAPEL GREEN
BOREHOLE
12
00
TRUE DIP FROM WULFF

STEREOGRAPHIC NET :
6o AT 289o FROM NORTH
APPARENT DIP OF 2
o
AT 220 FROM NORTH
FILLONGLEY HALL
BOREHOLE
BOREHOLE
LOCATION
BOREHOLE
ELEVATION
A.O.D.
SEAM FLOOR
DEPTH BELOW
G.L.
SEAM FLOOR DEPTH

REDUCED TO
COMMON DATUM
CHAPEL GREEN
FILLONGLEY HALL
"3rd BOREHOLE"
122 m
147 m
148 m
642.8 m
705.3 m
764.6 m
642.8 m
680.3 m
738.6 m
Figure 7.5 Practical example of inter-borehole correlation using the Wulff

Stereographic net to solve the three-point problem
85
8 Dipmeters & Dipmeter

Processing
8.1 Measurement Principles
Dipmeters make high resolution micro-resistivity measurements around the borehole
circumference which are correlated to produce apparent dip information. This is
merged with tool orientation (navigation) data to provide formation dips in the earth's
frame of reference.
Dipmeters are commonly made in two sections. A lower caliper arm sub contains the
mechanism for holding the dipmeter pads against the borehole wall; the pads contain
the micro-resistivity electrodes. An upper sub contains the magnetometers and level
cells or accelerometers needed to define the orientation of the tool in three
dimensions. The two subs are joined in such a way as to prevent relative rotation.
Rotation of the complete stack (which can lead to subsequent processing difficulties if
too rapid) can be prevented by inserting a swivel between the stack and the cable
head.
A minimum of three circumferential measurements is needed to define a plane.
Traditional slim dipmeters therefore have 3-arms 1200 apart. The SQD is a 4-arm
tool; the redundancy guarantees the minimum 3 pad contact needed to define a
plane, even in deviated and/or washed out wells.
Each caliper arm terminates in a pad from which a resistivity measurement is made.
The pads themselves are made as short as possible to allow them to enter small caves.
Resistivities are measured with small laterolog-3 type arrays. The sense electrodes,
commonly referred to as buttons, are discs about 0.01m in diameter, separated by a
thin insulator from the rest of the pad which acts as a guard, current returning to the
body of the dipmeter some distance above the caliper arms.
Pad traces are generally correlated automatically using the interval correlation
technique. This can be augmented by machine-aided manual correlation.
8.2 Interval Correlation Parameters

A window of data on the reference pad (the interval) is correlated with corresponding
intervals on the other pads, plus and minus an additional amount of data defined by
the search angle. The reference interval is then moved by an amount known as the
step (see Figure 8.1). One dip is computed for each step.
86
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
0.5 metre
Step
Step 4
Inclination
from
900
horizontal
North
Interval 3
Step 3
1.0 metre
Interval
Interval 2
Step 2
Interval 1
Search
Angle
Step 1
Search
Angle
Pad 1
Dipmeter
tadpole
Pad 2
Figure 8.1 Dipmeter processing terminology - only two pads are shown for clarity
The choice of parameters is critical to the appearance of the final tadpole plot.
8.2.1
Interval
It is often stated that long intervals are appropriate to large scale or structural dips,
whilst short intervals are appropriate to small scale or stratigraphic dips. This is
misleading since the dominant feature on a long correlogram is not necessarily going
to be associated with a structural feature. A better approach is to gear the interval to
the information content of the data. So, for example, if the pad traces are poor as a
result of intermittent contact in rugose conditions, the best results may come from a
short interval rather than, as one might expect, a long one. We can say, however, that
stratigraphic interpretations will always benefit from short intervals.
8.2.2
Step
It is usual to overlap the step and interval by some fraction, commonly a half e.g. 2 m
interval, 1 m step. Some overlap is justified since correlatable features may well fall at
or near an interval boundary, and might not result in an identifiable peak on the
correlogram if there were no overlap. However, it is inevitable that overlap will
sometimes result in two or more tadpoles being generated from the same feature. If
this is not recognised, it can lead to a falsely high level of confidence being placed on
the result. Double tadpoles are obvious when they share a common dip angle and
azimuth, but are less obvious when statistical variations introduce differences. It can
be useful to compare plots obtained with and without overlap; however, there is little
or no justification for more than two fold overlap.
87
8.2.3
Search Angle
This is the angle above and below the interval on the reference pad which, when
projected across the well, defines the trace lengths from the other pads which will
enter the correlation algorithm. It therefore defines the maximum apparent dip that
can be computed. Note that search angles are defined with respect to the borehole, so
the borehole tilt must be subtracted to find the maximum true dip angle that can be
computed in a vertical well. (This does not necessarily mean that a 450 search angle in
a 450 well will give no dipping tadpoles, since the relative azimuths of borehole and
dip also play a part; it does, however, mean there is no guarantee of getting dipping
tadpoles).
The maximum length of pad trace included in the correlation is a function of the
tangent of the search angle, and the computation time increases accordingly.
Moreover, unnecessarily large search angles increase the risk of finding spurious
correlations associated with apparently steep dips when data quality is poor. The best
results therefore come from the minimum sensible search angle, but a higher search
angle pass will usually be needed to determine what that sensible value is.
8.3 Correlograms and Correlation Surfaces

A simple correlogram is a plot of correlation coefficient (between data in the reference
pad interval and data from another pad), against offset, as the reference interval is
stepped through the other trace one sample at a time. The correlation coefficient
provides a measure of similarity, being primarily sensitive to phase rather than
amplitude similarity. It takes values between -1 and +1; +1 is perfect correlation, 0 is
no correlation and -1 is from the mirror image. In constructing correlograms, we are
looking for the offsets associated with the highest correlation coefficients.
Pad traces scaled in apparent resistivity units should be correlated directly. Raw traces
(from the Reeves 3-arm dipmeter, for example) scaled in linear cps should be
transformed onto a logarithmic scale before correlating.
From a 4 arm dipmeter with one button per pad we can derive 6 correlations:
1 to 2
1 to 3
1 to 4
2 to 3
2 to 4
3 to4
Some dip computation programs (Schlumberger's Mark IV for example) compute a

number of dips from pairs of these correlograms (3 points being required to define a
plane). If the dips do not agree, they must be resolved; this leads to the concepts of
closure and planarity being used in quality control.
The Reeves approach is to assume planarity to start with, which allows us to include
all correlation information in one plot, a correlation surface. We begin by plotting
correlation values on a cross-plot of 1 to 3 offset against 2 to 4 offset; the correlation
values can be contoured, hence the name correlation surface. Each point on the crossplot defines a plane and since we are assuming planarity, we can predict the
corresponding offset between the other pads. These are added into the surface to
make a composite. he main peak on the surface corresponds to the most likely dip.
88
8.4 Structural and Stratigraphic Analyses

Structural dip originates from post-depositional changes in orientation resulting from
tectonic or localised structural events. It is useful to determine its magnitude and
direction so that it can be subtracted from observed dips, thereby revealing the dip
patterns at the time of deposition. Search Angles of 300 or 450 and long steps and
intervals (typically 1m and 2m, respectively) are commonly used to determine
structural dip, which is normally taken to be the average minimum dip trend in shales
(which were deposited in a low energy environment).
Stratigraphic dips require that small scale features are correlated to produce dips
representing sedimentary features formed at the time of deposition, such as current
bedding, channels, reefs, etc., as well as unconformities and faults. Accordingly,
shorter steps and intervals are required (for example, 0.5m and 1m, or even 0.25m
and 0.5m, respectively) together with higher search angles of 600 or 800. Such
parameters increase processing times quite markedly and will result in a certain
scattering of tadpoles with lower correlation coefficients.
Where post-depositional tilting has occurred, it is often a useful exercise to regress the
present-day structure back to conditions existing at the time of deposition. This
structural dip removal is achieved by a three-dimensional rotation and subtraction
performed on all the tadpoles according to the values of the structural dip and
direction.
Once structural dips have been removed, identification of the environments of
deposition may proceed by comparison with models generated from present-day
structures such as deltas, river channels, beaches, dunes etc. These interpretations
should be cross-checked against lithology from other wireline logs and core data
where available. However, where folding or faulting has occurred, estimates of
structural dip may be impossible or suspect.
Idealised tadpole responses corresponding to structural and stratigraphic features are
depicted in Figure 8.2. These are simple situations: actual structures may be more
complex.
Uniform monoclinal dip
Cross-bedded sediments
89
Regional dip
Sets of dips decrease

with depth
Delta sequence
Change in dip between

topset and foreset-beds :
foreset dips decrease
with depth; bottom-set
dips are low
Reef
Increase in dip over reef

due to draping; erratic
dips within reef
Salt dome
Gouge zone
Shear zone
Compressed zone
Dips increase with depth

above fault; dips within
salt few and erratic
Unconformity
Abrupt shift in dominant

dip and dip direction
Anticline
Reversal of dip azimuth

at axis; dips at axis at
or near zero degrees
Syncline
Reversal of dip azimuth

at axis; dips at axis at
or near zero degrees
Normal Fault
Dips reverse in azimuth

over range of drag
structure; maximum dip
indicates fault plane
Reverse Fault
Dips consistent in
azimuth over drag
structure; fault plane
indicated by
maximum dips
Figure 8.2 Idealized tadpole patterns - structural and stratigraphic features
8.5 Tadpole Pattern Classification

Some interpreters use a dip classification system that uses colours to represent
different patterns of dip tadpoles - see Figure 8.3.
90
Dip magnitude(degrees)
90
GREEN
RED
RANDOM
DIPS
Depth
BLUE
GREEN
Figure 8.3 Colour pattern approach to tadpole trend classification
Green
Tadpoles of consistent magnitude

structural or regional dips.
and
azimuth:
Red
Increasing dip with increasing depth: associated with

faults, channels, bars, reefs and unconformities.
Blue
Decreasing dip with increasing depth: associated with

faults, unconformities and cross or current bedding.
Further sub-division may be carried out, as follows:

Red
Blue
(A)
If a fault or unconformity: larger changes in dip

magnitude over a smaller depth interval
(B)
If a depositional feature: smaller changes in dip

magnitude over a larger depth interval
(A)
If a fault or unconformity: normally persist over a
91
longer depth interval

(B)
If a depositional feature: usually over a smaller depth

interval
It would be unwise to adhere too rigidly to this method of classification, but it is

nevertheless a useful aid to zoning the borehole.
8.6 Other Considerations

Identification of the environment of deposition can provide clues about the shape of a
prospect. For instance, the direction of sediment transport (or current flow) can give
an indication of which direction the target horizon is likely to prove laterally most
consistent and not pinch out.
For example, coal seams associated with abandoned minor channels. River channels
are generally sinuous with distinct upstream and downstream directions which may be
identified from the associated cross-bedding. Once the direction of current flow has
been established, decisions can be made to direct the drilling programme downstream
to the palaeo coast, where further coal may be located associated with a deltaic
environment. Strategically located boreholes logged with dipmeters will refine the
interpretation of the prospect.
One of the more important parameters that the geologist needs to ascertain is the true
thickness of the target horizon for his calculations of reserves. If the bed is dipping,
then wireline logs will show an apparent thickness. rue thickness can be determined
from dipmeter logging.
In some cases, faults are identified by drag structures in the strata either side of the
fault, rather than the fault plane itself. Where these drag structures are not present,
missing sections of strata (normal faulting) or repeated formations (reverse faulting)
may give clues to the presence of faulting.
These are simple, idealised models. Real situations may be more complex and involve
faults at varying angles and directions to the bedding. he situation may be further
complicated by the degree of competency displayed by the strata through which the
fault plane passes - shales are more likely to show drag structures, where limestones
and sandstones may rather fracture. his can result in considerable distortion to the
tadpole patterns and hence interpretations should proceed with care.
8.7 Dipmeter Interpretation Example

In Chapter 7 we used non-dipmeter logs to establish correlations between three
boreholes (Figure 7.5), and to compute an average true dip of 60 to the WNW. Using
dipmeter data, it can be shown that a considerably different interpretation is possible.
92
MAIN LOG
FILENAME: DEMODIP1.CIB
0-------------API-----------200
6-------------INS------------11
RUN ID: MAIN LOG

0-----DEG----30
1
<--MLL 1
<--MLL 2
<--MLL 3
695
700
<--FORMATION
DIP AND
AZIMUTH
<--GAMMA RAY
<--CALIPER
705
710

FILENAME: DEMODIP1.CIB
RUN ID: MAIN LOG

MAIN LOG
Figure 8.4 Fillongley Hall dipmeter tadpole plot
Figures 8.4 and 8.5 show the dipmeter tadpole plots for these two boreholes at the
relevant depths for the coal seam in question.
93
Figure 8.5 Chapel Green dipmeter tadpole plot
Having obtained dip magnitudes and azimuths from the tadpole plots, it is useful to
draw plan and cross-section views with this information annotated. Figure 8.6 shows
the plan view with an interpreted structure, whilst Figure 8.7 illustrates the equivalent
cross-section.
94
2 NW
CHAPEL GREEN
BOREHOLE
ANTICLINE
INTERPRETED
FILLONGLEY HALL
BOREHOLE
0
5 SSE
Figure 8.6 Plan view of the two boreholes showing structure interpreted
using dipmeter data
CROSS-SECTION ORIENTED ALONG BEARING N2200E

CHAPEL GREEN
BOREHOLE
122 m AOD
FILLONGLEY HALL
BOREHOLE
147 m AOD
COMMON
DEPTH
DATUM
1200 m
DEPTHS IN BRACKETS REDUCED
TO COMMON DEPTH DATUM
2 NW
(642.8 m)
642.8 m
COAL SEA
M
(680.3 m)
705.3 m
5 SSE
ANTICLINE INTERPRETED
Figure 8.7 Cross section of the two boreholes
The interpretation that an anticline exists fits the available dip magnitudes and
directions, whilst the great distance between the boreholes and the low dips involved
indicate a fold rather than any drag structures associated with a fault plane. he
anticline axis is interpreted to lie closer to the Chapel Green borehole, due to the
lower dips present.
95
This interpretation from dipmeter data differs considerably from the previous
interpretation of a simple planar structure dipping gently in a WNW direction. This
dipmeter survey has shown the location of a structure whose existence was previously
unknown.
Similarly, Figures 8.8 and 8.9 depict a theoretical situation with a borehole-toborehole correlation of the target horizon and subsequent interpretation using
dipmeter data from both boreholes. Since the boreholes in question are fairly close
together, a faulted structure has been interpreted rather than folding.
BOREHOLE A
BOREHOLE B
TARGET HORIZON DEPTHS FROM DRILL

CUTTINGS OR GEOPHYSICAL LOGS
INTERPRETED RESULT
100 m
Figure 8.8 Interpreted structure from borehole-to-borehole correlation

BOREHOLE A
DIPMETER
INDICATES
350 DIPS
TO NORTH
BOREHOLE B
FAULT OR
FAULTS
INTERPRETED
DIPMETER
INDICATES
350 DIPS
TO NORTH
100 m
Figure 8.9 Interpreted structure from borehole-to-borehole correlation

incorporating the dipmeter tadpole interpretations
96
Clearly, the two interpretations are markedly different and may have significant
bearing on the method of extraction of the target horizon material and on the
estimation of recoverable reserves.
8.8 Horizontal Stress Regimes

Four-arm calipers from a four-pad dipmeter or from the borehole geometry tool with
X-axis and Y-axis calipers (BGT), has led to the realisation in recent years that
horizontal stress regimes may be recognised, and their orientations measured, from
the nature of associated breakouts.
Figure 8.10 shows a typical borehole breakout log from the BGT sonde. The criteria
generally used for identifying breakout is that of Plumb and Hickman (Stress induced
borehole elongation: A comparison between the four arm dipmeter and the Borehole
Televiewer in the Auburn Geothermal Well. Journal of Geophysical Research, 90,
1985, pp 5513-5521]:
1.
Tool rotation ceases in the zones of breakout
2.
The difference between the two calipers is greater than 0.24"
3.
The smaller of the calipers is close to bit size, or if greater than

bit size should be less variable than the larger caliper
4.
Breakout depth interval is greater than 30 cm
5.
Breakout does not follow the azimuth of the well high side
when it is deviated (takes account of preferential elongation by
drill pipe wear on the low side of the well: key seating).
97
BREAKOUT EXAMPLE
FILENAME: DEMOBRKT.CIB
0-------------API-----------200
0------DEG----180
RUN ID: BREAKOUT EXAMPLE

4----INS----1.5 1.5---INS-----4 0------------DEG-----------180

1
740
HALF
BIT SIZE--->
AZIMUTH OF
X-AXIS---->
<--GAMMA
RAY
HALF
<---BIT SIZE
BOREHOLE
BREAKOUT
AZIMUTH-->
750
BOREHOLE
PROFILE
FROM HALF
X-AXIS &
Y-AXIS
CALIPERS--->
1
760
770

FILENAME: DEMOBRKT.CIB
RUN ID: BREAKOUT EXAMPLE

BREAKOUT EXAMPLE
Figure 8.10 Borehole Breakout log showing minimum and maximum calipers
Breakout manifests itself as localised rock spalling or an increase in borehole diameter
along one axis. Comparison of orientated X-Y caliper data from a total of 81
boreholes in the UK [Brereton, N. R. and Evans C. J., 1987. Rock Stress Orientations
in the United Kingdom from Borehole Breakouts. B.G.S. Regional Geophysics
Research Report RG87/14] has revealed an average breakout orientation of 540 /
2340. his is in accordance with minimum stress orientation measurements from other
techniques such as hydro-fracturing and over-coring. Similar studies undertaken
elsewhere confirm the usefulness of the technique.
98
Whilst such studies were originally of interest in the field of plate tectonics, a spin-off
has been the application of breakout orientations in the planning of mine layouts and
roadways. Studies have revealed that, if a roadway orientation is within
approximately 300 of the breakout direction, then marked stability problems can
occur. This instability manifests itself as rock deformation and associated roof support
collapse. A typical example of this phenomenon occurred at Lea Hall Colliery in the
UK South Midlands Coalfield, where a face heading, oriented parallel to the breakout,
suffered great instability problems, whilst the gate roads leading to the face (i.e.
normal to the direction of the breakout) did not collapse. his is illustrated in Figure
8.11.
MAIN
CLEAT
MINOR FAULTING
BACK
CLEAT
ATE
MAIN G
TE
TAIL GA
STABLE BECAUSE
ORIENTED NORMAL TO
BOREHOLE BREAKOUT
(LOOKING OUTBYE)
DIRECTION OF
MAXIMUM
LATERAL
STRESS
T
KOU
BREA
ECHILLS NO. 1
BOREHOLE
FACE
COLLAPSE DUE
TO PARALLEL
ORIENTATION OF
BREAKOUT AND FACE
(LOOKING INBYE
DOWN FACEHEAD)
T
KOU
B R EA
ECHILLS NO. 2
BOREHOLE
0
100 200 300 400 500

SCALE IN METRES
Figure 8.11 Underground stability problems due to orientation of coal face with
respect to breakout direction
8.9 Borehole Navigation

All dipmeters and acoustic scanning tools are logged in combination with navigation
subs. This serves two purposes: any depth in the borehole can be readily pinpointed in
terms of true vertical depth (TVD), and distance and direction from the origin.
Secondly, this navigation data is essential in assigning magnitudes and azimuths to
formation dips. All tadpoles are first referenced to the tool axis (and, therefore, to the
borehole axis) and then corrected for the tilt of the tool from vertical and the
direction of a specific datum (normally the azimuth of pad 1 on the tool) from
magnetic north.
Three magnetometers and two level cells provide all the data necessary to compute
the tilt and azimuth of the borehole. All data are referenced to a single point,
99
normally the casing shoe, itself assumed to be at the same geographical co-ordinates as
the borehole at ground level. Azimuths may be referenced to True North, Magnetic
North or Grid North. From the tilt and azimuth data are calculated true vertical
depth, northings and eastings, polar bearing and radius and polar error co-ordinates.
The Reeves gyroscopic verticality tool can log inside steel casing - its outputs are
treated in the same way as the standard tool.
The analysis results in both graphical and tabular outputs. Figure 8.12 is typical of the
tabular output from the Verticality Analysis and Figure 8.13 the graphic output.
Figure 8.12 Borehole Verticality Analysis - tabular output
100
ALL FIGURES IN LOG DEPTH MS

TARGET ORIGIN DEPTH.....3.00
LAST PLOTTED DEPTH......239.00
DEPTH MARKERS ANNOTATED
IN MULTIPLES OF.........20
FIRST DEPTH MARKER AT...20
LAST DEPTH MARKER AT....220
PLOT WITH RESPECT TO TRUE NORTH

SCALE 1:1000
DECLINATION 28.0 DEG.
75.00
50.00
25.00
BOREHOLE POSITIONAL ERROR
FINAL BOREHOLE POSITION
THE TWO BOXES SURROUNDING

THE LAST PLOTTED DEPTH SHOW
THE TYPICAL, AND MAXIMUM,
POSITIONAL ERROR AT THAT
DEPTH.
THE LAST PLOTTED DEPTH IS AT

23.57 MS NORTH,
34.88 MS
WEST IE.
42.10 MS FROM THE
ORIGIN, 304 DEG FROM TRUE NORTH
(TRUE DEPTH VS DISPLACEMENT)

VERTICAL SCALE 1:2000
HORIZONTAL SCALE 1:2000
MARKERS ANNOTATED
AS ABOVE
.0
.0
3.0
3.0
20.0
20.0
40.0
40.0
60.0
60.0
80.0
80.0
100.0
100.0
120.0
120.0
140.0
140.0
160.0
160.0
180.0
180.0
200.0
200.0
220.0
NORTH
220.0
SOUTH
-40.00
.00
40.00
-60.00
-20.00
20.00
60.00
LOG
DEPTH
VERTICAL SCALE 1:2000
HORIZONTAL SCALE 1:100
.0
3.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
140.0
160.0
180.0
200.0
220.0
.00
-2.00
-4.00
-6.00
-1.00
-3.00
-5.00
-7.00
CORRECTION FOR TRUE DEPTH
WEST
EAST
-40.00
.00
-60.00
-20.00
LOG
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
22.00
24.00
26.00
28.00
30.00
32.00
34.00
36.00
38.00
40.00
42.00
44.00
46.00
48.00
50.00
52.00
54.00
56.00
58.00
60.00
62.00
64.00
66.00
68.00
70.00
72.00
74.00
76.00
78.00
80.00
82.00
84.00
86.00
88.00
90.00
92.00
94.00
96.00
98.00
100.00
102.00
104.00
106.00
108.00
110.00
112.00
114.00
116.00
118.00
120.00
122.00
124.00
126.00
128.00
130.00
132.00
134.00
136.00
138.00
140.00
142.00
144.00
146.00
40.00
20.00
60.00
TRUE
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
22.00
24.00
26.00
28.00
30.00
32.00
34.00
36.00
37.99
39.99
41.99
43.99
45.99
47.99
49.98
51.98
53.97
55.97
57.96
59.95
61.94
63.93
65.92
67.91
69.89
71.88
73.86
75.84
77.82
79.80
81.78
83.75
85.73
87.70
89.67
91.64
93.61
95.58
97.54
99.51
101.47
103.44
105.40
107.36
109.33
111.29
113.25
115.21
117.17
119.14
121.10
123.06
125.02
126.98
128.94
130.90
132.86
134.82
136.78
138.73
140.69
142.65
144.61
LOG
148.00
150.00
152.00
154.00
156.00
158.00
160.00
162.00
164.00
166.00
168.00
170.00
172.00
174.00
176.00
178.00
180.00
182.00
184.00
186.00
188.00
190.00
192.00
194.00
196.00
198.00
200.00
202.00
204.00
206.00
208.00
210.00
212.00
214.00
216.00
218.00
220.00
222.00
224.00
226.00
228.00
230.00
232.00
234.00
236.00
238.00
239.00
TRUE
146.56
148.51
150.46
152.41
154.35
156.30
158.24
160.18
162.12
164.06
165.99
167.92
169.85
171.77
173.69
175.61
177.52
179.43
181.33
183.24
185.14
187.04
188.93
190.82
192.70
194.59
196.47
198.35
200.22
202.09
203.95
205.81
207.67
209.52
211.38
213.23
215.08
216.92
218.76
220.60
222.44
224.28
226.11
227.94
229.77
231.54
232.30
Figure 8.13 Borehole Verticality Analysis - graphic output
101
9 Acoustic Scanning Tools &

Image Processing
9.1 Introduction
The Slim Acoustic Scanner generates continuous high resolution formation images in
boreholes as small as 3 inches (76 mm) in diameter. Such images provide quantitative
information about the lithological and structural characteristics of rock masses
previously available only from rock core. In particular, it is possible to derive
unambiguous orientations for any planar feature that intersects a borehole, and infer
in-situ stress field orientation from the borehole breakouts which are readily identified
on the images.
All acoustic scanning tools contain a rapidly rotating transducer which emits repeated
short bursts of sound energy. Each burst produces a borehole wall reflection whose
amplitude and travel time characteristics are measured by the tool and recorded at
surface. As the tool traverses the hole, a continuous helical scan is made. This is
transformed into a series of circumferential scan lines which are than rotated into a
common frame of reference to remove the effects of tool orientation and borehole
trajectory. Continuous false colour images are constructed by adding successive scan
lines one above another on a display screen or plotter.
9.2 Theory & Physical Parameters

9.2.1
Acoustic Transducers
The active element in the transducer is a piezo-electric plate. This is made to resonate,
with a rapid initial transient response, by driving the element with a large, short
duration voltage spike applied across the face of the plate. The duration of the pulse is
in strict relation to the resonant frequency of the plate in order to maximise the
output from this electro-mechanical conversion process (it is typically about 1 sec).
A quarter wave matching plate is bonded to the front face of the piezo material. This
provides impedance matching to the borehole fluid and greatly increases the efficiency
of the transducer. Material behind the plate absorbs energy radiated into the tool and
absorbs internal reflections. Finally, a concave acoustic lens is used to focus the
pressure field and improve the ultimate spatial resolution.
Figure 9.1 shows the results of a pressure-field test on a 500 kHz, 38 mm diameter
transducer with a 76 mm focal length lens. It was constructed from data acquired in a
large water-filled tank, and shows the pressure field amplitude in the plane
perpendicular to the lens and passing through its centre. The nodes are 1 mm apart. It
has the following characteristics:
102
lack of sensitivity in the near-field region (in this case about 40mm
in front of the transducer).
a relatively flat on-axis response in the far-field which allows
operation over a range of hole sizes.
Amplitude
good focusing, as demonstrated by the V-shaped ridges in the nearfield and narrow far-field response.
90
80
70
60
50
Y position (mm) 40
30
40
20
10
0 0
50
30
20
10 X position (mm)
Figure 9.1 Pressure field for the 500 kHz transducer
Figure 9.2 shows the pressure field for a 1 MHz, inch (13 mm) diameter
transducer. In this case the onset of the far-field response is much closer to the
transducer face.
103
Amplitude
90
80
70
60
50
Y position (mm) 40
30
40
20
10
0 0
50
30
20
10 X position (mm)
Figure 9.2 Pressure field for the 1 MHz transducer
It will be apparent from Figures 9.1 and 9.2 that in order to maintain optimum
performance in hole sizes ranging from 3 to 8 inches (76 to 203 mm), two transducers
are desirable. We have therefore selected a 1 MHz transducer for the approximate
range 3 to 5 inches (76 to 127 mm), and a 500 kHz transducer for holes larger than 5
inches (127 mm) in diameter.
9.2.2
Spatial Resolution and Detection Threshold
There are many criteria for judging the quality of an image. Amongst the most
important are spatial resolution and detection threshold. (Some literature does not
differentiate between the two measures; they are, however, quite different and should
not be confused).
Spatial resolution is the minimum distance between events such that they can be
distinguished as separate entities. There is a stricter definition which requires the
events not only to be separated, but quantified such that the intrinsic magnitudes of
the features can be ascertained. However, in the context of image analysis, the former
is the more relevant definition, since absolute values will, in any case, be disguised by
processes such as dynamic normalisation.
Detection threshold simply refers to the smallest event that can be detected by the
system. In general, this is much smaller than the system resolution - it is much easier
to see an isolated feature than it is to distinguish between two similar features close
together.
104
We must now distinguish between intrinsic and usable resolution. Intrinsic resolution
is solely a function of transducer design. However, logging speeds, sample rates and
the manner in which the images are constructed are additional design factors which
control the usable resolution. The borehole environment may well impose further
restrictions.
In evaluating the SAS, we have studied angular resolution around the hole (and by
implication, the vertical resolution) and the detection threshold.
9.2.3
Angular Resolution
This was determined in fluid-filled steel pipes in which a sequence of grooves were cut
in positions progressively closer together. Data were collected from both the 500 kHz
and 1 MHz transducers in pipes ranging between 6 and 8 inches in diameter. These
are large compared to the normal operating range of the SAS, and the resolution in
small hole sizes, particularly with the 1 MHz transducer, can be expected to be
significantly better than reported here.
-1.00
-1.50
-2.00
-3.00
-2.50
AMPLITUDE (DB)
-0.50
0.00
Results for the 500 kHz transducer in the 8 inch pipe are presented in Figure 9.3. It
will be seen that all the grooves are differentiated, except for the pair at 380 and 420
which appear as a single feature. From the plot, we deduce that the angular resolution
is 7.50 at 8 inches. The corresponding linear resolution on the borehole wall may be
calculated as 2r tan (angular resolution /2), where r is the borehole radius. This
corresponds to 0.57 inch (14.6 mm) in an 8 inch hole, or 0.26 inch (7 mm) in a 4
inch hole.
0.00
40.00
80.00
120.00
160.00
200.00
240.00
ROTATION ANGLE
Figure 9.3 Amplitude responses of the 500 kHz transducer in an 8 steel tube
As previously indicated, the actual resolution in a 4 inch hole will be better than this.
This is supported by additional laboratory data using the 1 MHz transducer in a
grooved 6 inch pipe, which gives an angular resolution figure of 60.
9.2.4
Spatial Detection Threshold
A second series of experiments was performed in which steel pipes were scribed with
grooves having a common separation but progressively smaller width.
105
Figure 9.4 shows the results from a scan in an 8 inch pipe. The groove width reduced
progressively from 12 mm (0.47 inch) to 2 mm (0.08 inch). The tool clearly detects
64
256
48
192
32
10
12
128
64
16
20
40
60
80
100
Orientation ( Datum points )

Hit <SPACE> Bar to continue.....
120
140
160
180
0
200
Figure 9.4 Results of groove width experiments in an 8 pipe - all grooves from
12 mm width down to 2 mm are clearly detected
all grooves down to and including the 2 mm groove. Experiments in a 6 inch pipe
were able to detect sub 1 mm grooves.
9.2.5
Resolution and Sample Rates
The image displayed on the log is constructed from discrete samples taken as the
scanning head traverses a helical path along the borehole wall. In order to take
advantage of the resolution available from the transducer, it is essential that the
samples are taken sufficiently frequently.
In the SAS, 200 sample pairs are taken per revolution, of which 100 are used in image
construction. This corresponds to an angular sample rate of 1 per 3.60. This is
sufficient to meet the Nyquist criterion for reproducing the intrinsic resolution of 7.50
at 8 inches.
The vertical distance between samples depends on logging speed. The symmetry of
the transducer means we can use the linear resolution computed from the angular
resolution as our basis for comparison. To resolve two features separated by 14.6 mm
(to use the worst case figure given above) means sampling with an increment of no
more than 7.3 mm to satisfy the Nyquist criterion. For convenience, we use optional
increments of 5 or 10 mm.
A simple calculation will show that unique samples will be obtained at these
increments at logging speeds of 2.4 m/min and 4.8 m/min respectively (about 500
ft/hr and 1000 ft/hr respectively).
106

Figure 9.5 shows a schematic of the tool. It comprises two parts: the Slim Scanner
Head (SSH) sub and Slim Acoustic Processor (SAP) sub. The maximum diameter of
the tool is 2 inches (57 mm).
In-Line
Centraliser
SAP
Slim
Acoustic
Processor
In-Line
Centraliser
SSH
Slim
Scanner
Head
Figure 9.5 SAS tool schematic showing Slim Scanner Head (SSH) and Slim
Acoustic Processor (SAP) subs and the in-line centralisers
It is important that the tool is properly centralised in the borehole. If it is not, the
distance between the transducer and the borehole wall will not be constant along a
circumferential scan line. Since the borehole fluid attenuates the acoustic signal, the
amplitude of the reflected signals will also vary around the hole. This gives rise to an
artefact on the amplitude image which, whilst amenable to reduction by the
processing software, is best avoided in the first instance.
For this reason, the tool is equipped with a pair of optional in-line centralisers. Each
centraliser comprises three articulating arms fabricated from polished steel to reduce
friction at the borehole wall. The arms are linked at their base to a common spring
loaded pivoting assembly. This causes the arms to expand and contract as the
borehole changes shape, thereby maintaining proper centralisation, even when tilted.
The acoustic transducer is mounted in a rotating head assembly where it is exposed
directly to the borehole fluid. Unusually, there is no pressure resistant window, which
means that signal attenuation is at a minimum. It also means that the transducer is
107
closer to the outer diameter of the tool, which contributes to a further reduction in
transmission loss through the borehole fluid.
The head is driven by a stepper motor which causes it to rotate at 8 revolutions per
second. During each rotation, the transducer is pulsed 200 times at its resonant
frequency. Following each pulse, the transducer is switched to receive mode, at which
point it is sensitive to the pressure field reflected from the borehole wall. A
magnetometer adjacent to the transducer provides the azimuth information needed to
orient the image in a vertical well. Additional navigation information is provided by
two level cells in the processor sub which allow the tool to be oriented in the general
case of an inclined borehole.
The processor sub also contains a natural gamma ray measurement which facilitates
depth correlation to core data and other open hole logs.
9.4 Travel Time and Amplitude Detection

The travel time is used with the borehole fluid velocity to compute a 360 degree
caliper image. It is measured from the initiation of the transmitted pulse to a point
where the conditioned signal from the first reflection exceeds a pre-defined
discriminator level.
After the discriminator has been triggered and the arrival time recorded, a window is
opened and the conditioned wavetrain searched for its peak amplitude. Pairs of
amplitude and travel time values are digitised and stored for each pulse cycle. These
are accumulated in downhole buffers prior to transmission to the surface after each
revolution. The digitisation provides resolutions of 0.25 dB amplitude and 0.5 sec.
At the end of each revolution, a complete conditioned waveform is also transmitted.
This allows the engineer to monitor the quality of the signal in real time.
When data are acquired in a cased hole, the actual mud velocity can be adjusted in the
software so as to give an exact match to internal casing diameter. This ensures that all
openhole caliper readings are correct and subsequent dip computations are performed
with true diameter inputs.
9.5 Surface Equipment and Field Processing

The SAS may be run from any Slimline Service Unit using single core cable. The
surface computer associates depths with the downhole data, orients the images with
respect to true or magnetic north, and controls the presentation and plotting of the
images and related data. The information is processed and plotted during acquisition
to maximise the opportunities for quality control.
A typical field plot is shown in Figure 9.6. The salient features are:
108
Track 1 (left of the depth track) - Gamma Ray, X and Y acoustic

calipers (sampled from the 360 degree caliper), cable tension, and
overlays of discriminator settings on conditioned waveforms.
Timing marks are presented as ticks on the left side of the grid from
which the logging speed can be deduced
Track 2 (right of the depth track) - the Compensated Amplitude
image is typically plotted on a 0 to 360 degree azimuthal scale i.e.
from north back to north. The image has been compensated for
mud attenuation effects using information from the travel time
image, and is displayed using a dynamic grey scale. This allows the
grey scale to change based on the distribution of data values within
the image. It has the advantage of generating contrast in the image,
at the expense of removing the link to absolute amplitudes (these
are, however, available for subsequent reprocessing)
Track 3 (far right) - the Travel Time image, typically also plotted
on a 0-360 degree scale. This too is displayed using a dynamic grey
scale to emphasise detail. By default, long travel times plot darker
than short times and the image is oriented with respect to true or
magnetic north
Depth track - contains the depths (in metres or feet), and borehole
tilt and azimuth plotted as tadpoles.
The rotation to true north requires the magnetic declination to be known. This is
printed on the log tail, and is positive for magnetic north east of true north, and
negative for the inverse. By convention, however, all images are referenced to
magnetic north.
109
Figure 9.6 SAS field log showing real time oriented amplitude and transit time
images
9.6 Computer Centre Interpretation

The steps taken to generate real time images in the field have already been described.
The quality of these images is such that qualitative interpretations may be made and in
vertical boreholes good estimates of dip can be derived. However, far more can be
obtained using the interactive image processing software (PC ImagePro) available at a
Reeves Computer Centre. Specifically, it is possible to bring to bear a wide range of
image enhancement and interpretation techniques to reveal information not apparent
110
on the monochrome prints. Such processing also allows dips to be accurately

computed regardless of borehole trajectory.
It should be noted that the automatic contrast control generally used to display field
images needs to be removed prior to computer centre processing. This is because the
enhancement methods will assume that the data are completely raw, and have not
been subject to prior processing.
Two Reeves software products have been developed for image analysis. Q-Scan
accepts binary field format files, and is the preferred choice for basic analysis of SAS
data. PC ImagePro is more generic; it takes image logs in LIS format from other
service companies, and has a wider range of enhancement, geological analysis and
plotting options..
9.7 Image Enhancement

The dynamic range of the data behind an SAS image will normally exceed the ability
of a colour display to render all the detail in a single presentation of the image. It is
therefore important that the analysis software is capable of isolating parts of an image
to enhance features which may be otherwise invisible, or masked by other events.
There follows a brief description of some of the methods used in PC ImagePro to
enhance images; most are also available in Q-Scan.
9.7.1
Static Normalisation
The colour range is mapped to a fixed range within the available data. This means
that a particular data value always maps to the same colour, so that (for example)
lithological comparisons can be made along the full length of the wellbore. The range
can be made broad to accommodate a wide range of amplitude or travel time
variations - this is done when presenting a continuous plot of the full borehole.
Alternatively, a small depth interval can be selected and the colours mapped to a
narrow data range - this has the effect of emphasising faint features against a uniform
background as seen in Figure 9.7 where a dynamically normalised amplitude image
(left) is contrasted with its statically normalised equivalent image on the right. The
bright yellow features in the static image are barely noticeable in the dynamic version.
111
Figure 9.7 Dynamically normalised amplitude image (left) contrasted with its
statically normalised equivalent (right) - from PC ImagePro
9.7.2
Dynamic Normalisation
The colours are mapped to a data range that is varied dynamically on the basis of the
statistics of the data distribution. In PC ImagePro this can be done over a small
interval, over a whole screen, or over the whole borehole. It has the effect of a
continuous variable contrast control. It reveals most of the features present in the
data, at the expense of losing the link between colour and absolute values.
9.7.3
Colour Bias
The centre colour palette is usually mapped to the centre of the distribution of data
values within the image. Colour bias shifts the colour palette up or down the data
distribution and has the effect of highlighting events at the extremes of the
distribution. Figure 9.8 shows examples of centre-mapped colour distribution (left)
and offset-mapped colour bias (right).
112
Figure 9.8 PC ImagePro screen dump of amplitude images featuring a centremapped colour distribution (left) and a colour biased distribution (right)
9.7.4
Palette Selection
The colours used to display images are constructed from a colour palette. Each palette
is a sub-set of all the colours in the visible spectrum. The standard palette is made up
of "earth tones" ranging from yellow through to brown and black. Each colour in such
a palette differs only slightly from its neighbour, and this gives a pleasing continuity to
the image. An alternative approach is to use the whole spectrum, so that adjacent
colours in the palette are more different. This tends to emphasise boundaries between
features. Comparisons of the two approaches can be seen in Figure 9.9.
113
Figure 9.9 PC ImagePro amplitude images demonstrating the different visual

emphasis shown by a rainbow palette (right) as opposed to a brown-yellow
palette (left)
9.7.5
Vertical Enhancement
Hole ovality and/or tool eccentricity cause vertical stripes to appear on the image due
to the unequal travel times and attenuations around the circumference of the
borehole. These usually have the same orientation (in the earths frame) over long
intervals, even if the whole tool is rotating. Vertical enhancement is a two
dimensional filter which removes such coherent noise and leaves the background
variations. Figure 9.10 demonstrates the effects of no vertical enhancement (left) and
after the application of the vertical enhancement filter (right) where such vertical
artefacts (in this case caused by striations in the mudcake) have been almost
completely removed.
114
xxx.00
xxx.00
xxx.00
Figure 9.10 Amplitude image before (left) and after (right) the application of the
vertical enhancement filter - from PC ImagePro
9.8 Dip Computation

The intersection of an inclined plane with a vertical circular borehole defines a line
which, on an unwrapped image, is an exact sine wave. The amplitude of the sine wave
defines the dip angle, and its phase with respect to north defines the dip azimuth, as
shown in Figure 9.11.
North
West
115
N E
S W N
Dip
Angle
South
East
Dip
Azimuth
Plane dipping
due south
Unwrapped plane
as a sine wave
Figure 9.11 Real and unwrapped schematics of a dipping plane
In the more general case of a plane intersecting an inclined, non-circular borehole, the
calculation is more complex and less amenable to mental computation. By way of
illustration, a sine wave with no amplitude (in other words, a horizontal line on the
image) could be a boundary with no dip in a vertical well, or a high angle dip whose
amplitude differs from that of the borehole by 180 degrees.
Q-Scan uses the tool navigation and travel time data to compute the exact dip of a
plane through three points highlighted by an interpreter on the screen (PC ImagePro
will calculate the best fit sine wave if more than three points are highlighted, or it can
fit a "rubber band" sine wave to a feature). The resulting dip is displayed
conventionally as a tadpole.
PC ImagePro also performs the inverse process - it will transform tadpoles into sine
waves. This is an extremely useful means of quality controlling dips that have been
automatically generated by the computer. It is most frequently used to compare
dipmeter dips with sine waves on pseudo-images generated from the dipmeter
resistivity traces. In some circumstances, both dipmeter and SAS are run to exploit the
complementary nature of the measurements, in which case the acoustic image can be
examined for evidence of a sine wave generated from a dipmeter tadpole - Figure
9.12.
116
Figure 9.12 PC ImagePro composite plot of dipmeter traces, dipmeter pseudoimage and acoustic amplitude image - the sine waves are from the dipmeter step
and interval correlation and may be quality controlled by comparing them with
the amplitude image - the three dip sets relate to results from different filtering
procedures
9.9 Dip Statistics and Interpretation

An adequate interpretation may be gleaned from a qualitative assessment of an image
coupled with the measurement of some representative dips. Indeed, in the case of
most shallow holes drilled in support of mining activities, this will generally be
sufficient.
Sometimes a more detailed quantitative analysis is justified. The following are some of
the tools in PC ImagePro (many of which are also in Q-Scan) used in pursuit of a
detailed understanding:9.9.1
Zonation
Zones in this context are intervals or units of interpretation. They may be defined on
the basis of the log responses, the local stratigraphy, structural units, or some other
attribute which reflects some commonality within the interval. Within each zone, dips
of the same type can be averaged. Such decimation of dip data often simplifies its
interpretation and helps identify the geological processes at work.
117
9.9.2
Classification
Unlike dips computed automatically from dipmeters (in a process which averages
events over an interval), each tadpole derived from the examination of an image is
generally associated with a specific feature. For example, it may be associated with an
open fracture, a filled fracture, a lamination in a cross bedded unit, an erosion surface,
an unconformity, or with beds distorted by faulting. An experienced interpreter will
be able to identify the signature of such features and classify them accordingly.
Classified dips are represented through the use of colour and shape of the tadpole
head.
9.9.3
Stereo Plots
Stereoplots are a convenient way of representing dip vectors on a 2-D plot. Computer
centre software can present equal area and equal angle stereoplots, and plot dip
vectors or poles to planes. They are particularly useful for identifying dip clusters
from which spherical mean dips can be computed to pass through the zonation
routines. They can also be used to examine dip trends. Great circle fitting and eigen
vector analysis are the principal tools used here.
9.9.4
Stick Plots
Sticks are lines on a borehole track drawn in an oriented vertical plane; the dip of
each stick is the apparent dip of the corresponding tadpole in that plane. They are
used to help visualise dips. Some users place them over seismic sections as a way of
matching features.
9.9.5
Azimuth Vector Plots
These are constructed by joining the tails of successive tadpoles on a cross-plot of dip
azimuth versus depth. The patterns are used to help correlate units from neighbouring
boreholes.
9.10 Examples
Figure 9.13 shows amplitude and travel time images at a 1:15 depth scale from a
borehole drilled through coal bearing strata. The most frequent use of the travel time
image is as a quality control on the amplitude image interpretation in caved or rugose
intervals. This travel time image is relatively featureless (indicating a smooth borehole
surface), except for the planar cave and co-planar fracture. The latter is interpreted as
being open, as a filled fracture would be visible on the amplitude image only.
118
Figure 9.13 SAS images in a coal hole - the planar yellow feature on the transit
time image is a cave; above it a non-planar feature interpreted as an open fracture
Figure 9.14 SAS amplitude image at a depth scale of 1:10, statically normalised, in a
3 inch diameter water-filled hole - from PC ImagePro
119
Figure 9.15 As Figure 9.14, with interpreted dips and sine waves
Figure 9.14 is an SAS amplitude image from a 3 inch (76 mm) diameter water-filled
borehole. The depth scale is 1:10, and the depths are annotated in metres (the interval
shown is only1.5 m). There are a large number of dips with widely varying angles,
reflecting a variety of different features. The normalisation used is static, and is a
compromise for the interval as a whole.
Figure 9.15 is the same interval with sine waves superimposed. Some of these were
picked by interactively enhancing small parts of the image. The different sine wave
colours correspond to different dip classes, also reflected in the colour and shape of
the dip tadpoles.
Figure 9.16 is a 1:2 plot of part of a fracture set showing the excellent vertical and
horizontal resolutions available from the tool. Also plotted for reference are pairs of
vertical and horizontal lines separated by 2 mm.
120
Figure 9.16 SAS amplitude image at 1:2 depth scale showing two narrow
fractures - note the 2 mm scaling marks
Figure 9.17 is an excellent example of breakout. The upper PC ImagePro screen

dump shows dark patches on the amplitude image (left) that correspond to the light
areas on the transit time image. These represent smaller amplitudes and longer transit
times, respectively.
These transit time changes are seen very clearly on the lower screen dump - the 3600
caliper shows that the wellbore has caved in a particular orientation. This corresponds
to the direction of minimum horizontal principal stress.
The direction of breakout can be measured directly from either the image or the 3600
caliper plot where the borehole is vertical. When the borehole is deviated, a sine wave
should be placed over the image such that the sine wave minimum and maximum
amplitude points correspond with the breakout as displayed on the image. The
resultant tadpole will have a tail that points to one half of the breakout orientation.
The other half lies exactly 1800 opposite.
Figure 9.17 Breakout as it appears on amplitude (left) and transit time (right)
0
images (upper picture) and its portrayal on a 360 caliper plot (lower picture)
121
122
Figure 9.18 Conjugate fracture sets are useful for inferring the direction of principal
horizontal stress when borehole breakout is not present
Figure 9.18 shows a conjugate set of steep or sub-vertical fractures oriented in an

approximate N-S direction. From this observation the direction of the principal
horizontal stress can be inferred.
Further examples of open fractures may be seen in Figure 9.19 where the upper
picture shows 2D displays of amplitude and transit time images - two large subvertical fractures can be seen.
The lower picture depicts two 3D pseudo cores of the same section of the borehole.
These are oriented at 1800 to each other in order to gain a full 3600 view of the
pseudo core. Both amplitude and transit time image data are incorporated in these 3D
presentations. Pseudo cores of this type can provide valuable correlation information
when compared with actual core.
Figure 9.19 Open fractures displayed in a conventional 2D presentation (upper

picture) and 3D pseudo core presentations of the same borehole section
123
124
The images in Figure 9.20 show the detail that can be detected and resolved when
small scale structures are present. Thin shale streaks (apparent as yellow bands on the
amplitude image, but which do not appear on the transit time image) and thin open
fractures (thin dark red features on the amplitude image and corresponding yellow
features on the transit time image) are evident within this coal seam. Dip tadpoles
corresponding to all the interpretable features have been assigned to three classes:
Green circles
relatively low dips in a consistent SW to WSW

direction - assumed to be the structural dip these are present throughout the coal and into
the shales above and below the seam
Blue diamonds
high dips all to NE or NNE
Red triangles
sub-vertical dips with approximate NW and SE

azimuths
Figure 9.20 Dip tadpoles corresponding to complex small scale structures within
a coal seam
The stereo plot for these tadpoles shows a definite set of conjugate fractures with
azimuths in the SE and NW quadrants, another set of fractures in the SW quadrant
and assumed structural dips to the NE. See Figure 9.21.
125
Figure 9.21 Stereo plot of the poles dip poles of the data in Figure 9.20
Having regard for these structural dips, it would be instructive to perform a structural
dip subtraction on the tadpoles in order to assess the structure of the formations prior
to tectonic movements. The results of this 3D rotation can be seen in Figure 9.22.
After removing the structural dips we are left with what appear to be two sets of
conjugate fractures at right angles to each other. Since these fracture sets do not
extend outside the coal seam it is reasonable to assume that these features are cleat
sets. If this is the case, then their orientations are of great importance to the engineers
whose responsibility is the planning and safety of the mine layout and structure.
126
Figure 9.22 Stereo plot of the dips after structural dip removal - two sets of
0
conjugate fractures are now apparent at 90 to each other - these are presumed to
be cleat sets
127
Gamma
Ray
Conjugate
Fractures
Calipers
(inches) 12
Amplitude
Travel Time
Figure 9.23 Sub-vertical conjugate fractures within a coal seam - ellipsoidal

appearance
Further conjugate fractures can be seen in Figure 9.23 though this set manifests itself
in a different fashion. Of note in this figure is the elliptical feature that is particularly
evident on the transit time image. This has been formed by the intersection of two
sub-vertical fractures with opposing dips - a conjugate set with azimuths of
approximately ESE and WNW. They are confined to the coal seam and are in close
proximity to each other. This has resulted in the ellipsoidal feature now seen.
128
D
D
C
C
B
A
A
Calipers
(inches)
12
Amplitude
Travel Time
Core
Figure 9.24 Four fractures interpreted from the amplitude image are confirmed
by the core - the core can be oriented by comparison with the image
Figure 9.24 depicts an SAS amplitude and transit time log alongside a rock core. Four
fractures are interpreted from the amplitude image. They are confirmed by
examination of the core. The core itself, of course, can be oriented by aligning the
core features with equivalents on the images.
Rock Strength
129
10 Rock Strength
Rock strength information is essential to the design of underground and surface mine
workings. In its broadest sense it controls the workability and supportability of
materials, and so helps determine the safest and most effective extraction methods.
The engineering properties of target horizon and overburden rock materials are
needed in terms of intact rock strength and distribution and character of
discontinuities.
Qualitative information can be deduced from examination of drilling records (rate of
penetration and weight on bit, for example), in combination with wireline logs such
as density and caliper measurements. For example, if the drilling record shows a
sudden increase in the rate of penetration at the same depths as a caved, low density
section on the wireline log, then a formation of low strength is indicated.
Quantitative data is obtained from field and laboratory testing of rock cores.
However, coring is expensive and may not provide full recovery of material,
especially if the strata are soft. Moreover, measurements from cores may not be
representative of the material's properties in-situ.
Conversely, wireline data is continuous, and reflects in-situ properties.
10.1 Composite Elastic Moduli Analysis

The following dynamic moduli are available from log data:
Bulk Modulus (KB)
r Vp2 - (4/3 Vs2)
Shear Modulus (m)
r Vs2
Poisson's Ratio (l)
(0.5 (Vp/Vs)2 - 1) / ((Vp/Vs)2 - 1)
Young's Modulus (E) =

where
2 r Vs2 (1 - l)
bulk density (kgm-3)
Vp
compressional or P-wave velocity (ms-1)
Vs
shear or S-wave velocity (ms-1)
Dynamic moduli are defined in terms of velocities and density. The ultrasonic pulses
used in their determination induce extremely small stresses and strains, and there is no
functional relationship between these and the static moduli determined by loading
samples in a stiff testing machine. It is ,however, possible to develop empirical
relationships between dynamic and static moduli.
Vp (from Ms series tools) and bulk density (from the DD1, DD3 and DR1) are
continuous logs. Vs may be determined from waveform logs if its value exceeds the
130
Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane
compressional velocity of water (Chapter 2). The SS1 tool excites the shear mode
directly by having its transducers locked against the borehole wall by an eccentralising
arm. This eliminates the fluid path, and has proven to be the most reliable way of
observing shear arrivals. Data must be collected in a series of stationary
measurements.
A typical example of the output from the SS1 tool is shown in Figure 10.1, together
with calculated values of rock strength parameters.
Borehole :
Depth :
1080.00
Sequence No. =
Young's modulus = 32.8 (Gpa)

Bulk modulus = 24.6 (Gpa)
Shear modulus = 12.8 (Gpa)
Poisson's ratio = .27
S/P ratio = 1.8
Density = 2.61 gm/cc

P-wave velocity = 4.01 Km/second
S-wave velocity = 2.22 Km/second
Delta t-p = 249 microsec/m
Delta t-s = 449 microsec/m
Figure 10.1 Typical SS1 waveform showing transmitter pulse (t), p-wave break
(p), s-wave break (s) and mechanical properties results
A widely used empirical derivation of shear velocity for hard rock environments is
Christensen's Equation:
1/ + 1/3
Vs = Vp1 1.15
1 /
where
r = density (kgm-3)
Vp = P-wave velocity (ms-1)
Vs = S-wave velocity (ms-1)
3/2
Rock Strength
131
STRENGTH MODULI
FILENAME: QUARYSTR.CIB
RUN ID:
1.0----------GM/CC----------3.0
6-------------INS------------11
800---M/S--4800 400---M/S--2400
STRENGTH MODULI

0-----------0.5 0-----MPa-50000 0-----MPa-25000 0-----MPa-50000
705
<--P-WAVE
VELOCITY
DENSITY
(GM/CC)-->
<--S-WAVE
VELOCITY
POISSON'S
RATIO------>
<--YOUNG'S
MODULUS
<--SHEAR
MODULUS
<--BULK
MODULUS
710
<--CALIPER
715

FILENAME: QUARYSTR.CIB
RUN ID:
STRENGTH MODULI

STRENGTH MODULI
Figure 10.2 Composite Elastic Moduli Analysis log derived from density and p-wave
sonic logs via Christensens Equation and the moduli algorithms
Figure 10.2 is an example Composite Elastic Moduli Analysis based on Christensen's

Equation. This may not always be appropriate, but it has the advantage of being
continuous. In situations where the equation is not appropriate, a continuous analysis
is still possible by normalising the equation using stationary data from an SS1 tool.
132
10.2 Alternative Methods

Alternative means of ascertaining rock strength have been sought for two reasons.
Firstly, to reduce the quantity of core measurements required, and secondly, to reduce
dependence on shear-wave measurements, as these are difficult to make in soft rock
environments. Accordingly, much research has gone into examining other wireline log
responses in attempts to produce useful empirical relationships with geomechanical
properties.
Research supported by Reeves has compared bulk density, sonic, gamma ray, microresistivity and neutron-neutron logs with point-load strength tests on cores from
boreholes drilled in UK Coal Measures. It was found that neutron count rates had the
greatest predictive power for intact strength.
Figure 10.3 shows data from one of these boreholes; core lithology, raw and
smoothed point-load strengths and neutron-neutron logs. Note that the diagonal
lines on the core lithology represent gradational contacts, whilst Is(50) is the point
load strength index in MPa referred to the standard 50 mm core diameter.
Rock Strength
133
API
Microsec/m
SNU
MPa
MPa
0.5
0.5
100
300
100
250
150
200
5
5
60
200
200
10
10
Depth, metres
795
800
Raw
Is (50)
Smoothed
Is (50)
Neutronneutron
Interval
transit time
Gamma
ray
Mudstone
Sandstone
Siltstone
Plant fragments, roots
Figure 10.3 Comparisons of lithology and Is (50) data against wireline log data
Figure 10.4 is a cross-plot of blocked count rate data ( in standardised neutron units SNUs) from the neutron tool, and Is (50) data from another of the boreholes, clearly
showing the good relationship between them within the strength range covered by the
tests.
Neutron Porosity Log in

Standard Neutron Units (SNU)
134
200
100
0
0.1
1.0
10
Is(50) MPa
Figure 10.4 Cross-plot of point-load strength against neutron-neutron log data
Research in Australia on samples with a wider range of strength and in over 1500
geomechanical tests in 40 boreholes, indicated that sonic log data is correlated with
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) [McNally, G. H. 1990. The Prediction of
Geotechnical Rock Properties from Sonic and Neutron Logs. Exploration
Geophysics,21, 65 - 71]. He reports the following relationship:
UCS = A e
where
(-k t)
A = a constant
e = the exponent
k = a constant
and
t = transit time in ms/ft
Given sufficient control data from sonic logs and laboratory tests, the values of A and
k can be established by exponential regression analysis. The value of this technique
can be seen in Figure 10.5 - the close correlation between UCS and transit time
indicates that further coring and laboratory testing can be avoided. Once the
relationship is established, UCS logs can be generated in the Qlog and PC ImagePro
software packages.
Rock Strength
135
Sonic Transit Time ms/ft
140
120
100
80
60
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
160
180
Uniaxial Compressive Strength MPa
Figure 10.5 Cross-plot of laboratory test UCS data against sonic transit from six
boreholes on three mine sites in the Bowen Basin, Queensland, Australia - note
the close correlation between point sampled tests and continuous log data
Other empirical relationships have been derived and utilised to predict UCS from
combinations of neutron, sonic and density logs. For example, an alternative to
McNally's exponential sonic model combines density and sonic data in an equation
that has the physical dimensions of stress:
UCS = k * ( b * Vp 2 )
The geotechnical application of logs is the focus of much current research, and whilst
it is unlikely that any single log will provide all the answers, it is clear that velocity and
amplitude information extracted from full waveform acoustic logs is going to play an
increasingly important role.
10.3 Applications
Knowledge of the variations in mechanical rock properties throughout a rock mass is
of great value in both civil and mining engineering applications:
10.3.1 Slope stability
Slope stability in mine high walls or any excavated cuttings. depends on the
orientation of strata with respect to the cut, the strength of the weakest part of the
rock sequence, and the characteristics of rock discontinuities.
136
10.3.2 Diggability
This is controlled by the intact strength of the rock, and by the distribution of joints,
fractures and partings. The cost of removing overburden or non-ore materials is
commonly the largest single cost in mining. Engineering properties maps have proved
useful in selecting the most appropriate excavation methods for each phase of digging.
10.3.3 Blastability
Successful blasting depends on many factors in addition to the intact rock strength.
Of particular importance in layered formations, for example, is the thickness of each
layer and their relative competence, since this will control the precise placement of
blasting charges.
10.3.4 Tunnel design
We have already seen in Chapter 8 how the orientation of mine roadways can
critically affect their stability.
In none of these cases will a single log interpretation product provide a complete
picture of the engineering properties of a rock mass. However, logs do provide
information about rock types, the positions of boundaries, the orientations of rocks,
and their intact strengths. In some cases they can also say something about rock
discontinuities. All this coupled with other site information can help greatly in the
understanding of rock masses, and feedback about the performance of a rock mass has
further helped to give logs real predictive power.
137
11 Coal Quality and Coal Bed

Methane
Coal quality parameters are traditionally derived from measurements made at
elevated temperatures on physical core samples. It is impossible to reproduce these
directly using geophysical methods, but many log measurements are sensitive to coal
constituents that control the traditional quality parameters. This suggests that
empirical relationships could be established, and that such relationships should have a
sound basis for working in practice.
11.1 Commercial Coal Classification

The basis of most commercial coal classification systems is the Proximate Analysis. It
is based on measurement by weight of successively higher temperature fractions of
raw coal. These fractions are labelled inherent moisture, volatile matter, ash and (by
difference) fixed carbon. The weight percentages are initially quoted on an air dried
basis and subsequently re-balanced to ash-free or mineral-matter free bases according
to local requirements. The importance of each parameter is reflected solely in the
needs of the end user. However, broadly speaking, ash is of importance in bituminous
and higher rank coals whilst moisture becomes relatively more important in subbituminous and ligniteous coals.
11.2 Ash Content

Ash content increases approximately linearly with increasing density; different coal
ranks exhibit different ash-density relationships. A theoretically pure coal does not
contain any mineral matter, and hence a zero ash content. It can be assumed that rock
contains 100 % mineral matter and therefore 100 % ash. A linear transform of a
density log produces a log of ash content for each rank category.
Figure 11.1 shows some linear ash-density relationships based on the following:
100 % ash is 2.6 gcm-3 for rock
0 % ash is 1.1 gcm-3 for lignite
0 % ash is 1.25 gcm-3 for younger bituminous coal
0 % ash is 1.35 gcm-3 for older bituminous coal
0 % ash is 1.5 gcm-3 for anthracite
138
2.6
ROCK
DENSITY (gm/cc)
2.5
2.0
AL L
CO OA
C
S
TE
CI
OU US
A
N
I
R
M IN O
TH
TU U M
I
AN
B T
R" " BI
E
R
LD
"O NGE
OU
"Y
E
IT
N
G
LI
1.5
1.35
1.25
1.1
1.0
0
50
100
ASH (%)
Figure 11.1 Cross-plot of density against ash content for coals of different rank
The Ash Analysis software package uses BRD logs at 1:20 depth scale (the Seam
Thickness Log) to define bed boundary and dirt parting depths (see Chapter 6 - Bed
Boundaries and Thickness). These depths are transferred to the LSD curve (the Coal
Quality Log) which is generally a more accurate density measurement, particularly in
rugose boreholes. LSD values are then used to derive ash after account is taken of its
vertical resolution.
The intrinsic vertical resolution of the LSD is 0.48m, so features that have a thickness
of less than this will not be fully resolved. Under these circumstances, the density
should be extrapolated from its average centre-bed value to the bed boundaries.
Alternatively, if a Vectar processed density is available (derived from LSD and BRD
density curves, combining the former's depth of penetration and the latter's vertical
resolution), then seams will be fully resolved down to 0.15m in thickness and
139
boundaries defined to +/- 0.01m in most situations. Micro-resistivity logs may be

used for boundary depths for 0.05m resolution, where borehole conditions allow.
It should be borne in mind that the core sampling increments used to provide
calibration points for the geophysical logs may not match the vertical resolutions of
the density curves in use. Careful planning is necessary to ensure appropriate sample
increment matching, or to ensure resolution matching through appropriate resolution
matching filtering of one or other data sets.
Manual selection of boundary depths and density levels may be avoided using an
automatic blocking routine. This is a less tedious and swifter process, but may not be
suitable for all requirements. Figure 11.2 is an example of the Ash Analysis, plotted at
a typical depth scale of 1:20 in metric units.
140
ASH ANALYSIS
FILENAME: QUARYASH.CIB
RUN ID: ASH ANALYSIS
SHADING KEY
CAVING
COAL
MINERAL
MATTER
ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL BY VOLUME
OVER A 100% SPAN
1.0-------------------------GM/CC-------------------------3.0
200--------------------------API----------------------------0
11----INS-----6
749
GAMMA RAY-->
750
<--DENSITY CURVE AND
HISTOGRAM (GM/CC)
751
CALIPER-->
752
FILENAME: QUARYASH.CIB
RUN ID: ASH ANALYSIS

ASH ANALYSIS
Figure 11.2 Two component analysis from the Ash Analysis software using
density histogram input with gamma ray and caliper curves for quality control
11.3 Coal Seam Evaluation

The Coal Seam Evaluation (CSE) is an extension of the ash analysis package and
provides the basis for a geophysical coal classification system complementary to the
laboratory based commercial coal classification systems. Inputs are sonic and density
(with the caliper curve as a quality control monitor); outputs are moisture, mineral
matter and coal substance plus a variety of summary options.
141
If an ash-density relationship is available then ash is computed in place of mineral

matter. A log blocking programme is available to assist the Evaluation.
11.3.1 Definitions
As with commercial coal classifications the CSE utilises arbitrary parameter definitions
but differs from the former in that it refers to in-situ conditions. The definitions are:
Mineral Matter
that part of the raw coal comprising

inorganic materials
Coal Substance
that part of the raw coal comprising

organic materials
Moisture
the remainder, chiefly occupying voids

between the mineral matter and coal
substance fractions
11.3.2 The Analysis

The three part volumes add to unity. The analysis accepts characteristic transit time
and density data and solves for part volume. A conversion to percentage weight is
made.
11.3.3 The Presentation
See figure 11.3. The central depth track partitions raw data to the right and
interpreted data to the left. The graphic illustration is accompanied by annotated
tabulations. Details of the parameters used are displayed at the top of the analysis.
Interval summaries for both log and interpreted data are presented, as are interval
floats and sinks analyses.
142
COAL SEAM EVALUATION

FILENAME: QUARYCSE.CIB
RUN ID: COAL SEAM EVALUATION PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
SHADING KEY
COAL
CAVING
MINERAL
MATTER
MOISTURE
CONTENT
ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL BY VOLUME

OVER A 100% SPAN
1.0----------GM/CC---------3.0 140----------MS/FT----------40
11----INS-----6
749
GAMMA RAY-->
750
<--DENSITY CURVE AND
HISTOGRAM (GM/CC)
<--SONIC CURVE
AND HISTOGRAM
751
CALIPER-->
752
FILENAME: QUARYCSE.CIB
RUN ID: COAL SEAM EVALUATION
COAL SEAM EVALUATION
Figure 11.3 Three component Coal Seam Evaluation, using density and sonic
inputs with gamma ray and caliper curves for quality control
11.3.4
The Options
1.
Ash % values replace mineral matter if an ash-density
relationship is used. In this case the coal substance and moisture
are scaled to maintain unit sum.
143
2.
Any density and sonic spacing combination may be used. In

good hole conditions it is recommended that a short density
spacing be used.
3.
Caved intervals may be flagged on entry. No analysis is

attempted for these intervals.
4.
Two density spacings may be displayed: a blocking log (usually

short density) and a long density (useful in caved conditions).
5.
Any interval within the analysis may be selected for summary

(the interval must be at least as deep as one block). Overlapping
intervals are permitted.
6.
Density boundaries for the floats and sinks summary are

selectable.
7.
Automatically blocked logs may be entered.
8.
For ease of operation most options have default settings.
A floats-and-sinks analyses determines the percentages of the sample contained within

specific density bands. This is readily replicated in the Coal Seam Evaluation.
Calorific value and volatile content have also been predicted from geophysical logs.
These, in common with other petrophysical parameters, depend on empirical
relationships developed from cross-plots of laboratory data against standard log data.
Much work has also been carried out with non-standard techniques, most notably
with neutron activation for the purpose of quantifying sulphur content. Whilst this
work has reported technical success, it remains to be seen whether the work will
become commercially viable.
11.4 In Seam Seismic

In the search for more detailed information concerning structures within a coal seam
the technique of in-seam seismic has proved valuable, particularly in respect of fault
detection.
There are two types of survey. Both rely on the same seismic propagation mode,
whereby tube (channel) waves are confined to the coal seam by reflections at the coalrock interfaces at roof and floor.
11.4.1 Reflection Survey
A series of short boreholes is drilled along the coal face and geophones installed in
each. Between each geophone pair, a small explosive charge is detonated. If a fault or
other obstruction is encountered by the seismic wave, then a reflection is generated
back to the geophone array. If the coal seam is unobstructed, then a reflection will not
be generated. Should a disturbance be indicated, then knowledge of seismic velocity
144
within the coal seam enables a simple calculation to be made, resulting in the distance
to that disturbance. Subsequent planning ensures continuity of production, whilst
avoiding the obstruction.
The success of this technique is reported to be between 85% and 90% in the UK coal
industry. Under optimum conditions, structures up to 300 m distant may be detected.
11.4.2 Transmission Survey
This type of in-seam seismic may be carried out under three sets of circumstances:
A.
Borehole to borehole.
B.
Borehole to coal-face (or coal-face to borehole).
C.
Coal-face to coal-face.
All use the same principle: a small explosive charge is detonated in the transmitter
side, and the seismic waveform detected by a geophone in the receiver side. They may
be up to 300 m apart.
Faulting or other seam disturbances may be detected by the technique, though
distance cannot be estimated. This is based on the fact that little or no seismic energy
is transmitted through a fault, volcanic intrusion, wash-out or other such disturbance.
In other words, the amplitude of the received signal at the geophone will be indicative
of the presence or absence of disturbances, provided that a signal strength-distance
relationship is available as a reference from an area of known consistency.
The second major benefit of the transmission survey relates to the frequency
characteristics of the propagated wave. Effectively, some propagation occurs above
and below the coal seam. This results in higher frequencies propagating within the
seam at typical coal velocities, whilst lower frequencies tend to be influenced by the
surrounding rock mass at typical rock velocities. This is shown diagrammatically in
Figure 11.4 as a frequency-slowness plot.
The shape of this curve and its absolute frequency values are governed by the coal
seam thickness and structure as shown by three different coal seams in Figure 11.5.
145
Propagation Frequency
A = Rock velocities
B-C = Transition zone
D = Coal velocities
D
Slowness
Figure 11.4 Frequency-slowness plot of tube wave transmission path through a coal
seam.
146
100
Barnsley Seam
(2.8 m thick)
Propagation Frequency (Hz)
200
Parkgate Seam
(2.0 m thick)
300
Corbiecraig Seam
(1.42 m thick)
400
500
600
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Slowness (ms/m)
Figure 11.5 Seam thickness from an In-Seam Transmission survey
In order to ascertain an accurate seam thickness, a calibration survey should be

performed in an area of known consistent character.
In the UK, a great quantity of data has been accumulated from such surveys
(historically up to approximately 150 surveys per year). The interpretations made
from them have largely been vindicated by driving tunnels and faces subsequent to the
surveys. The resulting correlations have led to computer modelling techniques being
applied to transmission data. Comparison of the acquired curve with computer
modelled curves from seams of different qualities and thicknesses can give rapid
answers to the questions of seam thickness and thickness variations.
147
The logistics of the transmission technique are simple. The seismic sources may be
small explosive charges embedded in short boreholes in a coal panel or, in the case of
a borehole, primacord wrapped around a back-off bar lowered to seam depth on the
end of a wireline logging cable. Similarly, geophones may be embedded in the coal
panel or alternatively cemented into the coal seam within the borehole. This
cementing requires precise depth control by the wireline logging contractor in order
to place the geophone at the mid-point of the seam.
Figure 11.6 shows an actual example of a transmission slowness stack acquired
between boreholes Sycamore No 1 and No 2. In this case, a continuous transmission
path is interpreted (i.e. no seam disturbances) from the continuity of the dispersion
curve.
60
99
138
FREQUENCY Hz
177
216
255
294
333
372
411
450
489
528
0.5
1.0
SLOWNESS ms/m
Figure 11.6 Sycamore No. 3 to Sycamore No. 1 in-seam transmission stack
11.5 Coal Bed Methane

There has been considerable interest in the exploitation of coal for its gas content in
recent years. Methane (firedamp) associated with coal has previously been regarded as
a potential hazard to life and limb. It has now been recognised that coal mines can be
de-gassed ahead of mining and that the gas itself can be economically viable. The
process has an environmental spin-off - methane emissions to the atmosphere are
reduced, helping to decrease problems caused by the greenhouse effect.
148
In general, gas content increases with depth of burial, and hence temperature and
pressure since it is absorbed in the micro-pores of the coal matrix. For example,
lignites and sub-bituminous coals may contain up to 200 cu.ft/ton, whilst bituminous
coals and anthracites may have 200 to 500 cu.ft/ton.
In order to successfully exploit a coal-bed methane prospect, several parameters need
to be determined. Depth, thickness, quality and lateral extent of the target coal
seam(s) are all pre-requisites and available, directly or indirectly, from wireline logs.
Quality is important in that the higher the ash (or mineral) content, the lower the
amount of coal and the smaller the volume of gas. Additionally, the depth-pressure
regime of the prospect is also involved in the volume of gas present. Coal porosity (i.e.
volume of gas within the micro-pores) and permeability (in the form of cleats and
fractures) are depth and pressure dependent. Both decrease with increasing overburden pressure due to the high compressibility of coal pores.
Permeability of the seam is likely to control producing hole spacings: the higher the
permeability, the greater the area of coal that can be de-gassed by a single borehole.
Quality assessment for methane potential is therefore based on principles outlined
above, with the addition of acoustic imaging to help quantify permeability potential
from cleat structure.
149
12 Seismic Time to Depth

Conversion
Seismic surveys do not by themselves allow the determination of depth to any
particular reflector, since they are intrinsically scaled in time. It is the wireline sonic
log that provides the link between depth and time.
Before looking at how this is done, we must be aware of some of the commonly used
seismic techniques:
Surface Seismic Survey
structural interpretation over large

volumes of material.
Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)
more detailed structure, time-todepth control of surface seismic

surveys and calibration of wireline
sonic logs.
Seismic Reference Survey (SRS)
time-to-depth control of surface

seismic and calibration of wireline
sonic logs. Also known as the
Check Shot Survey.
Low Velocity Layer survey (LVL)
characterisation of near surface

seismic properties.
Synthetic Seismogram
depth-to-time
conversion
of
wireline logs for depth calibration
of surface seismic data.
12.1 Surface Seismic

A surface seismic source generates compressional waves which are reflected from subsurface layers back to surface geophone arrays (seismic lines). A single seismic line
results in a 2-D picture or slice of the sub-surface structure. Grid patterns of these
seismic lines enable a 3-D seismic picture to be generated by analysis of the attenuated
and distorted reflected waveforms.
Each seismic line may be several km in length. However, the low frequencies
employed (typically 10 Hz to 200 Hz) and the attenuation of high frequencies with
increasing depth, limits a surveys resolving power. Additionally, the presence of
strong reflecting layers increases attenuation leading to further deterioration in data
quality below these reflectors. Ultimately, attenuation and distortion may be so great
that a meaningful interpretation cannot be performed.
In summary:
150
1.
Potential for huge coverage for structural information.
2.
An aid to planning of borehole locations.
3.
No depth information.
4.
Lack of detail, especially with increasing time.
5.
Inability to penetrate below strong reflecting layers.
12.2 Vertical Seismic Profiling

For a mine to maintain its viability, it is essential that operations continue as
unhindered as possible. Unexpected obstructions can lead to loss of output, damage
to machinery and further delays while attempts are made to resolve the problem.
Therefore, any technique that provides engineers with structural information on strata
ahead of mining operations is of great value.
One such technique is the Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP). This survey is conducted
with down-hole geophones and a seismic source at ground level. Data measurements
are made at many different depths. In the IMOVSP or Inverse Multiple Offset
Vertical Seismic Profile, down-hole seismic sources and a surface geophone array are
used. Similarly, data measurements are made at various depths but with the added
advantage of multiple geophones located various distances from the borehole.
IMOVSP surveys have provided superior seismic image data in shorter survey times
then conventional VSPs.
A device known as a back-off bar on the end of the wireline cable holds the downhole
seismic source. This is a solid steel rod around which is wrapped a suitable length of
primacord, the seismic source itself. An electrical detonator completes the downhole
set-up.
The surface equipment comprises a multi-element geophone array, a multi-channel
decoding and recording system and an electronic link from the downhole source
firing panel to trigger the recording system. The geophones are laid in a line
originating at the borehole itself, and may stretch for several hundred metres. The
line(s) would normally be oriented parallel to the formation dip azimuth in order to
detect changes in dip magnitude. Lines extending in opposite directions from the
borehole enable both up-dip and down-dip seismic surveying. Coverage is again
increased with geophone array lines laid in several different directions away from the
borehole. This can eventually culminate in almost complete three-dimensional
coverage, depending on the number of arrays employed.
An IMOVSP survey provides depth control, since the depth of the seismic source
within the borehole is known and controlled from the surface equipment. Processing
of the IMOVSP survey data to the same presentation format as the surface seismic (i.e.
a linear timescale for the y-axis and a linear distance scale for the x-axis) allows a
direct comparison of the two surveys and hence calibration of the surface data with
151
depths from the downhole data. This is obviously invaluable knowledge, enabling
depth control of the entire surface seismic pattern. Depths of coal seams,
unconformities, major reflectors and other major features throughout the survey area
may then be pinpointed, thus enabling target horizon depths to be quantified for the
drilling of further boreholes. Additionally, three-dimensional data is then available for
structural modelling of the areas of interest.
Lateral interpretations, or depth of investigation beyond the borehole, is principally
controlled by the orientation and number of geophone lines in use and, more
importantly, by the distance of the geophone furthest from the seismic source. In
practice, coverage is possible up to half of the source to geophone offset (see Figure
12.1).
DRILLING RIG
AND BOREHOLE
OFFSET GEOPHONES
OFFSET GEOPHONES
SEISMIC
SOURCE
REFLECTING
LAYER
LATERAL EXTENT OF
SEISMIC COVERAGE
(UP TO HALF OF THE BOREHOLE TO FAR
OFFSET GEOPHONE SEPARATION)
Figure 12.1 IMOVSP schematic

Looking beyond the drill bit is possible using the IMOVSP technique. Thus, structures
beneath the total depth of the borehole may be examined (see Figure 12.2) and any
further drilling decisions based on this data.
152
DRILLING RIG
AND BOREHOLE
OFFSET GEOPHONE
OFFSET GEOPHONE
SEISMIC
SOURCE
REFLECTING
LAYER BELOW
BOTTOM DEPTH
OF BOREHOLE
Figure 12.2 Looking ahead of the drill bit with the IMOVSP technique
One of the more valuable uses of the IMOVSP technique is identification of structures
beneath strong reflectors. Such reflectors prevent (or so seriously attenuate the signal
as to render any interpretation useless) acoustic penetration below themselves. Their
presence dictates a lower depth limit and can severely compromise the value of a
surface seismic survey. No such limitations hinder the IMOVSP survey, since the
borehole can be drilled through these reflectors and therefore imaging of the
structures beneath them may be accomplished.
As with all seismic surveys of the downhole type, a velocity profile may be established,
giving interval velocities between specific horizons and RMS and average velocities to
horizons. These are derived from knowledge of the depth of the downhole source,
drilling rig to geophone lateral separation, knowledge of the characteristics of the near
surface layers and measured one way times.
Figure 12.3 shows the parameters needed to correct travel times for near-surface
effects. These are: depth of the weathering layer (DW), elevation of the logging datum
above seismic datum (ELD), elevation of ground level above seismic datum at the
geophone location (EGL), weathering layer velocity (VWE) and elevation layer velocity
(VE) are all inputs to produce a time correction factor (TE). This allows for variations
in the above parameters and to reduce all data to a common reference point (seismic
datum):
TE =
DW
(EGL - D W)
VWE
VE
where
VE = VWE if EGL < DW
or
VE = velocity of first layer below DW if EGL > DW
153
Seismic datum is commonly mean sea level (M.S.L), ordnance datum (O.D.) or a
nominal distance above or below.
DRILLING RIG
AND BOREHOLE
GROUND LE
VEL
DW
VWE
VW
RA
OFFSET
GEOPHONE
WEATHERIN
G LAYER
OR LO W VE
LOCITY
LAYER (LVL)
ELD
TE
EGL
BOREHOLE
DL
TM
SEISMIC DATUM
TCORR
DCORR
DOWNHOLE
SEISMIC
SOURCE
Figure 12.3 Simplified schematic of an IMOVSP set up and associated parameters
The final stages in producing the velocity profile commence with taking into account
the borehole-to-geophone offset (RA). This is necessary to convert measurements (TM
corrected for seismic datum and weathered layers, etc.) from the hypotenuse to the
vertical (TCORR), assuming a vertical borehole.
TCORR = T M
where
DL
+T
(R + D L2)
2
A
TCORR = corrected one-way time

TM
= measured one-way time
DL
= depth of seismic source from ground level
RA
= distance between borehole and offset geophone
TE
= time correction factor
154
Two way times are calculated by simply doubling TCORR.

Further calculation results in the final velocity profile, which includes tabular and
graphical displays of the following:
Average velocity to horizons
R.M.S. velocity to horizon
Interval velocity between horizons
2-way times for interpolated depths
Depths for interpolated 2-way times
Inclined boreholes present additional problems since all data must be corrected for
TVD (True Vertical Depth). Clearly a borehole deviation or verticality survey must be
performed for this to be possible. If a dipmeter (DV1 or DV2) has been logged, then
this information is automatically available from the VO1 or VO2 section of the
survey. Required input data consist of distances of Northings and Eastings from
borehole origin (either surface or casing shoe) and true vertical depths corresponding
to the logged seismic level depths.
These three parameters define the three-dimensional point in space where the
downhole source is located. Of critical importance is measurement of the azimuth of
the geophone from the borehole, as measured with a compass.
12.3 Seismic Reference Survey

This survey is a simpler, and cheaper downhole seismic method than any type of VSP.
It is based on a surface seismic source (normally a high pressure airgun) and a
downhole geophone which is mechanically locked against the borehole wall. The
airgun is mechanically coupled to the hydrophone, both situated in a fluid-filled pit
(see Figure 12.4).
155
SEISMIC REFERENCE DATUM

RA
LOGGING/SRS
DATUM
HYDROPHONE
ELD
TE
SEISMIC
DATUM
DL
BOREHOLE
HG
V W DG
AIR
GUN
EGL
DW
TM
DB
VWE
VE
TCORR
LIMIT OF
WEATHERED LAYER
RECEIVER
ELD
0.00 m
Height of log datum above seismic datum
RA
28.50 m
Borehole-hydrophone separation
HG
0.00 m
Gun-hydrophone separation
DG
1.40 m
Gun depth below ground level
EGL
0.00 m
Height of srs datum above seismic datum
DW
15.60 m
Weathering depth below ground level
VW
1613.00 m/s
Mud pit fluid velocity
VWE
528.00 m/s
Weathering velocity
VE
751.00 m/s
Elevation velocity
TE
-6.12 ms
Time correction factor
COMMENTS :
1
T-ZERO DELAY = 0 MSEC
....
Figure 12.4 Seismic Reference Survey (Check Shot) schematic
At each depth station (normally sited just below each major reflector), the airgun is
fired, triggering the recording system to display the waveform received by the
downhole geophone as well as the firing pulse recorded by the hydrophone adjacent
to the airgun.
Only the first break (or first arrival) is used to measure the time taken for the acoustic
pulse to travel from the airgun to the geophone.
As with the VSP, a time correction factor should be applied to the measured time and
depth data to correct for the effects of near-surface layers and seismic reference
datum. The equation used is slightly different to allow for the airgun/hydrophone setup in a fluid filled pit:
156
TE =
HG
(DW - DG) (EGL - DW)
VW
VWE
VE
HG
= separation of airgun and hydrophone
VW
= velocity of fluid in the pit
DW
= depth of weathering layer (LVL)
DG
= depth of airgun below ground level
VWE
= weathering layer velocity
EGL
= elevation of SRS datum (ground level at hydrophone/airgun

pit) above seismic datum
VE=
= elevation velocity
TE
= time correction factor
and
VE
= VWE if EGL < DW
or
VE
= velocity of first layer below DW if EGL > DW
where
Having established a TE figure, further calculations result in corrected times, interval

velocities, etc. - this is an identical process to that described in the previous section on
Vertical Seismic Profile. Figures 12.5, 12.6 and 12.7 show the graphical outputs from
both VSP and SRS surveys.
SEISMIC REFERENCE DATA TABLE
LOGGED
DEPTH
MEASURED
TIMES
MEAN
TIMES
DEPTH BELOW CORRECTED

SEISMIC
2-WAY
DATUM
TIMES
MSEC
AVERAGE
VELOCITY
INTERVAL
VELOCITY
R.M.S.
VELOCITY
MSEC
MSEC
M/SEC
M/SEC
M/SEC
429.60
52.0
52.00
429.60
91.53
9387.38
9387.38
9387.38
504.20
83.0
83.00
504.20
153.49
6569.78
2407.87
7408.69
535.50
93.0
93.00
535.50
173.49
6173.18
3129.72
7049.10
630.80
122.3
122.30
630.80
232.11
5435.44
3251.79
6309.67
719.70
147.3
147.30
719.70
282.13
5101.99
3554.67
5915.55
770.70
163.0
163.00
770.70
313.53
4916.22
3247.57
5704.80
851.20
190.0
190.00
851.20
367.54
4631.84
2980.93
5391.49
894.20
205.5
205.50
894.20
398.55
4487.29
2773.81
5235.02
918.00
214.0
214.00
918.00
415.55
4418.24
2799.59
5157.98
Figure 12.5 Seismic Reference Survey data table
157
GRAPH #1
2000
50
3000
VELOCITY
4000
5000
6000
(M/SEC)
7000
8000
9000
10000
(MS)
100
150
TWO WAY TIMES
200
250
300
350
400
450
AVERAGE
R.M.S.
INTERVAL
Figure 12.6 SRS results graph of RMS, Average and Interval velocities derived
from corrected two-way times
GRAPH #2
450
500
550
LOGGED DEPTH
600
650
700
(M)
750
800
850
900
50
150
450
500
550
600
250
650
700
300
750
800
350
850
400
(M)
TWO WAY TIMES
200
INTERPOLATED DEPTH
(MS)
100
900
450
Figure 12.7 SRS results graph of corrected two-way times plotted against logged
depths together with interpolated depths of horizons of interest
158
12.4 Low Velocity Layer (Weathering Layer) Survey

The upper layer velocities are frequently assumed (typically: DW = 20m, VW = VWE =
500 m/s), or may be evaluated from an LVL (Low Velocity Layer) survey. This
involves a surface seismic source and an array of geophones along the ground; it is
based on the principle that geophones close to the source record a first arrival that is
reflected and not refracted. This gives VWE. More distant geophones record first
arrivals via refraction at the interface between the weathering layer and the layer
below. Plotting of first break times versus distance reveals a critical distance, XC,
which marks the change from reflected to refracted arrivals. Hence VWE and VE may
be calculated from the gradients of the curves and DW from the equation in Figure
12.8.
Time
1
VE
1
VWE
DW = 0.5 X C V E - V WE
VE + VWE
xc
0
Distance
Figure 12.8 Calculation of VWE, VE and DW from LVL survey measurements
Because of low velocities within the weathered layer (or LVL), several effects are
observed. Firstly, high absorption of seismic energy within the zone. Secondly, the
effects on travel times from beyond the LVL appear to be great due to the low
velocities and rapid changes in them. Thirdly, seismic waves travel almost vertically
through the LVL due to the marked velocity contrast at the base of the LVL. Finally,
the base of the LVL has a high acoustic impedance contrast making it a very good
reflector, capable of producing multiple reflections. These multiple reflections may be
erroneously interpreted as primary seismic events if the presence of the LVL is ignored
or misinterpreted.
12.5 Wireline Sonic Log Calibration

Once an acoustic profile has been established, corrected one-way times (i.e. 2WT/2)
are used to correct velocity data derived from wireline tools (MS1 and MS2).
MS series tools measure the time taken for an acoustic pulse to travel between
transmitter and receiver. Integrating these times over a logged interval derives an
159
interval time. It should match that generated by velocity profile calculations from an
SRS or VSP over the same section of the borehole.
In practice, however, the two are dissimilar because of dispersion (low frequency
seismic waves do not have the same velocity as those from relatively high frequency
sonic tools), variations in borehole diameter, invasion of porous formations by mud
filtrate, chemical alteration of shales by hydration, and the presence of formation gas.
Differences between one-way times and integrated sonic timed may be positive or
negative depending on whether the sonic log is affected mainly by factors that cause
the velocities to be too slow or too fast.
Sonic times are long when signal attenuation causes cycle-skipping occurs (when the
first arrival has a smaller amplitude than the detector threshold causing a subsequent
arrival to be detected). This is more likely to occur for long transmitter - receiver
spacings. Borehole condition also plays an important role; badly caved or rugose
boreholes increase the travel path, resulting in a longer transit time (tortuosity). Large
diameter boreholes may produce problems, especially with shorter spacings, when
first arrivals may be from the borehole fluid, rather than the formation.
Formation alteration, whether physical or chemical, can also lead to significant
decreases in the sonic velocities. For example, stress relaxation, resulting in the
opening up of fractures and subsequent increases in porosity, whilst the chemical
actions of drilling fluids on the formations can lead to hydration of clays in the shales.
The major effect causing sonic velocities to be too fast appears to be the frequency
dependence of these velocities. This phenomenon is known as dispersion. It manifests
itself in increasing acoustic velocities with increasing frequency. This effect can assume
great importance when it is considered that surface seismic and check shot (whether
conventional or inverse) sources all operate at frequencies of the order of 50Hz,
whereas wireline sonic tools use frequencies upwards of 20 kHz.
The process of calibrating the sonic velocity log continues with using a computer to
calculate the magnitudes of drift (the discrepancy between integrated times from
seismic and sonic surveys) and then plot what is known as the Drift Curve
Computation - see Figure 12.9.
This is computed using the definition:
DRIFT = (SONIC INTEGRATION TIME - CHECK SHOT TIME)
160
DRIFT CURVE DATA

DEPTH RANGE : 429.60 - 921.00 M.
DEPTH SCALE : 3000:1
KNEE POINT :
CHECK SHOT :
DRIFT IS POSITIVE WHEN :
INTEGRATED SONIC > SHOT TIME
DRIFT
-30
-20
-10
UNCORRECTED SONIC
MS
10
20
30
140
S/FT
40
500
600
700
800
900
Figure 12.9 Typical drift log curve derived from comparison of integrated times
from wireline sonic logs and VSP or SRS surveys
Various trends may be evident on this plot, which should be examined in combination
with other lithology indicators, such as gamma ray, formation density and neutron
porosity. Knee points are then determined where the gradient of the drift curve
changes at the same depth as a major lithological boundary (see Figure 12.10). Note
that the uppermost check shot depth is defined as the zero drift datum.
161
DRIFT CURVE DATA

DEPTH RANGE : 429.60 - 921.00 M.
DEPTH SCALE : 3000:1
KNEE POINT :
CHECK SHOT :
DRIFT IS POSITIVE WHEN :
INTEGRATED SONIC > SHOT TIME
DRIFT
-30
-20
-10
UNCORRECTED SONIC
MS
10
20
30
140
S/FT
40
429.60
513.00
500
600
700
786.30
918.00
800
900
Figure 12.10 Typical drift curve log incorporating interactively selected knee
points constructed at major lithological boundaries
These drift curves when applied to the uncorrected sonic log result in a corrected
version which, when re-integrated, shows close agreement with the times from the
check shot survey.
Drift corrections are applied in one of two ways: linear (block) shift where all sonic
transit times are shifted equally without regard for their amplitudes, or as a
differential shift.
Differential shifting starts at a baseline, below which sonic transit times are assumed to
be correct, and above which increasing transit times are given an increasing
correction. It follows an assumption that mechanical damage and chemical alteration
162
are negligible in fast formations (e.g. sandstones and limestones), but are more
pronounced in fast formations (e.g. shales).
Having applied a drift correction, the surface seismic and check shot data are
compared with sonic log data via the Synthetic Seismogram.
12.6 Synthetic Seismogram

Synthetic Seismograms use a log derived reflection series convolved with a filter
representing the seismic wavelet, to generate a seismic-like section that is tagged with
depth as well as time. They are produced from formation density and sonic logs,
generally after editing to remove caving effects, noise spikes, cycle-skipping, cased
sections, and depth errors.
Sonic logs are acquired as a series of depth samples, and must be converted to time
samples to be compatible with seismic data. Using corrected one-way times, velocity
values are generated at regular time increments, typically every millisecond. Since
sonic and density logs are depth matched, the same process of depth to time
conversion may be applied to the density.
Next, an acoustic impedance log is generated, this being the product of density and
sonic values. Reflection coefficients are then computed for each time sample. The
magnitude and polarity of each reflection coefficient is governed by the relative
polarity and amplitude of the acoustic impedances of the formations above and below
the boundary. Figure 12.11 depicts the input data and initial results. This is used as
the input to produce the final Synthetic Seismogram.
163
TIME SAMPLED INPUT DATA

COMPANY
WELL
FIELD
COUNTY
COUNTRY/STATE
LOCATION
FILE
RUN ID
RUN DATE, TIME
PLOTTED
5-JAN-98 16:34
DEPTH RANGE
55.00 770.00 M.
TIME INTERVAL
.0000 - .4530 SECONDS
TIME SCALE
20 CM/SEC
SAMPLING INCREMENT
.00100 SECONDS
2-WAY TIME PLOTTED
+VE REFL-> INCREASING ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
MRGEDF01.CIB
5-JAN-98 15:34
TRANSMISSION LOSS
DB
.00
.60
-40.00
-.60
20.00
.00
3.00
REFLECTION COEFFS.
GM/CC
1.00
10000.00
M/S
.00
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
ACOUSTIC MEGA OHMS
DENSITY
VELOCITY
DEPTH M.
2-WAY TRANSIT
TIME SECS
.00
.02
.04
100
.06
.08
.10
.12
200
.14
.16
.18
.20
300
.22
.24
.26
.28
.30
400
500
.32
.34
.36
600
.38
.40
.42
700
.44
Figure 12.11 Synthetic seismogram input data
Figure 12.11 also depicts the Transmission Loss curve that quantifies the loss of
seismic energy at each reflector. It allows multiple reflections to be evaluated, and the
attenuation and two-way transmission loss to be estimated.
The Synthetic Seismogram can now be produced as a convolution of the time sampled
reflection coefficients and a seismic wavelet. The wavelet is simply a sampled
representation of the seismic pulse used in the original survey. If this was not
recorded, then a wavelet must be assumed. The commonly used forms are zero-phase
(e.g. Ricker), and Klauder wavelets.
164
SYNTHETIC SEISMOGRAM
COMPANY
WELL
FIELD
COUNTY
COUNTRY/STATE
LOCATION
FILE
RUN ID
RUN DATE, TIME
PLOTTED
5-JAN-98 17:34
DEPTH RANGE
55.00 770.00 M.
TIME INTERVAL
.0000 - .4530 SECONDS
TIME SCALE
20 CM/SEC
SAMPLING INCREMENT
.00100 SECONDS
2-WAY TIME PLOTTED
RICKER WAVELET USED
WHITE TROUGH -> INC. ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
MRGEDF01.CIB
5-JAN-98 15:34
.08
.10
.12
200
.14
.16
.18
.20
300
.22
.24
.26
.28
.30
400
500
.32
.34
.36
.38
.40
.42
600
700
.44
Figure 12.12 Final Synthetic Seismogram output
40.00
100
.06
140.00
.02
.04
SONIC
MICRO-SEC/FT
PRIMARIES PLUS
FIRST ORDER
MULTIPLES
FIRST ORDER
MULTIPLES
PRIMARIES
PRIMARIES WITHOUT
TRANSMISSION LOSS
DEPTH M.
2-WAY TRANSIT
TIME SECS
.00
Log Analysis for Mining

Applications
Log Analysis for Mining Applications is a practical guide

to the interpretation of wireline logging data gathered for
the exploration and evaluation of non-hydrocarbon
mineral deposits.
It combines an introduction to the theory and uses of the
most commonly run slimline logging tools with an
overview of those applications that are of most interest to
practising mining geologists and engineers.
David Firth has worked with log data for more than 20
years, as a field engineer and interpreter.

Log Analysis for Mining Applications Simplified

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Log Analysis for Mining

1.1 What is logging?

1.2 A Brief History of Logging

1.4 Surface Equipment

1.5 Downhole Equipment

2.1 Nuclear Measurements

2.2 Acoustic Measurements

2.3 Electrical Measurements

2.4 Other Measurements

2.6 Signal Processing

Wireline Log Layouts

3.1 Header Information

3.2 Scale Section

3.3 Log Data

3.4 Scale Section

3.5 Logging/Calibration Constants

3.6 Log Trailer

3.7 Repeat Sections

4.1 Open Hole - Fluid Filled

4.2 Open Hole - Air Filled

4.3 Cased Hole - Fluid Filled

4.4 Cased Hole - Air Filled

5.1 Gamma Ray

5.2 Bulk density

5.3 Neutron Porosity

5.4 Sonic Transit Time

5.6 Manual Techniques

5.8 Computer Techniques

5.9 Computed Lithology Analysis

5.10 Complex Lithology Analysis

Bed Boundaries and Thickness

6.1 Bed Resolution Density (BRD)

6.2 Gamma Ray

6.3 Long Spaced Density (LSD)

6.5 Higher Resolution

6.6 VECTAR Processing

6.8 True Thickness from Apparent Thickness

7.1 Neutron Porosity Log

7.2 Gamma Ray Log

7.3 Density Log

7.4 Sonic Log

7.5 Resistivity Log

7.6 Borehole Caliper Log

7.7 Correlation in Practice

7.8 Correlation Example

Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing

8.1 Measurement Principles

8.2 Interval Correlation Parameters

8.3 Correlograms and Correlation Surfaces

8.4 Structural and Stratigraphic Analyses

8.5 Tadpole Pattern Classification

8.6 Other Considerations

8.7 Dipmeter Interpretation Example

8.8 Horizontal Stress Regimes

8.9 Borehole Navigation

Scanners and Image Processing

9.2 Theory and Physical Parameters

9.3 Downhole Equipment

9.4 Travel Time & Amplitude Detection

9.5 Surface Equipment & Field Processing

9.6 Computer Centre Interpretation

9.7 Image Enhancement