Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Volume 1
K. A. Navas, M Tech
Asst.Professor, ECE Dept.
College of Engineering Trivandrum
Thiruvananthapuram-695016
kanavas@rediffmail.com
c
Copyright
2008
Rajath publishers and the author jointly
This book is sold subjected to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be
lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without publishers prior written consent in any
form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar
condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without
limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means(electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without prior
permission of the copyright owner.
Published by
Rajath Publishers
28/450-A, Club Road, Girinagar South
Kadavanthra, Kochi-682020
Phone:0484-2313911
e-mail:rajathpbs@yahoo.com
Contents
1 ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP
1.1 Passive electronic components . . . .
1.2 Active electronic components . . . .
1.3 Colour code for resistors . . . . . . .
1.4 Coding for capacitors . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Numbering of semiconductor devices
1.6 Cathode ray oscilloscope . . . . . . .
1.7 Familiarisation of multimeters . . . .
1.8 DC source and signal generator . . .
1.9 Testing of electronic components . .
1.10 PCB fabrication . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 Soldering practice . . . . . . . . . . .
1.12 Transformer winding practice . . . .
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9
9
21
26
28
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31
36
40
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44
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49
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52
. 52
. 58
. 60
. 63
. 69
. 74
. 82
. 84
. 87
. 92
. 93
. 100
. 104
Characteristics of MOSFET .
Characteristics of UJT . . . .
Zener diode regulator . . . .
RC integrator . . . . . . . . .
RC differentiator . . . . . . .
RC low pass filter . . . . . . .
RC high pass filter . . . . . .
Series resonant circuit . . . .
Parallel resonant circuit . . .
Characteristics of SCR . . . .
Characteristics of TRIAC . .
Characteristics of DIAC . . .
Solved examination questions
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342
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384
390
Chapter 1
Aim
To bias a given BJT to work in a desired Quiescent operating point by
employing different biasing techniques.
Components and equipments required
board, ammeter and voltmeter.
Theory
A BJT must be biased in active operating region to function as an amplifier. In order to bias a BJT in active operating region, base-emitter junction must
be forward biased and base-collector junction must be reverse biased. Biasing can be
done with the help of a DC source and a few resistors. Different methods are used to
bias the BJT. The objective of this experiment is to study the effect of the variation of
the parameters on the operating point.
Fixed bias circuit
A resistor is used to tie the base of the transistor to VCC for
the fixed bias set up. Saturation conditions are avoided in this bias set up because
the base-collector junction is no longer reverse biased. Therefore the signal output will
not be distorted. However the stability of the circuit is poor against the parameter
variations.
Emitter-stabilized bias circuit
The stability of the fixed bias circuit can be
improved significantly by introducing a resistor RE in the emitter terminal.
Collector feedback bias circuit Stability can be improved by introducing a feedback path from collector to base through a resistor. Though Q-point is not completely
independent of (hF E ), current gain of the transistor, sensitivity to changes in or
temperature variations are less than that for fixed bias and emitter-bias configurations.
Voltage divider bias circuit
10
the sufficient voltages across the transistor junctions. This amplifier set up is almost
independent of . R1 and R2 are designed such that a stable voltage drop exists across
them even when the base current varies. For this, current through R1 and R2 is assumed
to be the same and it is much higher than the base current. Therefore R2 is made much
greater than the resistance across base and emitter which is (1 + )RE . RE includes
internal emitter resistance re also.
Procedure
1. Set up the fixed bias circuit after testing the components. Vary only one of the
parameters VCC , RC , RB and and enter the updated values in the table. To
change , use transistor BC177 whose is 75.
2. Repeat the experiments by changing other parameters. Draw the load line on a
graph with VCE along x-axis and IC along y-axis.
3. Set up other bias circuits one by one. Repeat the experiments by changing one
parameter at a time.
Fixed bias circuit
VCC 12 V
RB
560 k
RC
3.3 k
VCC
+
RB
VCE
IC
0-10 mA
+
V
BC107
RC
0-10 V
Design
Select transistor BC107 since its ranges from 100 to 500 at IC = 2 mA, as per
data sheet.
Let the Q-point be VCE = 6 V, and IC = 2 mA at VCC = 12 V.
Then VRC = IC RC = 6 V.
From this, RC = 3 k. Use 3.3 k std.
12
Design
Let the Q-point be VCE = 6 V, and IC = 2 mA at VCC = 12 V.
Voltage across RC = 6 V. From this, RC = 3 k. Use 3.3 k.
VRB = VCE VBE = 6 V - 0.7 V = 5.3 V.
Also, VRB = IB RB = 5.3 V. From this, RB = 265 k. Use 220 k.
Voltage divider bias
VCC
R1
47 k
R2
15 k
12 V
RC
2.2 k
+
A 0-10 mA
BC107
+
V 0-10 V
-
VCC
RC
VCE
IC
RE
1k
Design
Let the Q-point be VCE = 6 V, and IC = 2 mA at VCC = 12 V.
Assume voltage across RC = 4 V and that across RE = 2 V.
VRC = IC RC = 4 V. From this, we get RC = 2 k. Use 2.2 k std.
VRE = IE RE
2.6
920106
= 14 k. Use 15 k.
9.4
=
1020106
47 k.
1.2
13
RC-COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Aim
To design and set up an RC-coupled CE amplifier using bipolar junction
transistor and to plot its frequency response.
Components and equipments required
Transistor, dc source, capacitors, resistors, bread board, signal generator, multimeter and CRO.
Theory
RC-coupled CE amplifier is widely used in audio frequency applications
in radio and TV receivers. It provides current, voltage and power gains. Base current
controls the collector current of a common emitter amplifier. A small increase in base
current results in a relatively large increase in collector current. Similarly, a small
decrease in base current causes large decrease in collector current. The emitter-base
junction must be forward biased and the collector base junction must be reverse biased
for the proper functioning of an amplifier. In the circuit diagram, an NPN transistor
is connected as a common emitter ac amplifier. R1 and R2 are employed for the
voltage divider bias of the transistor. Voltage divider bias provides good stabilisation
independent of the variations of . The input signal Vin is coupled through CC1 to the
base and output voltage is coupled from collector through the capacitor CC2 .
The input impedance of the amplifier is expressed as Zin = R1 ||R2 ||(1 + hF E re ) and
output impedance as Zout = RC ||RL where re is the internal emitter resistance of the
transistor given by the expression = 25 mV/IE , where 25 mV is temperature equivalent
voltage at room temperature.
Selection of transistor
Transistor is selected according to the frequency of operation, and power requirements. The hF E of the transistor is another aspect we should
be careful about. Low frequency gain of a BJT amplifier is given by the expression.
Voltage gain Av = hF E RRLi . In the worst case with RL = Ri , AV = hF E .
hF E of any transistor will vary in large ranges. For example, the hF E of SL100
(a general purpose transistor) varies from 40 to 300. hF E of BC107 (an AF driver)
varies from 100 to 500. Therefore a transistor must be selected such that its minimum
guaranteed hF E is greater than or equal to AV required.
Selection of supply voltage VCC
For a distortionless output from an audio
amplifier, the operating point must be kept at the middle of the load line selecting
VCEQ = 50% VCC (= 0.5VCC ). This means that the output voltage swing in either
positive or negative direction is half of VCC . However, VCC is selected 20% more than
the required voltage swing. For example, if the required output swing is 10 V, VCC is
selected 12 V.
Selection of collector current IC
14
the data sheet. Usually it will be given corresponding to hF E bias. It is the bias current
at which hF E is measured. For BC107 it is 2 mA, for SL100 it is 150 mA, and for power
transistor 2N3055 it is 4 A.
Design of emitter resistor RE
Current series feedback is used in this circuit
using RE . It stabilizes the operating point against temperature variation. Voltage
across RE must be as high as possible. But, higher drop across RE will reduce the
output voltage swing. So, as a rule of thumb, 10% of VCC is fixed across RE .
RE = VIRE
= VIRE
since IE IC , RE = 0.1 VICC
E
C
C
Design of RC
Value of RC can be obtained from the relation RC = 0.4VCC /IC
since remaining 40% of VCC is dropped across RC .
Design of potential divider R1 and R2
Value of IB is obtained by using the
expression IB = IC /hF E min. At least 10IB should be allowed to flow through R1 and
R2 for the better stability of bias voltages. If the current through R1 and R2 is near
to IB , slight variation in IB will affect the voltage across R1 and R2 . In other words,
the base current will load the voltage divider. When IB gets branched into the base of
transistor, 9IB flows through R2 . Values of R1 and R2 can be calculated from the dc
potentials created by the respective currents.
Design of bypass capacitor CE
The purpose of the bypass capacitor is to bypass
signal current to ground. To bypass the frequency of interest, reactance of the capacitor
XCE computed at that frequency should be much less than the emitter resistance. As
a rule of thumb, it is taken XCE RE /10.
Design of coupling capacitor CC
The purpose of the coupling capacitor is to
couple the ac signal to the input of the amplifier and block dc. It also determines the
lowest frequency that to be amplified. Value of the coupling capacitor CC is obtained
such that its reactance XC at the lowest frequency (say 100 Hz or so for an audio
amplifier), should be less than the input impedance of the amplifier. That means XC
must be Rin /10. Here Rin = R1 ||R2 ||(1 + hF E re ) where re is the internal emitter
resistance of the transistor given by the expression = 25 mV/IE at room temperature.
Procedure
1. Test all the components using a multimeter. Set up the circuit and verify dc bias
conditions. To check dc bias conditions, remove input signal and capacitors in
the circuit.
2. Connect the capacitors in the circuit. Apply a 100 mV peak to peak sinusoidal
signal from the function generator to the circuit input. Observe the input and
output waveforms on the CRO screen simultaneously.
15
3. Keep the input voltage constant at 100 mV, vary the frequency of the input signal
from 0 to 1 MHz or highest frequency available in the generator. Measure the
output amplitude corresponding to different frequencies and enter it in tabular
column.
4. Plot the frequency response characteristics on a graph sheet with gain in dB on
y-axis and logf on x-axis. Mark log fL and log fH corresponding to 3 dB points.
(If a semi-log graph sheet is used instead of ordinary graph sheet, mark f along
x-axis instead of logf ).
5. Calculate the bandwidth of the amplifier using the expression BW= fH fL .
6. Remove the emitter bypass capacitor CE from the circuit and repeat the steps 3
to 5 and observe that the bandwidth increases and gain decreases in the absence
of CE .
Circuit diagram
VCC +12 V
CC1 10 F
Vin
100 mV
R1
47 k
RC
2.2 k
CC2 10 F
+ -
Vo
BC107
R2
10 k
RE
680
+C
E
- 22 F
E
RL
820
BC107
Design
Output requirements: Mid-band voltage gain of the amplifier = 50 and required output
voltage swing = 10 V.
Selection of transistor
16
DC biasing conditions
Hence VCC = 12 V.
IC = 2 mA, because hF E is guaranteed 100 at that current as per data sheet.
In order to make the operating point at the middle of the load line, assume the dc
conditions VRC = 40% of VCC = 4.8 V, VRE = 10% of VCC = 1.2 V and VCE = 50%
of VCC = 6 V .
Design of RC
Design of RE
1.8
920106
= 10.6 k. Use 10 k.
10.2
1020106
= 50 k. Select 47 k std.
17
Gain in dB
M dB
M-3 dB
M dB
M-3 dB
log fL
log f H
log f
With CE
log fL
log f H
log f
Without CE
Result
With CE :
Mid-band gain of the amplifier =. . . . . .
Bandwidth of the amplifier =. . . . . . Hz
Without CE :
Mid-band gain of the amplifier = . . . . . .
Bandwidth of the amplifier = . . . . . .Hz
Troubleshooting
1. Before the ac signal is applied, check dc conditions of the amplifier. Ensure that the
transistor is in active region by verifying that the E-B junction is forward biased and
C-B junction is reverse biased.
2. Replace RE by a pot and connect the bypass capacitor at the variable terminal of the
pot. Verify whether VBE = 0.6 V. This is very important.
3. If the output waveform gets clipped, reduce the amplitude of the input signal, vary RC
or adjust VCC slightly.
4. If the voltage at the collector VC = 12 V, collector circuit is not drawing current. Transistor is in cut off state. Base-emitter junction may not be forward biased.
5. If VC = 0, possible trouble is open collector circuit or collector shorted to earth. If
VE = 0, emitter is drawing current.
18
20
11. How is the input of the RC coupled amplifier phase shifted by 180 at the output?
The collector voltage is given by the expression VC = VCC IC RC . The increase in the
input voltage causes an increase in the collector current. Increase in the collector current
reduces the collector voltage. Inverse is also true. Thus the amplifier provides the phase
inversion.
Exercise
1. Differentiate between ac and dc load lines? Explain their importance in amplifier analysis.
2. Why is the center point of the active region chosen for dc biasing?
3. What happens if extreme portions of the active region are chosen for dc biasing?
4. Draw the output characteristics of the amplifier and mark the load-line on it. Also mark
the three regions of operation on the output characteristics.
5. Which are the different forms of coupling used in multi-stage amplifiers?
6. Draw hybrid and hybrid- equivalent models of a transistor in the CE configuration.
7. Draw the Ebers-Moll model of a BJT.
8. What are self bias and fixed bias?
9. Give a few applications of RC-coupled amplifier.
Type
Si,
Si,
Si,
Si,
Si,
Si,
Si,
Si,
Si,
NPN
NPN
NPN
PNP
NPN
PNP
NPN
NPN
NPN
Application
IC
= hF E
Package
100 mA
800 mA
1 A
1 A
200 mA
200 mA
30 mA
30 mA
15 A
100-500
100-300
40-300
40-300
125-500
75-260
67-220
36-125
20-70
TO
TO
TO
TO
MM
TO
TO
MM
TO
18
18
5
5
10
18
92
10
3
21
1.3
Aim
To design, set up and study a two stage RC coupled CE amplifier using BJT.
Components and equipments required Transistor, dc source, capacitors, resistors, bread board, signal generator, multimeter and CRO.
Theory Multistage amplifiers are used in cascade to improve parameters such as
voltage gain, current gain, input impedance and output impedance etc. Common
emitter stages are cascaded to increase the voltage gain. A two stage amplifier provides
an overall voltage gain of A1 A2 , where A1 and A2 are the gains of first and second
stages respectively. Since each stage provides a phase inversion, the final output signal
is in phase with the input signal.
The input impedance of the second stage is in parallel with RC1 of the first stage.
The ac voltage gain of the first stage is A1 = RC1 ||Rin2 /(re + Re ) where Rin2 is the
input resistance of the second stage. Rin2 = R12 ||R22 ||(1 + hF E re )
The ac voltage gain of the second stage is A2 = (RC2 ||RL )/re
Care must be taken while selecting A1 and A2 . If A1 is large, the input to the
second stage will become too high. This may pull out the transistor of the second stage
from active region. For example, if we need an overall voltage gain of 100, select A1
= 4 and A2 = 25. Gain of the first stage can be controlled by a negative feed back in
series with the emitter. This is achieved by the unbypassed resistor Re .
Circuit diagram
VCC +12 V
CC1 22 F
Vin
100 mV
R11
47 k
RC1
2.2 k
CC2 22 F
R12
47 k
RC2
2.2 k
BC107
BC107
R21
10 k
CC2 22 F
Re
180
R22
10 k
Re
470
+ CE
- 33 F
RE
680
+ C
E
- 33 F
RL
470
40
R
1k
C C 470 F
- +
1N4001
+ -
RB
1k
Vin 2 VPP
20 Hz
1N4001
- +
C C 470 F
T2
SL100
CC 470 F
T1
SK100
VO
RL
22
1k
Design
Design of class-AB power Design of RL and CC is same as that of class-B amplifier.
Design of R and RB
same as the ICQ in order to match the diode curves and VBE curves of the transistor.
ICQ should be 1 to 5 percent of collector saturation current ICsat .
Average current ICsat = VCEQ /RL = 3/RL = 43 mA
ICQ = ID = ICsat 5% = 2.15 mA
Applying KVL in the diode bias network, 6 V = ID 2R + 1.2 V + ID RB
ID RB should be about 2 V to drive into class-AB.
ID RB = 2 V . From this RB = 930 . Use 1 k.
Waveforms
49
Vo in Volts
Gain (dB)
Gain in dB
-3 dB
log fL
log f H
log f
1.12
Aim To design and set up an RC phase shift oscillator using BJT and to observe the
sinusoidal output waveform.
Components and equipments required
tors, potentiometer, breadboard and CRO.
50
f=
1
2RC
6 + 4Rc /R
The three section RC network offers a of 1/29. Hence the gain of the amplifier
should be 29. For this, the requirement on the hF E of the transistor is found to be
hF E 23 + 29(R/RC ) + 4(RC /R).
The phase shift oscillator is particularly useful in the audio frequency range.
Circuit diagram
VCC +12 V
R1
47 k
CC 1F
+ -
RC
2.2 k
Vo
C 0.01F
C 0.01F C 0.01F
BC107
R2
10 k
RE
680
F
- C 22
R
4.7 k
R
4.7 k
R
4.7 k
Design
Output requirements
Design of the amplifier
52
Waveform
Vo
t
T
64
1.17
Aim To study the performance of zener diode regulator with emitter follower output
and to plot line regulation and load regulation characteristics.
Components and equipments required Transistor, zener diode, resistor, rheostat,
dc source, voltmeter, ammeter and bread board.
Theory The limitations of an ordinary zener diode regulator are, the changes in
current flowing through the zener diode cause changes in output voltage, the maximum
load current that can be supplied is limited and large amount of power is wasted in
zener diode and series resistance.
These defects are rectified in a zener regulator with emitter follower output. It is a
circuit that combines a zener regulator and an emitter follower. The dc output voltage
of the emitter follower is V = VZ VBE . When input voltage changes, zener voltage
remains the same and so does the output voltage.
In an ordinary zener regulator, if the load current IL required is in the order of
amperes, zener diode should also have the same current handling capacity. But in
zener regulator with emitter follower output, current flowing through the zener is IL /.
Another advantage of this circuit is low output impedance.
The expression for the output voltage can also be expressed as V = Vi VCE . This
means that when the input voltage increases, output remains constant by dropping
excess voltage across the transistor.
The limitation of this circuit is that the output voltage directly depends on the
zener voltage. This is rectified in the series voltage regulator with feedback using error
amplifier.
Procedure
1. Set up the circuit on the bread board after identifying the component leads.
Verify the circuit using a multimeter.
2. Note down output voltage by varying the input voltage from 0 V to 30 V in
steps of 1 V. Plot line regulation characteristics with Vi along x-axis and V along
y-axis. Calculate percentage line regulation using the expression V /Vi .
3. Keep the input voltage at 15 V and note down output voltage by varying load
current from 0 to 500 mA in equal steps using a rheostat. Plot load regulation
characteristics with IL along x-axis and V along y-axis.
65
4. Measure the full load voltage VF L by adjusting the rheostat until ammeter reads
500 mA.
5. Remove the rheostat and measure the output voltage to get no-load voltage VN L .
6. Mark VN L and VF L on the load regulation characteristics and calculate load
regulation as per the equation,
VR =
VN L VF L
100%
VN L
Circuit diagram
2N3055
100
1/2 W
+
0 - 30 V
V 0 - 30 V
0-1A
RB
SZ9.1
0 - 30 V
800
1A
Design
Output requirements V = 8.5 V, IL = 500 mA when input is in the range 15 5 V.
Selection of transistor Select the power transistor 2N3055
Details of 2N3055: type : Si-NPN. Application: AF Power, Maximum ratings:
VCB = 100 V, VCE = 60 V, VEB = 7 V, IC max = 15 A, P = 115 W, Nominal
ratings: VCE = 4 V, IC = 4 A, hF E = 20 to 70.
C is the
case itself
2N3055
Top view
128
Result
Mid-band gain of IF amplifier =
Centre frequency = Hz
1.40
Aim To design and set up a voltage controlled oscillator using astable multivibrator
for a centre frequency of 1 kHz.
Equipments and components required
generator, bread board and dc supply.
Circuit diagram
VCC
+10 V
Vin
RE
22 k
RC
2.7 k
Q3
2N869
C 0.1 F
Q
1
BC107
RE
22 k
RC
2.7 k
Q4
VB2
C
E
2N869
C 0.1 F
VB1
R1
220 k
VC2
Q
2
BC107
R2
270 k
C B E
Pinout of 2N869
129
Design
Choose transistor BC107 as Q1 and Q2 . For the design of astable part, refer
astable multivibrator experiment.
DC conditions
Design of RE
Vin Volts
f in Hz
f Hz
VinVolts
Procedure
1. Set up a conventional astable multivibrator using base resistors 82 k. Observe
the collector and base waveforms of both transistors.
130
Vin
t
VB1
VC1
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