CONCEPTS OF

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
AN INTRODUCTION
WORKSHOP ON
TECHNOLOGY IMPERATIVES
FOR EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION
OF OIL & GAS
OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION LTD.
21st TO 24th DECEMBER - 2009
SIBSAGAR

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY REFERS TO THE SPECIFIC SET

OF GEOLOGICAL DISCIPLINES THAT ARE APPLIED TO
THE SEARCH FOR HYDROCARBONS DURING OIL
EXPLORATION
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY IS PRINCIPALLY CONCERNED
WITH THE EVALUATION OF SEVEN KEY ELEMENTS IN A
SEDIMENTARY BASIN TO OBTAIN AN IDEA OF THE
SUBSURFACE AND OVERALL PETROLEUM SYSTEM.
Source
Reservoir
Seal
Trap
Timing
Maturation and Migration

1. EVALUATION OF THE SOURCE

This involves quantification and evaluation of the nature of
organic-rich rocks so that the type and quality of expelled
hydrocarbon in a basin can be assessed by GEOCHEMICAL
methods of analysis.
STEPS IN SOURCE ROCK ANALYSIS
First establish likelihood of presence of organic-rich sediments
deposited in the past on the basis of studies of local
stratigraphy, paleogeography and sedimentology of the area.
Identification and delineation of area of potential source rock.
Determine the type of KEROGEN and state of its maturation.
Calculation of thermal maturity and timing of maturation.
Finally determine the likelihood of oil / gas generation in the area
and calculate the depth of oil window.
(Majority of oil generation occurs in the 60 to 120C range.
Gas generation starts at similar temperatures, but may
continue up beyond this range, perhaps as high as 200C.)

GEOCHEMICAL LOG
H Index

Organic Carbon

Hydrogen
yield % wt

Vro

H/C indications

2.THE RESERVOIR
It is a porous and permeable lithological unit or set of
units that holds the hydrocarbon reserves. The common
types include sandstone and limestone.
STEPS IN ANALYSIS OF RESERVOIRS
First determine the type of lithofacies of the reservoir.
Assessment of their POROSITY (to calculate the volume of
in situ hydrocarbons) and PERMEABILITY (to calculate
how easily hydrocarbons will flow out of them).
Study the Post depositional Diagenetic changes in reservoir.
Establish depositional environment and geometry of the
reservoirs.
Some of the key disciplines used in reservoir analysis are
stratigraphy, sedimentology, reservoir engineering and the
technique of Formation evaluation using wireline tools.
Siesmic attributes of subsurface
rocks generated
through seismic data processing are used to infer
physical / sedimentary properties of the rocks.

RESERVOIR ROCK

CC#21

CC#20

RESERVOIR ROCKS

3. THE SEAL OR CAP ROCK

It is a unit with low permeability that impedes the escape of
hydrocarbons from the reservoir rock.
Common
SHALE.

seals

include

EVAPORITES,

CHALKS

and

Analysis of seals involves assessment of their thickness and

extent, such that their effectiveness can be quantified.
4. THE TRAP
It is the stratigraphic or structural feature that ensures the
juxtaposition of reservoir and seal such that hydrocarbons
remain trapped in the subsurface, rather than escaping
and being lost.
The common types are Structural, Stratigraphic and
Combination Traps.

SURFACE

OIL SEEP

Oil accumulation in trap

SOURCE KITCHEN
AREA

A structural trap, where a fault has juxtaposed a porous and

permeable reservoir against an impermeable seal. Oil (shown
in red) accumulates against the seal, to the depth of the base
of the seal. Any further oil migrating in from the source will
escape to the surface and seep.

TYPES OF TRAPS
STRUCTURAL TRAP: Here the trap has been produced by
deformation of the beds after they were deposited, either by
folding or faulting.
STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP: Here the trap is formed by
changes in the nature of the rocks themselves, or in their
layering, the only structural effect being a tilt to allow the oil
to migrate through the reservoir.
COMBINATION TRAPS: Here the trap is formed partly by
structural and partly by stratigraphic effects, but not entirely
due to either.
HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS: These Traps is due to water
flowing through the reservoir and holding the oil in places
where it would not otherwise be trapped.

COMMON TRAP TYPES

Structural

Structural

Structural

COMMON TRAP TYPES

5. ANALYSIS OF MATURATION
It involves assessing the thermal history of the source rock in
order to make predictions of the amount and timing of
hydrocarbon generation and expulsion.

6&7. THE TIME AND NATURE OF MIGRATION

Finally, the careful studies of reveal information on how
hydrocarbons move from source to reservoir and help
quantify the source (or kitchen) of hydrocarbons in a
particular area.

Extreme Global Warming

gave excessive Algal Growths

90 & 150
million years
ago

Organic debris

Rifts formed as
the Continents
moved apart

And then came the rains

Chemical
reactions
converted
organic debris
into oil when
buried & heated

Rifts filled
by sediment
washed in
from
borderlands

Generation Migration Entrapment

Gas
Cap
Oil

Accumulation
Entrapment

Water

Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120Critical
F
Source Rock

Generation

Temperature
0C
60-120
350
F
24803

JMA
JMA

ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM FORMS

Petroleum is derived from the remains of living things
which contains a material called kerogen.
Before dead organic matter becomes petroleum with time,
the kerogen matures into an assortment of hydrocarbon
molecules of all sizes and weights.
The lightest (small) hydrocarbon molecules waft away as
natural gas, and the heavier ones make up an oily liquid.
Petroleum source rocks are of terrestrial and marine origin.
Terrestrial source rocks are deposited in lakes, delta and
river basins having woody plant matter, algae etc.
Marine source rocks contain dead planktons, algae,
organic remains etc.
In both the settings, the mixture is buried under conditions
of no oxygen. The kerogen are classified as type I,II & III
as per their origin and are capable of producing oil or gas
or both.

 Under the anaerobic conditions, the kerogen is transformed

into a flammable substance called bitumen by the action of
heat and anaerobic microbes in the sediment and natural
catalysts.
Most of the bitumen is eventually cooked into tarry asphalt
releasing hydrocarbon molecules (as well as water and
carbon dioxide) out of the source rock as it heats.
Heavy oils form first, then light oils. As temperatures rise to
and above 100 C, source rocks produce more gas.
Being lighter than rocks, petroleum tends to rise upward
through fractures and the pores of coarse sandstone beds.
A small fraction of that leakage, perhaps 2% is preserved in
large pools having an impermeable cap / seal over it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS

9 A reservoir is sponge-like rock with open space between
its grains -porosity.
9 The porosity may be primary or it might be secondary as
groundwater dissolves pores in the rock or as minerals
undergo alteration or may have formed due to tectonic
activities.
9 One source of porosity is the transformation of calcite to
dolomite by fluids rich in magnesium, which takes up less
space.
9 Besides porosity, there must be high permeability ie. the
connectedness of pores that allows fluid to move easily
through the reservoir rock.
9 Permeability, porosity in combination with geologic
structure are all of interest to petroleum geologists as it
provides sites of hydrocarbon accumulation under
favourable conditions.

BASIC POROSITY TYPES

POROSITY TYPES IN LIMESTONE

Moldic porosity

Matrix porosity

EXPLORATION CYCLE
IN A SEDIMENTARY BASIN

Geological Field Mapping / Remote sensing

Gravity Magnetic Surveys

Seismic Data API (2D/3D)

Prospect Identification

Drilling

BHS &
Simulation

Reservoir Studies
Production

Well Logs & VSP

EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES IN A SEDIMENTARY BASIN

GEOLOGICAL MAPPING : REGIONAL MAPS
GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING: ANOMALY MAPS
GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
GRAVITY MAGNETIC SURVEY: MAPS
SEISMIC SURVEY 2D & 3D : ISOCHRON MAPS
PROSPECT IDENTIFICATION
ESTABLISHING STRATIGRAPHY : Age determination
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS: Facies modeling
SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY: Maturation
SYNTHESIS AND ATTRIBUTE MAPPING
STRUCTURE AND TECTONIC MAKEUP
PREPARATION OF ISOCHRON-STRUCTURE MAPS
DRILLING AND SYNTHESIS OF SUBSURFACE DATA
RESERVOIR MODELLING & DEVELOPMENT SCHEME

GEOLOGICAL MAP AND CROSS SECTION OF AREA

Geological map

Geological section

GEOCHEMICAL MAPS
Etah area, Ganga Basin

Isochron map at the base of

Tertiary

Geochemical anomaly
map

BEAS FAULT

RESIDUAL GRAVITY MAP OF NORTHERN PART OF PUNJAB PLAINS

MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP (VERTICAL COMPONENT)

Pathankot

N
DINANAGAR HIGH

W
LO

Batala

GH
HI

SH
I

AR
PU
R

LO

D
D
DG
EN N
RI
T
TR
R E EN
GH T
EM N D
HI W
AS
E
LO R B TR
PU O W

AM
AD

Jalandhar

AS
UY
AH

D
EN
TR

ND

E
TR

EN

GH

TR

HI

lt
fau
s
ea

UK
ER
IA
ND

10000

20000

30000

40000

Scale (meters)

after Goha et al

Punjab Plains

Seismic Acquisition

Seismic Data Acquisition Geometries

Shot 1

Seismic Energy Source

Geophones

PROCESSED SEISMIC SECTION

INTERPRETED SEISMIC SECTION

Eocene
K/T
Kumbakonam ridge

Turonian
Albian
Tranquebar
Sub-basin

Karaikal
ridge

PROBABLE TRAPPING MECHANISM FOR

HYDROCARBONS IDENTIFIED BY SEISMIC SURVEY

PROSPECT IDENTIFICATION
GS-15-9

GAS SAND

CUT
O
I
PL
MI O

PRESENT DEPTH

TARGET DEPTH

RANDOM SEISMIC LINE THROUGH PROSPECT GS-15-9

GS-46-1

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

AND ITS CHARACTERISTIC LITHOFACIES

SPITI-ZANSKAR
KAREWA

SEDIMENTARY BASIN MAP

OF INDIA

HIMALAYAN FORELAND

AREA 3.14 Million Sq. Km.

RAJASTHAN

ASSAM SHELF

DAMODAR

GANGA

ASSAM-ARAKAN
FOLD BELT

CAMBAY

SAURASHTRA

KUTCH

VINDHYAN

SOUTH
REWA

BENGAL

SATPURA
NARMADA
BOMBAY
OFF.

KORICOMORIN
DEEP
OFF.

DECCAN
SYNECLISE

MAHANADI
PRANHITAGODAVARI

BHIMAKALADGI

CUDDAPAH
KERALA - KONKAN -

CHATTISGARH
BASTAR

BAY
OF
BENGAL

KRISHNA
GODAVARI

LEGEND
CATEGORY - I BASIN
CATEGORY - II BASIN
CATEGORY - III BASIN
CATEGORY - IV BASIN
DEEP SEA BASIN
PRE-CAMBRIAN BASEMENT /
TECTONISED SEDIMENTS

85 E DEEP
OFFSHORE

ANDAMAN NICOBAR

NARCODAM
DEEP OFFSHORE

CAUVERY
After Jokhan ram et-al.

GLACIAL-ALLUVIAL FANS-FLUVIAL-LACUSTRINE-DELTA AND MARINE

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

ALLUVIAL FAN DEPOSITS

TIDAL DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

DEEP WATER DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEEP WATER SEDIMENTS.

Basin: Cauvery

FORMATION : KAMALAPURAM

Age : Eocene

Bathymetry: Bathyal
Interpretation: SLUMP FACIES
PG

CO

CO
con
S

Core photograph of segments in enlarged view from (CC-2 &3) KMP-19. A (1966-1966.25m),
B (1974.85 -1975.0m) represents, convolute bedding (CO). Photos C & D are from CC-2&3 of
KMP-35. C (1868.60-1868.90m) show slump (S) and convolute layer and at bottom with parallel
oriented clasts (C ) in laminar flow (l) with primary glide plane (PG). D (1872.75-1873.10m)
shows two freezing flow (f) with contact (Con). Liquefied slump (s) towards the top of bottom flow.

INTEGRATION
AND
UNDERSTANDING
OF
THE
CONCEPTS OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY IN INDIAN
SEDMENTARY BASIN LED TO DISCOVERY OF
SIGNIFICANT
HYDROCARBON
DISCOVERIES.
1967:
Rajasth
an
Basin
1958:
Camba
y Basin
1974:
Mumbai
Offshor
e

1889:
Assa
m
Shelf *
1973:
A&AA
FB
1980:
KG
Basin
1985:
Cauve
ry
Basin

UNDERSTANDING OF THE CONCEPT OF

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
IS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS AND
WE NEED YOUR PARTICIPATION
TO HAVE MORE SUCH DISCOVERIES