UNIT I. Aims and objectives of well logging. Reservoir formations.

Borehole
conditions. Fundamental concepts in borehole geophysics physical properties of
reservoir rocks. Formation parameters and their relationships: formation factor,
porosity, permeability, resistivity, water and hydrocarbon saturations, and
movable oil. Archies and Humbles equations.
______________________________________________________________________

Well logging is the bore hole physical data recorded against depth to evaluate the
characteristics of sub-subsurface formations traversed by logging tool in the well-bore.
The first well-log, a measurement of electrical resistivity, devised by Marcel and Conrad
Schlumberger, was run in September 1927 in Pechelbronn (France). They called this, electrical
coring.
A partial list of Applications of borehole measurements/well logs is as follows. This list
includes some primary as well as auxiliary applications of the data directed toward solving the
primary problem in formation evaluation.
1. Estimating recoverable hydrocarbons (primary application)
2. Estimating hydrocarbons in place (primary application)
3. Rock typing/lithology identification
4. Abnormal pressure detection
5. Evaluating rock stresses
6. Locating reservoir fluid contacts
7. Fracture detection
8. Identifying geologic environments
Determination of recoverable hydrocarbons, or hydrocarbons in place. is the primary goal in
the selection of measurements run in a specific well. Any additional information generated from the
array of data obtained is usually considered a bonus. The evaluation program is therefore, designed to
provide reliable estimates of the following expressions for hydrocarbons in place
N= 7758 A h So / Bo
G=43560 A h Sg / Bg
Where, N = initial oil in place, stb, A = drainage area. acres
h == productive interval thickness, ft, = effective porosity, fraction
So= initial oil saturation. Fraction, Bo= initial oil formation volume factor,
G == initial gas in place , scf
Sg= initial gas saturation, dimensionless
B g =initial gas formation volume factor

Overview

Several conditions need to be satisfied for the existence of a hydrocarbon accumulation, as

indicated in Figure. The first of these is an area in which a suitable sequence of rocks has accumulated
over geologic time, the sedimentary basin. Within that sequence there needs to be a high content of
organic matter, the source rock. Through elevated temperatures and pressures these rocks must have
reached maturation, the condition at which hydrocarbons are expelled from the source rock.
Migration describes the process which has transported the generated hydrocarbons into a porous type
of sediment, the reservoir rock. Only if the reservoir is deformed in a favourable shape or if it is
laterally grading into an impermeable formation does a trap for the migrating hydrocarbons exist.

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 Generation, Migration and Trapping of Hydrocarbons

FACTORS ESSENTIAL FOR PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION ARE:

1. A mature source rock

2. A migration path connecting source rock to reservoir rock.
3. A suitable reservoir rock(Porous and permeable)
4. A Trap
5. An impermeable seal.

Source Rocks

About 90% of all the organic matter found in sediments is contained in shales. For the
deposition of these source rocks several conditions have to be met: organic material must be abundant
and a lack of oxygen must prevent the decomposition of the organic remains. Continuous
sedimentation over a long period of time causes burial of the organic matter. Depending on the area of
deposition, organic matter may consist predominantly of plant remnants or of phytoplankton. These
are marine algae which live in the upper layers of the oceans, and upon death sink in vast quantities
onto the seabed. Plant derived source rocks often lead to "waxy" crudes.

Maturation
The conversion of sedimentary organic matter into petroleum is termed maturation. The
resulting products are largely controlled by the composition of the original matter. Figure shows the
maturation process, which starts with the conversion of mainly kerogen into petroleum; but in very
small amounts below a temperature of 50 oC (kerogen: organic rich material which will produce
hydrocarbon on heating). The temperature rises as the sediment package subsides within the basinal
framework. The peak conversion of kerogen occurs at a temperature of about 100 oC. If the
temperature is raised above 130 oC for every short period of time, crude oil itself will begin to "crack"
and gas will start to be produced. Initially the composition of the gas will show a high content of C4
to C10 components ("wet gas" and condensate), but with further increases in temperature the mixture
will tend towards the light hydrocarbons (C1 to C3, "dry gas"). The most important factor for
maturation and hydrocarbon type is therefore heat. The increase of temperature with depth is
dependent on the geothermal gradient which varies from basin to basin. An average value is about
3oC per 100 meters of depth.

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 Hydrocarbon maturation

Migration
The maturation of source rocks is followed by the migration of the produced hydrocarbons
from the deeper, hotter parts of the basin into suitable structures. Hydrocarbons are lighter than water
and will therefore move upwards through permeable strata. Two stages have been recognised in the
migration process. During primary migration the very process of kerogen transformation causes
micro-fracturing of the impermeable and low porosity source rock which allows hydrocarbons to
move into more permeable strata. In the second stage of migration the generated fluids move more
freely along bedding planes and faults into a suitable reservoir structure. Migration can occur over
considerable distances of several tens of kilometers.

Reservoir rock
Reservoir rocks are either of clastic or carbonate composition. The former are composed of silicates,
usually sandstone, the latter of biogenetically derived detritus, such as coral or shell fragments. To be
commercially productive, the reservoir rocks must have sufficient thickness, areal extent, and pore
space to contain an appreciable volume of hydrocarbons, and must yield the contained fluids at a
satisfactory rate when the reservoir is penetrated by a well. There are some important differences
between the two rock types which affect the quality of the reservoir and its interaction with fluids
which flow through them. The main component of sandstone reservoirs ("siliciclastic reservoirs") is
quartz (SiO2) Chemically it is a fairly stable mineral which is not easily altered by changes in
pressure, temperature or acidity of pore fluids. Sandstone reservoirs form after the sand grains have
been transported over large distances and have deposited in particular environments of deposition.
Carbonate reservoir rock is usually found at the place of formation ("in situ"). Carbonate rocks are
susceptible to alteration by the processes of diagenesis. The pores between the rock components, e.g.
the sand grains in a sandstone reservoir, will initially be filled with the pore water. The migrating
hydrocarbons will displace the water and thus gradually fill the reservoir. For a reservoir to be
effective, the pores need to be in communication to allow migration, and also need to allow flow
towards the borehole once a well is drilled into the structure. The pore space is referred to as porosity
in oil field terms. Permeability measures the ability of a rock to allow fluid flow through its pore
system. A reservoir rock which has some porosity but too low a permeability to allow fluid flow is
termed "tight".

Traps
Hydrocarbons are of a lower density than formation water. Thus, if no mechanism is in place
to stop their upward migration they will eventually seep to the surface. On seabed surveys in some
offshore areas we can detect crater like features ("pock marks") which also bear witness to the escape
of oil and gas to the surface. It is assumed that throughout the geologic past vast quantities of

3
hydrocarbons have been lost in this manner from sedimentary basins. There are three basic forms of
trap as shown in Figure. These are:
Anticlinal traps which are the result of ductile crustal deformations
Fault traps which are the result of brittle crustal deformations
Stratigraphic traps where impermeable strata seals the reservoir
In many oil and gas fields throughout the world hydrocarbons are found in fault bound
anticlinal structures. This type of trapping mechanism is called a combination trap. Even if all of the
elements described so far have been present within a sedimentary basin an accumulation will not
necessarily be encountered. One of the crucial questions in prospect evaluation is about the timing of
events. The deformation of strata into a suitable trap has to precede the maturation and migration of
petroleum. The reservoir seal must have been intact throughout geologic time. If a "leak" occurred
sometime in the past, the exploration well will only encounter small amounts of residual
hydrocarbons. Conversely, a seal such as a fault may have developed early on in the field's history and
prevented the migration of hydrocarbons into the structure. In some cases bacteria may have
"biodegraded' the oil, i.e. destroyed the light fraction. Many shallow accumulations have been altered
by this process. Given the costs of exploration ventures it is clear that much effort will be expended to
avoid failure. A variety of disciplines are drawn in such as geology, geophysics, mathematics, and
geochemistry to analyse a prospective area. However, on average, even in very mature areas where
exploration has been ongoing for years, only every fifth or sixth exploration well will encounter
substantial amounts of hydrocarbons. In real 'wildcat' areas, basins which have not been drilled
previously, only every tenth well is, on average, successful.

Trapping Mechanisms

Definitions and Concepts for reservoir rocks:

Many terms are used to describe the various parts of a trap. The anticline trap, the simplest
type, will be used as our reference ( Figure , Nomenclature of a trap using a simple anticline as an

example).
The highest point of the trap is the crest or culmination. The lowest point is the spill point. A
trap may or may not be full to the spill point. The horizontal plane through the spill point is called the
spill plane. The vertical distance from the high point at the crest to the low point at the spill point is
the closure. The productive reservoir is the pay. Its gross vertical interval is known as the gross pay.
This can vary from only one or two meters in Texas to several hundred in the North Sea and Middle
East.
Not all of the gross pay of a reservoir may be productive. For example, shale stringers within
a reservoir unit contribute to gross pay but not to net pay (Figure, Facies change in an anticline trap,

4
illustrating the difference between net pay and gross pay). Net pay refers only to the possibly
productive reservoir.

RESERVOIR COLUMN
The total thickness of the reservoir as determined from the well logs is H. This reservoir contains a
hydrocarbon bearing zone and a water bearing zone at the bottom. The gross pay thickness, which is
the thickness of the hydrocarbon bearing portion of the reservoir as determined from the log.
However, this thickness contains shale breaks which will not be productive and must be discounted to
determine the net pay to be used in reserves estimation. The net pay for this example is given

A trap may contain oil, gas or a combination of the two. The oil-water contact, OWC, is the
deepest level of producible oil within an individual reservoir (Figure a , Fluid contacts within a
reservoir in an oil-water system).

It marks the interface between predominately oil-saturated rocks and water-saturated rocks.
Similarly, either the gas-water contact, GWC (Figure b , Fluid contacts within a reservoir in a gas-
water system), or the gas-oil contact, GOC ( Figure c , Fluid contacts within a reservoir in a gas-oil-
water system) is the lower level of the producible gas. The GWC or GOC marks the interface between
predominately gas-saturated rocks and either water-saturated rocks, or oil-saturated rocks, as the case
may be.

5
 Before the reserves of the field can be calculated, it is essential that these surfaces be
accurately evaluated. Their establishment is one of the main objectives of well-logging and testing.

Oil and gas may occur together in the same trap as separate liquid and gaseous phases. In this
case, gas overlies oil because of its lower density. Source rock chemistry and level of maturation, as
well as the pressure and temperature of the reservoir itself, are important in determining whether a
trap contains oil, gas or both.

In some oil fields (e.g. Sarir field in Libya), a mat of heavy tar is present at the oil-water
contact. Degradation of the oil by bottom waters moving beneath the oil-water contact may cause this
tar to form. Tar mats cause considerable production problems because they prevent water from
moving upwards and from displacing the produced oil.

Boundaries between oil, gas and water may be sharp (Figure a) Transitional nature of fluid
contacts within a reservoir-- sharp contact) or gradational (Figure b , Transitional nature of fluid
contacts within a reservoir-- gradational contact). An abrupt fluid contact usually indicates a
permeable reservoir. Gradational contacts usually indicate low permeability reservoirs with high
capillary pressure.

Directly beneath the hydrocarbons is the zone of bottom water (Figure, Nomenclature of
underlying reservoir waters). The zone of edge water is adjacent to the reservoir.

Fluid contacts in a trap are almost always planar but are by no means always horizontal. Should a
tilted fluid contact be present, its early recognition is essential for correct evaluation of reserves, and
for the establishment of efficient production procedures.

One of the most common ways in which a tilted fluid contact may occur is through hydrodynamic
flow of bottom waters ( Figure, Tilted fluid contact caused by hydrodynamic flow).

6
 There may be one or more separate hydrocarbon pools, each with its own fluid contact, within
the geographic limits of an oil or gas field (Figure, Multiple pools within an oil and gas field). Each
individual pool may contain one or more pay zones.

Remember, the ratio between gross pay and net effective pay is important and is generally
mapped from well data as the field is developed.

Reservoir
Keywords: reservoir structures, faults, folds, depositional environments, diagenesis,
geological controls, porosity, permeability Introduction and Commercial Application: The objective
of reservoir geology is the description and quantification of geologically controlled reservoir
parameters and the prediction of their lateral variation. Three parameters broadly define the reservoir
geology of a field: depositional environment, structure and diagenesis To a large extent the reservoir
geology controls the producibility of a formation, i.e. to what degree transmissibility to fluid flow and
pressure communication exists. Knowledge of the reservoir geological processes has to be based on
extrapolation of the very limited data available to the geologist, yet the geological model is the base
on which the field development plan will be built. In the following section we will examine the
relevance of depositional environments, structures and diagenesis for field development purposes.

5.1.1 Depositional Environment

With a few exceptions reservoir rocks are sediments. The two main categories are siliciclastic
rocks, usually referred to as 'c/astics' or 'sandstones', and carbonate rocks. Most reservoirs in the Gulf
of Mexico and the North Sea are contained in a clastic depositional environment; many of the giant
fields of the Middle East are contained in carbonate rocks. Before looking at the significance of
depositional environments for the production process let us investigate some of the main
characteristics of both categories.

Clastics

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 The deposition of a clastic rock is preceded by the weathering and transport of material.
Mechanical weathering will be induced if a rock is exposed to severe temperature changes or freezing
of water in pores and cracks (e.g. in some desert environments). The action of plant roots forcing their
way into bedrock is another example of mechanical weathering. Substances (e.g. acid waters)
contained in surface waters can cause chemical weathering. During this process minerals are
dissolved and the less stable ones, like feldspars are leached. Chemical weathering is particularly
severe in tropical climates. Weathering results in the breaking up of rock into smaller components
which then can be transported by agents such as water (rivers, sea currents), wind (deserts) and ice
(glaciers). There is an important relationship between the mode of transport and the energy available
for the movement of components. Transport energy determines the size, shape and degree of sorting
of sediment grains. Sorting is an important parameter controlling properties such as porosity. Figure
shows the impact of sorting on reservoir quality.

Impact of sorting on reservoir quality

Poorly sorted sediments comprise very different particle sizes, resulting in a dense rock fabric
with low porosity. As a result the connate water saturation is high, leaving little space for the storage
of hydrocarbons. Conversely, a very well sorted sediment will have a large volume of 'space' between
the evenly sized components, a lower connate water saturation and hence a larger capacity to store
hydrocarbons. Connate water is the water which remains in the pore space after the entry of
hydrocarbons. Quartz (SiO2) is one of the most stable minerals and is therefore the main constituent
of sandstones which have undergone the most severe weathering and transportation over considerable
distance. These sediments are called 'mature' and provide 'clean' high quality reservoir sands. In
theory, porosity is not affected by the size of the grains but is purely a percentage of the bulk rock
volume. In nature however, sands with large well sorted components may have higher porosities than
the equivalent sand comprising small components. This is simply the result of the higher transport
energy required to move large components, hence a low probability of fine (light) particles such as
clay being deposited. Very clean sands are rare and normally variable amounts of clay will be
contained in the reservoir pore system, the clays being the weathering products of rock constituents
such as feldspars. The quantity of clay and its distribution within the reservoir exerts a major control
on permeability and porosity.

Carbonate rocks
Carbonate rocks are not normally transported over long distances, and we find carbonate
reservoir rocks mostly at the location of origin, 'in situ'. They are usually the product of marine
organisms. However, carbonates are often severely affected by diagenetic processes. A more detailed
description of altered carbonates and their reservoir properties is given below in the description of
'diagenesis'.

Logging Environment
Whenever we record and produce a well log , the down hole sensors responds to two sets of
interacting variables. 1) The geological environment, 2) Borehole environment
1) The Geologic Environment consisting of the rock and the reservoir properties in the
geological section which are dependent on a) Bedding or layering of the stratigraphic section
ie., the order and the amount of different types of Rocks. b) Composition of the individual
rock ie., the compositional, chemical and physical properties of mineral grains in each rock.
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 c) The type of fluid ie., the chemical and physical properties of fluid distributed in the pore
space.
2) The Borehole Environment which is created by the drilling process. The physical distortions
introduced into geological section are a function of at least three set of distinct variables. a)
Mechanical alterations of rock by drilling process. b) Alteration of fluid distribution within
the rock pores. c) Mechanical alteration of the borehole geometry by the circulating mud.
Geological environment
The logging tool, during a logging operation encounters a variety of geological conditions and
responds to the particular rock characteristics. It is therefore necessary to have a good idea of the
geological environment that the logging tools are going to be exposed to and have a fairly good
understanding of the rocks constituting environment. The following are the fundamentals of rock
characteristic to have a clear concept of the geological model.
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS
A petroleum reservoir rock is a porous medium that is sufficiently permeable to permit fluid
flow through it. In the presence of interconnected fluid phases of different density and viscosity, such
as water and hydrocarbons, the movement of the fluids is influenced by gravity and capillary forces.
The fluids separate, therefore, in order of density when flow through a permeable stratum is arrested
by a zone of low permeability, and, in time, a petroleum reservoir is formed in such a trap. Porosity
and permeability are two fundamental petrophysical properties of petroleum reservoir rocks.
Geologically, a petroleum reservoir is a complex of porous and permeable rock that contains
an accumulation of hydrocarbons under a set of geological conditions that prevent escape by
gravitational and capillary forces. The initial fluid distribution in the reservoir rock, which is
determined by the balance of gravitational and capillary forces, is of significant interest at the time of
discovery. A rock capable of producing oil, gas and water is called a reservoir rock. In general, to be
of commercial value, a reservoir rock must have sufficient thickness, areal extent and pore space to
contain a large volume of hydrocarbons and must yield the contained fluids at a satisfactory rate when
the reservoir is penetrated by a well. Any buried rock, be it sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic, that
meets these conditions may be used as a reservoir rock by migrating hydrocarbons. However, most
reservoir rocks are sedimentary rocks.
Sandstones and carbonates (limestones and dolomites) are the most common reservoir rocks.
They contain most of the worlds petroleum reserves in about equal proportions even though
carbonates make up only about 25% of sedimentary rocks. The reservoir character of a rock may be
primary such as the intergranular porosity of a sandstone, or secondary, resulting from chemical or
physical changes such as dolomitization, solution and fracturing. Shales frequently form the
impermeable cap rocks for petroleum traps.
The distribution of reservoirs and the trend of pore space are the end product of numerous
natural processes, some depositional and some post-depositional. Their prediction, and the
explanation and prediction of their performance involve the recognition of the genesis of the ancient
sediments, the interpretation of which depends upon an understanding of sedimentary and diagenetic
processes. Diagenesis is the process of physical and chemical changes in sediments after deposition
that convert them to consolidated rock such as compaction, cementation, recrystallization and perhaps
replacement as in the development of dolomite.
Lithology
Rock forming minerals of interest in petroleum engineering can be classified into the
following families: silicates, carbonates, oxides, sulfates (sulphates), sulfides (sulphides) and
chorides.
-Complex compounds:
Clay minerals: Clay is a group name for an exceedingly complex set of minerals which have
the basic chemical composition of hydrous aluminium silicate. Clays are one of the commonest
minerals in sedimentary rocks. Clay is made up of very small individual grains(crystals) which can
only be seen clearly by extreme magnification.
Kaolinite(AL2Si2O5(OH)4
Montmorilite(MgCa)Al2Si4O10(OH)2nH2O
Clay can also be classified into:
1) A shale is a fine-grained, indurated sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay or
silt. It is characterized by a finely stratified structure (laminae 0.1-0.4 mm thick) and/or

9
 fissility approximately parallel to the bedding. It normally contains at least 50% silt with,
typically, 35% clay or fine mica and 15% chemical or authigenic minerals.
2) A silt is a rock fragment or detrital particle having a diameter in the range of 1/256 mm to 1/16
mm. It has commonly a high content of clay minerals associated with quartz, feldspar and
heavy minerals such as mica, zircon, apatite, tourmaline, etc..
3) A clay is an extremely fine-grained natural sediment or soft rock consisting of particles smaller
than 1/256 mm diameter. It contains clay minerals (hydrous silicates, essentially of aluminium,
and sometimes of magnesium and iron) and minor quantities of finely divided quartz,
decomposed feldspars, carbonates, iron oxides and other impurities such as organic matter.
Clays form pasty, plastic impermeable masses.
Figure shows several types of clay distribution.

Types of clay distribution

Laminae of clay and clay drapes act as vertical or horizontal baffles or barriers to fluid flow and
pressure communication.
Dispersed clays occupy pore space which in a clean sand would be available for hydrocarbons. They
may also obstruct pore throats, thus impeding fluid flow. Reservoir evaluation, is often complicated
by the presence of clays. This is particularly true for the estimation of hydrocarbon saturation.
Bioturbation, due to the burrowing action of organisms, may connect sand layers otherwise separated
by clay laminae, thus enhancing vertical permeability. On the other hand, bioturbation may
homogenise a layered reservoir resulting in an un-producible sandy shale.
- All minerals have a crystal form and have a strong tendency to assume crystal pattern.
- The pattern or shapes of the crystal is defined by the pattern of the molecular structure of the
minerals.
- Crystals can range from very small to very large depending on the conditions in which they
form, including: temperature; rate of cooling, pressure and the source of the mineral.

Rocks
Rocks are a collection of minerals or fragments of previously formed rocks that are
cemented together and have physical strength. A rock may be made up of grains of only type of
material or it may be a mixture of two or more materials.
Lime stone is a rock composed mainly of Calcite(CaCO3)
Stand stone is a rock composed mainly of quartz(SiO2) grains.
Conglomerate is a rock formed from a mixture of coarse fragments of a previous
rock.
While almost pure end members such as clean limestone or clean sand stone can occur, comples
mixtures are also common; see fig.
Classification of Rocks
Rocks are classified in to three groups on their origin: 1) Igneous, 2) Metamorphic and 3)
Sedimentary.
1) Igneous rocks comprise 65% of earths crust. They originate from solidification of molten
material emanating from below the earth surface. There are two types of igneous rocks a)
volcanic and b) Plutonic.

10
 -Volcanic(extrusive) are formed on the surface, they are often glassy in texture as rapid cooling
of magma does not allow tome for formation of large crystals.
- Plutonic(intrusive) are formed below the surface, in slower cooling intrusive magmas which
allows time for the atoms to arrange themselves into a crystalline structure. Almost 95% of
the granite rocks are plutonic; the size of the crystals is controlled by the cooling rates.
Granite is made up of three principal minerals in roughly equal proportions; quartz, sodium
feldspar and potassium feldspar.
2) Metamorphic rocks comprise up 27.4% of the Earths crust. These are rocks formed by
transformation, generally in the solid state, of pre-existing rocks beneath the surface by heat,
pressure and chemically active fluids, e.g., quartz is transformed to quartzite and limestone
plus quartz plus heat gives marble and carbon dioxide. Metamorphic rocks are the second
most abundant rocks.
3) Sedimentary Rocks comprise upto 7.9% of the earths crust. Sedimentary rocks are formed
from weathered and eroded material, transported and deposited by water or wind as sediments
that is later lithified or cemented together.
Sediment ------------------------------------------ Rock
Sand Sandstone
Lime mud Limestone
Clay Shale
Sedimentary rocks are closely linked with occurrence of petroleum reservoirs.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
a) Clastic material: grains and fragments are composed mainly of pre-existing materials, rocks
or shells, carried to the site by agencies Clastic sedimentary rocks are usually classified by
grain size as boulder, cobble, gravel, sand, silt and clay.
b) Chemical precipitation: Solid sediment grains formed by chemical precipitation from ocean
water by change of temperature, by evaporation or by inorganic reactions among the
dissolved salts. e.g., limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) or as evaporties,
.gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4) and salt (NaCl).

c) Organic or Biogenic Debris: Shells, plant remains etc.,accumulated close to place of origin.
Differentiated from clastic material in that original life forma are well preserved. e.g., peat,
coal, diatomite and limestone.

SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS (CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCK)

Sandstones are fragmented materials, which have been transported to the site of deposition
by water currents and which have been subjected to varying degrees of wave and current action
during transport and during deposition. Consequently, sandstone reservoirs vary from clean, well
sorted quartz sandstone with well rounded grains through more angular feldspathic sandstone
containing varying amounts of clay to argillaceous, very poorly sorted sandstone containing varying
amounts of rock fragments all of which may be affected by varying degrees of compaction,
cementation, solution and replacement.

Pore Space
The basic framework of a sandstone reservoir is formed by the sand grains between which the pore
space may or may not contain interstitial fine material and/or cement. The amount of this intergranular
pore space or porosity is controlled primarily by sorting of the sediment and to a lesser extent by the
packing of the grains. Sorting is a measure of the spread of distribution of grain size on either side of
an average in a sediment. Theoretically, grain size has no effect on porosity. This is true only for
spherical grains of the same size. However, the arrangement of such spheres has a large effect on the
porosity of the pack.

11
Sandstone reservoir rocks. (A) clean, well sorted sandstone, (B) angular, feldspathic sandstone and
(C) argillacious, very poorly sorted sandstone.

Reservoir sand with interstitial clay and cement.

12
Porosity and Permeability of Sandstone:
Porosity is at its maximum for spherical grains but becomes progressively less as the
angularity of the grains increases because such grains pack together more closely. Experimental data
from artificial sands confirm that the grain size essentially has no influence on porosity for well sorted
sand. However, porosities of wet packed sands show a general decrease as sorting becomes poorer.
This is because with a mixture of sizes, the smaller grains partially fill the interstices between the
larger grains.
Permeability, being a measure of the ease with which a material transmits fluids, depends
primarily upon the size, shapes and extent of the interconnections between individual pores rather
than the size of the pores themselves. However, since the interconnections are directly related to the
pore size which in turn is related to grain size, there are relationships between these factors and
permeability.
Permeability varies as the square of the mean grain diameter and a complex function of
sorting (other factors being equal). Experimental data show a marked decrease in permeability as
grain size decreases and as sorting becomes poorer. Experience has also shown that the permeability
measured normal to the bedding is usually less than permeability measured parallel to the bedding and
that large variations in permeability occur in different directions in the bedding plane. Clay in the
pore space of a reservoir may affect the performance of a reservoir very adversely. The amount and
kind of clay, as well as distribution throughout the reservoir rock, has an important bearing on liquid
permeability, whereas a small amount has little effect on porosity.
If fresh water, for example drilling fluid filtrate, invades a reservoir, certain clays, such as
montmorillonite, will swell and plug some of the pore interconnections, drastically reducing the
permeability, whereas saline water may have no effect.
Compaction and Cementation
The pore space of the
original unconsolidated
sediment is reduced in original
rocks due to many reasons.
Compaction and cementation
are the most common factors
which affect the composition
of the sediment, and the
contained fluids and their
pressures. Compaction by the
weight of the overburden
commences as soon as a
sediment is deposited. It
produces reduction of pore
space as a result of:
Cementation Cementation is the crystallization or precipitation of soluble minerals in the
pore spaces between clastic particles. The process of lithification (the conversion of unconsolidated
deposits into solid rock) is completed by cementation. Common cementing agents include calcite
(CaCO3), silica (SiO2), and iron oxide (Fe2O3). Minerals in solution crystallize out of solution to
coat grains and may eventually fill the pore spaces completely. Porosity and permeability can be
reduced significantly due to cementation.
Early cementation of sand may produce a rigid framework which will inhibit compaction until
the depth of burial exceeds that at which fracturing of the grains and cement is initiated. Abnormal
fluid pressure in sandstone reservoirs also inhibits compaction because the overburden is partly
supported by the fluid pressure. Reduction of reservoir pressure by production of fluid can lead to
compaction of the producing zone by rearrangement of the sand grains. This form of compaction
leads to porosity and permeability reduction which is irreversible and which may affect the producing
characteristics of the reservoir very adversely.
Cementation is the result of recrystallization from solution of silica, carbonates and other
soluble materials in the pores of clastic rocks. The most common cementing materials in sandstone
reservoirs are silica and calcite but many others do occur. It is not uncommon to find both silica and
calcite present in the cement and in such cases, the silica in the form of quartz has precipitated first
and the calcite later. Silica cement

13
usually occurs in the form of quartz and grows in optical continuity with the sand grains until finally
the crystals interfere with one another and an interlocking network results. Calcite cement is often
patchy but may completely fill the pore space. Silica cement appears to have two origins: (1) early
cementation before the sands were compacted appreciably, and (2) deposition of silica predissolved
by pressure solution during compaction. In the Eocene the distribution of silica cement can be related
to both primary texture and depth of burial. The amount of silica cement tends to increase in coarser
and better sorted sands and, to a lesser extent, with depth. Much of this cement appears to be early and
unrelated to the compaction process.
Compaction Over a long period of time sediments can accumulate and create formations
that are thousands of feet thick The weight of the overlying sediments squeezes the particles together
into the tightest arrangement possible. The load pressure also squeezes out the water that occupies the
pore spaces between the particles, thus reducing the bulk volume of the formation. Compaction is
dependent not only on overburden pressure but also on the different types of clastic materials present
in the formation. Compaction affects porosity and permeability by reducing the amount of
interconnected pore space.

Effect of vertical pressure reduces the porosity.

- d/dPeff is proportional to
or,
-d/dPeff = b can be written as,
d/ = -b dPeff Integrating, we get,
log = -b Peff or = o exp(- b Peff)

14
 1. Closer packing of the grains which causes smaller pores and connected passages.
2. Crushing and fracturing of grains, and dissolution at points of contact sometimes
accompanied by precipitation of silica in the pore space nearby. Alkaline interstitial water seems to
provide conditions more conducive to dissolution than saline water.
3. Plastic deformation of the softer grains which tend to mold around the harder grains thus
destroying pore space. The softer grains may be composed of limestone, shale, siltstone and other
rock fragments, and when the amount of such soft material exceeds 10 to 12%, the permeability may
be largely destroyed even though some porosity usually remains.
Classification of Sandstone
Sandstone grain texture consists of five components:
(a) size, (b) sorting, (c) shape (sphericity), (d) roundness, and (e) packing.
Figure shows a grain size comparator where some of these qualitative terms are presented visually.
Porosity is independent of grain size for uniform grains but decreases as sorting gets poorer. Close
packing reduces porosity and permeability. The effects of shape and roundness on porosity are less
definite. Permeability increases with increasing grain size, but decreases with poorer sorting.
Permeability generally increases with angularity and decreasing sphericity.

CARBONATE RESERVOIRS (LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES)

Most carbonate rocks, like clastics, are composed of particles of clay to gravel size that were
generally deposited in a marine environment. However, they differ from terrigenous clastics in that
they are deposited as lime particles which are produced locally, whereas, sandstones are composed of
particles transported from an outside source by water currents. They differ even more importantly
15
from sandstones by being subject to more post-depositional diagenesis ranging from simple
cementation of the original particles to complete recrystallization or replacement by dolomite or chert.
In addition, they are susceptible to solution at any stage in their diagenesis. They are usually more
poorly sorted than clastics. Components of carbonate rocks are usually
(1) grains of various kinds, (2) lime mud, and (3) carbonate cement precipitated later.
Pore Space
The porosity, permeability and pore space distribution in carbonate reservoir rocks are related
to both the depositional environment and the diagenesis of the sediment. They are most commonly of
secondary (diagenetic) origin although residual primary pore space does occur. Carbonates have a
large range of pore structures due to the complex nature of carbonate constituents and diagenetic
features.
Fabric-selective porosity includes:
Interparticle porosity- Porosity between particles
Intra particle porosity- Porosity with in particles or grains.
Intercrystalline porosity - typical of dolomites-Porosity between crystals.
Fenestral porosity - by solution along bedding planes or joint surfaces-Pores larger than grain
supported intersticics.
Skeletal, framework, molding, or shelter porosity - selective solution of, within, or around
fossil material-Porosity greated by sheltering effect of large sedimentary particles.
Growth framework porosity- porosity created by in place growth of a carbonate rock
framework.
Oomoldic porosity - selective solution of ooliths.
Non fabric-selective porosity includes:
Fracture porosity - by stress or shrinkage-porosity formed by fracturing
Channel porosity - widening and coalescence of fractures-markedly elongated pores.
Vuggy or cavernous porosity-Pores larger than 1/16th mm in diameter.-cavern is larger vugs or
channel.
Bioturbation porosity - from boring and burrowing-porosity created by burrowing and boring
organisms.
Breccia porosity - in some cases, really high fracture porosity-interparticle porosity in breccia.
Shrinkage porosity-porosity created by sediment shrinkage.
In carbonates, porosity and permeability are not well-correlated with grain size or sorting.
Porosity and permeability are controlled largely by the amount of fines and by diagenesis. Correlation
of petro-physical properties with rock type is thus very difficult.

16
 Classification of pore systems in carbonate rocks

FACTOR CLASTIC CARBONATES

TYPE OF THE PORE Intragranular & Mainly inter particle but
interparticle intraparticle and other types are
important.
SIZE OF THE PORE Pore and pore throat Pore and pore throat sizes show
sizes related to very little relationship with
sedimentary particle sedimentary particle size and
size and sorting. sorting.
SHAPE OF THE Strong dependence on Varies from strong dependence on
PORE particle shape particle shape to complete
independence of shape of
depositional or diagenetic
components.
UNIFORMITY(size, Fairly uniform within a Varied from fairly uniform to
shape,distribution) single rock type. extremely heterogeneous even
within the single rock type.
INFLUENCE OF Often minor sometimes Varies from minor reduction to
DIAGENISIS major. Reduction of complete destruction. Modification
original pore spaces. of original pore. Creation of new
Compaction and pores. Cementation and solution are
cementation are very important.
important.
TYPE OF THE Almost exclusively Widely varied because of post
ULTIMATE PORE. intergranular. depositional modifications.
Comparison of Pore Properties in Clastic and Carbonate Rocks
FRACTURED RESERVOIRS
17
 Natural reservoir fractures are caused by rock failure, usually due to factors like: (a) folding,
(b) faulting, (c) fluid pressure, (d) release of lithostatic pressure, (e) pressure solution, (f) dehydration,
(g) weathering, (h) cooling and (i) impact craters.
Natural fractures can exist in essentially any type of rock although they are particularly
common in carbonates.
Naturally fractured reservoirs are usually treated as dual porosity systems to deal with their
properties. The matrix rock (between fractures) usually has reasonable porosity and extremely low
permeability.
Fractures range in size from hair-size to several millimeters in aperture. Fractures that have
not been filled with cement have very high permeabilities, even though they may be fairly widely
spaced. However, the fracture system generally contains only a small fraction of the reservoir pore
space. Thus, the matrix contains the bulk of the reservoir pore volume while the fractures contain the
bulk of the reservoir flow capacity.
Figure shows a naturally fractured rock together with its idealized dual porosity approximation.

Borehole conditions
Borehole conditions affecting the log measurements are a) hole size, b) drilling,
c) mud mud cake and d) mud filtrate.
When a well is drilled the borehole is filled with the drilling fluid (mud). The rock pieces
which are cut by bit come out with circulating mud and the hole created is filled with mud. Pressure
of the mud column at any depth is kept in such a way that it is more than the formation pressure so
that fluid filled in rocks should not come out and drilling continues. Due to this overpressure, mud
tries to enter the rock. If rock is permeable it itself works as a filter (Because it is having small pores
which are interconnected) and solid part of mud gets deposited on well walls, forming mudcake.
Filtered water invades the rock and get mixed with formation water, forming invaded zone. As
mudcake is formed invasion slows down and stops. The portion of the rock which is not affected by
drilling is known as uninvaded or virgin zone. If rock is not permeable , fluid does not enter and
invaded zone is not formed. Resistivity of these zones from centre of well bore to outside are Rm,
Rmc, Rxo and Rt.
Any resistivity data measured have the effect of all these parameters. Logging Tools are designed in
such a way that measurement of the required place is taken.
The resistivity data is necessary :
To estimate effect of the borehole mud and mud filtrate invasion and to resolve the true
formation resistivity Rt . To determine the Extent of invasion and to find out Resistivity at different
diameters.
In the borehole you have the drilling mud of resistivity (Rm ). The effect of this drilling mud
on permeable formations causes mudcake of resistivity (Rmc ) to build on the borehole wall and
invasion of these formations by mud filtrate. There are two components of the invaded zone, one fully
flushed by mud filtrate and the other a transition between fully flushed and uninvaded. The
transition zone is neglected, and
18
the diameter of invasion ( di ) is measured to the edge of the flushed zone. The resistivity of the zone,
whose pore space contains only mud filtrate of resistivity (Rmf ) and residual hydrocarbons if present
in the formation, is denoted as (Rxo ). The associated water saturation is Sxo . Beyond that zone is the
undisturbed formation with resistivity (Rt ),interstitial water resistivity (Rw ), and water saturation
(Sw ).
The flushed zone is important because it affects the readings of certain logging tools and
because it forms a reservoir of mud filtrate to be recovered on testing before formation fluids are
recovered. The lateral extent of the flushed zone and the invaded zone are not generally known. For
this reason, additional resistivity measurements, with different depths of investigation, are required to
help delineate these zones and compensate for their effect on many downhole measurements.
Depending on the type of mud used (oil-or water-base) and the relative values of the mud
filtrate resistivity Rmf and formation water resistivity Rw, the invasion process may produce a radial
resistivity profile that increases or decreases with distance from the borehole wall.

19
Radial Resistivity Profile as a Function of Mud Type and Formation Content illustrates what may be
expected in a number of cases

THE RESERVOIR ROCKS

A reservoir rock is one that has both storage capacity and the ability to allow fluids to flow
through it; i.e., it possesses both porosity and permeability. Porosity (void spaces) can develop
between grains of sediments as they are laid down. This is the case for intergranular porosity in
sandstone reservoirs. Porosity can also develop when chemicals react with rocks after they have
been deposited (these chemical reactions often take place as a result of exposure to groundwater).
Typically, his solution-type porosity is found in carbonate reservoirs. Porosity also develops in the
form of fractures induced by the stresses of tectonic movement. Although at first not intuitive,
porosity does not necessarily guarantee permeability. For example, Swiss cheese is highly porous
but impermeable because the void spaces are not inter-connected.

DEFINITIONS
It is important to understand the concepts of porosity, saturation, and permeability.

Porosity
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the void space in a rock to its bulk volume. It is a measure of
the amount of internal space that is capable of holding fluids; it is important because it represents
a potential storage volume for hydrocarbons. There are two components to a porous rock system:
the grain volume Vg and the pore volume Vp. The sum of the two gives the bulk volume Vb.
Vb=Vg + Vp
Porosity is thus the ratio of Vp to Vb,

VP

VB

Porosity can be calculated in a number of ways; for example,

= (Vb Vg) / Vb
20
 or

VP

V G V P
Deriving a value of porosity depends on the mechanism of the porosity-measuring device and
knowledge of any two of the three volume fractions. Porosity can vary widely from point to
point. The presence of vugs and fractures can change the permeability tremendously over a very
short distance. The Porosities can be primary, secondary or dual. But only the effective porosity
contributes for the reservoir evaluation.

Primary Porosity

The spaces between the fragments of solid, material deposited as a sediment are the "primary"
porosity. The processes of "compaction" and "cementation that must occur to some degree in
converting the sediment to a physically strong rock reduce this primary porosity. (Fig.).

Secondary Porosity

As geological time passes formation waters move through the porous: and permeable rocks in the
subsurface. With time the chemical composition (salinity) of the water changes , and temperature
changes particularly if .the formation is being more deeply buried or uplifted. With these changes
minerals can be dissolved and/or precipitated. Precipitation adds to the cement between the original
rock grains reducing porosity. Dissolving of solid material can occur either in the original rock grains
or in previously deposited cement.

21
This action creates porosity which is classified as secondary porosity.
Dissolving of material to form secondary porosity is usually very selective relative to the composition
and texture of the original solid fragment.

Secondary porosity is most important to formations of reservoirs in carbonates and deeply buried
sandstones.

Secondary porosity is the contribution from pits, vugs fractures and other discontinuities in the bulk
volumes of matrix. The contribution of the secondary porosity to the overall bulk porosity is generally
small yet it can lead to dramatic increases in bulk permeability.

The porosity of reservoir rocks may be determined by direct measurement on core samples in the lab
or estimated in situ by well log analysis.

Dual Porosity
The combined effect of primary porosity and interconnected secondary porosity gives rise to a
dual", porosity system. It greatly affects the flow efficiency of a rock. The porosity of a reservoir
rock may range from 3% to 35%. Normally low porosity ranges on their own of little interest. But if
a dual porosity system is present then even the low porosities below 10% can be of commercial value.
The lower porosities are of interest only when the dual porosity system is, clearly definable.

Effective Porosity
Processes subsequent to sedimentation, cementation, and recrystallization, solution, weathering and
fracturing can modify substantially the proportion and distribution of void space. In the evaluation of
a reservoir only the interconnected or "effective" porosity is of interest. Since this is the only capacity
which can contribute for the flow. Pores initially present but subsequently sealed of by cementation
or recrystallization effects are of no interest.'

Saturation
Once the pore volume is known, it becomes easier to understand the amount of any one fluid
or gas that occupies this volume. The volume of this fluid, divided by the volume of pores in which
the fluid or gas resides, is defined as the fluid or gas saturation. Since total saturation must always
add up to 100%, the following equation may easily be deduced:
Sw+So+Sg=100%
Where Sw is the water saturation in percent, So is the oil saturation in percent and Sg is the gas
saturation in percent.
In any hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, the pore space may be occupied by oil, water, gas (air is a gas),
or a combination of these constituents. Depending on wettability, most reservoirs that produce
hydrocarbons generally contain a thin water film coating the rock matrix surfaces around the
parameter of the pores. Given such a system, the hydrocarbons will occupy the center areas of these
pores. This is illustrated in Figure A Three Phase, Water-Wet, Hydrocarbon Bearing Reservoir.

22
WETTABILITY
If a liquid is placed in contact with a solid, the surface of the liquid will tend to contract to its
minimum surface area. However there may also be an attractive force between the liquid and the
solid. This force is variable, and depends on the affinity between the liquid and the solid

The angle measured through the liquid (indicated by the arcs in this graphic) is called the
contact angle.
A solid is said to be wet by a liquid if the contact angle is less than 70o.
The liquid is intermediate-wetting if the contact angle is from 70o to 110o
The liquid is designated as non-wetting if the angle is greater than 110o.
Complete wetting of the solid by the liquid is achieved for = 0o, and complete non-wetting
(theoretically) with = 180o.
The significance of reservoir rock wettability can be illustrated with a few examples:
In water-wet rock, the affinity between the water and the rock is much larger than the affinity
between the rock and the oil. Consequently, if both water and oil are present in significant
quantities within the pores of the rock, the water will be distributed as a film that clings tightly to

23
 the pore surface. In contrast, the oil will contract in globules, and will be found in the middle of
the pores as depicted in the left part of Figure Distribution of the Water in a Water-Wet and Oil-
Wet Reservoir.

If the affinity between the rock and the oil is larger than the affinity between rock and water, the
opposite situation will be found. The rock will be covered with an oil film, and the water will be
found in the middle of the pores, as shown in the right hand part of the above illustration.
Most reservoirs are assumed to be water-wet. The left-hand illustration shows the effect of
wettability on the fraction of the oil volume that can eventually be produced. For example, if the
oil originally occupied 80 % of the pore volume, it would have formed a continuous phase despite
having been pushed to the middle of the pores by the water that clings to the rock.

When production causes the oil saturation to be reduced to, say 25%, the oil will become the
discontinuous phase, and will be restricted to isolated globules surrounded by water. The water
phase then becomes continuous, and can still flow, but the oil volume cannot be reduced further
by primary production mechanisms, such as pressure depletion and water drive. Injection of
chemicals or gas will be required to reduce the surface tension between the water and oil, thereby
mobilizing the oil left behind during the primary production phase

SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension at a gas-liquid interface results from an imbalance in the intermolecular (van der
Waals) forces at the surface. This imbalance causes the surface molecules to experience a net pull
directed into the bulk of the solution (Intermolecular Forces and Surface Tension). Consequently,
energy is required to increase the surface area of an interface. This explains why droplets and
bubbles spontaneously minimize their surface area by creating a spherical shape. This force per
unit length is referred to as surface tension.
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
The pressure difference (P) across a curved interface is given by equation]. However the
interfacial tension is directed along the interface which makes an angle with the wall of the
tube ( Figure: Capillary Tube).

24
 2. . cos ( .)
p = p1 p 2
r
Equation defines the capillary pressure in terms of the radius of the tube. It is this pressure
difference which causes the rise of a wetting liquid in a capillary. This can explain the affinity of
water to a tube made of glass. The water literally creeps up the tube and drags due to its internal
cohesion with other water molecules.

If the two fluids are air and water, the following relationships are apparent

Where airand water are the densities of air and water respectively; h the height of liquid rise, g the
acceleration of gravity, and Pc the capillary pressure.
Equation can be rearranged to find the height h of the capillary rise.

Pc
h
( water air ).g
In combination with equation] we obtain for this air/water/solid system:

2. . cos ( )
h
r. g. ( water air )
Because surface tension, contact angle and densities are constant for given fluids, it is apparent
that the height to which the water will rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube.
If air were replaced by oil, similar reasoning leads to the relation:
2. . cos ( o / w )
h
r. g. ( water oil )
Note that the contact angle of the air/water combination is now replaced by o/w, the contact
angle of the oil/water system. For a very wide tube (r approaches infinity) both h and Pc will be
equal to zero. The water level, which will then be the same inside and outside the tube is called
the Free Water Level.

Capillary Pressure In Reservoir Rock

25
Reservoir rock contains numerous pores of different sizes (radii). If a rock was extremely
homogeneous with a constant pore size r we could apply Equation to calculate the capillary rise h,
because interfacial tensions (IFT) and contact angles of various fluid/solid systems are known
from laboratory measurements. The values contained in the table below are commonly used for
this approximation. In this table, is the interfacial tension, and remember that 1 dyne/cm = 0.001
N/m or 1 mN/m
: Interfacial Tensions and Contact Angles of Various Fluid/Solid Systems
System cos() (dyne/cm) cos()

air/fresh water/solid 0 1 72 72

air/saline water/solid 0 1 83 83

oil/water/solid 0 1 35 35

kerosene/brine/solid 0 (30) 1 (0.866) 50 (48) 50 (42)

air/kerosene/solid 0 1 24 24

toluene/brine/solid 0 1 38 38

air/mercury/solid 40 for air 0.766 480 368

Real rocks, however, most likely have a distribution of pore radii, which must be considered to
accurately predict capillary rise. Let us assume we have a rock sample containing pores of only
three different sizes: small, medium and large. Since Pc and h are inversely proportional to the
pore radius, the fluid distribution will be as shown in Figure Schematic Representation of
Capillary Pressure in Reservoir Rock.

Permeability
Permeability is defined as the ability of a porous system to allow fluids to flow through it.
Provided flow is laminar, Darcys relation can be used to define permeability, k, in terms of flow
rate, Q, area, A, length, L, pressure differential, P, and fluid viscosity, such that,

Q L
k
P A

If only one fluid is present in the pore system, this relation defines absolute permeability i.e., a
rock property that is independent of the fluid that is flowing through it. If Q is Flow rate in cc/sec,
A is surface area in cm2, P\L is in atmospheres/cm, and is fluid viscosity in centipoise, then k

26
 is in Darcies. One Darcy converts to 0.9869 x 10 -12 m2 or, approximately, 1 square micron. The
practical unit is the milliDarcy, abbreviated mD, equal to 1/1000 of a Darcy.
The relationship between permeability and porosity depends on rock type. In general, the log of
permeability is linear with porosity for a given rock type; however, the precise relationship is
found only through direct measurements of representative rock samples. Figure
Permeability/Porosity Relationships shows some of these trends.

Relationship between permeability and saturution

Permeability is also a function of Porosity and residual water saturation by
K=a ( eb / Sw c ) Where,

e - is the effective porosity , Sw - is the water saturation and

a, b and c - are constants depending upon the formation.

A general equation can be written as
log k = logEffects
Directional + log (Sw)irr +

Reservoir permeability is a directional rock property. Cross bedding, ripple marks,

bioturbation, cut-and-fill structures as well as variations in cementation grain size sorting and packing
contribute to variations in permeability within a depositional unit.

Permeability in the direction of elongation of component grains is considerably greater than tn

other directions.

"Horizontal permeability (kh) measured parallel to the bedding is the major contributor to the
fluid flow in to the well bore.'
Vertical permeability (kv) is frequently lower than horizontal permeability (kh). Bedding
planes, the presence of muscovite or other platy minerals and shale laminations act as a barrier to
vertical permeability.
The ratio kh /kv generally ranges from 1.5 to 3.0 and may exceed 10 in some cases.
27
 Sometimes, however, unusually high vertical permeability occurs in unconsolidated, clean,
coarse sand or due to fracturing or development of vertical jointing. These joints may occasionally be
filled with clay or other minerals which acts as a barrier to horizontal permeability. This condition
(Kh/Kv < 1.0) greatly effects in reservoir due to by-passing and coning effects in producing wells.
Production of hydrocarbons inevitably involves simultaneous flow of two and three fluids in the
reservoir rock. The presence of one fluid in the porous media impedes the flow of other phases.

Absolute Permeability
This is a property of the rock and not of the fluid flowing through it. Absolute permeability measured
with a fluid which saturates 100% of the pore space.

Effective Permeability
The effective permeability is the property of the passage of a fluid through a rock, in the presence of
other pore fluids. It depends not only on the rock itself, but on the percentages of fluids present in the
pores; that is, their saturations. ie., it is the permeability of a flowing phase which does
not saturate 100% of the rock, e.g. oil in the presence of water.
The effective permeability is always less than the absolute value of k for the rock. The effective
permeability of a fluid is a function of saturation. In complex porous media it is not a unique function
of Sw, and depends upon the capillary structure of the rock and wetting characteristics as well as its
saturation history, ie., the previous saturation..

Relative Permeability

Is the ratio of effective permeability to absolute permeability.

krw = kw / k ; kro = ko / k ; krg = kg / k;

As the water saturation increases, the relative permeability to oil, ( kro ) , decreases, while for the
water, ( krw ) , it increases. Water, therefore, flows with greater ease through the rock and would be
produced in increasing quantities at surface. When the oil saturation has decreases to residual, Srh, its
permeability is zero, and only water will flow.

FLUID DISTRIBUTION IN THE RESERVOIR

Initially, most sediments are laid down in water--either in river and lake beds (continental); in
deltas and along shore lines (transitional); or on the continental shelves (marine), as illustrated in
28
Figure Interrelationships of Depositional Environment. Eolian dune sediments, deposited by wind
instead of water, are an exception to this rule. Later in geologic time, after the reservoir rock has been
buried, hydrocarbons migrate into the reservoir. Gravity segregates gas, oil, and water into different
layers, with gas accumulating above oil, and oil over-lying water. In the absence of any rock, gas, oil,
and water would form distinct layers with sharp contacts between each phase. In the reservoir,
however, the contact lines between gas, oil, and water become blurred.
Within the reservior, the distribution of these fluids is affected by rock-fluid interactions,
which in the static situation is dominated by two forces: gravity and interfacial tension. To understand
the positions of oil / water and oil / gas contacts, it is important to grasp the concepts of Wettability,
Interfacial Tension and Capillary Pressure, as described above.
FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS, RESISTIVITY CONCEPT
In log evaluation the resistivity of the formation is the principal indicator of hydrocarbons,
therefore emphasis 'has been put on the precise determination of resistivity. That is why quite a
number of tools and techniques have been designed and developed to make very accurate
measurements of this parameter.
Resistance (Ohms law)
Ohms Law describes the behavior of electric current through materil as
r=E/I
where: r = Resistance, (ohms)
E = Voltage, (volts)
I = Current, (amperes)
r the resistance is a-property of a substance to impede the flow of current through the substance.

Resistivity/Conductivity
The resistance R , of a substance is directly proportional to its length, and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section A. R proportional to L/A
The proportionality symbol may be replaced with an equality sign and a proportionality constant,
referred to as Resistivity . R = . L/A
or, solving for = R.A/L
Area of Uniform Cross Section = A is in m2
= ohm.meter2/meter = ohm meter, (ohm m2)
Thus, the resistivity of a formation, in ohm meter, is the resistance of one meter cube, when the
current flows between opposite faces.
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. The units of conductivity are millimhos per meter
(CGS units) and the derived SI unit is the Siemens.
Resistivity, like density, is a physical property of a material.
Relatively few rock minerals in the sedimentary rock sequence conduct electricity. Glauconite, a
green coloured hydrous silicate is an exception.
Shales are low in resistivity, however, it is not the shale minerals which are conductive ,it is
ions attached to the clay platelets which conduct electrical currents.
In reservoir rocks, the brine is the conducting material. Oil and gas are infinitely resistive. In a rock in
which the pores are complete]y water filled, the current path through the rock and hence its resistivity
would be expected to be related to its porosity.
Resistivity measurements of water wet formations can be used to calculate the porosity.
The resistivity of a rock depends on:
(a) The resistivity of the water in the pores. This will vary with the nature and concentration of its
dissolved salts.
( b ) The quantity of water present; that is, the porosity and the saturation.
(c) Lithology, i.e. the nature and percentage of clays present, and traces of conductive minerals.
( d ) The texture of the rock; i.e. distribution of pores, clays and conductive minerals.
(e) The temperature.
The relationship between resistivity and salinity
All porous rocks contain some water by virtue of ionized salts contained in solution, these
formation waters are electrically Conductive, exhibiting resistivities ranging from O.02, ohm m to
several ohm-ms at formation temperature. The predominant salt in these solutions are sodium chloride
(NaCl). Resistivity of such an electrolyte normally decreases with increasing salt concentrations due
29
to higher amounts of ions which carry electric charges and higher temperatures which affect the
mobility of the ions. The resistivity of the formation water may be determined by direct resistivity
measurement on a sample, chemical analysis or an estimation of Rw or equivalent NaCl(in PPM)
from well logs.
Relationship between resistivity and temperature
The resistivity of an aqueous solution, which is water plus a salt such as sodium chloride, also
varies with temperature. The resistivity of water measured at surface conditions is different from the
resistivity of the same water in a reservoir at a higher temperature. Likewise, water base drilling mud
changes resistivity with depth, due to the change in temperature. Fig. shows how to correct the
resistivity of mud, formation water, etc. for the effects of temperature. When the temperature of a
solution is increased it is assumed that the salinity stays constant, making resistivity the only other
variable.

30
Brine Concentration
In many cases, brines are encounted with total solid concentrations composed of ions other
than Na and C1. To accurately correct the Rw, Rm or Rmf, using Fig., the total ionic concentration

must be expressed as equivalent NaCI concentration. Fig., is used to correct ionic concentrations to
equivalent NaCI concentrations.

31
EXAMPLE: If a brine with 50,000 ppm total solids which includes 10,000 ppm Na, 16,000 ppm C1,
7,000 ppm, Mg 5,000 ppm Ca and 12,000 ppm SO4 is encounted , the chart in Fig 2. 2 can be used to
determine a value for equivalent NaCl concentration to enter in Fig.1. From Fig. 2.2 read:
K = 0.92 for Mg, at 50,000 ppm,
K = 0.78 for Ca at 50 ,'000 ppm,
K = 0.36 for S04 at 50,000 ppm,
Note, K = 1.0 for Na & Cl at 50,000 ppm.
Then add:
(10,000 x 1) + (16,000 x 1) + (7,000 x 0.92} + (5,000 x 0.78) + (12,000 x 0.36) = 40,660 ppm
equivalent NaCl

FORMATION FACTOR/POROSITY
The relationship between porosity and resistivity:
The matrix of rock is, for all practical purposes, non-conducting, the only conductor being the
saltwater solution contained in the pore space. Therefore, the conductivity of rock depends upon its
interconnected solution filled porosity. As a result, the resistivity of a brine saturated formation, R o
would be expected to vary not only as the, formation water resistivity R w, in the pore space varies
but also as the pore space varies from rock type to rock type. We might state, therefore, that
formation resistivity is a function of formation water resistivity and rock structure.
ie., Ro = F* Rw (Rock Structure)
The resistivity ratio Ro/Rw is defined as the formation resistivity factor, FR.
FR =Ro / Rw = Formation Factor, Two importance things can be observed from this relationships:
a. The formation resistivity factor, FR, is not only a function of the porosity, but also the
tortuosity, T, of the rock . In other words, FR is dependent upon the, manner in, which the
pores are interconnected in addition to the total voidage.
b. The formation resistivity factor, FR, should not be dependent upon the resistivity of the
saturating fluid as long as it completely fi1ls the void space. We should be able to fill the pore
space with salt water, fresh water or conductive fluid and get the same value of F R.
A more general definition of FR, therefore, would be:
FR = Res. of rock 100% water Sat / Res. of Water .
Therefore:
FR = RO / RW = RXO /RMF = R(MATRIX + FLUID) / R FLUID
The range of FR in rocks encountered when logging, is from a minimum of about five to a
maximum of several hundred in sandstone and from a minimum of about ten to values of many
thousand in limestones and dolomites.

Relationship Between Formation Factor and Porosity

Rock characteristic and the pore system are so variable and complex in nature that it is
virtually impossible to establish any definite mathematical relationship between and FR, which may
be applicable in general to all types of rocks; Therefore the only approach towards building up of any
kind of relationship between and FR, has been empirical analysis of experimental data. Gustave E.
Archie, an early pioneer in the development of formation evaluation techniques made a number of
contributions to quantitative log analysis. He observed that the formation factor, F R, was related to
porosity in the following form:
Log FR = Log a m Log
Or,
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 FR = a / m
Where m represents the slope of the linear trend of FR Vs .as observed for specific rock types
when plotted on logarithmic graph paper and the intercept a = 1 , see Fig.

Archie stated that the slope, m, appeared to vary for different rock types as a function of the
degree of cementing of the rock. Hence, this slopes, m, is generally referred to as the cementation
factor which is a misnomer since it varies as a function of many factors.
The chart in Fig. shows the dependence of FR on for various values of a and m.
The cementation factor, m, varies over a wide range of values, from 1.3 to approximately 2.8
(where a=1), The table shows the generalized range of cementation factor m for various rock types,
and the figure graphically illustrates the Formation resistivity factor, F R and porosity, the
relationship for a wide range of rock types (wide range of m since the cementation factor is a rock
typing parameter).
a = a constant that is determined empirically

Cementation factor for various Rock types:

Lithology m
Sand stones
Loose uncemented 1.3
Slightly cemented 1.3-1.7
Moderately cemented 1.7-1.9
Well cemented 1.9-2.2
Lime stones
Moderately porous 2
Some OOlitic 2.8

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 A value other than a = 1 is sometimes appropriate for "a" to compensate for variations in
compaction, pore structure and grain size distribution. The numerical value of "a lt generally falls
between 0.6 and 1.0.
F and relationship:

For carbonates & very cemented sands:

F = 1 / 2 (ARCHIES)
For Sands
F = 0.62 / 2.15 (HUMBLE)
Still another popular relationship for interpreting sand: (within the range of porosity 8% to
about 35%) is: F = 0.81 /2
The practical application of the FR = f () relationship for a particular rock type is best
accomplished by evaluating the cementation factor using laboratory - measured values of the
formation resistivity factor and porosity.
This data is plotted on a log-log graph paper, and the best fitting 1inear trend defines the slope
and intercept, a as shown in Fig. Using this chart for a particular value of F and
The value of a and m may be determined and an appropriate relation for
F Vs ie., F= a /m may be established.
Once the relationship F vs is established by core analysis or through production results
(Fig), it may prove to be very useful for a certain field or area. Otherwise either, the basic Archie or
Humble relationship should, be used. as per lithology for log analysis. The reason for the observed
variation in cementation factor has been attributed to a number of different factors:
1) Degree of cementation.
2) Shape, sorting, and packing of the particulate system.
3) Type of pore system - intergranular, intercrystalline, vuggy etc.
4) Tortuosity of the pore system.
5) Constrictions existing in porous system.
6) Compaction due to overburden pressure.

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 7) Presence of conductive solids.
8) Thermal expansion.
The complexity of natural rocks is aptly indicated by this general listing. As implied by these factors,
no single concept or factor adequately describes the relative behavior of the formation resistivity
factor with porosity.
Tortuosity is one of the most popular concepts for explaining this variation in cementation
factor; this has some merit since it attempts to define the pore passages in the medium. The tortuosity
coefficient as defined by Pirson is a conceptual dimensionless number representing the departure of a
porous system from being made up by a bundle of straight bore capillaries. The tortuosity coefficient
is, therefore, a measure of the tortuous path available for current flow, with respect to the direct path
available in a conductive solution. Using this concept alone to explain the relationship of pore
geometry to the cementation factor implies that the increased resistance in some rocks having the
same porosity is due to one-having more tortuous passages than the other. Hence, all increased
formation factors can be accounted for merely by increasing the value of the tortuosity.

The relationship between saturation and resistivity: Archies formula:

RESISTIVITY INDEX/SATURATION EQUATION

We have seen the influence of formation water resistivity, R w and rock structure on the, true resistivity
of a rock: Rt = f (Rw, Rock Structure) and, since the influence of rock structure is represented
by the formation, resistivity factor, FR, this might be stated as: Rt= f (Rw, FR). This certainly is the
case for a 100% water saturated rock where R t=Ro
since: FR == Ro / Rw OR Ro = FR , RW
When oil or gas replaces water in rock pores, the resistivity of the rock increases, since the
conducting medium (water) is replaced by a nonconducting medium (oil or gas). As the percentage of
oil or gas increases, the resistivity of the rock increases, although since most rocks are water-wet, the
35
continuous coating of water on the rock surface will provide a conductive path even when large
amounts of oil and gas are present. The presence of oil or gas makes the rock more resistive than
when the same rock is water saturated. Therefore, the functional relationship of the true rock
resistivity should be expressed as: Rt = f (Rw, FR, hydrocarbon influence)
Since, the resistivity of a rock is of no significance with respect to oil or gas saturation unless
the resistivity of the same rock when 100% water saturated can be determined, a comparison of these
two resistivities provides the key to the presence of oil or gas. Therefore, the Resistivity Index may be
defined as:
Resistivity Index (IR) = Res. of a rock containing oil or gas
Res. of the same rock containing only water

IR = Rt / Ro
This relationship assumes that the salinity and temperature of the water are unchanged.
Experimental work by Archie indicated that the Resistivity Index, I R, was related to water
saturation, Sw in, clean rocks (Fig.). These linear trends can be expressed as:
Log IR = log (Rt/Ro) = -nlog Sw
Since obviously the intercept is equal to one For average water wet rocks, the slope, "n, is
approximately 2 and is normally referred to as the Saturation Exponent. Rewriting the above
equation to:
I = Rt/R = Sw-n
An understanding of true rock resistivity gives the basis for formation evaluation as stated
below:
Rt = Rw . FR . IR
FR = a-m = Ro/Rw
I = S -n = Rt/Ro
R W
R = R . a-m . S -n
t w W
n
SW = (a/m).(RW/Rt)
This is the Archies equation for clean formation.
For carbonate reservoirs the value of a,m,n are taken as 1,2,2 the equation is Archies equation.
For sand stone reservoirs the value of a,m,n are 0.62, 2.15 and 2 and is the Humbles equation.
These relations can be written in many different ways, and can then be readily manipulated into
the most convenient form for a particular application.
The relationship between water saturation and resistivity has been studied extensively by a
number of authors; many factors have been shown to affect the magnitude of the saturation exponent,
n:
1) Wettability of the rock surface
2) Rock texture
3) Presence of clay
4) Measurement technique
5) Nature of displacing fluid
Saturation exponents have been reported in the literature from less than 2.0 to above 2.5. It
appears that the factor having the greatest influence on the value of the saturation exponent, n, is
wettability.
Measurement of the saturation exponent can be accomplished by a variety of techniques that
can be generally defined as either static or dynamic. In static approach, the core is progressive1y
desaturated using an increasing gas pressure. At each pressure :step ,resistivity and water saturation
are determined once equilibrium is established. .
The methods for measuring saturation exponents are rather tedious and time-consuming. It is,
however, desirable to have these data measured in the laboratory on representative core samples.
Porosity Estimation from Resistivity logs
When no porosity loq is available, an estimate of porosity in clean ,water bearing formations
may be made from resistivity log readings. If the zone under investigation is water bearing in the
bottom, or if there is a nearby water bearing formation known to have similar porosity, a porosity
value can be derived from the appropriate F-O relationships and one of the formulas:
F = Ro / Rw or, F = Rxo / Rmf
When circumstances dictate, an approach to porosity using flushed zone readings in the
36
hydrocarbon bearing formation can be made using the formula:
F = Sxo2 (Rxo / Rmf)
It has been determined empirically, that, at average" , Residual oil saturation,
Sxo = Sw1/5. In the absence of more certain knowledge, this value wi1l often yield a reasonable
porosity value.
__________________________________________________________________________
1) What is Porosity? Define Primary and secondary porosity?
2) Define effective porosity?
3) What is permeability of the formation?
4) Define absolute, relative, effective permeability?
5) What is capillary pressure?
6) Discuss with a formula the capillary rise.
7) Discuss the temperature window for petroleum maturation?
8) What are the various causes for a fractured reservoir?
9) How does the over burden pressure affect the porosity of the formation?
10) What is the relationship between resistivity and temperature of formation fluid?
11) Write archies equation for a clean formation?
12) What is Formation resistivity factor?
13) What is a dual porosity system?
14) What are the various factors that can affect the resistivity of a rock?
15) What is resistivity index?
16) What is saturation and irreducible saturation?
17) Indicate various reasons affecting the saturation exponent?
Part-B
18) Bring out the importance of well logging in petroleum exploration?--
19) Compare the pore properties of a clastic and a carbonate rock?
20) What are the requirements for a formation to act as a reservoir formation?
21) What is compaction and cementation? How does it affect the reser voir properties?
22) What is the effect of mud in bore hole condition while drilling? Discuss?---
23) Discuss the relationship of permeability with porosity and saturation?
24) What is the relationship between formation factor and porosity? What is a cementation
factor? What are the various reasons due to which Cementation factor can be affected?
25) What is a primary porosity? What are various types of primary porosity? What is a secondary
porosity? What are the different types of secondary porosity?

37