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Basic Counting System PDF
Basic Counting System PDF
PULSE ELECTRONICS
The nuclear electronics industry has standardized the signal
definitions, power supply voltages and physical dimensions of basic
nuclear instrumentation modules using the Nuclear Instrumentation
Methods (NIM) standard initiated in the 1960s. This standardization
provides users with the ability to interchange modules, and the
flexibility to reconfigure or expand nuclear counting systems,
as their counting applications change or grow. CANBERRA is a
leading supplier of Nuclear Instrumentation Modules (also called
NIM). In the past several years, the industry trend has been to offer
modular detector electronics with the multichannel analyzer (MCA)
and all supporting instrumentation for spectroscopy with a single
detector combined in a compact, stand-alone enclosure. These
modular MCAs are smaller, lighter and use less power than the
NIM-based counting systems that preceded them. However, their
performance is equal to, or greater than, comparable NIM-based
systems. CANBERRA is also a leading supplier of these modular
detector electronics. Depending on the application and budget, NIM
or modular electronics may be the best counting equipment solution
for the user, and CANBERRA supports both of these form factors
with a wide variety of products.
Basic electronic principals, components and configurations which
are fundamental in solving common nuclear applications are
discussed below.
2. Multichannel Analyzer
The single channel analyzer (SCA) has a lower and an upper level
discriminator, and produces an output logic pulse whenever an
input pulse falls between the discriminator levels. With this device,
all voltage pulses in a specific range can be selected and counted.
If additional voltage ranges are of interest, additional SCAs and
counters (i.e. scalers) can be added as required, but the expense
and complexity of multiple SCAs and counters usually make this
configuration impractical.
If a full voltage (i.e. energy) spectrum is desired, the SCAs
discriminators can be set to a narrow range (i.e. window) and then
stepped through a range of voltages. If the counts are recorded
and plotted for each step, an energy spectrum will result. In a
typical example of the use of the Model 2030 SCA, the lower level
discriminator (LLD) and window can be manually or externally (for
instance, by a computer) incremented, and the counts recorded for
each step. However, the preferred method of collecting a full energy
spectrum is with a multichannel analyzer.
The multichannel analyzer (MCA), which can be considered as
a series of SCAs with incrementing narrow windows, basically
consists of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), control logic,
memory and display. The multichannel analyzer collects pulses in
all voltage ranges at once and displays this information in real time,
providing a major improvement over SCA spectrum analysis.
Figure 1.15
Multichannel Analyzer Components with Digital Signal Processing
Figure 1.14 illustrates a typical MCA block diagram. An input
energy pulse is checked to see if it is within the selected SCA
range, and then passed to the ADC. The ADC converts the pulse
to a number proportional to the energy of the event. This number
is taken to be the address of a memory location, and one count is
added to the contents of that memory location. After collecting data
for some period of time, the memory contains a list of numbers
corresponding to the number of pulses at each discrete voltage.
The memory is accessed by a host computer which is responsible
for spectrum display and analysis as well as control of the MCA.
Depending on the specific model MCA, the host computer may be
either a dedicated, embedded processor or a standard off-the-shelf
computer.
Counters are usually used in combination with a timer (either builtin, or external), so that the number of pulses per unit of time are
recorded. Ratemeters feature a built-in timer, so that the count rate
per unit of time is automatically displayed. Whereas counters have
an LED or LCD for the number of logic pulses, ratemeters have a
mechanical meter for real-time display of the count rate. Typically,
most counters are designed with 8-decade count capacity and offer
an optional external control/output interface, while ratemeters are
designed with linear or log count rate scales, recorder outputs and
optional alarm level presets/outputs. Additional information may be
found in the Counters and Ratemeters Introduction.
2015B
802-3x3
Osprey
USB
and thus, there is no need for any NIM modules or a NIM Bin. All of
this capability is provided in an enclosure no larger than a standard
tube base preamplifier, and the computer interface is via a USB or
Ethernet port on the host computer or a network hub.
HPGe
Detector
IN
HV
2002
Preamp
H.V. Inh.
Lynx
DSA-10008701
ADC
InSpector 2000
USB
Preamp
Power
HPGe
Detector
IN
HV
2002
Preamp
H.V. Inh.
Lynx
8701
ADC
Ethernet
Preamp
Power
Genie 2000 software
Figure 1.20 HPGe Detector with DSA-2000 Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Preamp
Power
8224
3102D
Ethernet
556B
2007P
8701
802-3x3
2022
1
Bkg
Pity the person who has to move lead bricks (at 12 kg each)
to disengage a HPGe detector. A HPGe detector and shield
system should have a liquid nitrogen transfer system to avoid
removing the detector for the weekly filling.
Inside Dimensions
Wall Thickness
Material
HPGe Specs:
Relative Efficiency
Resolution
12%
1.95 keV FWHM at 1.33 MeV
0.90 keV FWHM at 1.22 keV
Background
Count:
Sensitivity:
ENERGY
in keV
SENSITIVITY
in pC
57Co
139Ce
137Cs
60Co
122
165
662
133
2
3
6
10
Table 1.5
Major System Components and their Throughput Limitations
THE DETECTOR
For the detector itself, the charge collection time is the limiting
factor, and this parameter is a function of the detector geometry
when a photon interaction takes place, charge carriers in the form
of holes and electrons are produced, and the time taken for these
carriers to be swept to the p and n electrodes of the detector is the
time for full energy collection. In a germanium detector, this time is
a function of detector size, as the charge carriers travel about 0.1
mm/ns. As the charge collection time increases, the Amplifier must
take a longer time to process the signal and develop its linear pulse,
or else not all of the incident energy will be reflected in that pulse
(ballistic deficit). Thus, larger detectors require longer amplifier
time constants, or more sophisticated peak shapes.
Some ways to address high count rate in the detector include
moving the detector farther away from the source, or collimating
the detector which in both cases reduces the number of events
seen by the detector or using a detector of lesser efficiency. The
detector in the latter case will see fewer events, and furthermore
will have a lower charge collection time.
THE PREAMPLIFIER
Most Germanium detectors in use today are equipped with RCfeedback, charge sensitive preamplifiers. In the RC-feedback
preamplifier, a feedback resistor discharges the integrator, typically
in one or two milliseconds. If the incoming energy rate (count rate X
energy/count) produces a current that exceeds the capability of the
resistor to bleed it off, the output will increase until, in the extreme,
the preamplifier saturates and ceases to operate. This limit occurs
at approximately 200k MeV/s. The saturated condition remains
until the count rate is reduced. The saturation limit is dependent
on both energy and count rate and is usually specified in terms
of the energy/rate limit. The energy/rate limit can be increased
by lowering the value of the feedback resistor, but this in turn
allows more noise to pass through the preamplifier, resulting in a
degradation in resolution.
We see that the settings for both parameters effect the total
processing time, which in turn effects the count rate throughput
of the system. As we noted earlier, setting either parameter too
fast can result in lost resolution. Increasing the settings improve
resolution, but lengthen processing time and sacrifice throughput.
A tradeoff exists (as it did in analog systems) between count rate
throughput and resolution. Higher throughput can be attained with
a loss of resolution and better resolution can be attained at a loss
of throughput up to the limits imposed by the performance of the
detector and preamplifier components.
These tradeoffs also existed in traditional analog systems, but the
tradeoffs can now be made at a higher level the DSP provides
both improved throughput and improved resolution as compared
to analog. This is due to a number of factors. First, the trapezoidal
algorithm is simply more efficient and can process the signals more
accurately and rapidly than analog electronics.
Secondly, the user has much more flexibility to vary the components
of the processing time. In analog systems, the processing was
controlled by a single parameter the shaping time. Now with DSP,
two parameters are available one to accommodate noise level
and one to accommodate detector pulse rise time. By adjusting
these two separately, optimum settings can more readily be attained
resulting, generally, in shorter total processing time to reach the
same resolution result. Additionally, the analog amplifiers typically
were limited to six or fewer shaping time selections. If, say, 2 s
shaping was too short, the next available selection was usually 4s
twice the processing time. With the CANBERRA DSP products,
the user can typically select from 35 to 40 rise times and 21 flat
top times. Again, this greater granularity of adjustment makes it
possible to more closely optimize the performance.
Note that the CANBERRA DSP products also implement Pile
Up Rejection/Live Time Correction (PUR/LTC). Earlier products
implemented this feature with analog circuitry, but in the DSP this is
incorporated into the digital domain functions. Pulse pileup occurs
when a new pulse from the preamplifier reaches the input stages of
the DSP before the previous pulse is fully processed. In such cases,
the PUR/LTC function a) inhibits the processing of any invalid,
composite pulses and b) turns off the live time clock during the
time pulse processing is gated off. In this manner, piled up events
which would serve only to distort the spectrum are rejected before
storage by the MCA and the actual live counting time of the MCA
remains correct.
As we can see from Figure 1.29, the DSP based system provides
higher throughput by approximately 50%. Figure 1.30 shows the
resolution comparison for the same experiment and demonstrates
that the DSP also provides significantly better resolution once the
input count rate exceeds approximately 150 kcps. Note that the
shape of the resolution curve in Figure 1.30 is also much flatter,
indicating that widely varying count rates can be accommodated at
a relatively constant resolution.
Note that with these settings chosen for highest throughput, the
resolution performance at lower count rates is actually slightly
worse with the DSP. However, in an application involving those
count rates, it is unlikely those settings would be used. Figures 1.31
and 1.32 show the same analog data compared to the DSP system
with the rise time extended to 1.24 s. This reduces the throughput
of the DSP system although it is still superior to that of the analog.
Further, we see now that with these settings, the resolution of the
DSP is superior to the analog across the full range of incoming
count rates.
Figures 1.33 and 1.34 compare a Model 2060 DSP to a Gaussian
analog system consisting of a Model 2025 amplifier and Model
8715 ADC. In this case, the settings of both systems were chosen
to provide optimal resolution under the high incoming count rates.
Analog systems were set for 2 s and 4 s Gaussian shaping times
while the DSP settings were 5.6 s rise time and 0.8 s flat top.
Figure 1.33 shows that, with these settings, the throughput of the
DSP system is approximately equal to that of the 2 s Gaussian
system. Yet Figure 1.34 shows the resolution of the DSP system
is superior to the 4 s Gaussian system. Again, the DSP allows
the spectroscopist to achieve a significantly better tradeoff between
throughput and resolution.
Ethernet
Network
Client
and/or
Apex-Alpha
Alpha Spectroscopy
Server
Figure 1.35 Example Large Scale Alpha Spectroscopy System based on the Alpha Analyst