Journal of Paleolimnology 5: 197-218, 1991.

9 1991 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Printed in Belgium.

197

Palaeolimnology of the Upper Lerma Basin, Central Mexico: a record

of climatic change and anthropogenic disturbance since 11600 yr BP
Sarah E. Metcalfe ~, F. Alayne Street-Perrott 2, R. Alan Perrott 2 & Douglas D. Harkness 3
t School of Geography and Earth Resources, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK," 2 Tropical
Palaeoenvironments Research Group, School of Geography, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TB, UK;
3NERC Radiocarbon Laboratory, East Kilbride, Glasgow G75 OQU, UK
Received 23 August 1990; accepted 1 March 1991

Key words: palaeolimnology, Quaternary, diatoms, Mexico, climatic change

Abstract

The Upper Rio Lerma valley, Estado de Mrxico, is a high-altitude (2575 m a.s.1.) basin floored by
Quaternary alluvial, lacustrine and pyroclastic deposits. Two pits were dug in the swampy bed of the
recently drained L. Chiconahuapan. Ten 14C dates have been obtained from these profiles, which consist
of diatomaceous organic lake muds and peats with intercalated tephras. The oldest unit is the Upper
Toluca Pumice (Tripartite Ash), dated 11 580 + 70 yr BP. Analyses of sediment chemistry, loss-onignition, mineral-magnetic variations and subfossil diatom assemblages provide evidence of environmental changes since this date. Alkaline ponds or freshwater lakes developed during the intervals
9000-6000, 6000-5500, 3600-1400 and 800-0 yr BP, and acidic marshes or bogs during the intervening dry episodes. An important phase of accelerated erosion, beginning around 3100 yr BP and culminating around 1400-700 yr BP, appears to have been associated with human disturbance of the basin
soils.

Introduction

Previous work on Late Quaternary, and especially Holocene, climatic and environmental
changes in Central Mexico has tended to be conflicting and inconclusive. A number of authors
have stressed the apparent environmental stability of the region (Barbour, 1973; Smith et al.,
1975; Watts & Bradbury, 1982). The concentration of early investigations in the geologically and
hydrologically complex setting of the Basin of
Mexico, which has been densely populated since
the mid-Holocene, did not help to clarify the picture (Bradbury, 1971; Niederberger, 1979;

Lorenzo & Mirambell, 1986). However, evidence

from more recent diatom studies (Bradbury,
1989), glacial deposits (Heine, 1976, 1984, 1988;
White & Valastro, 1984), pollen analysis (Gonz~tlez Quintero, 1980, 1986; Ohngemach & Straka,
1983; Brown, 1985) and archaeology (Armillas,
1969; Sanders et al., 1979) suggest that significant, though often subtle, changes have occurred
in this region during the Late Pleistocene and
Holocene. The main difficulties facing palaeoenvironmental reconstruction outside the Basin of
Mexico seem to lie in the choice of investigative
technique and in obtaining a sufficiently detailed
and reliable radiocarbon chronology. Pollen anal-

198
ysis, for example, is hampered by the very high
percentages of pine and oak in the pollen rain
(Brown, 1985). By applying a number of different
palaeolimnological techniques to a well-dated sequence of sediments, it was hoped that some of
these problems could be overcome.

canoes Nevado de Toluca (Xinantrcatl)

4575 m) to the west and E1 Ajusco (3937 m) to
the northeast (Heine, 1976; White & Valastro,
1984). The volcanic geology of the southern part
of the basin has been studied in some detail by
Bloomfield and others (Bloomfield, 1973, 1975;
Bloomfield & Valastro, 1977; Robin et al., 1980).
The present-day climate of the basin is characterised by dry winters and tropical summer
rains. Mean-annual rainfall ranges from 800 to
870 ram, falling mainly between June and September. Temperatures, however, are considerably
moderated by altitude and frosts are quite frequent. Snow often falls on the summit of the Nevado de Toluca. January is the coldest month
(average temperature 9.5-10.2 ~ and May or
June the warmest (average 14.7-15.6 ~ (Garcia, 1973).
The Upper Lerma Basin was formerly occupied by a chain of lakes. From south to north

The Upper Lerma Basin

'The valley of Toluca [Lerma] was now before us, its
volcano towering in the distance. The plains around
looked cold and dreary, with pools of transparent water,
and swamps filled with various species of water-fowl.'
Calderrn de la Barca, 1843

The upper Rio Lerma, or Toluca, Basin is the

highest of a series of lacustrine basins located
along the Neovolcanic Axis which straddles Central Mexico at about 19~ (Demant, 1981)
(Fig. 1). It is surrounded on three sides by volcanic highlands and dominated by the stratovol-

:~

110"

100"

910"

Hoya San
9 erm# NicoltJsde
~Parangue
o
Piscina de YurMa

Basin of
Mexico

110 ~

Patzcuarc
Zirahu~n~

Chiconahu~
;ha~co

..:.....-~.
18"
1040
I

" i ~,,

100~
I

C|osed basln

~"- -~

Lake

x Small lake (labelled)

F i g . 1.

Closed basins along the Neovolcanic Axis showing Lakes Chiconahuapan and Chalco.

96~
I

199
these were: Chiconahuapan, Jajalpa, Lerma or
Chignahuapan and Capulhuac (Pifla Chan, 1975).
The spring-fed Rio Lerma rises near Almoloya
del Rio in the southeast of the basin (Fig. 2) and
canalised, drains out of it in the northwest. Although the basin is not hydrologically closed at
present, it is believed to have been so for periods
during the Holocene, as discussed below.
The abundance of springs and lakes, providing
fish, wildfowl and other aquatic resources, made
the Upper Lerma Basin an attractive site for settlement. Before the Spanish Conquest, the major
group occupying the basin was the Matlatzinca
(or Matlazinca). The ethnic origins of this group
are controversial; they may have evolved from the
Otomi (Pifia Chan, 1975). The archaeology of the
basin, however, is somewhat better known. The
late Classic to early Postclassic (ca. 1300 to
800 yr BP) saw the expansion of settlement
around the basin at sites including Teotenango,

Almoloya del Rio and Techuchulco. Almoloya

means 'the place in which springs rise' (Pifia
Chan, 1975). Just north ofAlmoloya del Rio, lies
Tepozoco, a major ceremonial site dating from
this period (Sugiura Yamamoto & Serra Puche,
1982). Pifia Chan (1975) records that Tepozoco
was one of four important springs near Almoloya
del Rio. Between 750 and ca. 1250 AD (ca. 1280800 yr BP) a large, theocratic ceremonial centre
was constructed at Teotenango in the south west
of the basin (Fig. 2). At around 1250 AD, this site
was captured by so-called 'chichimeca-matlatzinca', who imposed a militaristic order and style.
During the 12th and 13th centuries, the basin as
a whole appears to have been particularly heavily
populated.
In 1476 AD, Teotenango was again conquered,
on this occasion by the Aztecs (or M6xica), under
Axay~icatl. The Aztecs took over the entire basin,
an urban centre was developed at present day

:'.:

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Settlements

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~,la Isla

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Texcalyacac

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:...

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de.
...: :A r .i. s. . t; d -~

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:.:i~" T e c h u c h u l c o

Fig. 2. Location map of the Upper Lerma Basin.

200
Toluca and the former centre at Calixtlahuaca
(5 km north west of Toluca) was abandoned
(GRAL/CIELA, 1978). Population densities
again seem to have been high in the early 16th
century and remained so until the Spanish Conquest in 1521 A.D.
The area selected for study was L. Chiconahuapan (19~
99~
ca. 2575 m a.s.1.)
(Fig. 2), the highest in elevation of the former
lakes, covering 23 km 2, which has been drained
in recent times by an aqueduct supplying water to
Mexico City. The present small remnant pond,
near the town of Almoloya del Rio, is of CaH C O 3 type, with a pH of 8, a conductivity of
about 720 #S c m - 1 and an alkalinity of
5 meq 1- 1. When sampled in 1981, the diatom
flora was dominated by Cocconeis placentula var.
lineata (23~o), Fragilaria construens var. renter
(22~) and F. construens var. subsalina (11.5~).
This falls in the category 'freshwater ponds' identiffed by Bradbury (1989) in the Basin of Mexico.
Two pits were dug in the marshy lake floor to the
south-west of Almoloya del Rio (see Fig. 2). Preliminary results from these sections were presented by Metcalfe et al. (1986, 1989).

Methods

Pits 1 and 2 were sampled at 5 cm intervals for

laboratory analysis. A wider range of measurements was made on Pit 2 since larger samples
were available. Organic-matter content was determined by loss-on-ignition (1 hr at 550 ~
magnetic susceptibility (Z) and dual-frequency
susceptibility (Xfd) (Thompson & Oldfield, 1986)
were measured using a Bartington Instruments
MS 1 meter. Dried, ground samples were carefully
digested with HF and H202 and analysed for
major cations by atomic absorption, using a PyeUnicam SP-100 (Pit 1) and a PerkinElmer 3030 (Pit 2), and for total P by colorimetry using a Chemlab System 4 Autoanalyser. The
analytical precision of replicate digestions was
+ 3-5~o (n = 10). None of the samples reacted
with dilute HC1.
Radiocarbon dating was carried out by the

NERC Radiocarbon Laboratory (East Kilbride)

using liquid scintillation on samples of organic
matter from lake mud and conifer wood. b13C
values ranged from - 24.3 to - 27.0%o in the
sediment samples and -27.3%0 in the wood.
Such values are typical of terrestrial sources or
floating aquatics which use atmospheric CO2. In
view of these values and the volcanic terrain, the
authors believe that the dates are reliable and may
be accepted at face value. An exception to this is
described below. In order to compare the radiocarbon dates with the archaeological record, the
calibration of Stuiver & Pearson (1986) was used
to yield ages in years BC or AD.
Diatom samples were prepared at 5 cm
(Pit 2) and 10 cm (Pit 1) intervals following Battarbee (1979). Species identifications were made
with reference to standard floras (e.g. Hustedt,
1930-1966; Patrick & Reimer, 1966, 1975). It
should be noted that the generic name Melosira
has been used here rather than Aulacosira
(Simonsen, 1979) or Aulacoseira (Crawford,
1981). The genus Fragilaria has been revised by
Williams & Round (1987) and five new genera
separated out from it. Following the new nomenclature, F. construens and varieties belong in the
genus Staurosira, F. pinnata and varieties in
Staurosirella, F. brevistriata in Pseudostaurosira
and F. virescens and varieties in Neofragilaria. In
this study, the generic name Fragilaria has been
used in its unamended sense.
A record was also made of the number of
chrysophyte cysts or statocysts (Smol, 1988) and
sponge spicules encountered per 100 diatom
valves.

Results
Stratigraphy and sediment chemistry

The stratigraphy of the two pits is summarised in

Fig. 3. The sequence in Pit 1, which is the more
closely dated, is readily correlated with the longer,
but more condensed, sequence in Pit 2. Neither
pit appears to have a continuous sediment sequence, but taken together they provide a record

201
Pit 1

Pit 2
Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy
14c dates
(yr BP]

Depth
(cm)
0

20
870 -+ 50
SRR-2252

pPpP
PpP
--p~p-

--

1 / I

EEEEE

1380 -+ 50
SRR-2627
1620 -+ 50
SRR-2628

Major tephras

40

--

60-

Yellow ash
f
J
1

,_ 6010 +70
SRR-2631

80
4570 60
SRR-2253

vvvvv

--

lit/

100
5880 50 . .
SRR-2629

120-

i I
5960 -+ 60
SRR-2254
6960 -+ 50 - SRR-2630

140

Iv ~

/
_ 8160-+100
SRR-2632

V
V

t80

I ~

i-v-

fi"O--O"__:O" i1
A A A A A

(5970 - + 1 8 0 - SRR-2255)

/
160

Dark grey tephra

[= Tres Cruces tephra,
- 8440 yr BP? )

Iv ,

iii

;0~D--

//

Grey pumice
[= Upper Toluca Pumice,
- 11,600 yr BP )

V
V

Peat

l-~

Diatornite

Organic mud

['~

Charcoal/wood

rH-'-M] Largeplantmacrofossilsr,v'--~ Tephra

Weathered layer

Fig. 3. Stratigraphy of Pits 1 and 2, Upper Lerma.

of environmental changes over approximately the

last 11 600 years.
In Pit 2 (Fig. 3), the oldest unit is a grey pumice
exposed at the base of the pit and found by augering to be 115 cm thick. In thickness and stratigraphic position, it corresponds to the dacitic

Upper Toluca Pumice (UTP), which is dated at

11580 + 70 yr BP (mean of 4 assays) (Bloomfield & Valastro, 1977). A sample from 159160 cm in Pit 2 was found to be a crystal-lithic
tephra rich in hypersthene, olive and olive-green
amphibole and feldspar; the pumiceous glass

202
shards had a refractive index of 1.510-1.512.
These properties also closely resemble the Tripartite Ash (unit 4: Lambert, 1986) found at the
Tlapacoya archaeological site in the Basin of
Mexico (V. Steen-Mclntyre, pers. comm., 1985).
Three samples of soil from beneath the latter at
Tlapacoya site I yielded a mean 14C age of
11560 + 70 yr BP (Bloomfield & Valastro, 1977),
confirming the correlation between the UTP and
the Tripartite Ash and emphasising the importance of this tephra as a well dated marker horizon of regional extent.
The grey pumice is overlain by a thin bed of
grey mud that marks the establishment of marshy
conditions on the valley floor. A date of
8160 + 100 yr BP (SRR-2632) was obtained on
organic matter from 144-146 cm. Based on the
sedimentation rates obtained for the younger organic mud units in Pit 1, deposition of this mud
is estimated to have begun around 9000 yr BP.
The grey mud underlies 65 cm of very dark
grey, vitric air-fall ash. The opaque brown shards
(n= 1.548-1.558) contain microphenocrysts of
ortho- and clinopyroxene (V. Steen-Mclntyre,
pers. comm., 1985). The age, thickness and appearance of this ash match the local, andesitic
Tres Cruces Tephra (TCT) (Bloomfield, pers.
comm., 1982), which overlies a palaeosol dated at
8440 + 70 yr BP by Valastro (Bloomfield, 1975).
In Pit 2, the ash is weathered throughout, indicating that a long period of exposure and partial
reworking elapsed prior to the deposition of the
overlying light grey, diatomaceous lake mud. This
inference is supported by a date of 6010 + 70 yr
BP (SRR-2631) obtained on fragments of conifer wood collected from the base of the latter
(75-76 cm).
The grey mud passes up into a black organic
mud, interrupted at 61-62 cm by a yellow, waterlaid ash (YA) (see below). A large fragment of
Pinus charcoal was found at 25-26 cm, just below
a layer of large macrofossils. These were identified as the underground stems of herbaceous
monocotyledons, possibly Cyperaceae or Juncaceae (T. Lawrence, pers. comm., 1985), indicating that the lake dried out at this level. Above
the fossil 'root mat', a very dark peaty mud passes

up into the fibrous Sphagnum~sedge peat that

forms the uppermost 13 cm of the profile.
In Pit 1, the TCT is the oldest exposed unit. At
this site, it has been water-sorted and shows no
sign of subaerial exposure. The overlying lake deposits begin with a thin reddish mud containing
tiny charcoal fragments, which passes up into a
very dark grey, diatomaceous mud and then into
a thick layer of black organic mud. The black
mud contains occasional shells of aquatic and
amphibious snails indicative of swampy conditions. 14C dates of 6960+50 (SRR-2630),
5960+60 (SRR-2254) and 5880+50 yr BP
(SRR-2629) were obtained on organic matter
from 150-151, 140-141 and 110-111 cm, respectively. An additional date of 5970 + 180 yr BP
(SRR-2255) from 170-171 cm appears too young
by comparison and is assumed to have been contaminated by the roots of the macrophytes which
formed the black mud. The age of the base of the
lake muds is estimated to be 8200 yr BP by extrapolation from SRR-2254 and-2630, agreeing
well with the date obtained beneath the TCT in
Pit 2 (Fig. 3).
The YA occurs at 90 cm in Pit 1. It is a fartravelled fine-grained tephra with roughly equal
proportions of phenocrysts, lithic fragments and
pumiceous glass shards (n=ca. 1.514). Hypersthene, clinopyroxene and enstatite are abundant
in the crystal fraction (V. Steen-Mclntyre, pers.
comm., 1985). A date of 4570 + 60 yr BP (SRR2253) was obtained from 90-91 cm. The YA is
similar to the undated 'middle lapilli' of White
(1962, p. 938) which forms part of an ash-lapilliash triplet on the Paso de Cort6s, on the eastern
flank of the Basin of Mexico (V. Steen-Mclntyre,
pers. comm., 1985). It also corresponds closely in
age and mineralogy to the Upper Marker Pumice
(unit 2: Lambert, 1986) at Tlapacoya. The latter
is bracketted by dates of 4880+ 120 and
4250 + 110 yr BP (Limbrey, 1986). If these correlations are correct, then the YA also constitutes
an important regional stratigraphic marker.
The stratigraphy above the YA is very similar
to Pit 2, but less condensed; the fossil 'root mat'
occurs at 35 cm in Pit 1. ~4C dates of 1620 +_50
(SRR-2628),
1380 +_50 (SRR-2627)
and

203
870 + 50 yr BP (SRR-2252) were obtained on
organic matter from 60-61, 40--41 and 3031 cm, respectively, indicating that the rate of
sedimentation increased by a factor of 8 after
1600 yr BP.
The three tephras are clearly visible on
Figs. 4-5 as maxima of inorganic content, Z and
major elements. High X values are characteristic
of volcanic ashes and reflect the content of primary magnetic minerals, especially magnetite
(Thompson & Oldfield, 1986). Although Zfa was
only measured on samples from Pit 2, it reveals
an interesting difference between the tephras; low
readings were obtained from the UTP and the
YA, whereas Xfa reached 7.1 ~o in the TCT, which
also exhibited high values of total P. Such characteristics are typical of the A and B horizons of
soils and of eroded soil materials such as aeolian
dust (Thompson & Oldfield, 1986). They confirm
that the TCT at site 2 has undergone prolonged
subaerial exposure.
The TCT is particularly rich in A1, Fe, Mg, Ti
and to a lesser extent, K, whereas the YA shows
up primarily as a peak in A1, Ti and K. The UTP
is broadly similar to the YA.
In contrast to the tephras, the older lake deposits exhibit high values of loss-on-ignition and
low values of X, Zfa and major elements, with the
exception of the section from 65-66 to 5556 cm in Pit 2, which shows a concentration of
Fe and Mn associated with brown and yellowishbrown mottling of probable hydromorphic origin.
In Pit 1, which provides a better time resolution,
the first significant change occurs at 110-111 to
100-101 cm (5900-5200 yr BP), where a slight
increase in inorganic content, Z, A1, Na, Ca, Fe
and Ti is linked to the presence of sand grains in
the sediment.
A more important change occurs in the organic
mud above the YA. In both pits (Figs. 4-5), a
minimum in the loss-on-ignition curve between
the YA and the fossil 'root mat' is associated with
the eightfold increase in sedimentation rate observed in Pit 1, where this segment can conveniently be divided into two: a lower zone (75-76
to 45-46 cm) with high ~, Fe, AI and Ti but low
Na; and an upper zone (40-41 to 25-26 cm) with

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macrofossils

Large plant

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Charcoal

J~4Llk
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$RR-2255)

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4570 +- 60
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SRR-2628

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Depth

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C dates
(yr BP)
4

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mg/g)

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Mn
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mg/g)(mg/g) (mg/g)

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8 10 12 0 10 20 30 40 50

Magnetic
susceptibility
(x 10-7m3/kg)

) 20 40 60 80 10(3 0

Loss on
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205
very high Na but lower Z, linked to the presence
of sand-sized feldspar. In Pit 2, Zfa and P are high
from 50-51 to 30-31 cm, but then drop sharply
to low levels.
These results are most readily explained by an
influx of weathered volcanics, an initial input of
fine-grained topsoil with high Z, Zfd and P being
succeeded by coarser, sandy subsoil rich in Nafeldspar. The two phases are dated approximately
3100-1400 and 1400-700 yr BP in Pit 1.
A much less marked increase in inorganic content, Z, AI, Fe and Ti occurs in the uppermost
peat in both pits. A renewed rise in Zfd and P was
also found in Pit 2. These changes are believed to
reflect the deposition of soil dust on the peat surface by wind in the recent past.

Diatoms and other siliceous microfossils

The diatom counts from each level are expressed
as percentages. Only diatoms with an abundance
of > 2~o are shown on the diagrams. The diatom
record for each pit is summarised here in terms
of the zones described in Tables 1 and 2 and
shown in Figs. 6-7. Reference to species as 'dominant' or 'common' follows the terminology of
Gasse et al. (1983), where dominant species form
>~33~ and common species 5<33~o of the
count. The habitat types identified by Bradbury
(1989) from the Basin of Mexico have been used.
These are: acid mires and bogs, freshwater ponds,
alkaline marshes and ponds, shallow saline lakes
and saline marshes. In the Upper Lerma basin,
the first three categories are applicable.
It was hoped that the relative abundance of
chrysophyte cysts might provide additional
palaeoenvironmental information, particularly in
relation to pH, nutrient status and temperature
(Adam & Mahood, 1981). Cysts were sometimes
abundant when diatoms were low in numbers, or
absent.

Pit 2
Zone I comprises two samples from the top of the
UTP at the base of the pit and two from the
overlying organic mud (Fig. 6). The flora in the

pumice is dominated by epiphytic and shallowwater species, with Cocconeis placentula var.
lineata most abundant. This diatom is usually epiphytic on higher plants (Jorgensen, 1948). Although Nitzsehia amphibia, one of the common
species in this assemblage, may occur in the
plankton of tropical lakes (Huber-Pestalozzi,
1942), it is believed to be littoral in this case in
view of the co-occurring species. The preservation of the diatom valves is poor, but the assemblage seems to be indicative of shallow, fairly alkaline water with a pH > 8 (Cholnoky, 1968) and
abundant aquatic vegetation. This assemblage is
similar to that identified by Bradbury (1989) as
typical of alkaline marshes and ponds. Within the
organic mud, Melosira italica, a mainly littoral
species (Gasse, 1980), becomes more abundant.
The occurrence of many soil and aerophilous species at 151-145 cm, including Hantzschia
amphioxys and Navicula mutica (Hustedt, 1930,
1937-1939), suggests even shallower conditions
than before.
Zone II includes one sample from the base of
the TCT, which must represent the flora living in
the lake at the time of the eruption. The occurrence of Eunotia and Fragilaria species suggests
more dilute, nutrient-poor conditions compared
with Zone I (Haworth, 1976; Gasse, 1980). No
diatoms were found in the main body of the
tephra.
Zone III comprises samples from the weathered and reworked top of the TCT and from the
overlying diatomaceous mud, marking the reestablishment of lacustrine conditions at the site.
The assemblages are dominated by Fragilaria
species, which is not surprising given the ability
of this genus to survive in a minerogenic environment (Haworth, 1976). In the TCT at 8586 cm, the valves are largely broken, with strong
signs of dissolution and/or reworking. Fragilaria
spp. remain dominant in the diatomaceous mud.
The assemblage in this unit probably represents
a freshwater pond (1-3 m deep: Bradbury, 1979),
of oligotrophic to mesotrophic status (Gasse,
1980), with alkalinity less than 5 meq 1- ~ (Bradbury, 1989).
Zone IV comprises just one sample from the

206

Table 1. Upper Lerma Pit 2, diatom zones and most abundant taxa
Upper Lerma Pit 2
Depth in cm

Dominant spp. >33~o

0-1
5-6

Common spp. 5 - <33~o

Zone

(N. heufleri v. leptocephala), R. gibberula, D. elegans,

H. amphioxys, N. radiosa v. tenella, (N. cryptocephala
v. veneta), (G. angustatum), (F. pinnata v. lancettula),
(N. amphibia), (C. meneghiniana)

VIII

10-11

F. construens

F. construens v. venter, (C. placentula v. lineata),

15-16

no

diatom

20-21

F. construens

(N. amphibia), (A. exigua v. heterovalva)

24-25
30-31

(N. amphibia)

(N. amphibia), M. ambigua, (C. placentula v. lineata),

(C. meneghiniana), (N. capitata v. hungarica), (A. veneta),
(F. construens), (F. construens v. venter)

VI c

M. ambigua, N. amphibia, C. placentula v. lineata,

C. meneghiniana, (N. capitata v. hungarica),
(A. veneta)

VI b

C. placentula v. lineata, (C. placentula), (P. viridis),

(R. gibberula), (N. amphibia), (M. ambigua),
(A. veneta)

VI a

60-61

H. amphioxys, A. hungarica, N. amphibia, E. curvata

65-66

M. distans v. africana, F. construens v. venter

IV

(F. pinnata v. lancettula)

F. pinnata v. lancettula, F. pinnata, F. construens

v. venter, F. brevistriata, (N. amphibia), C. placentula
v. lineata, A. ovalis v. affinis, (N. cuspidata),
(S. fasciculata v. tabulata), (F. construens)

III

no

diatom

M. italica

E. bigibba v. pumila, E. naegeli

II

145-146
150-151

M. italica, H. amphioxys, N. amphibia, (N. mutica),

(P. viridis), (D. elliptica)

Ib

155-156
159-160

C. placentula v. lineata, M. italica, (E. turgida),

H. amphioxys, N. amphibia, (C. bacillum), (R. gibberula)
(D. psuedovalis), (P. viridis)

Ia

35-36
40--41
45-46
50-51
55-56

70-71
75-76
80-81
85-86
90-91

140-141

(C. placentula v. lineata)

VII

record

record

(tephra)

spp. in (), found in only one sample in the zone or subzone.

black organic m u d ( 6 5 - 6 6 c m ) b e l o w the Y A . It

is an u n u s u a l assemblage, with Melosira distans
var. africana the m o s t a b u n d a n t taxon. This variety of Melosira w a s n o t f o u n d in any other samples f r o m the area n o r in our collection o f m o d e m M e x i c a n d i a t o m s (Metcalfe, 1988). M. distans

itself, h o w e v e r , h a s been f o u n d in M e x i c o in acidic

b o g s a n d mires at high altitudes ( 3 0 0 0 - 4 0 0 0 m
a.s.l.) (Bradbury, 1989). I n tropical Africa, M.
distans vat. africana is characteristic o f w a r m ( 2 5 30 ~ C), dilute, riverine s w a m p s a n d shallow 'reservoir' lakes (Street, 1980) with d e n s e stands o f

--

~J

}~

_-~

v v v

pP

~n~

so-sl

ioo

.,,

40-~

eo 61

30 ~i

24-25 |

20-21

---L-

-4-

-i

/,I Y~

//

'

-4

I i

.[

Wig. 6. U p p e r Lerma Pit 2 diatom diagram.

/
/.

. . . .

//
/,.'/o~

I.

IV

Via

""
Vlb

vie

viii

.......

I
I

I
I
c~, oe 2 %

SHH -2632

l,q ,,.

'_!

i1 I

/~'1~

.J

,J

208
o

~'~~o,,

~~.,~,~.~.~

~ , ~
~,~,,

~~.-%.

'~

~.,

I"

. . .. I . . .
i

~
H.

.1.

~-.,"~,.~.,~-~
~ ~ ~ . ' %

1
I

I
!

~
. I

....

I,~,
!:~
I

f
I

9
9

I
I
t

I
9

9 I
9 I
9 i
I
I

IN

IN
nl

it

IIIn

i
I

i
I

LII.._

nlllt
i

.n

I
.
.

IN

f!,

209
emergent macrophytes. It prefers slightly acidic
waters (pH 6-7) of Ca-Mg-HCO3 type, with low
conductivities ( < 3 0 0 pS c m - 1) and alkalinities
of < 1-10 meq 1 - 1 (Gasse, 1986). The lower pH
conditions at this time may be reflected by the
sharp increase in the number of chrysophyte cysts
present in the sediment (see Fig. 11). Freely
draining, acidic marsh or riverine swamp conditions, possibly warmer than today can be inferred
at the site of Pit 2.
Zones V and VI correspond to the organic mud
layer overlying the YA. It appears likely that there
was an hiatus in sedimentation at both sites following the deposition of this ash. Zone V contains an ecologically rather mixed assemblage
with the aerophilous H. amphioxys most abundant. It includes species with apparently very different pH preferences, such as Nitzschia amphibia
( p H > 8 . 5 ) and Eunotia curvata (E. lunaris)
(pH < 7) (Cholnoky, 1968; Gasse, 1986). Overall,
the assemblage reflects shallow conditions, possibly a seasonally flooded meadow or shallow
marsh (Bradbury, 1989), with spatially and temporally variable water chemistry.
Zone VI represents a transgressive sequence.
The zone is dominated in turn by C. placentula
var. lineata, Melosira ambigua and N. amphibia.
The episode of deepest water is probably recorded
at 40-41 cm within subzone VIb, where M.
ambigua is the most abundant species. M.
ambigua is common in the plankton of warm (2028 ~
East African lakes (Richardson, 1968;
Gasse et al., 1983), particularly in those included
in Class I of Tailing and Tailing (1965), with a pH
range of 7 to 8.7 and an electrical conductivity of
< 600/~S cm - 1. According to Gasse (1986) this
species is tolerant of a range of alkalinities and
ecological information is best derived from associated species. In this case, moderately alkaline
water (3-10 meq 1 - 1) is probably indicated. The
association ofM. ambigua with increased nutrient
loading due to land clearance was noted by Bradbury (1975). This species requires turbid conditions to remain in the plankton (Hutchinson,
1967; Bradbury, 1975). Its abundance in zone VI
parallels the variations in Z and Zf~, suggesting a
link with accelerated inputs of topsoil from the

catchment (Fig. 4). Fairly eutrophic conditions

are confirmed by the occurrence of the facultatively planktonic Cyclotella meneghiniana (Cholnoky, 1968) and may have contributed to the appearance of N. amphibia in the plankton
(Bradbury, 1979). Gasse (1986) notes that Cyclotella meneghiniana is often associated with N-heterotrophic Nitzschia species in East Africa. Nitzschia palea is present in the sample from 45-46
cm, a further indication of nutrient-rich conditions.
In the upper part of zone VI (subzone VIc), N.
amphibia becomes more common than M.
ambigua, which may reflect increasing alkalinity
(Richardson, 1968). A reversal of this trend is
indicated by the uppermost sample (24-25 cm).
Here, Fragilaria construens var. renter and F. construens are common and probably reflect less alkaline, less nutrient-rich conditions. A reduction
in turbidity may also be indicated, reflected in the
decline in both Z and Zfd above 30 cm. Shallowing
of the water at the site is also indicated by the
abundance of these Fragilaria species.
Zone VII includes two samples: from the base
of the fossil 'root mat' and from the overlying very
dark peaty mud. Fragilaria construens is dominant
in both. The shallowing of the lake, evident at the
top of zone VI, clearly continued until conditions
were dry enough for the formation of the 'root
mat'. The loss of the diatom record from 1516 cm may be associated with this desiccation.
The assemblages in Zone VIII suggest renewed
flooding, which gave rise to more alkaline,
nutrient-rich conditions. In the sample from
0-1 cm N. palea becomes quite abundant. The
species present are consistent with Bradbury's
(1989) alkaline marsh type. Although the increased abundance ofDenticula elegans at the top
of the zone may reflect drying, the final desiccation of the lake floor, following drainage, does not
appear to be recorded in the diatom sequence.

Pit I
Unfortunately, the diatom record in Pit 1,
although far better dated than Pit 2, is more
patchy. The four diatom zones identified (Table 2) only have any real coherence above the YA.

210
Tab& 2. Upper Lerma Pit 1, diatom zones and most abundant taxa

Upper Lerma Pit 1

Depth in cm

Dominant spp. > 33~o

Common spp. 5 - < 33~o

0-1
10-11
20-21
30-31

no
F. construens v. venter

diatom
record
C. placentula v. lineata, Cymbella lanceolata, Gomphonema
parvulum, C. minuta v. silesiaca, (F. construens v. venter),
(C. muelleri), (M. italica), Nitzschia palea

Zone

IV b

40--41
50-51

C. placentula v. lineata, Epithemia adnata v. proboscidea,

Cymbella lanceolata, G. parvulum, (M. ambigua)

IV a

60-61
70-71

Nitzschia amphibia, Eunotia flexuosa, (C. placentula

v. lineata), (G. parvulum), (N. palea), (R. gibba)

III

80-81

C. placentula v. lineata, H. amphioxys, M. italica

II

90-91
100-101
110-111
120-121
130-131

no

140-141
150-151
160-161
170-171
180-181

diatom

record

Hantzschia amphioxys, (M. italica), (R. gibberula v. V.H.),

(N. mutica), (C. placentula v. lineata), (C. bacillum),
(C. meneghiniana), (M. granulata v. angustissima),
(G. parvulum)
no

diatom

record

spp. in (), found in only one sample in the zone or subzone.

No diatom record is preserved in the watersorted TCT at the base of the pit (Fig. 7).
Zone I comprises the samples from the overlying
diatomaceous mud. If the 14C dates are correct,
then this unit in Pit 1 has no temporal equivalent
in Pit 2, probably because the eruption of the TCT
had raised the lake bed at the latter site above
water level. The assemblages in Pit 1 are interpreted as representing a shallow marsh with circumneutral pH (160-161 cm), followed by a
marked deepening and an increase in alkalinity
(alkalibiontic taxa becoming abundant) by about
7000 yr BP (150-151 cm). The facultatively
planktonic C. meneghiniana and the euplanktonic
Melosira granulata var. angustissima are common.
Other planktonic species such as Stephanodiscus
niagarae and S. subtilis (Huber-Pestalozzi, 1942)
also occur. Na-rich conditions may be indicated
by M. granulata var. angustissima (Gasse et al.,

1983). Studies of modern assemblages in Mexico

(Metcalfe, 1988) and elsewhere (Gasse, 1986)
suggest water of N a - H C O 3 - C O 3 composition for
this assemblage. Peaks of Hantzschia amphioxys
and Navicula mutica in the uppermost sample in
zone I (140-141 cm) records a distinct fall in
water levels around 6000 yr BP. Less alkaline
conditions are indicated by the return of Pinnularia spp.
If the 14C dates are accepted, the black organic
mud situated between the diatomaceous mud and
the YA in Pit 1, correlates with the diatomaceous
mud and the overlying thin layer of black mud
below the YA in Pit 2 (zones III and IV). Between
135-136 cm and the YA in Pit 1, however, the
black mud retains only a very fragmentary diatom
record. Freely draining swampy conditions can
be inferred from the diatom flora associated with
the same facies in Pit 2 (zone IV); the snails and

211
occasional diatoms found in Pit 1 are compatible
with this interpretation. Above 110-111 cm, fragments of aerophilous and soil diatoms are present
(Pinnularia borealis, H. amphioxys). As noted
above, this part of the sequence records the first
significant input ofdetrital material from the basin
slopes into the lake.
Zones II, III and IV record the cycle of lakelevel rise and fall occurring after the deposition of
the YA (cf. Pit 2, zones V-VI). The boundaries
between zones in Pit 1 are rather arbitrary, but
have been chosen on the basis of variations in the
common species. In Zone II (C. placentula var.
lineata most abundant) shallow, alkaline, marshy
conditions are indicated (Bradbury, 1989).
The assemblages in Zone III are very diverse,
with no single species dominating. The occurrence of M. ambigua and C. meneghiniana indicates the presence of open water close to the site.
Water of Na-HCO3-CO3 composition, with a pH
of about 8.5 and alkalinity > 7 meq 1- ~ may be
indicated (Gasse, 1986). The 60-61 cm level,
dated at 1620 + 50 yr BP (SRR-2628), probably
corresponds to the lake-level maximum recorded
at 40-41 cm in Pit 2. N. palea makes its first
appearance in Pit 1 at this level. During this episode of high lake level, Pit 2 was closer than
Pit 1 to the area of deepest water.
Zone IV records the same regression as zone
VII in Pit 2. Subzone IVa is dominated by epiphytic species ( C. placentula var. lineata, Cymbella
lanceolata and Gomphonema parvulum) characteristic of alkaline waters (pH ca. 8). The macrofossil layer in this pit, representing the drying of the
lake, occurs at 30-31 cm in subzone IVb. N. palea
appears in significant numbers in this subzone.
The bracketting dates of 1380 + 50 yr BP and
870 + 50 yr BP place the appearance of this species in considerable abundance within the main
period of temple building at Teotenango and construction at Tepozoco. This construction phase
may also be reflected by the increasing sandiness
of the sediments. In the peaty unit overlying the
macrofossil layer, the increasing abundance of F.
construens var. venter and of Gomphonema and
Cymbella species indicates a decline in the nutrient content of the water (Jorgensen, 1948; Patrick

& Reimer, 1966). The assemblage from 1011 cm is very similar to that in the present remnant lake (in which F. construens var. venter + C.
placentula var. lineata = 45~o) and probably reflects renewed flooding at the site to create a
freshwater pond environment (Bradbury, 1989).
The apparent differences in the conditions recorded in the top parts of the sequences from
Pit 1 and Pit 2 are probably due to the dislocation of the drainage within the basin at this time,
leading to a landscape of isolated ponds and
marshy areas. Unfortunately, no diatoms were
found in the sample from 0-1 cm in this pit; hence,
the upper part of the sequence (Zone VIII in
Pit 2) is not recorded.

Discussion

Lake level and pH changes

Although discontinuous, the diatom records from
both pits reveal a series of fluctuations in both
water level and water chemistry. Some of these
changes have been represented graphically by
plotting the percentages of species at each level
falling within different habitat and pH-preference
categories (Figs. 8, 9). Ecological information for
the diatom species present was obtained from a
variety of sources, notably Cholnoky (1968),
Lowe (1974), Gasse (1980, 1986) and Bradbury
(1989). Use was also made of modern collections
by Metcalfe (1988). In the case of habitat, four
categories were identified: planktonic, periphytic
or littoral (including species which may be facultatively planktonic), epiphytic and aerophilous.
For a pH classification, Hustedt (1937-39) was
used as a basis, yielding four categories: alkalibiontic (taxa of alkaline water only), alkaliphilous
(best at p H > 7 ) , indifferent and acidophilous
(best at pH < 7). When possible, species were assigned to a particular habitat or pH class, but a
varying proportion remained unclassified.
An index of relative lake level was derived from
Figs. 8 and 9, ignoring unclassifiable taxa. It
ranges from 0 (100~o aerophilous) to 100 (100~o
planktonic). The reconstructed lake-level fluctua-

212
Upper Lerma Pit 2

Upper Lerma Pit 1

%by haNtel preference

14C dales
yr BP

20

40

60

?~

14C dales
yr BP

100

% by h a b ! l z t p r e f e r e n c e
20

~0

60

60

~O0

870*1-50
1380+/'50

~620

hilous

4570+/-60
6010+/-70
~nir

5880./-50

s~iable

135-~36
110-111
8160+/-100

145-1~6

5960-/-50

!50-151
6960./-53

1S0-1~i

5970*1-1~0

160-161

155-~56
159-160

Fig. 8. Upper Lerma Pit 2, percentages of diatoms by habitat preference.

UPPER LERMA PIT 2 : LAKE CH/OONAHUAPAN

Loke-level
14C ~tgt~ $

( y r i~ P)

~lotu$

LOW
Hlljh
?O 40 60 eO ~oo

Fig. 9. Upper Lerma Pit 1, percentages of diatoms by habitat preference.

UPPER LERMA PIT 1 : LAKE CHICONAHUAPAN

Luke "level st~

ptt Index

mm.~

Low
HhJh
4o 50 6o 70 eo 90

14~ dat~% LOW

(Y= f] P)
o

No d m t o m record

20

NO d i o t u l n r e c o r d

tllgh
O ;'O 40 60 a(=trJo
i i 5 g,;,imn %...E, ,J

Chryso I ) y t e c y s t s
1U~ r162 r
/

p H ir+dex
LOW
Htgh
4O 5O 60 70 P4) 9O
. . . . ,__, _ ,__,
no dmto,,, ,ecor o

20

40

60

AO

uo di~lom r~<o,'d

Io diQtom r e c o r d
2o-

. . . . . . .
40-

_ P e ~ i b Le_
~u us

60 - - 1620 *~0

60

. ,'_,o

"/

,~.

.~.m~o

lo0> dlutom

I
-t No die t,~m r ~ o r d

NO digtom r e c o r d

record

~go

160
.59/'0~'t~0
I~O

~eo

N o d l o t o m record

NodiolOm r e c o r d

NO ~ , a t o m

record

I0. Upper Lerma Pit 2, indices of lake-level status and

pH, numbers of chrysophytes/100 diatoms.

Fig. 11. Upper Lerma Pit 1, indices of lake-level status and

pH, numbers of chrysophytes/100 diatoms.

tions are shown in Figs 10 and 11. Taken together, the two sequences indicate a transgression
beginning just before the fall of the TCT and in-

terrupted around 6000 yr BP (Pit 1), a shorter

lacustrine expansion after 6000 yr BP and an important high stand culminating around 1600 yr

Fig,

213
BP. A final episode of flooding is indicated following the formation of the fossil 'root mat'.
Considerable variations in pH are recorded by
the diatom assemblages in Pits 1 and 2. These
variations are illustrated by deriving pH index
curves in a similar manner to the lake level curves,
based on the Hustedt pH classes. The pH index
ranges from 0 (100~o acidophilous) to 100 (100~o
alkalibiontic). Figures 10 and 11 show the indices for lake level and pH compared with the relative abundance of chrysophyte cysts. Cysts were
generally more numerous during periods of lower
pH (e.g. 65-66 cm in Pit 2). This finding is consistent with the report by Adam & M ahood (1981)
that cysts are most common in shallow, acidic to
neutral waters which are subject to occasional
winter freezing.
A comparison of Figs 10 and 11 reveals a tendency for open-water conditions to be associated
with high values of the pH index, and swampy or
marshy conditions with low ones. This unusual
situation closely resembles the Basin of Mexico,
which is not surprising since Lake Chiconahuapan, though about 335 m higher in altitude, is very
similar in its physical setting, hydrography, diatom floras and tephrochronology, to Lake Chalco,
on the opposite flank of E1 Ajusco (Watts &
Bradbury, 1982; Bradbury, 1989). Bradbury
(1971) proposed a model for the Basin of Mexico
in which, as water level falls in a large, freshwater lake, the water is initially concentrated by
evaporation and a planktonic flora is replaced by
a benthic one. Eventually, as freshwater springs
around the basin margins become the primary
source of water, freshwater marshes extend out
over the basin floor, leaving small, saline pools in
the centre. During prolonged dry periods, the
water table might fall sufficiently to induce desiccation. A similar pH cycle could occur seasonally, as well as in response to a long term climatic change (Bradbury, 1989). This model sheds
considerable light on the Upper Lerma sequence.
The cycle of lake-level rise and fall recorded above
the YA in both pits (Pit 2: zones V-VIc; Pit 1:
zones II-IVa) provides an excellent example of
the evolution from a shallow marsh, to an extensive freshwater lake, gradually becoming more

alkaline due to evaporative concentration as lake

level began to fall, but then swinging back towards acidic pH values as marshy conditions
were restored.
The Bradbury model helps to explain an otherwise puzzling feature of the sedimentary record.
A pH minimum is indicated by the diatom assemblages in the levels bracketting the YA in
Pit 2. These correspond to a peak in Fe and Mn,
but not in Z. It seems likely that Fe and Mn were
mobilised from the underlying sediments under
acid, reducing conditions and then migrated to
the sediment surface. When the lake reflooded,
these elements would have been immobilised by
increased pH and O2 (positive Eh), leaving a fossil layer of amorphous 'bog iron' in the profile.

Comparison of environmental changes with other

sites in Central Mexico
The reconstructed sequences of lake-level fluctuations in the Chiconahuapan and Chalco Basins
are compared in Fig. 12. The Chalco curve, which
is based on stratigraphic investigations of the Tlapacoya site by Flores Diaz (1986), has been redrawn with the age of the Tripartite Ash/UTP
corrected to 11 580 + 70, (from 9920 yr BP), following Bloomfield & Valastro (1977). Both curves
show shallow, marshy conditions at the beginning
of the Holocene, relatively high levels in the midHolocene and a major episode of desiccation
spanning the deposition of the Yellow Ash/Upper
Fine Pumice around 4600 yr BP. Wetter conditions returned to both sites at various times during the later Holocene.
Bradbury (1971) suggested that the early Holocene in the Basin of Mexico was relatively wet,
with the enlarged, saline terminal Lake Texcoco
rising and flooding the higher Chalco Basin. His
recent re-interpretation of the diatom sequences
from the basin, however, pl~omotes the idea of a
dry early Holocene (Bradbury, 1989).
Wetter conditions in the early mid-Holocene
are confirmed by other evidence from the region.
Gonzfilez Quintero (1986) reported the development of temperate deciduous forest, with some

214
(a)
HIGH -

/
.?..o"
~
UTP

TCT

t
UkIP

'~ ? " '

LOW
"~4

A~e (103yr BP)

HIGH -

(b)

t.

LOW '

UTP
T

o
12'

' t.'UM P

14
Age(103yt BP)

Fig. 12. Lake level curves for a) Upper Lerma and

b) Chalco, Basin of Mexico. UTP = Upper Toluca Pumice/
Tripartite Ash, TCT = Tres Cruces Tephra, U M P = Upper
Marker Pumice/Yellow Ash. Dotted lines indicate uncertainty.

subtropical elements, in the southern Basin of

Mexico between 7500 and 4800 yr BP. He suggested that the average annual temperature was
about 20 ~ (higher than today) with little seasonal variation and that average annual precipitation was also higher (more than 1400 mm). The
diatom record from Lake Chalco also shows
somewhat wetter conditions after 7000 BP (Bradbury, 1989).
Support for an arid episode in the later midHolocene comes from the pollen study at Tlapacoya by Gonzhlez Quintero (1986). He reported
very dry conditions during the period 48504200 yr BP, with xerophytic pollen grains being
deposited and accelerated erosion removing some
of the sediments. In the Lake Chalco core studied by Bradbury (1989), peaks of saline and aerophilous diatoms and phytoliths record a fall in
water level shortly after the deposition of the
Upper Fine Pumice. A sudden decline in alder
(Alnus) after 5000 yr BP in the Pfitzcuaro Basin,
Michoac~n, may mark the same event (Watts &

Bradbury, 1982); new evidence from the Zacapu

Basin, Michoac~n also suggests drying at about
this time (Metcalfe, unpublished data). In addition, an undated mid-Holocene dry phase is
evident in the pollen record from La Malinche
volcano, on the western rim of the Oriental Basin
(Ohngemach & Straka, 1983).
Following the arid episode of the later midHolocene, wetter and cooler conditions seem to
have returned to many parts of Central Mexico,
around 3000-2000 yr BP (Sanders et al., 1979;
Gonz~lez Quintero, 1980; Heine, 1988). At Tlapacoya, mixed forest was reestablished between
4200 and 2600 BP (Gonzfilez Quintero, 1986).
GonzNez Quintero (1986) reports that between
2600 and 1900 yr BP, however, this trend was
interrupted by an increase in herbaceous pollen,
especially grasses (Gramineae), while trees were
absent. If this vegetation change can be attributed
to climatic change, rather than to Preclassic
human impact, drying appears to have occurred
rather earlier in the Basin of Mexico than in the
Upper Lerma Basin, where the lake transgression
peaked around 1600 yr BP.
Humans seem to have become a significant
agent of environmental change in the volcanic
highlands west of the Basin of Mexico by 35003000 yr BP (Watts & Bradbury, 1982; Metcalfe
et al., 1989). Hence, a knowledge of regional and
local archaeology is essential to prevent the erroneous identification of 'climatic' changes in these
sequences. In exceptional cases, the archaeological record itself provides support for climatic
changes independently deduced from geological
evidence.
In the Upper Lerma Basin, enhanced soil erosion leading to increased sedimentation and turbidity in lakes and ponds, seems to have occurred
throughout the period 3100 to 700 yr BP, intensifying after 1400 yr BP. As reported above, the
latter phase coincides with the building of the
main ceremonial complex (El Sistema del Norte)
at Teotenango (ca 750-1250 AD). After 1400 yr
BP, human disturbance coincided with a period
of climatic desiccation which may have exacerbated the effects of land clearance for cultivation
and building. Maguey (Agave) seems to have been

215
widely grown on the slopes around Teotenango
(Pifia Chan, 1975), which would have left much
bare ground open to erosion. The development at
Tepozoco also dates from this period.
West and south-west of Tepozoco, out on the
basin floor, are a series of low mounds which
were apparently occupied in the late Classic, during the period of low lake levels when the fossil
'root mat' was formed (Sugiura Yamamoto &
Serra Puche, 1982). The occurrence of large pine
charcoal fragments, just below the 'root mat' in
Pit 2 (ca. 1260 yr BP), may reflect the lighting of
fires on the basin floor. Higher water levels in the
Postclassic would have turned these mounds into
islands. Archaeological evidence also confirms
the existence of wetter conditions during the
Postclassic in the Basin of Mexico (Moriarty,
1968) and the Zacapu Basin, Michoacfin (C. Arnauld, pers. comm. 1989). Based on the magnetic
susceptibility and P curves in Fig. 4, however,
anthropogenic disturbance during the last few
centuries seems to have been much less marked
in Upper Lerma than in other basins in the region
(Metcalfe et al., 1989).
Comparisons of the Upper Lerma sequence
with records (often fragmentary) from other sites
in Central Mexico suggest that it is representative
of a wide area of the Central Mexican highlands.

Conclusions

By investigating two sedimentary profiles from

the Upper Lerma Basin using a combination of
mineral-magnetic, geochemical and palaeoecological techniques, it has been possible to reconstruct
the palaeolimnological record of the last 11600
years. The effects of both climatic change and
human impact are recorded. The major events
represented are as follows:
1) After the fall of the UTP (ca. 11600 yr BP)
shallow, alkaline marsh conditions developed at
the site of Pit 2. The water was just beginning to
deepen when the Tres Cruces eruption occurred
around 8200 yr BP.
2) In Pit 2, the upper part of the TCT is weathered and possibly reworked; the poor state of

preservation of the diatoms is consistent with the

occurrence of an hiatus between 8200 and
6000 yr BP. It is possible that the site of Pit 2 was
built up above water level by the deposition of the
tephra. In Pit 1, there is no evidence for an hiatus at the top of the TCT.
3) Above the TCT, Pit 1 records a lake transgression. The diatom assemblage suggests that
the lake was alkaline and of Na-HCO3-CO3 composition, implying that it was not free-draining.
4) The incompleteness of the diatom record
between 6000 and 5000 yr BP makes it difficult
to reconstruct the environmental conditions in
any detail. In Pit 2 warm, slightly acidic marsh or
riverine-swamp conditions are indicated. Water
may have been draining freely from the site during this interval.
In Pit 1, the upper part of the black organic
mud unit (111-100 cm) shows signs of environmental disturbance and soil erosion. This may
have been the result of the onset of drying (cf.
Fig. 11), since there is no evidence for human
occupation in the basin at this time.
5) Deposition of the YA around 4600 yr BP
was probably followed by an hiatus in sediment
deposition at both sites.
6) Lacustrine conditions resumed around
3600 yr BP. A major episode of water-level rise
and fall is recorded between the YA and the fossil
'root mat', the transgression peaking around 1600
years ago, when a turbid, nutrient-rich, alkaline
freshwater lake of Na-HCO3-CO 3 composition,
is indicated by the diatom assemblages in both
pits. Pit 2 lay closer to the locus of deepest water
at this time. The regression was associated with
an eightfold increase in sedimentation rate
(Pit 1) due to an influx of eroded soil material. At
some time between 1400 and 900 yr BP, the lake
desiccated at both sites. Occupation of the dry
lake floor occurred on its eastern side near Tepozoco. Although the phase of most intense disturbance (1400 to 700 yr BP) corresponds to the
main period of construction at Teotenango and
other sites, it seems likely that the climate was
also drier, reducing the vegetation cover and thus
making soils more vulnerable to erosion.
7) The recent past has been marked by minor

216
flooding and peat growth at both sites. Freshwater ponds may have been replaced by shallow,
alkaline marshes in the recent past. A small erosion peak is recorded at the top of the sequence
in Pit 2. The recent artificial drainage of the basin
may have been too sudden to leave a signal in the
palaeoecological record.

Acknowledgements
This work was funded by an NERC research
studentship (S.E.M.); the Faculty Board of
Anthropology and Geography, University of
Oxford; the Dudley Stamp Memorial Fund; the
20th International Geographical Congress Fund;
the Inter-Faculty Committee for Latin American
Studies, University of Oxford and the Geographical Endowment Fund, School of Geography. The
authors would like to thank the following for their
specialist help: Dr K. Bloomfield (local geology),
P. E. Hales (P analyses), Dr T. Lawrence Jodrell
Laboratory, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (wood
and macrofossil specimens), Dr S. Limbrey
(stratigraphy of Tlapacoya) and Dr V. SteenMclntyre (petrographic examination of tephras).
We would also like to thank Chris Jackson
(laboratory preparations) and Angela Newman,
Ken Dockery and Keith Scurr (cartography).

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