OT Wy eae) = OE A TeeI, INTRODUCTION 1 What is Compaction ? Compaction can be defined in several ways. But in simplest terms, compaction is the process of mechanically increasing the density of a material. Soil and asphalt, the materials this manual is concerned with, are made more demse by reduc- ing the voids between the particles which make them up. In time, loose material would settle or compact itself naturally. By applying various mechanical forces, we shorten the time required to get compaction from years to hours. Materials are made more stable by increasing their density. Compaction of soil or asphalt is accomplished by one or a combination of these forces: static pressure, impact, manipulation or vibration. These are the compactive forces that will be discussed in this manual.Introduction Whyis Denser, or more compacted, material is able to support Compaction heavier loads without deforming (bending, cracking, Important? moving). The subgrade material which supports a heavy structure must be very dense or it will compact even more under load causing the structure to settle. Likewise, asphalt mats must be well compacted or they will lose their original shape when heavy axle loads are placed on them. paved Base, Treated Base, Subyrade A> treated Base, Sub-base, SubgradeX~\ Backslope 7 Sub-base, Subgrade i TYPICAL SECTION OF ROADWAY Perhaps the best way to illustrate the importance of compac- tion is to look at the various layers of a typical roadway. Each layer of the roadway is designed tosupport the weight placed onit. From the subgrade, to the base, to the paved base, to the final riding surface -- each layer must be constructed of the right material to the proper thickness and density. Ifone layer is not strong enough, the road will fail. COMPONENT COSTS VS IMPACT ON PAVEMENT LIFE Relative Relative Comparison Gost Comparison Between Each 7 Between Asphalt ___, Component’s Contribution High} Pavement Components High] to Extend Pavement Life cost EFFECT Low, | Ee Low ‘Aggregate Asphalt Compacton ‘Aggregate Asphalt Compaction Fig, -AIntroduction SS Scope of the Manual Its also important to remember that the least expensive element in extending the service life of a road is the compac- tion process. Increasing the density of the roadway layers during the construction process costs very little in terms of cents per ton of mix or cents per yard of soil. But...achieving good density can save significant dollars in future road maintenance and resurfacing costs. This manual is intended as a user’s guide to soil and asphalt compaction principles, testing techniques and on-the-job procedures. The content is slanted toward practical, rather than theorctical, considerations. The chapters are arranged in a reference manual style to help you find the answers to your questions quickly. Another valuable resource to help solve your compaction problems is your local Caterpillar dealer. Dealer personnel are trained by factory staff to assist you in paving and construction applications,II. COMPACTION PRINCIPLES AND MEASUREMENTS 4 Forces of Compaction Oe © Sls & Static Pressure Impact Vibration Fig. IFA Compaction is the process of compressing a material from agiven volume into smaller volume. This is done by exerting force and movement over a contact area, causing particles within the material to move closer together. The voids between the particles -- air, water or a combination of both -- are expelled by the combination of force and movement. Four forces are used in compaction: (I) static pressure, (2) manipulation, (3) impact and (4) vibration (Figure I-A). CE 2 Load Applied With Load Applied With Steel Drum Pneumatic Tire Fig, 11-BCompaction Principles and Measurements 5 Forces of Static Pressure (Figure W-B) In static compaction, Compaction weighted loads, applied by rollers, produce shear stresses in the soil or asphalt that cause the individual particles to slide across each other. Compaction happens when the applied force causes individual particles to break their natural bonds to one another and move into a morc stable position within the material. Static smooth-wheeled rollers work on this principle. Four factors influence compaction performance of static rollers. They are axle load, drum width, drum diameter and rolling speed. Linear force is the measure of a static roller’s compaction potential. It is the vertical force directly below the width of the drum or wheels that creates the shear stresses for com- paction. It is calculated by dividing the weight at the drum (axle load) by the drum diameter. Linear force is expressed as pounds per linear inch (PLI) or kilograms per centimeter (kg/om). The higher the PLI, the greater the static compac- tion potential for a given roller. Axle Load { Drum Diameter N= ___Axle Load kg Drum Width x Drum Dia. Fig. L-CCompaction Principles and Measurements 6 eS SSPE Forces of An important parameter of a static roller’s performance is Compaction the Nijboer quotient (Figure II-C). The quotient is the relationship between axle load, drum width and drum diameter. It is an indicator of the tendency of a roller to shove or literally plow material ahead of the drum. Re- search has shown that more cracks and larger ridges are formed when using drums with small diameters because the surface of the material tends to accept the shape of the drum as it is being compacted. The smaller the drum diameter, the greater the drum’s curvature and the more likely it is to produce surface cracking and ridges in the compacted material. ‘Small Drum Diameter Large Ridge Formation Large Drum Diameter Reduced Ridge Formation Fig I-DCompaction Principles and Measurements ae: Forces of Based on the Nijboer quotient, the following conclusions Compaction can be reached, A large drum diameter can reduce ridge formations (Figure II-D). Also, self-propelled rollers with drum drive will not disturb the upper layer of the material being compacted as will a wheel drive only or towed roller with the same drum diameter. With a non-drum drive com- pactor, the torque created by bearing friction causes the drum to skid. The driving force of the drum driven roller tends to pull material under the drum rather than push it. Therefore, drum-driven, static rollers with lower Nijboer quotients perform better on thick lifts of soft material. MANIPULATION Fig. HE Manipulation (Figure [HI-E) Manipulation, the second compactive force, rearranges particles into a more dense mass by a kneading process. The process is especially effec- tive at the surface of the lift of material. The longitudinal and transverse kneading action is essential when compact- ing heavily stratified soils such as clay type soils. It is also the desired process for the compaction of the final wearing surface of an asphalt pavement. Manipulation helps to close the small, hairline cracks through which moisture could penetrate and cause premature pavement failure. Sheepsfoot rollers and staggered wheel, rubber tired rollers are specifically designed to deliver this type of compactive force.Compaction Principles and Measurements 8 Forces of Compaction Fig I-F Impact (Figure 11-F) Impact creates a greater compaction force on the surface than an equivalent static load. This is because a falling weight has speed which is converted to energy at the instant of impact. Impact creates a pressure wave which goes into the soil from the surface. Impacts are usually a series of blows. Impact blows of 50 to 600 blows per minute are considered low frequency ranges and are used on impact hammers and hand tampers. Impact blows of 1400 to 3000 blows per minute are high frequency and are used on vibratory compactors. —=—==. Fig, -GCompaction Principles and Measurements 9 a Forces of Vibration (Figure II-G) Vibration is the final and most Compaction complex compactive force. Vibratory compactors produce a rapid succession of pressure waves which spread in all directions, The vibratory pressure waves are useful in breaking the bonds between the particles of the material being compacted. When pressure is applied, the particles tend to reorient themselves in a more dense (fewer voids) state. To understand how vibratory compactors work, it’s necessary to know about: centrifugal force, amplitude and frequency. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Fig. 1-H Centrifugal Force (Figure II-H) In a vibratory compactor, centrifugal force is created by an eccentric weight or weights rotating inside the drum. The mass of the weights, their offset distance from the center of rotation to center of gravity, and speed of rotation all contribute to the produc- tion of this force. Centrifugal force is a theoretical calcula- tion andis frequently uscd to rate machines. But theoretical centrifugal force is not an accurate way to judge a machine’s performance. The true vibrating force depends on a com- plex interaction between the material being compacted and the machine.Compaction Principles and Measurements 10 Forces of Compaction Height AMPLITUDE Travel > High Amplitude Low Amplitude Vibrating Time & Distance Drum (Speed is Constant) Fig, H-I Amplitude (Figure I-I) Amplitude is the measure of total peak to peak vertical movement of a vibrating drum per complete cycle. By modifying the amplitude, an operator can vary the force and the movement (acceleration) of the drum on the material. Amplitude adjustments are necessary when soil or asphalt mix change. The effect of changes in amplitude can be illustrated by the analogy of hammering a nail. In order to hammer a nail, a certain drop height and speed are needed. When drop height is reduced, it becomes almost impossible to drive the nail since the impact energy is also reduced. This principle applies to vibratory compactors. Providing everything else is the same, i.e. drum weight, frequency, etc, a compactor with a higher amplitude produces more com- paction energy than a machine with a low amplitude. Height FREQUENCY Path of Vibrating Drum Center Travel > *)) Low Frequency High Frequency Vibrating Time & Distance Drum (Speed is Constant) Impact Spacing is Closer Together in High Frequency Fig. IJCompaction Principles and Measurements uw 5 pS Sn SEE Dynamics of Vibratory Compaction Frequency (Figure II-J) Frequency is a measure of the number of complete cycles or revolutions of the weights around the axis of rotation over a given length of time. Frequency is usually expressed in units of vibrations per minute (vpm). The relationship between frequency and working speed is sometimes simplified to a simple rule of thumb which states that frequency and working speed should be adjusted to yield approximately one impact per inch (25 mm). It is true that too high a working speed can cause "washboarding" (impacts spaced too far apart) and too low a working speed negatively impacts machine productivity. There is an optimum speed and frequency for each compaction application, but they may not yicld onc impact per inch (25 mm). Factors Which Influence Vibratory Compaction Vibratory compaction of soil or asphalt is a complex process. Many different factors influence the overall com- paction effort. Vibratory compaction involves a drum which is moving up and down (amplitude) very rapidly (Irequency) and moving forward (working speed) over non- homogencous material. All components influencing com- paction should be considered as a whole, not as separate entities. It is the combined characteristics of the compactor and of the soil or asphalt it is attempting to compact which determine the degree of compaction effort. The characteristics of the material to be compacted play a part in the dynamics of compaction. Items such as soil type, gradation, texture, initial density, moisture content, ag- gregate strength characteristics, layer thickness, subsoil base and its supporting capability all influence compaction. For example, granular soils tend to transmit vibratory forces well, Cohesive soils tend to have a damping effect on vibratory forces, The sum effect of these properties are termed mass stiffness and damping,Compaction Principles and Measurements 12 2 SPSS Dynamics The design of the machinc is also important to the dynamics of Vibratory of compaction. Influential factors include: frame size, over- Compaction all weight, wheelbase, ratio of machine weight supported over the front drum to rear drum or tires, and balance of machine weight from left to right of the machine. The list continues with factors like drum diameter, drum length, drum mass, shock isolators, eccentric weight mass, and the distance between the eccentric weight center of gravity and drum axle. Even the weight of fuel and operator have bearing on the compactive performance ofthe roller. These factors are all carefully considered by the manufacturer when the machine is designed. And, of course, frequency, amplitude and working speed influence compactive effort. These variables are controlled by the operator. What all these factors mean is that it’s not always easy to set up a roller on a given job to achieve the best compaction Tesults. The objective in vibratory compaction is to find a point of maximum transmitted force into the material to be com- pacted. This occurs when the sum of all the components -- material characteristics, roller characteristics, amplitude, frequency and speed -- is contributing the most to the com- pactive effort. The Frequency at Which 1 an Object Vibrates is Called: oh NATURAL FREQUENCY Fig. I-KCompaction Principles and Measurements 13 _ Dynamics Resonance When the frequency of imposed vibrations on of Vibratory an object equals the object’s natural frequency (Figure I- Compaction XK), the object will vibrate at resonance. In vibratory com- paction, resonance is very important. The interaction between the material being compacted and 1 the vibratory machine causes the material and the machine to vibrate. The eccentric weights rotating inside the drum maintain this vibration at a frequency equal to the rpm of 1 the eccentric weight shaft. At some conditions of the given frequency, the machine and material vibrate at resonance. The conditions that produce resonance depend not only on 1 machine characteristics but also upon the nature of the material to be compacted and its achieved degree of com- paction. NON-RESONANT FREQUENCY Less Compactive Effort RESONANT FREQUENCY High Compactive Effort Fig. U-L At the resonant frequency (Figure II-L), the compactive effort that is actually transmitted is greater than the centrifugal force generated by the spinning eccentric weights. Under non-resonant conditions for the given fre- quency, the force may be lower. That is why resonance is so important during vibratory compaction.Compaction Principles and Measurements 14 2 eee SSS TEES SESS SESS ESE Dynamics of Vibratory Compaction High Relationship of Centrifugal Force and Frequency on Compactive Effort Centrifugal Force FORCE Compactive Effort Low Frequency (VPM) High Centrifugal force increases when frequency increases. But, the compactive effort that is actually transmitted varies when frequency increases. If graphed (Figure II-M), it would show that as frequency and centrifugal force increase, the compactive effort will have several peaks and vallcys. Typically, there is a first peak representing a maximumvalue of the compactive effort whcih quickly drops off and, then, peaks a second time. The compactive effort being trans- mitted to the material varies as more cyclces occur per unit of time, In any cycle, the second peak is generally when machine productivity is at its best. Trial and Error Method In conclusion, there is no easy way of adjusting the working parameters of a compactor accord- ing to the material it is asked to compact. The best method is trial and error. Obviously, the user will select a compactor of the right size (drum width, weight, etc) to match the production requirements. But acheiving the maximum compactive effort is usually accomplished by experimenta- tion with the variables which the operator can control --- frequency, amplitude and rolling speed. The use of test strips and laboratory analysis is the best way of analyzing the performance of a roller.Compaction Principles and Measurements 15 Measuring Compaction Density of Bituminous Material Once an asphalt mix is compacted, an accurate measure of the density is important. The nuclear gauge is becoming more popular for checking density because it is a quick and nondestructive test. Other common test procedures require a sawed or cored sample, Often, nuclear density values are correlated with core sample values to determine differences that occur due to aggregate chemical composition, rough surfaces or depth of measurement. Field Tests Until the late 1960's, most agencies did not impose density requirements for asphalt pavements and little field testing was done. Instead, they relied on method-type require- ments that specified types of equipment and procedures. But as agencies ran into problems with the method specifica- tions, they began to call for end result specifications. On the contrary, in Europe, specifying the machine to be used as well as the method has always been given great importance. This is due to the fact that when density meas- urement results are available, it is often too late to economi- cally correct any weakness in compaction. Core Samples (Figure II-N) Many agencies have relied exclusively on density determinations from cores for com- paction control. Typically, 4-inch (100 mm) diameter cores were removed from the compacted pavement and tested for density in the laboratory. DENSITY TEST Core Sample f Fig. II-NCompaction Principles and Measurements 16 Measuring Compaction Density of Bituminous Material Coring is accurate and direct, but has some disadvantages. The procedure is relatively slow and expensive. Most im- portantly, the test results are frequently not available until the mat at the job site has cooled well below temperatures suitable for further compaction. This can result in rework or long delays in the paving process waiting for the laboratory results, Furthermore, sampling frequencies tend to be low, and a few core samples represent large volumes of material. Also, coring disturbs the pavement and re- quires patching. Nuclear Density Gauges Because of the disadvantages of core sampling, many agencies have turned to nuclear gauge testing as their primary means of density measurement. Nuclear gauges are much faster than core sampling and can determine density at a given location within minutes. Speed makes the devices suitable for acceptance testing (target density) and to some extent for use in a contractor’s process control (design specifications). The goal is to measure density while the pavement is still hot enough to permit additional compaction. This is especially important when the paving is being done in thin layers. The disadvantage of nuclear gauges is that they measure density indirectly. That is, the test output is a radiation count that must be referenced to a previously established calibration curve of count versus density. Therefore, nuclear density gauges require calibration at the job site so they are correlated with core densities they will be measur- ing.Compaction Principles and Measurements 17 Measuring Compaction Density of Bituminous Material NUCLEAR i} DENSITY GAUGE Nuclear Gauge Detectors Surface. “\ bey Various Redioactve Photon Sains Paths Sars eaeaei Fig. 11-0 Nuclear gauges operate by a simple concept known as back- scatter gauging. (Figure II-O) Gamma rays are emitted by a radioisotope source contained in the gauge body. The radiation travels out from the source and penetrates the pavement, where the gamma rays are scattered and/or ab- sorbed. A counter in the device establishes the number of gamma rays that return. The returning rays are proportional to the density, Several characteristics of the backscatter gauge are critical. First, a gauge is more sensitive to the material nearest the surface than to material farther down. Typically, 80% to 95% of the gauge count comes from the top 2" (50 mm). Little comes from below 4" (100 mm). This feature is not important in full depth, multi-layer asphalt pavement con- struction, but is important in thin (1 to 2'/25 mm to 50 mm) overlay construction. Although nuclear gauges operating in the backscatter mode get most of their count from the top 2" (50 mm), they still get 5% to 20% from the 2" to 4" (50-100 mm) range. As a result, the reading from a thin overlay will be significantly affected by the density of the underlying material.Compaction Principles and Measurements 18 Measuring Compaction Density of Bituminous Material The second important characteristic is the gauge’s sen- sitivity to surface roughness. On a coarse-textured mat, the gauge body rests on the high points of the surface and, therefore, can include considerable air space in the volume it is measuring. If the surface roughness of a given pavement were equivalent to a uniform 0.05 inch (1.25 mm) air gap under the gauge, the reading would be reduced by about 4 Ibs/ cu ft. Gauge users frequently compensate for rough surfaces by filling the texture with fine sand. The third characteristic is the gauge’s sensitivity to the chemical composition of the asphalt mixture -- that is, the aggregate composition. Given two pavements of the same density, one with a siliceous aggregate and the other a calcareous aggregate, a backscatter gauge could show as much as a 5 Ibs/ cu ft difference between the displayed density values. Finally, as with any other test method, the user must be concerned with precision -- how repeatable are a gauge’s readings at a given location. For nuclear gauges, precision is better when the returning gamma rays are counted for a longer period of time. Typically, a one-minute count would have a precision of +/- 0.5 Ibs/cu ft. A four-minute count would be accurate to + /- 0.25 Ibs/cu ft. In Europe, direct transmission gauges and double probe measuring concepts are also used to check density and density gradient inside the material. These devices check the density at the bottom of the layer -- an important aspect of pavement fatigue resistance. Compaction Specifications Target densities are estab- lished by the specifying agency before the job begins to insure that the mat is adequately and consistently com- pacted. Generally, target density is set on the basis of cither relative or absolute measures.Compaction Principles and Measurements 19 5 pe RE ESE SR Measuring Compaction Density of Bituminous Material A relative measure may use a percentage of a laboratory standard, For example, a specification may require a mini- mum of 95% of the density obtained from a Marshall (AASHTO Test Method T-245) result. In this method, four or more uncompacted mix samples are taken from the trucks delivering mix to job site cach day. These samples are compacted under conditions similar to those found in the ficld. The mix temperature should approximate paver temperature without reheating and the number of compac- tive blows should be the same as were used in the mix design. Another example of a relative target density measure is a nuclear density specification. This usually requires the den- sity to be 98% of the average density obtained on a control strip. The control strip, or test section, is constructed at the beginning of cach lift or course. The same production equipment to be used on the job is uscd on the control strip. Rolling pattern and mix temperature should also be the same. The control strip is part of the job itself and should be at least 500 feet (150 m) long at the same width and thickness as the paving project. Control strips are sometimes constnicted to obtain a target density.Compaction Principles and Measurements 20 Measuring Compaction Density of Bituminous Material The control strip is compacted until no increase in density is obtained or until the mix cools to 185° F. Nuclear density tests are then randomly taken. These readings are averaged and compared to a laboratory compacted sample. If the average readings indicate adequate density in relation to laboratory sample, the target density is usually set at 98% of the control strip readings. If adequate density is not met, a new control strip is constructed incorporating necessary changes in equipment, mix temperature and/or modified rolling patterns. The other type of specification is an absolute measure of a voidless mix or a percentage of the maximum theoretical density. This is determined by AASHTO Test Method T-209, Usually, the target density is a minimum of 92% of the maximum theoretical density. This means that the max- imum air void content is 8%. Summary A common misconception is that obtaining the proper density during construction is not important because the traffic loads will eventually compact the mix. This may be true for wheel paths, but traffic does not provide a uniform density across the pavement and will produce ruts proportional to the amount consolidation that occurs duc to insufficient density. Achieving optimum density increases the life of an asphalt road.Compaction Principles and Measurements 21 2 pomp SSE SS SEN Methods of Measurii Soil Compaction The single most important property for an asphalt pave- ment, then, is optimum density. Achieving this requires a good mix design and good construction techniques. Nuclear density tests as well as core samples can be used as a measure of density. Whether a relative density procedure or an absolute density procedure is used, a target density must be established amd must be met. The value of compacting base and subbase soils has long been understood. But it was not until 1933 that R.R. Proctor of the Los Angeles Bureau of Water Works developed a standardized method for determining the optimum water content and the corresponding maximum dry density. The Proctor test used a manually operated ram to compact three layers of the soil in a confined mold. LABORATORY TESTS 5‘ lb. Hammer 25 Blows per Layer Compactive Effort 12,400 ft. Ibs. Soil Sample 1/30 cu. ft. 3 Layers Standard AASHTO or Proctor Fig. I-PCompaction Principles and Measurements 22 Methods Today, the procedures of the Proctor test have been adopted of Measuring and further standardized by the American Association of Soil Compaction State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The Standard AASTHO procedure (T-99) (Figure II-P) uses a 5.5 Ib (2.5 kg) hammer dropped freely from a height of 12 inches (305 mm). Again, the soil is compacted in three layers by 25 hammer blows in a 4 inch (102 mm) diameter mold. Thistest imparts a total of 12,400 ft. Ibs. of compactive effort to the soil sample. 10 Ib. Hammer 25 Blows per Layer Compactive Effort 56,200 ft. Ibs. Soil Sample 1/30 cu. ft. Slayers Modified AASHTO or Proctor Fig, II-Q Modified compaction tests have also been introduced by AASHTO in connection with structures requiring heavier bearing strength to support extremely heavy loads or to limit settlement. According to the Modified AASHTO proce- dure (T-180) (Figure I-Q), a 10 Ib (4.5 kg) hammer is dropped from a height of 18 inches (457 mm). The soil sample is compacted in five layers with 25 blows per layer. The compaction energy is 4.5 times larger than the Standard AASHTO test, producing 56,200 ft. Ibs. of effort. For a given soil sample, either the Standard or Modified AASHTO is performed five times. The same procedure is used each time the test is run, but the moisture content is varied for each.Compaction Principles and Measurements 23 er ne ESS SST, Methods of Measuring Soil Compaction The series is begun with the soil in a damp condition some- what below the probable optimum moisture content. After the first sample is compacted in the mold, its wet unit weight is taken and a portion of the sample is placed in a drying oven. When the sample is completely dry, it is weighed again. The difference between the wet and dry weights yields the moisture content which is expressed as a percent of the dry weight. A second sample with increased moisture content is com- pacted and the weighing and drying process is repeated. Additional samples with increasing moisture content are processed until the wet unit weight decreases or the soil becomes too wet to work. +420) STANDARD AASHTO MOISTURE-DENSITY CURVE Maximum Density _ Optimum qig__ 17.6 Ibs/te ¥ Moisture-13% 2 116 iu 5 S 12 Max, Density & 110 Moisture Range (8.118.5%) wwe eee | EP | 4°68 1 12 14° 16 18 20 Moisture Content — % by Dry Weight Fig. I-R Dry density and moisture content values for each sample are then plotted and a smooth curve is formed. (Figure II-R) The highest point on the curve represents the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content for that soil sample. In other words, that is the absolute laboratory compaction for the amount of compactive effort used on this particular soil,Compaction Principles and Measurements 24 Methods Laboratory tests determine the moisture content at which of Measuring maximum density can be attained. Field target densities are Soil Compaction specified asa certain percent of the maximum laboratory dry density. Generally, required field densities will be 95% of Standard AASHTO for embankments and up to 100% of modified AASHTO for roadway structures. Likewise, the moisture content must be within a range of the laboratory determined optimum moisture content. Field Tests Periodic field testing is done to insure that the two important elements -- target density and moisture content -- are being maintained throughout the particular construction job. These tests can also indicate the effectiveness of the com- paction equipment and construction methods being used. The most common field testing methods are the: Nuclear Method, Sand-Cone Method and Water Balloon Method. Nuclear Method (Figure II-S) Nuclear density meters emit radiation into the soil being tested and counters measure both moisture content and density. The test is quick and can be performed without disturbing the material. B) oy Air Gap Fig. -SCompaction Principles and Measurements 25 ESE ‘Methods There are two basic methods of measuring density -- back- of Measuring scatter and direct transmission. The direct transmission Soil Compaction method gives the best accuracy, least composition error and least surface roughness error. It can be used for testing over a range of depths from two to twelve inches (50-300 mm). This is the most important aspect of the direct transmission method: the operator has direct control over the depth of measurement. The backscatter method eliminates the need to create an access hole in the compacted soil because the unit rests on the surface. However, accuracy is less and composition errors are likely. This method works best in shallow depths -- two inches to three inches (50-150 mm). Still another method offers an improvement in composition error and can be used in either the direct or backscatter mode. This is known as the air-gap method. The testing device is raised above thc test surface to lessen the composi- tion crror, but accuracy will still not match the direct trans- mission method. The limitations for nuclear testing equipment are the precautions which must be obscrved when handling radioac- tive material, and the fact that falsc readings are sometimes obtained from organic soils or materials with high salt con- tent. Sand-Cone Method (Figure IJ-T) The sand-cone method is amulli-step procedure which is more time consuming than the nuclear density method, but it has proven accuracy. It is sometimes used in conjunction with the nuclear method to verify the calibration of the nuclear density meter. First, a test site away from operating equipment (so the test is not disturbed by vibrations) is sclected and leveled. The unit’s base plate is laid on the compacted surface and material isexcavated through the hole in the plate to a depth of about six inches (150 mm).Compaction Principles and Measurements 26 Methods of Measuring Soil Compaction Sand Replacement Density Test Fig. II-T This wet material is weighed, dryed in an oven and weighed again to determine the moisture content. The volume of the hole is measured by filling it with dry, free-flowing sand from a special sand-cone cylinder. Since the density of the sand is known, the volume of the hole can be calculated. ‘The density (wet unit weight) of the compacted sample is found by dividing the weight of the material by the volume of the hole. Dry unit weight can be found by dividing the wet unit weight by onc plus the moisture content (expressed as decimal). For example, if the moisture content is 9%, the wet unit weight would be divided by 1.09 to find dry density. Water Balloon Method The water balloon method is also called the Washington Densometer Test. The test’s first three steps -- excavating a sample, weighing it and drying it -- are the same as performed in the sand-cone method. In this manner, moisture content is calculated.Compaction Principles and Measurements 27 A SEE IT Types of Specifications However, in place of the sand-cone step to measure the volume of the excavated hole, the Washington Densometer is used. The densometer, a fluid-filled device is placed over the hole, and a balloon attached to the base plate is placed inthe hole. A valve is opened on the side of the densometer and calibrated fluid is forced into the balloon. As the bal- loon is filled, it takes on the shape of the hole. The Den- someter is calibrated so the tester can read the volume of fluid and thus the volume of hole. The density (wet unit weight) is found by dividing the weight of the excavated sample by the volume of the hole -- just as with the sand-cone method. Dry unit weight can also be calculated by dividing the wet unit weight by one plus the moisture content. Limitations to the water balloon method are, again, the length of time necded to get results and the fact that ac- curacy depends on the ability of the balloon to conform to irregularities in the sides of the hole. Before the contractor can bid or assign compaction equip- mentto a particular job, he must determine what limits have been put on material placement, preparation and compac- tion There are four general types of specifications used by spon- soring agencies to establish minimum standards of compac- tion for embankments, bases or asphalt courses. They are: Method Only, Method and End Result, Suggested Method and End Result, and End Result.Compaction Principles and Measurements 2B Types of Method Only Specification, When Method Only specifica- Specifications tions are used, the sponsoring agency describes in detail the type of equipment to be used, the number of passes, the roller speed, layer thickness and other details like moisture content. It states nothing about results. It forces the con- tractor to obtain equipment for use on materials when other equipment may yield cost savings and/or better results. There is no assurance that satisfactory results will be ob- tained, Method and End Result Specification. A typical example of this specification would call for the contractor to achieve 95% AASHTO with a minimum number of passcs on a specified lift thickness using a certain roller. It limits the contractor in his use of experience and new compaction techniques. More importantly, it requires the contractor to obtain an end result using equipment which may be in- capable of getting density on that soil type or mix design. Suggested Method and End Result Specification. This ar- rangement offers the contractor flexibility. The ex- perienced contractor has the latitude to make use of his experience and initiative, while the less experienced con- tractor is provided helpful guidclines. End Result Specification. Here, only the desired end result is specified. This gives the contractor the full choice to select the equipment to do the job and to enhance the productivity of other equipment. This specification re- quires strict testing procedures. However, it permits the development of compaction technology that speeds the compaction process and reduces costs. Summary. On any compaction project, quality and cost are major concerns. Presently, better specifications and self- controlled methods which will assure the best possible quality at the lowest cost are recognized needs in the com- paction industry.Il]. SOIL COMPACTION 2» i What is Soil? Soils are deposits of disintegrated rocks which have been slowly broken down by physical and chemical processes The physical processes include freezing and thawing, roll- ing, grinding and blowing. The resulting gravels, sands and silts are essentially miniature boulders. Chemical processes form clay soils. Long term weathering action and rainfall play an important part in creating clays. Clay differs from sand and gravel in that it consists of tiny flat particles with plate-like structure that comes from a variety of rocks. Plant growth also contributes to soil formation. When plants die, their residue becomes part of the soil. Soils with high organic matter content are usually too spongy and weak to be used for structural purposes. Soil Groups Although soils may vary widely in physical and chemical make-up, five fundamental groups are recognized. e@ GRAVEL: Individual grains vary in size from .08 to 3.0 inches (2.0 to 76.2 mm) in diameter and have a rounded appearance. SAND: These are small rock or mineral fragments smaller than .08 inch (2.0 mm) in diameter and semi- sharp. SILT: Finc grains appearing soft and floury when dry, When moist,silt pressed between the thumb and forefinger will have a broken appearance, @ CLAY: Very fine textured soil which forms hard lumps or clods whendried, When moist, clay is very sticky and can be rolledinto a ribbon between the thumb and forefinger. @ ORGANIC: This matter consists of either partially decomposed vegetation (peats) or finely divided vegetable matter (organic silts and clays).Soil Compaction 30 | RS Properties Engineers use a number of terms when defining the charac- of Soil teristics and properties of various soils. Understanding these terms is essential to understanding soil compaction principles and techniques. CAPILLARITY Fig. III-A Capillarity. (Figure III-A) Capillarity is the ability of a soil to absorb water upward or laterally. This is a desirable characteristic for base material used as a layer between the subgrade and the pavement of a roadway. It allows water to drain out of the subgrade. Capillary water is held in the soil by small pores or voids. It is considered free water but it can be removed only by lowering the water table or by evapora- tion. Without a capillary base, trapped water would soften and expand the subgrade resulting in an inadequately sup- ported surface and premature deterioration of the roadway. COMPRESSIBILITY Travel SOR Ieaegey SNES Fig. III-BSoil Compaction 31 Properties Compressibility. (Figure III-B) Compressibility is the rate of Soil of the soil’s reduction in volume when a force is applied to it. Soils with high compressibility have particles which easily reorient themselves to reduce the space available for air or water voids. Clay soils usually have higher compressibility than granular soils. But, they have less permeability which allows trapped water to expand making clay soils less suitable than granular soils for base material. ELASTICITY —— Travel Fig, III-C Elasticity. (Figure III-C) Elasticity is the tendency of a soil to return to its original, or near original, shape after a compressive load is removed. This is an undesirable charcteristic for soils which must bear fluctuating loads. Roads with highly elastic bases or subgrades soon fail due to constant flexing under load/no load conditions. Elastic soils are usually chemically stabilized to reduce their elas- ticity before they are compacted and used to support a load. Organic soils have very high elasticity. PERMEABILITY VW \ A \\\ \ \\ \\N\ \ om SOOO: pests awe Fig. 11-DSoil Compaction 32 Propertics Permeability. (Figure IfI-D) Permeability is the ease in of Soil which water flows through a soil. This is not the same as capillarity which is the soil’s abilty to absorb water. Soil texture, gradation and the degree of compaction influence asoil’s permeability. Usually, coarse-grained soils are more permeable than fine-grained soils because they have larger voids between their particles. Plasticity. Plasticity refers to a soil’s compressibility and degree of cohesiveness. The measure of plasticity is ex- pressed as the Plasicity Index (PI). Soils, like most clays, have high PI values, are quite compressible and have a high degree of cohesion. A soil with a zero PI is cohesionless or non-plastic. The soil’s moisture content also affects its PI. SETTLEMENT Fig, III-E Settlement. (Figure III-E) Settlement is the process of decreasing surface elevation due to the consolidation of fill material. Settlement often results due to inadequate com- paction. Poorly compacted soil particles will in time naturally reorient themselves and reduce the space available for air or water. The result is settling directly relating to the volume of voids reduced. SHEAR RESISTANCE DEPENDS ON... 1. INTERNAL ee 2. COHESION &S e| BE o° os HIGH FRICTION FRICHON COHESION cOnESION Fig, I-FSoil Compaction 33 Moisture Content Shear Resistance. (Figure HI-F) Shear resistance is the resistance the soil’s particles have to sliding across each other when a compactive force is applied. The shearing strength of a soil is the result of internal friction (resistance to sliding over cach other) and cohesion (attraction to cach other). Irregularly shaped particles have higher shear resis- tance than smooth shaped particles. The higher the shear resistance, the more compactive force is required to achieve the needed density. SHRINKAGE Fig. I-G Shrinkage/Swelling, (Figure II-G) Visible shrinkage or swelling is an indication that the soil is fine-grained, such as clay. The cycle of shrinking and swelling results from the release and build up of moisture within the soil. This type of soil provides a poor foundation since constant changes in volume can cause structural failure in buildings or pave- ments dependent on stable support. Water is present in all soils in their natural state. It appears in one of three ways. © Gravitational water is free to move downward due to the force of gravity. It can drain naturally from a soil. @ Capillary water is held in a soil by small pores or voids. It is considered free water but can be removed only by lowering the water table or by evaporation.Soil Compaction 34 Soil Limits Hygroscopic water is present in a soil after gravitational and capillary water are removed. This water is held by individual soil grains in the form of a very thin film having physical and chemical affinity for the soil grains. It is also called "air-dry" moisture content. This water would have to be removed by baking the soil in an oven to get the true dry weight of the soil. The best soilcompaction occurs when the soil is atits optimum moisture content. The effect of the soil’s moisture content on compaction was discussed in Chapter Two (pp. 21-24). For each type of soil, there is an optimum moisture content at which maximum density can be reached with the smallest amount of compac- tion energy. The Proctor test done in a laboratory and various ficld tests are used to calculate moisture content. The way that moisture content affects a soil’s compactability can best be understood by examining soil limits. Certain limits of soil consistency -- Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Plasiticity Index, Shrinkage Limit -- were developed by A. Atterberg, a Swedish soils scientist. Sometimes called the Atterberg limits, these are the basis for differentiation between highly plastic, slightly plastic and non-plastic materials.Soil Compaction 35 Liquid Limit (LL). This is the moisture content at which a soil passes from a plastic to a liquid state. This means that there is enough moisture in the soil to overcome internal friction and cohesion. LIQUID LIMIT TEST Groove Wet Soil wet phy Fig, I1I-H Asimple test has been developed to determine a soil’s liquid limit. Take a moist sample of a soil and place it in a small bowl, flattening the sample somewhat. (Figure III-H) Make a deep groove in the sample and tap the bottom of the bowl 10-30 times, watching the groove. If the faces of the groove remain the same distance apart, pick up the sample, add more water, and repeat the process. When the faces of the groove move together on a length of 1/2" (13 mm), the sample has become somewhat liquid and has reached its liquid limit. High LL values are associated with soils of high compres- sibility. Typically, clays have high LL values; sandy soils have low LL values. Plastic Limit (PL). This condition exists when a soil chan- ges from a semi-solid to a plastic state. It occurs when the soil contains just enough moisture that a small amount of it can be rolled into a 1/8" (3.2 mm) diameter thread without breaking.Soil Compaction 36 Soil Limts The PL of a soil is important. It represents the moisture content at which particles will slide over cach other and still possess appreciable cohesion. It is the point where best compaction occurs with pure clay soils. The strength of the soil decreases rapidly as the moisture content increases beyond the plastic limit. Plasticity Index (PI). This is the numerical difference be- tween a soil’s plastic limit and liquid limit. Soils having high PI values are quite compressible and have high cohesion. Soil has little or no cohesion when the moisture content is at the liquid limit, but has considerable cohesion when the moisture content is at the plastic limit. Therefore, the PI offers a means of measuring the compressibility and cohesion of a soil. The PI also indicates permeability, The higher the PI, the lower the permeability, and vice versa. On many jobs, the specifications call for material with a certain gradation, a maximum LL and a maximum PI. SOIL LIMITS STAGES OF CONSISTENCY a Sold | Semisold | Plastic state | Liquid State ore pe Range indicated by I 1 theplastic index (PI) 1 t i ope st PL uw 0 Moisture content decreasing ———————_ Fig. I11-J Shrinkage Limit (SL). As the soil is dried below the plastic limit, it shrinks and gets brittle until all the particles are in contact and can shrink no more. This point is called the shrinkage limit. The SL is the best moisture at which to compact many non-plastic (sandy) soils. Soils containing enough clay to raise the PI are best compacted somewhere between the SL and the PL. The relationships among liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit and soil consistency are shown in Figure IIJ-J.Soil Compaction 36 Soil Limts The PL of a soil is important. It represents the moisture content at which particles will slide over each other and still possess appreciable cohesion. It is the point where best compaction occurs with pure clay soils. The strength of the soil decreases rapidly as the moisture content increases beyond the plastic limit. Plasticity Index (PI). This is the numerical difference be- tween a soil’s plastic limit and liquid limit. Soils having high PI values are quite compressible and have high cohesion. Soil has little or no cohesion when the moisture content is at the liquid limit, but has considerable cohesion when the moisture content is at the plastic limit. Therefore, the PI offers a means of measuring the compressibility and cohesion of a soil. The PI also indicates permeability. The higher the PI, the lower the permeability, and vice versa. On many jobs, the specifications call for material with a certain gradation, a maximum LL and a maximum PI. SOIL LIMITS STAGES OF CONSISTENCY sh 7 Plastic State | Liquid State Solid 1 Semi-soiid 1 ' ie! . ~ 1 1 I the plastic index (PI) | t i Peep SL PL Le 0+ Moisture content decreasing ——————— Fig. I1-J Shrinkage Limit (SL). As the soil is dried below the plastic limit, it shrinks and gets brittle until all the particles are in contact and can shrink no more. This point is called the shrinkage limit. The SL is the best moisture at which to compact many non-plastic (sandy) soils. Soils containing enough clay to raise the PI are best compacted somewhere between the SL and the PL. The relationships among liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit and soil consistency are shown in Figure III-J.Soil Compaction 38 Soil AASHTO CLASSIFICATIONS Classification. ——— ciasstaton | (percestertee tical sare psssog mi a La] lave | ave aaa | azs | ave | a27 | ars, Samax Somac|st mn 5max |25mat |10nax | s9max|5max |ssrmax|98rax| me | 36 | 0m. | s6me “Characteisies. om eee guint | |~ Prastcty | Gouin | ° rae [Tera (Some Fig, I1-K Figure II-K shows that the groups are arranged in two major categories: granular materials and_ silty-clay materials. The chart lists the sieve analysis as well as the liquid limit and plasticity index for the fractions passing the No. 40 sieve. A group index based on a formula which considers particle size, LL and PI is given at the bottom of the chart. The group index shows the suitability of a given soil for embankment construction. A group index number of '0" indicates a good material while a group index of "20" indicates a poor material. Laboratory tests are conducted to determine the AASHTO classification of a soil sample. Unified Soil Classification System. This system is used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. It uses texture as the descriptive term. The symbols and modifiers are listed below. SYMBOLS G-Gravel, smaller the 3” (76mm), larger than 1/4” (6 mm) S-Sand, smaller than 1/4 (6 mm) but large enough to see MSilt, fine-grained soils, individual grains C-Clay, too small to see with the naked eyeSoil Compaction 39 ea SESS Soil MODIFIERS (Sand & Gravel) Classification W-well graded having large, medium and small grains P-poorly graded have uniformly sized grain C-clayey M-silty MODIFIERS (Silt & Clay) L-low plasticity H-high plasticity ' Portions of the United Soil Classification System chart are shown in Figure II-L. { UNIFIED SOIL CHARACTERISTICS ' Group Major divisions qos ‘Typical names ew | Welkgreded graves, grave-sand mixtures, litle o no fines 4 VEU 810%) ‘gjones6 we0id Poorly graded gravels, gravel-sand GP | mixtures ttle oF no fines (seu ov 30 om) | Sity gravels, gravalesand-sit mixture ow wel-sand-cl ac | Miavey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures, \Woll-graded gravels, gravol-sand SW | micturos,itle or no fines gp | Poory graded sands, eravely sands, Ite or no tines. (92's anais 002 ON EU) 120%) S1feuaIeL jo ey WELL 2.01%) S108 peUtel0-2s1209 4d | Sity sands, sand-sit mixtures sc | Clayaysands, sand.clay mixtures Fig. H-LSoil Compaction 40 2 Soil Classification in the Field Again, these classifications are established by a laboratory based on sieve analysis and tests for the plasticity index and liquid limits. Some simple field tests can be used to classify various soils when complete laboratory facilities are not available. The tests are used to determine gradation, plasticity and disper- sion. GRADATION TEST Fig. II-M Gradation. To test the gradation of dry soil, spread a sample of the soil on a flat surface. Use a piece of stiff paper or cardboard as a rake to sort the larger soil particles to one side. (Figure I1I-M) Estimate the percentage of particles larger than 1/4" (6 mm) and the percentage of fines (too small for the individual grains tobe seen by the unaided eye). Also, estimate whether the larger particles are uniform in size (poorly graded) or have large, medium and small sizes (well graded), PERCENT OF FINES <~—— Water % = Original Mark Ke | + Settlement Merk Fig. I1-NSoil Compaction 41 Soil Classification If the soil is wet, break a lump apart with a pencil and make in the Field percentage estimates as in the dry soil method. To find the percentage of fines, put 1/8" (3.2 mm) of water in a clear glass. Then, add enough soil to fill the glass to the 1/4 level. Add water until the soil is just covered. Mark this level with a rubber band. Fill the jar 3/4 full with water and stir the mixture vigorously. Let it settle about a minute and half and mark the height of soil that has settled out. (Figure III-N) The difference between the two marks represents the per- centage of fines, Plasticity of Fine Grained Soils. There are several field tests you can perform to estimate a soil’s plasticity. SHAKING TEST Fig. [11-0 A. Shaking Test -- Pick up a lump of fine grained soil and knead it together, working out as many large grained par- ticles as possible. Add water gradually and knead the soil until it begins to get sticky. Hold the ball of soil in the palm of one hand and tap the back of that hand with the fingers of the other hand (Figure HI-O). If the ball gets shiny and wet on the surface, it is mostly fine sand or silt. Clays have little or no reaction to this test and simply get messy.Soil Compaction 42 Soil Classification in the Field TOUGHNESS TEST Fig, NI-P B. Toughness Test -- Take about half the ball of soil and knead it between the thumb and forefingers to dry it out. Then, attempt to roll the soil sample into a 1/8" (3 mm) thread or "worm" (Figure II-P). If a worm can not be formed at all, the soil is definitely a silt or fine sand. Highly plastic soils take a long time to dry out. They get hard and waxy and considerable pressure is required to form a worm that just breaks at the 1/8" (3 mm) diameter. C. Dry Strength Test -- Take the other half of the ball of soil and knead it into a ball. Set is aside to air dry. When the soil is dry, crush it and select a jagged, pointy fragment. Try to crush this fragment between the thumb and forefinger. A silt will turn to powder with little effort. A clay will be like a rock and almost impossible to crush with the fingers. D. Hand Washing -- After handling silts and sands, the fingers will feel dusty and rubbing the fingers together will almost clean them, Water flowing gently from a faucet will rinse off the soil. When clays are handled, a crust will form on the fingers that cannot be rubbed off when dry. Water will not rinse it off. The hands must be rubbed together under water to cleanse them.Soil Compaction 43 Soil Classification Dispersion. In addition to the field tests just described, the in the Field dispersion test can be used to determine percentages of soil grain sizes as well as an indication of how difficult it will be to compact the soil. All that is needed is a clear glass, water and a representative soil sample. DISPERSION TEST Color May Be Tan, any Grey or Biack 1% Minutes = sand Color Will Be Tan to Dark Brown Nanas Depending on ee 7 Particle Size sit = sand Color willbe 4 Hours, or White to Light Tan, Maybe not at all Grey, Blueor | Clay Bluish Green =Z sit == Sana Fig. LR Fill the glass 1/4 to 1/3 full with the material. Thea, fill the container with water to within 1/2" (13 mm) of the top. Stir the mixture well and observe how the material settles out (Figure III-R). The material will settle in three distinct layers. The sand at the bottom, silt next and finally clay. Besides showing the various groups, the results will show whether the soil is well or poorly graded. Although the silt and clay particles are smaller than the eye can see, gradation changes can be observed by color differences. Also, the longer it takes a layer to settle, the smaller the particles. There are several things that can be learned from the dis- persion test. It will show the basic materials and gradation of each, and the settling time will indicate the fineness of the particles. In most cascs, a single particle size (poor grada- tion) and a small particle size will mean more difficult compaction than a mix where there is a good gradation of all particle sizes.Soil Compaction 44 Soil Compaction Equipment Summary of Identifying Clues. For the various soil types, there are distinct reactions to the ficld tests. @ Clays -- No reaction to the shaking test; a tough worm that dries out slowly; a crusty dry residue that is hard to remove from the hands. © Silts -- Rapid reaction to the shaking test; a weak or crumbly worm; powdery residue that is easily wiped off or washed off the hands. e@ Silt and Clay Mixtures -- intermediate or conflicting reactions to hand tests. @ Sand or Gravel with few Fine Clays -- Enough clay to soil the hand if a wet sample is kneaded, but not enough to allow a lump of clay to be formed. © Sand or Gravel with Silt Fines -- Any mixture with dusty or fairly gritty fines. © Clean Sands and Gravels ~ Water added to these soils sinks in immediately without making any mud. © Shot or Ripped Rock -- Jagged material not having enough smaller material to fill the voids. Many factors influence the choice of compaction equip- ment. The type of equipment selected for a project is some- times made based on the contractor’s previous experience, by the type of soil or by method specifications. Other con- siderations are how well a machine will conform to the hauling and spreading operation. Climatic and traction conditions are also important. Standardization of equip- ment sometimes plays a role in the decision-making process.Soil Compaction 45 The application chart (Figure I1I-U) at the end of this section provides guidelines for matching equipment to job variables and soil types. There is no one compactor which will do all things on all jobs. Each type has a definite material and operating range on which it ismost economical. Pneumatic Tire Compactors. Pneumatic tire compactors are used on small to medium size soil compaction jobs, primarily on bladed, granular base materials. Pneumatics are not suited for high production, thick lift embankment compaction projects. The compactive forces (pressure and manipulation) generated by the rubber tires works from the top of the lift down to produce density. The amount of compactive force can be varied by altering the tire pressure (the normal method) or by changing the weight of the ballast (done less frequently). The kneading action caused by the staggered tire pattern helps seal the surface. In some areas, pneumatic tire compactors are specified as proof rollers. One advantage that pneumatic compactors have is that there is little bridging effect between the tires. Therefore, they seek out soft spots which may exist in the fill. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as "proof" rollers.Soil Compaction 46 Soil Compaction Another advantage is that pneumatic rollers can be used on Equipment both soil and asphalt so a roadbuilding contractor can save by having one compactor for both stages of construction -- base and asphalt. Sheepsfoot Roller. Sheepsfoot rollers got their name from the fact that early Roman roadbuilders used to herd sheep back and forth over base material until the road was com- pacted. The word "sheepsfoot" became a generic term to describe all types of padded drums. In reality, a sheepsfoot roller is very different from a padded drum or tamping foot roller. PAD CONFIGURATIONS x-@) SHEEPSFOOT TAMPING FOOT Fig. US A sheepsfoot pad is cylindrical, usually 8" (203 mm) long. The pad face is circular and will range in size from 7 square inches to 18 square inches. The pads on tamping foot or padded drums are tapered with an oval or rectangular shape. And the pad face is smaller than the base of the pad (Figure III-S). That’s an important difference. The pads on sheepsfoot drums penetrate through the top lift and actually compact the lift below. When a pad comes out of the soil, it kicks up or fluffs material. The result is a loose layer of material on top. When more fill is spread, the top lift will be fluffed and the previous layer will compacted. A sheepsfoot roller truly compacts from the bottom up.Soil Compaction 47 SS Soil Compaction Using a sheepsfoot compactor has one definite benefit. Equipment Because the top lift of soil is always being fluffed, the process helps aerate and dry out wet clays and silts. But the disadvantages of sheepfoot rollers are numerous. The loose top lift material can act as a sponge when it rains and slow the compaction process. The loose material also slows hauling units bringing fill material, so haul cycle times are increased. Plus, sheepsfoot compactors can work only at speeds from 4 to 6 mph (6-10 km/h) which cancels any benefit from impact and vibration. Pressure and manipulation are the only compactive forces exerted on the soil, Usually 6-10 passes are needed to get density on 8" (203 mm) lifts. Tamping Foot Compactors. Tamping foot compactors are high speed, self-propelled, non-vibratory rollers. They usually have four steel padded wheels and are equipped with a dozer blade. Their pads are tapered with an oval or rectangular face. (see Figure III-S) Like the sheepsfoot, it compacts from the bottom of the lift to the top. But because the pads are tapered, the pads can walk out of the lift without fluffing the soil. Therefore, the top of the lift is also being compacted and the surface is relatively smooth and sealed. re * See ies Tamping foot compactors are capable of high speed, high production compaction.Soil Compaction 48 2 SS Soil Compaction Because tamping foot compactors are capable of speeds in Equipment the 10-20 mph (16-32 km/h) range, they develop all four forces of compaction: pressure, impact, vibration and manipulation. Generally 2 to 3 passes will achieve desired densities in 8"-12" (203-305 mm) lifts although 4 passes may be needed in poorly graded plastic silt or very fine clay. Tamping foot compactors are effective on all soils except clean sand. Tamping foot rollers leave a fairly smooth, sealed surface so hauling units are able to maintain a high speed when travel- ing over the fill. Also, since dozer-cquipped tamping rollers do both spreading and compacting, the contractor may be able to reduce the number of tractor spreaders. The main disadvantage, or limitation, to the use of tamping foot compactors is they are best suited for large projects. They need long, uninterrupted passes to build up speed that generates high production. They are also considerably more expensive than single drum, vibratory compactors. Vibratory Compactors. Vibratory compactors work on the principle of particle rearrangement to decrease voids and increase density. They come in two types: smooth drum and padded drum. Smooth drum vibratory compactors generate three compactive forces: pressure, impact and vibration, Padded drum units also generate manipulative force. Compaction is thought to be uniform throughout the lift during vibratory compaction. On vibratory compactors, working speed and vibration fre- quency play a big part in determining compaction results.Soil Compaction 49 EES Soil Compaction Density results from forces generated by a vibrating drum Equipment hitting the ground. Compaction results are a function of the frequency of these blows as well as the force of the blows and the time period over which the blows are applied. (See pp. 11-14 in Chapter Two.) The frequency/time relationship accounts for slower working speeds on vibratory compac- tors. Working speed is important because it dictates how long a particular part of the fill will be compacted. For vibratory compactors, a specd of from 2to 4 mph (3.2 to 6.4 km/h) will provide the best results. Smooth drum vibratory compactors work best on granular materials. Smooth drum vibratory compactors were the first machines introduced and are most effective on granular materials, with particle size ranging from large rocks to fine sand. They are also used on semi-cohesive soils with up to 10% cohesive soil content. Lift thicknesses vary according to the size of the compactor, but, generally the lift thickness on granular material should not exceed 24" (607 mm). Whenever large rock is used in the fill, the lifts may be very thick -- up to 4’ (1.2m) are not unusual. One thing to remember when large rocks are in the fill is that the thickness should be about a foot (305 mm) more than the maximum rock size. This permits lift consolidation without having the large rocks project above the fill surface.Soil Compaction 50 Soil Compaction Equipment Padded drum vibratory compactors work best on cohesive soils. When padded drum machines were made available, the material range was expanded to include soils with up to 50% cohesive material and a greater percentage of fines. When the pad (see Figure III-S) penctrates the top of the lift it breaks the natural bonds between the particles of cohesive soil and better compaction results. The pads are involuted to walk out of the lift without fluffing the soil and tapered to help clean themselves. The typical lift thickness for padded drum units on cohesive soil is in the 12" to 18" (305 mm to 457 mm) range. Compactor Application. Operating characteristics for the various types of compactors are shown in Figure HI-T. For comparison, Figure III-U shows application ranges where each compactor is most effective. The machines may over- lap in these ranges and it is not uncommon to see machines working on materials outside their normal application zone. Therefore, these charts should be considered strictly as average application guidelines.Soil Compaction 51 Soil Compaction Procedures OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS FOR SOIL COMPACTION EQUIPMENT heepstoa Famp, Foot arte" oneumaic ook wacrine [Seapets [@0"T Sup [prepata) |Mbratory Conpaceaun Thickness (n.) |S 12 ie 0-24 Working | Spare tae ke fe lee faa passes is feo eof -depords on ler so. Fig. 1-T RANGES OF SOIL TYPES FOR SOIL COMPACTION EQUIPMENT wocn SAND sapciny cuay <{_netroroor_| PREUMATICT a vignarony ‘SMOOTH GRUM PADDED DAUM a Fig, 1-U You can also get information about applications and production rates from the Caterpillar Compaction Equip- ment Guide. Copies are available through your Caterpillar dealer. Before laying out a compaction job, the contractor must consider the job size, fill requirements, rate of placement and specifications. Basically, thore are two types of job layouts -- the Project Method and the Progressive Method. JOB LAYOUTS Project Method. Small jobs arc best suited for this method. Fill material is moved into the area and spread in lift thick- nesses depending on the compactor’s capabilities. Then, compaction proceeds over the entire area until density is reached. Thea, another lift is spread and compacted. This alternating process continues until the correct grade line is achieved.Soil Compaction 52 Soil Compaction Procedures Speed and maneuverability are important on small compac- tion projects. On this type of project, compactor maneuverability and speed arc important because the hauling and spreading equipment sits idle during the compaction phase. If it is possible to break up the job into adjacent fills, the hauling and spreading equipment can be kept working. Progressive Method. The progressive method is often employed on large jobs, especially in highway construction or in landfills. Here, there is continuous operation of the equipment as material is spread progressively in front of the compactor(s). This goes on for some distance before addi- tional lifts are spread. Therefore, it is necessary for com- pactor production rate to match the production rates of the other units. Machine reliability and ease of operation are necessary on jobs where the compactor is used for long, continuous periods.Soil Compaction 53 Soil Compaction Machine maneuverability is not as important because the Procedures passcs tend to be long and straight. But, it is important for the compactor to be very reliable so continuous operation is possible. Also, ease of operation and operator comfort are desirable features due to long periods of operation. EMBANKMENT APPLICATIONS An embankment is any fill whose top is higher than the adjoining surface. It could be a building site or a highway. In any job, the embankment is above the original ground Figure II-V shows the embankment along with the other layers of a road section. ROAD SECTION Shoulder—, Traffic Lanes ¥— Shoulder Asphalt Base Granular Base Fig. IILV Rock Fill. Rock is increasingly used as embankment fill in highway construction. It is also used to a greater extent in dam, airport, building and harbor embankment construc- tion. Shot rock often contains so many fines that consider- able settling will occur if the fill is not compacted. Rock fill is usually spread in 18" to 48" (457 to 1219 mm) lifts, How the material is spread before compaction is vital. Trac- tor spreading in layers creates a uniform fill because the dozer blade docs some reoricnting of the rocks and the tracks perform some compaction, Therefore, a rclatively dense and even surface is prepared for the compactor.Soil Compaction 54 Soil Compaction Heavy compaction forces are needed after spreading to Procedures relocate large stones for density and stability. The largest smooth drum, vibratory compactors are selected for this job. Even so, compactors are subjected to great stresses on rock fill. The drum should be constructed of thick, high grade steel. If there is a crushing effect on the surface material, the number of passes may have to be reduced. Or, if the machine is equipped with more than one amplitude, lower amplitude can be used to reduce surface material distortion. Sand and Gravel. Vibratory compaction with smooth drum machines is especially suitable and economical on sand and gravel. High densities can be achieved in few passes with the lift thickness determined by the size of the compactor. A free-draining sand and gravel fill is more easily compacted when it is water saturated. Free-draining sand and gravel which contain less than 10% fines is easily compacted, especially when they are water saturated. When high density is required and the lifts are thick, water should be added. This water will drain out of the lift during the compaction process.Soil Compaction 55 5 ESSE Soil Compaction Ifthe sand and gravel contains more than 10% fines, the soil Procedures is no longer free-draining and may become elastic when the water content is high. For this type of soil, there will be an optimum moisture content where maximum density can be reached. Drying of the wet soil may be necessary to reach the optimum moisture content. On poorly graded sand and gravel, it is difficult to achieve high density close to the surface of the fill. The reason is there is low shear strength in poorly graded soils and the top layer tends to raise up behind the drum. This is not a problem when multiple lifts are being compacted. The previous top layer will be compacted when the next layer is rolled. However, the difficulty of compacting the surface should be kept in mind when testing for density. Silt. Silts are non-plastic fines which arc usually compacted with smooth drum vibratory rollers. They can be spread and rolled in thick lifts. Like all fine grained soils, their compactability is dependent on moisture. For best compaction results, the water content should not vary much from the optimum moisture content. Iftoo much water is present, silts rapidly approach the fluid state and compaction is impossible. This means that the lifts may have to be aerated with discs, mixed with drier soil (an expensive procedure) or the borrow pit can be better drained. Silty soils which also contain clay may have considerable cohesion. On these soils, padded drum, tamping foot or pneumatic rollers will give better results. Clay. Clays have plastic properties which means that the compaction characteristics are highly dependent on mois- ture content. When the water content is low, clay becomes hard and firm. Above the optimum moisture content, clay becomes more and more plastic and difficult to compact.Soil Compaction 56 a Soil Compaction The main problem in clay compaction is very often the need Procedures to adjust the water content. The addition of water by using water trucks, discs or soil stabilizers is time-consuming. Water infiltration into the borrow pit may be a better alter- native. Drying wet clay can only be done in warm and dry conditions, even using discs and soil stabilizers. Prolonged rolling with sheepsfoot rollers is sometimes done to lower the moisture content. The pads on padded drum rollers help break the cohesive bonds between the clay soil particles. Even at the optimum moisture content, clay requires a higher compactive effort and a lower lift thickness com- pared to non-cohesive soils. Padded drum rollers work best because as the pads penetrate the soil, they break the natural cohesive bonds between the particles. Pneumatic tire com- pactors can be used on clays with a low to medium Plasticity Index. Using tamping foot compactors along with vibratory compac- tors increases production on cohesive material.Soil Compaction 57 Soil Compaction Onprojects where high production is a requirement and clay Procedures is used as fill, good results can be obtained by using tamping foot compactorsin conjunction with vibratory, padded drum compactors. Tamping foot compactors equipped with dozer blades are efficient at spreading the fill and breaking, large, hard lumps of clay often found in clay borrow material. These machines perform the first passes. Final density is reached by vibratory padded drum compactors. BASE AND SUB-BASE APPLICATIONS Bases and sub-bases are the layers constructed on top of an embankment or natural ground surface. They increase in strength as they near the finish surface. (See Figure III-V) The materials used in these layers depend on the type of loads the road or building must support. Usually very tight specifications are given for base and sub-base materials, for the thickness of the lift and for the required density. Native Soils, From an economic standpoint it is preferable to use locally available soils. If these soils are suitable, they may be used without chemical treatment or additives. Proper compaction of these soils will substantially increase their load-bearing capacity and control other factors suchas permeability, capillary action and shrink and swell. The choice of compaction equipment will depend on the type of soil. Generally, granular, non-cohesive soils are specified as base and sub-base material. Smooth drum or pneumatic tire compactors are more often used in this application. Treated Soils. Mixing chemicals with native or imported soils can substantially improve the soil’s stability and load- bearing characteristics. This is called soil stabilization.Soil Compaction 58 Soil Compaction Procedures Stabilized soils are compacted with equipment compatible with the soil’s original, untreated characteristics. After lime, cement, salt or asphaltic cement has been mixed into the soil, the soil should be compacted with a vibratory compactor. The type of compactor used will depend on the soil’s original, untreated characteristics. Where a large volume of cohesive soil is involved, a tamping foot roller may be more economical than a vibratory compactor. Smaller volumes may be compacted with a pneumatic roller. Crushed Rock. Job specifications may call for well-graded crushed rock to be used as base and sub-base materials. By using crushed material, gradation can be controlled during the crushing process to match specifications. Crushed rock is generally easier to spread and compact than fine soils and the compaction results are more predictable. However, these advantages are offset by the expense of crushing and the often longer hauls to the project site. Crushed rock is usually hauled to the job in end dump trailers and dumped on the grade in front of a motor grader or spreading machine. The base material is then spread and shaped in lifts ranging from 6" to 10" (152 mm to 254 mm). Alter spreading, compaction is accomplished by smooth drum rollers (static or vibratory) or pneumatic tire compac- tors.IV. ASPHALT COMPACTION 59 The Importance of Compaction increases the service life of an asphalt pave- Compaction ment in several ways. It reduces rutting, decreases the asphalt cement’s rate of oxidation, and increases mix stability enabling the pavement to carry traffic efficiently for the longest time. Compaction is achieved by forcing the aggregate in the mix into close contact with each other. By moving the aggregates closer together, compaction reduces the air voids in asphaltic material. Excessive air content in a mat can cause premature failure of a pavement structure. Air voids allow water to enter the mat where it can expand and contract as temperatures change. The resulting flexing can crack pavements and loosen subbase materials. Air is also an oxidizer. As asphalt cements are exposed to air over time, the more volatile elements evaporate, leaving a pavement brittle and susceptible to block and alligator cracking. TOO MUCH AIR VOID Mix allows water and air to permeate in and through Fig. IV-A With air voids reduced, the pavement will have three impor- tant properties: impermeability, cohesion and stability.Asphalt Compaction 60 Influences on Compaction Impermeability is the resistance a pavement has to the pas- sage of air and water. Properly compacted bituminous material is dense enough to prevent connecting voids in the mass that would allow moisture to penetrate through to the subbase. In most cases, the proper air void content in a dense grade asphalt concrete mixture is 3% to 5%. The resulting pavement is durable and impermeable. Figure IV-A represents the effect air voids have on pavement per- meability. With fewer voids, the pavement is also more cohesive. Cohesion is the ability of the bituminous materials to hold together . Asphalt and filler are blended into a cement to make the binder that holds the aggregate in place. It is the binder that gives pavement tensile strength, i.e. resistance to tearing or cracking forces. Stability is the pavement’s resistance to internal movement Even under high traffic loads, a properly compacted road- way will be stabile. Stability depends on the internal friction between aggregate particles. Compaction forces the ag- gregate into close contact with each other, interlocking the mixture together and improving its internal friction. Aswe learned in Chapter Two, "Compaction Principles and Measurements’, asphalt compaction is not always a simple procedure. A number of factors influence compaction results. These factors (exclusive of operator-controlled variables like frequency, amplitude and speed) can general- ly be grouped into these categories: mix design, mix temperature, ambient temperature and mat thickness.Asphalt Compaction 61 Influences on Compaction Mix Design. The Asphalt Institute classifics hot mix asphalt by mix type. This mix type is based on relative amounts of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral dust. General limts of each mix type, along with the paving designation and maximum size aggregate, are shown in Figure IV-B. MIX TYPES PANG MI WAXINUW SIZE AGGREGATE DESIGNATION NORMALLY USED SURFACE AND | BASE, BIDDER LEVELNG | ANDLEVELING Tyre DESCRIPTION MIXES axes 1 MADADAW 22 1 OPENGRADED ETI wae WH GOARSE GRADED 123 aE W DENSE GRADED wot Fone v FINE GRADED ina 3m vi STONE SHEET iea08 i vi SAND SHEET 38 38 vi FINE SHEET NO Fig. IV-B Mixes with larger aggregates (3/4"/19 mm and up) and less filler have smaller amounts of asphalt cement to act as a binder, They are commonly called "harsh" mixes. As a rule ofthumb, harsh mixes can be compacted using a high degree of compactive effort. This is because harsh mixes are usually placed in thicker mats and are less likely to move around under heavy compactive effort. Vibratory compactors can generally be operated in the high amplitude range on these types of mixes. Mixes with smaller aggregates (1/2"/13 mm and down) con- tain more asphalt cement for binding. They are called "tender" mixes and are usually placed in thin mats (2"/50 mm. and less). Less compactive effort should be used on tender mixes. ratory compactors should be run in low amplitude or in the static mode. Frequently, static, stecl- wheel compactors or pneumatic compactors are specified for tender mixes.Asphalt Compaction 62 Influences on Compaction LOW INTERNAL "HIGH INTERNAL FRICTION FRICTION Fig, 1Y-C Asa further note about mix design, the aggregate condition also affects compaction. The friction between aggregate particles creates stability in a compacted mat. The amount of internal friction between particles is determined mostly by the shape of the aggregate. (Figure IV-C) Rounded aggregates (like river run material) are smooth and have less internal friction. They will slide across each other fairly easily. Therefore, when compacting a mix containing smooth round aggregate, less compactive energy is needed. A mix with rough surfaced, sharp edged aggregate (crusher rock) has greater internal friction, More energy and heavier compactors toare needed to overcome natural resis- tance. Mix Temperature. The only time compaction can occur is when the asphalt binder is fluid enough to act as a lubricant yet strong enough to support acompactor. Once cooled, the asphalt binder acts as an adhesive and further compaction is uscless. However, if the mix is too hot, mat deformation will occur. The upper limit for compacting asphalt is usually considered 300° F; the lower limit is set at 185° F.Asphalt Compaction 63 ee ESSE Influences on The optimum rolling temperature is influenced by factors Compaction like grade of asphalt, aggregate type and the viscosity of the asphalt cement. With most mixes, compaction should begin at as high a temperature as possible because density can be obtained with fewer passes at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. Behavior of the mat under the roller must be observed. If the mix is too hot, a large bulge will develop in front of the drum, Usually, density can be in- creased by compacting as long as mix temperature, 1/2" (13 mm) below the pavement surface, is not less than 185° F. The temperature of the mat passing under the paver screed will determine the interval between the paver and the compactor. Knowing the temperature of the mat passing under the paver’s screed is important. Mat temperature will deter- mine how close to the paver the compactor should operate. Rapidly cooling mats will mean that the time in which re- quired density can be achieved is short. And the compactor’s rolling pattern will have to be set to work close to the paver. In fact, additional compaction equipment may have to be put on the job to get density before the mat is too cool.Asphalt Compaction 64 EEE Influences on Ambient Temperature. All other factors being equal, an Compaction incrcasc in ambient, or air, temperature decreases the cool- ing rate of bituminous material mixtures. This increase in air temperature allows more time for compactors to achieve desired density levels in the mix. Wind affects compaction. The stronger the wind, the faster the mix cools. Wind velocity becomes a more critical factor when compacting in cool weather than in warm weather. A strong wind can cause a crust to form over the surface of the mix and create a bridging effect preventing the compaction forces from uniformly penetrating through the mix. This crust must be broken by rollers before the compaction process begins. Another cooling factor is the surface temperature of the base on which the bituminous material is placed. Base temperatures are higher on sunny days than on days with a cloud cover. A higher base temperature reduces the cooling rate of bituminous materials, allowing more time to achieve density. On a cold, overcast, windy day, cooling occurs rapidly. It would be necessary to adjust for this by increasing the mix temperature, insulating the mix from heat loss during transport, increasing the lift thickness, and/or more prompt rolling of the mix before it cools. Mat Thickness. It is usually easier to achieve required density in thicker lifts of bituminous materials since they hold heat longer and offer more compaction time. Itis very difficult to obtain adequate density on thin mats (less than 2"/50 mm) in cold weather because of the rapid cooling of material.Asphalt Compaction 65 Influences on Compaction CORLEW & DICKSON CURVES g+3 © sseR8e g e288 a Tame format to cool tb 185 F vs. tmatthisess for ins of constant ‘mix and base temperatures. Time for Nat to Cool to 185° Fig. IV-D The Corlew and Dickson Curves demonstrate heat loss in an asphalt layer under certain predetermined conditions (Figure IV-D). They assume there is a constant wind velocity of 10 knots (about 12 miles per hour) and that the air temperature is the same as the base temperature. The base temperature is the surface temperature upon which the asphalt mat is placed. The graphs provide information on the time available for compaction until the mat temperature measured 1/4" (6 mm) to 1/2" (13 mm) below the mat surface cools to 185° F. To use the graphs, the mat thickness (compacted), the base/air temperature, and the initial mix lay-down tempera- ture must be known. For example, if a 2 1/2" (64 mm) compacted mat is to be placed on a surface having a temperature of 60° F., and the mix lay-down temperature is 300° F., it would take about 28 minutes for the mat to cool to 185° F.Asphalt Compaction 66 Compaction Four basic types of self-propelled compactors are typically Equipment used to achieve satisfactory density of bituminous materials. They are (1) steel wheel static rollers, (2) pneumatic tire rollers, (3) vibratory rollers, and (4) combination rollers. Steel Wheel Static Rollers. For many years, the steel wheel static roller was the standard for compacting asphalt. How- ever, increasing traffic loads seen in the past several decades have proved that the steel wheel roller alone could not provide adequate density. Stecl wheel units lack the capability to adequately compact mats thicker than about 2" to3" (50mm to75 mm). Also, they do not seek out soft spots due to their inherent bridging characteristics. Today, steel wheel rollers are used mostly to finish roll the asphalt after vibratory compaction has achieved the desired density. Their ironing effect smoothes and eliminates pre- vious drum marks. Finish rolling with a steel wheel unit must be done while the mat is still hot enough to allow a slight movement of the particles to erase irregularities. LINES OF COMPACTIVE FORCE Steel Roller Fig. IV-EAsphalt Compaction 67 Compaction The lines of force under a steel wheel static roller tend to Equipment become U-shaped as they meet resistance from the sub- grade and the confining pressure within the mix. At the outer edges of the roller, the lines of force move back up toward the suface of the mat (Figure IV-E), Some material may be pushed upward forming a hump next to the edge of the drum. If this occurs, the succeeding pass should overlap 3" to 4" (76 mm to 101 mm) to achieve a smooth finish. The only variables under operator control for steel wheel static rollers are the rolling speed and the location of the roller in relation to the paver. Changing ballast is possible, but is seldom done and should not be done after the rolling pattern has been established on a test strip. Pneumatic Tire Compactors. Pneumatic tire compactors are used for breakdown and intermediate compaction. They are also used to condition finished asphalt surfaces through the kneading action of the rubber tires. Finish rolling with a pneumatic tire machine does not noticeably increase density over the level reached by steel wheel or vibratory compaction, but it does ensure a marked decrease in surface permeability. Front Front Front Thm cM cM Fj | RUBBER-TIRED ROLLER COMPACTION KNEADING EFFECT Rear Tires Offset From the Front Set Fig. IV-FAsphalt Compaction 68 ESET Compaction Equipment The rubber tires exert a kneading action as well as varying amounts of ground contact pressure (Figure IV-F). These characteristics help the multi-wheel, pneumatic tire roller manipulate the mat under and between its wheels in a confined manner. The result is a more stable, tighter finish. Tire inflation pressure is very important to the performance. of a pneumatic tire compactor (Figure IV-G). The higher the tire pressure, the smaller the ground contact area and the higher the compactive force transmitted to the mat. Tire inflation pressure is kept high when doing breakdown or intermediate compaction, VARIABLE TIRE PRESSURE EFFECT ON COMPACTION FORCE Fig, IV-G Reducing tire inflation pressure causes the bottom of the tire to flatten out and ground contact pressure is reduced. Therefore, the compactive effort is less, but the kneading action is accentuated. Lower tire inflation pressures are used for finish rolling. The use of the water spray system is another important factor when compacting with a pneumatic tire roller. When the roller begins to compact, the rubber tires will be cold and the hot asphalt will stick to them unless an anti-sticking agent is sprayed on the tires. As the roller works, the tires will heat up; asphalt sticking will not occur; and the water spray system can be turned off. Experience and experimen- tation will guide the operator in the use of the water spray system. Skirts can be added to keep the tires heatedAsphalt Compaction 69 EE SESE Compaction Vibratory Compactors. Double drum, vibratory compac- Equipment tors can be used in all phases of asphalt compaction: break- down, intermediate and finish. In Chapter Two, the principles of vibratory compaction are discussed in detail. But, briefly, centrifugal force is created byan eccentric weight or weights rotating inside the drum(s) of a vibratory compactor. This generates a series of impact blows that transmits compactive energy to the mat. The distance that the drum moves up and down is called amplitude. The greater the amplitude, the greater the com- pactive energy. The number of drum impacts per minute is called frequency. IMPACT SPACING TOO FAR APART PROPER SPACING Travel Travel Fig. IV-H A good "rule of thumb" states that the roller operator should adjust the rolling speed (fpm/mpm) so there are about ten drum impact blows per foot. For example, if the frequency of a given machine is 2000 vpm at the rated engine speed, then the rolling speed should be about 200 fpm (61 mpm). A working speed of 300 fpm (91 mpm) is needed if the frequency is 3000 vpm. The tcn impacts per foot ratio helps ensure pavement smoothness. Figure IV-H shows the relationship between working speed and frequencyAsphalt Compaction 1 Compaction Equipment Compaction Categories Most modern vibratory compactors also have variable amplitude. When compacting the test strip, the amplitude setting which produces density in the fewest number of passes should be determined. Other desirable features on vibratory compactors include: independent drum vibration -- so the operator can have both drums vibrating, one vibrating and one static, or both drums static; automatic vibratory system shut-off -- so the drum docs not hammer the mat in one place when the the roller is stopped; and automatic reversing eccentric weights -- having the weights rotating in the same direction as machine travel produces a smoother mat. Combination Rollers. Combination rollers use a vibrating drum plus three or four pneumatic tires located at the front or rear of the machine. They attempt to bring together the compactive techniques of vibratory rollers and pneumatic tire rollers. The use of combination rollers reduces equip- ment requirements on method specification jobs where both vibratory and pneumatic compactors are specified or where tight specification controls do not exist. However, itappears that the single "combi" machine is not as effective as two separate vibratory and pneumatic rollers. Therefore, the acceptance of combination rollers in the United States is not yet widespread. However, in Europe on confined job areas, they frequently replace vibratory and pneumatic rollers and are becoming more and more popular. Earlier in this chapter, itwas stated that there are three basic steps in asphalt compaction: breakdown, intermediate and finish (Figure IV-I). Different types of compaction equip- ment and compaction techniques may be used on each category.Asphalt Compaction 71 COMPACTION PHASES Sat revel mediate Fig, IV-I Breakdown Compaction. This is the first step in the com- paction process and should produce the majority of the target density in the mat. It is usually done with vibratory compactors, but static steel wheel and pneumatic tire com- pactors can also be used. Breakdown compaction should begin at the highest possible mix temperature without distorting the mat. Depending on mix design and mat thickness, this could be as high as 300° F (150°C). Once the mix begins to cool, the viscosity of the asphaltic cement rises and density is harder to achieve. Dual drum drive machines work best for breakdown rolling compaction because a driven drum tends to pull the material under the drum, reducing material displacement. A non- driven drum can produce material shoving in front of it. Intermediate Compaction. Intermediate compaction oc- curs immediately after the breakdown phase. Frequently, the same equipment is used for both phases. Static steel wheel, pneumatic tire and vibratory compactors are all used for intermediate compaction. Vibratory compactors may use a lower amplitude setting than the one selected for the breakdown pass. The intermediate rolling phase is the final step in reaching target density and is the initial step in smoothing the surface.Asphalt Compaction TD Compaction Procedures and Patterns Working in either the vibratory or static mode, dual-drum, vibratory compactors can be used for all phases of asphalt compaction. Finish Compaction, Finish rolling improves the surface smoothness and should be done while the mix is still warm enough to allow the removal of drum marks. In the past, static steel wheel rollers were the preferred equipment for this phase. Today, vibratory compactors operated in the static mode are also used for finish rolling. The major benefit of vibratory compactors is that they can be uscd on all phases of compaction, usually accomplishing higher production and equal quality results. To obtain required density and smoothness on a project, a number of factors must be considered. Mat thickness and mix design influence compaction techniques. Other vari- ables which which have to be calculated are rolling speed, the number and sequence of machine passes, and the dis- tance the compactor works from the laydowm machine. And, if a vibratory compactor is used, frequency and amplitude must be controlled.Asphalt Compaction B ES The best way to control all these variables is to create a test strip. The Test Strip. The test strip should be a straight run, at least 500 feet (150 meters) long, and be a part of the actual job. It determines the proper compactive force, frequency (when using vibratory rollers), rolling speed, and rolling pattern for a particular job. The test strip provides a measure of the target density, the riding quality, as well as the production rate of the equipment used to build the test strip. Before building the test strip, the rolling speed, lap pattern for the paving width, and distance the roller will operate behind the paver should be estimated. If a vibratory com- pactor is used, amplitude selection for vibrating passes, vibrating frequency selection, and the number of vibrating and/or static passes should also be calculated. Nuclear density testing is a common method of determining if target density has been achieved on a test strip. Once the test strip is completed, density readings are taken, usually with a series of nuclear density readings. If the strip does not mect the requirements for density and smoothness, anew test strip with changes in one or more of the variables should be built.Asphalt Compaction 74 Compaction One common "trial and error" method for creating a test Procedures strip is to reduce the original rolling speed and perform a and Patierns nuclear density test after every roller pass until target density is reached. Then, increase the rolling speed; use the same number of passes; and test density again. Continue this method until density fails to pass. This will yield the highest rolling speed and number of passes which will still achieve target density. This method will produce the highest production rate while meeting the requirements for density and surface finish. Once the rolling pattern, speed, amplitude and frequency are determined, they should not be changed during the length of the project unless other variables such as mix design or temperature change. Compacting Thin Lifts. A lift is generally considered to be thin when the material being placed is 2" (50 mm) or less in thickness. Thin lifts are encountered mostly in overlay work or as the wear surface on new construction, multi-layer work. To avoid overcompaction or damaging the aggregate, less compactive force is used on thin lifts. The specifications for compacting thin lifts may call for static compactors or vibratory compactors operated in the static mode or vibratory compactors limited to low amplitude settings. Vibration can be used on thin lifts providing the operator sticks to the number of passes and rolling pattern estab- lished by the test strip.Asphalt Compaction 15 Compaction Procedures and Patterns Compacting thin asphalt lifts frequently requires special care to avoid overcompacting or damaging the mat. Here are some more tips about compacting thin mats. e Be careful to not turn the wheels or drum when the compactor is stopped on a thin mat. This applies to mats of all thicknesses, but it is especially important on thin mats because they will tear or distort more easily. @ Always turn off the vibratory system when approaching a stop or change of direction. This will prevent the drum from hammering on the mat in one spot. Again, this advice applies to all mat thicknesses. Compactors with automatic vibratory system shut-off make it casier to work on thin mats. @ Ifthe pavement slopes, start compaction on the lowest side of the newly placed lane. The compacted mat will provide added support for cach succeeding roller pass. © Roll as close to the laydown machine as possible. Remember, thin mats lose heat rapidly. There will be less time to get the required density. Plus, trying to get density on cold, stiff mats can Icad to aggregate frac- tures.Asphalt Compaction OTe Compaction Compacting Thick Lifts. It is actually casicr to get the target Procedures density on thick lifts of asphalt because thick lifts hold heat and Patterns longer and the mat remains workable longer. Also, more compactive force can be used because there is less chance of overcompaction or fracturing aggregates in the mix. Vibratory compactors can operate in high amplitude. Therefore, the same number of passes may get density on a thick lift as would be required on a thin lift. ee Thick lifts of asphalt hold heat longer and can be worked longer. On note of caution about compacting thick lifts. Because mat temperature is usually higher and more compactive force is used, the mix may tend to bulge in front of drum on the first pass. If this occurs, two solutions can be employed. Either, change the rolling pattern to move farther back from the laydown machine. This will allow the uncompacted mat to cool somewhat. Or, make the first pass in the static mode or in the low amplitude range.Asphalt Compaction a] 5 cn EET Compaction Typical Rolling Pattern. A good rolling pattern provides Procedures the uniformity and efficiency needed to meet density and and Patterns smoothness requirements and still keep up with the paver’s production. The pattern should be determined on the test strip. It will establish: e@ howmany passes are required to cover the width of the mat e@ how many repeat passes are needed to get density e howclose to paver should the compactor operate Wiath TYPICAL ROLLING PATTERN Direction of Paving Width of Lane Being Paved Fig, IV-J Figure IV-J shows a typical rolling pattern, The compactor starts behind the fresh mat on previously compacted material and at the right or left longitudinall joint. (Lon- gitudinal joint compaction is discussed in the next section) The operator turns on the vibratory system when the rolling speed has been reached. The compactor should be operated in a straight line at a constant speed to a predeter- mined point behind the paver -- 50° (13 m), for example. Then, the direction of the compactor is reversed and the operator completes the first pass by retracing his path. When he approaches the starting point, the operator should gradually turn the machine to a new starting point that provides about a6" (150 mm) overlap from the uncompacted mat to the just compacted mat.Asphalt Compaction 8 Compaction The third pass is performed exactly the same as the first, Procedures except the point where the direction of travel is reversed will and Patterns be beyond the stopping point for the first pass. The paver has moved forward by now. And, to maintain a constant interval between the paver and the compactor, each roller reversal point will be ahead of the previous one. This sequence continues until the full width of the lane being paved is compacted. To start a new series of passes, the compactor arcs across the freshly compacted mat and starts just behind the reversal point of the first pass. Longitudinal Joints, A longitudinal joint is a joint running, lengthwise in a paving project. Some joints may have hot asphalt against old (cold) pavement. Others may be hot against hot or semi-hot. Whatever the case, density is sel- dom the same on both sides of the joint. Usually, the joint in the lane placed first has lower density than the lane placed next to it (unless a side roll option is used). This happens because the cold joint edge provides lateral restraint for the hot asphalt. Therefore, the second-placed lane has higher joint density. LONGITUDINAL JOINTS Fig. IV-KAsphalt Compaction 79 Compaction The most effective method of compacting the longitudinal Procedures joint is to operate the roller mostly on the hot mat, overlap- and Pattems ping the drum about 6" (150 mm) over the joint onto the cold pavement (Figure IV-K). Most of the compactive effort is applied to the hot mat where it is needed. Research studies have shown that compacting a joint with the drum mostly on the cold side is a waste of time. Little density is gained and the rest of the mat cools while time is taken to roll previously compacted pavement. Transverse Joints. A transverse joint is a crosswise joint, joining new pavement with old pavement. This joint should be rolled across the width of the lane, not longitudinally. TRANSVERSE JOINTS 6° (150mm) Fig. IV-L To compact the transverse joint, use a static roller or operate vibratory machines in the static mode. The compactor should be set up to straddle the joint, starting with most of the drum on the cold side of the mat (Figure IV-L). With each successive pass, gradually overlap the roller onto the hot side until the entire drum is on the hot side. Typically, boards are placed on both sides of the pavement to allow the compactor to run off the mat.Asphalt Compaction 80 Compaction Procedures and Patterns BENDS OR JUNCTIONS Fig. IV-M Bends or Junctions. When compacting a tight turn, roll the inner or lower side of the bend first, driving in a straight line as far as possible. Reverse the compactor so it is moving in the same path until it reaches previously compacted pavement. The compactor then swings over and moves forward and backward on the next path. This process is repeated until the bend is com- plete. Each path is rolled in a straight line as shown in Figure IV-M. Do not turn the compactor to follow the radius of the bend. This will scar the hot, uncompacted mat. Also, maintain the same rolling speed, frequency and amplitude (if any) that was established on the test strip. Crowns. Sometimes the laydown machine places a crowned pavement. Or, the new pavement may form a crown with the old pavement. In both instances, the compactor must not straddle the crown or it will be flattened. If the crown is formed by placing hot mix next to an existing pavement structure, position the roller so the drum is mostly on the hot mix with a very slight overhang on the cold joint. This will assure consistent density and avoid leaving a ridge or bulge of uncompacted mix.Asphalt Compaction 81 Compaction Procedures and Patterns ROLLING PATTERN FOR A CROWNED PAVEMENT When the paver forms the crown (Figure IV-N), start the rolling pattern at the side away from the crown. On the second or third pass (depending on the width of the lane and width of the drum), compact right up flush to the crown. On the other side of the crown, again, start on the edge of the mat away from the crown. On the final pass, position the drum so there is very slight overhang at the crown. This may create a rolling pattern that is less efficient, but straddling the crown with the roller drum must be avoided. UNRESTRAINED JOINT Fig. IV-OAsphalt Compaction 82 Matching Production Rates and Equipment Unrestrained Joints. If the mat has an unrestrained edge or joint, that is, an edge that is not laid against a curb or another mat, the edge may shove excessively because it is not confined very well. When this occurs, adjust the rolling pattern so the first pass near the unrestrained joint is 1’ (305 mm) inside the joint (Figure IV-O). The compacted mat will build confinement in the mat without shoving it out from the edge. The follow- ing pass can compact the edge with less shoving, Or, if available, use the side roll option to confine the mat edge. The selection of roller type, size, and quantity is influenced by the production rate of the paver. Other factors to con- sider when selecting compaction equipment include: type of site, special situations (bends, hills, confined areas, curb clearance, ete.), layer thickness, and type of material. But, primarily, it’s the production rate that determines the type of compactor put on a job. Can the compactor(s) keep up with the paver? Is the mat cooling down before density is reached? These are questions that must be answered. There are two formulas that can help in selecting compac- tion equipment to match expected production. Calculating Drum Width. The first formula is used to cal- culate the required compactor drum width when other job variables are known. The formula is: W =Jw+(@+ 1)xo n W = width of drum in inches (mm) Jw = width of job (mat) in inches (mm) n = number of passes (lanes) © = overlap in inchesAsphalt Compaction 83 el Matching Production Rates and Equipment ‘The numbers on a typical job could look like these: width of mat - 144" number of passes (lanes) - 2 overlap -- 6" When these numbers are substituted in the formula, the resulting calculation becomes: W = 144" + 2 x 6" 2 W = 144" + 12" 2 W = 156" W = 78" In this example, the drum width of the compactor should be 78" (1980 mm) to match the expected production rate. Calculating Production. The second formula works in another way. Here, all the machine variables are known and the result of the calculation will yicld the machine’s produc- tion rate expressed in cubic yards per hour. The formula is: cu. yd./hr = Wx$ x Lx 16.3 x.83 P W = effective width per pass in feet (meters) (See note) S$ = average speed in MPH L = compacted lift thickness 16.3 = constant 83 = efficiency rate (50 minute hour) P = number of passes required to achieve compactionAsphalt Compaction 84 Matching Production Rates and Equipment Note: In calculating the effective width of the compactor, the width of the laydown lane in relation to the drum width must be taken into consideration. Examples: e@ = Aroller with a78" (1981 mm) wide drum takes two drum widths to cover a 12’ (3.7m) lane. Therefore, the effec- tive rolling width is 6’ (1.8 m). @ Acompactor with a 67" (1702 mm) wide drum requires three passes to cover the same 12’ (3.7 m) lane. So, its effective rolling width is 4’ (1.2 m), @ A compactor with a 55" (1397 mm) wide drum also requires 3 passes to cover a 12’ (3.7m) lane. So, it, too, has an effective rolling width of 4’ (1.2m). To calculate the asphalt compaction production rate of any machine, substitute the known factors into the formula, For a compactor with an effective rolling width of 6 (1.8 m) making two passes at an average speed of 3 MPH ona 4" (100 mm) thick mat, here is the calculation: cu. yd/hr = 6x3x4x16.3x.83 2 cu. yd./hr = 974 2 cu. yd/hr = 487 You can find this formula and more information about production rates for individual Caterpillar Asphalt Com- pactors in the Caterpillar Performance Handbook and in the Caterpillar Compaction Equipment Guide.Glossary of Terms 85 AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AASHTO T-99 Standard AASHTO. Test used to find optimum moisture content needed to reach maximum density under 12,400 ft Ib effort. AASHTO T-180 Modified AASHTO. Test used to find optimum moisture content needed to reach maximum density under 56,200 ft Ib effort. Abrasion Wear caused by rubbing of coarse, hard or sharp particles. Adhesion In soils, the property which causes a soil to stick to buckets, blades, drums and other parts of excavators, compactors, etc. Aggregate Crushed gravel or rock screened to size for use in road surfaces, concrete or asphalt mixes. Amplitude Total peak to peak vertical movement per complete cycle of a vibrating drum. Asphalt A dark brown to black, liquid to solid, cemen- tatious material, primarily bitumen Asphalt Cement Asphalt refined to meet paving specifications. Ballast Weight that is not a permanent part of the compactor. Base Foundation layer usually consisting of selected aggregates. Binder Fines which hold gravel or other aggregates together. Binder Course Intermediate course between base course and surface course, usually an open-graded asphaltic concrete. Bitumen A combination of hydrocarbons and solvents in solution. Bituminous Surface Treatment Relatively thin bitumi- nous wearing surface, usually less than one inch thick. Penetration Type A layer of bituminous material followed by a covering of aggregate.Glossary of Terms 86 Road-Mix Type Open-graded aggregate and liquid bituminous material mixed on the roadway by a motor grader or similar tool. Borrow Pit Excavation from which material is taken for use in another location. Boulder A cohesionless aggregate, a round or angular fragment of rock with a particle size over 8" (203 mm) in diameter. Capillarity Property of soil which allows water to be drawn into it either upward or from the side. Centrifugal Force The force generated by the eccentric weight(s) rotating at a specified frequency inside the drum of a vibratory compactor. Clay Microscopic, flat particles derived from the chem- ical decomposition of rocks. Coarse Aggregate Aggregate retained on the No. 8 sieve. Cohesion In a soil, the property of its particles sticking together. Cohesion determines the capacity of a soil to resist shear stresses. Compactor A self-propelled or towed vehicle used to densify materials through the application of static force or centrifugal force combined with static force. Compressibility Soil property which allows soil to deform under load. Crown Elevation of a road center over the shoulders. Cutback Asphalt Asphalt cement blended with petroleum solvent to make it more workable. Dense Graded Aggregate Uniform gradation from maximum size to minimum size particles. Compacted specimen has very few voids. Density The weight of a unit volume of material expressed as pounds per cubic foot (kg/m) Elasticity Soil property which allows soil to return to its approximate original shape when the compressing load is removedGlossary of Terms 87 —_— Embankment A fill whose top is higher than the adjoining surface. Erosion Wear caused by moving water or wind. Expansion Increase in material volume due to increase in moisture content. Fine Aggregate That which passes No. 8 sieve. Frequency The number of complete cycles of the vibrating mechanism per minute. Gradation Distribution of particles sizes of aggregate. Gravel Cohesionless, round or angular, rock fragment witha particle size ranging from .08 to 3.0 inches (2 to 76 mm). Gumbo Clays distinguished by soapy or waxy appearance in the plastic state and by great toughness. Haul Distance The distance between the center of the mass of the excavation and the center of the mass of the fill. Humus Organic material created by the partial decomposition of plant matter. Impervious Resistant to the movement of water. Leveling Course An asphaltic concrete course used to eliminate irregularities. Liquid Limit (LL) The minimum moisture content at which a soil will flow when a small shearing force is applied. Expressed as a percent of water content per dry weight of the soil. Loam Soft, easily-worked soil containing sand, silt and clay. Mineral A crystalline structure with a definite chemical composition. Mineral Dust Finely divided mineral product, all of which will pass the No. 200 sieve. Open Graded Aggregate One containing little or no binder, resulting in fairly large voids after compaction.ry of Terms 88 Optimum Moisture Amount of water needed to coat each soil particle so the maximum weight per cubic foot for a given compactive effort can be reached. Pass A working one-way trip of a roller over a surface. A round trip, or lap, is two passes. Peat Fibrous aggregate of decayed vegetable matter. Permeability Property of material which permits water to flow through it. Plastic A soil is plastic if, at some water content, it can be rolled into thin threads. Plastic Limit (PL) The lowest moisture content at which the soil can be rolled into a 4" (3 mm) diameter thread without the thread breaking into pieces. Plasticity Index (PI) The numerical difference between the liquid and plastic limits of a soil. PI indicates the range of moisture content over which the soil is in a plastic condition. Pneumatic Tired Roller A compactor which imparts compactive effort through smooth rubber tires. Prime Coat Low viscosity liquid asphalt applied to an absorbent surface before any construction treatment of that surface. Proctor Tests Common term for ASSHTO tests. Sand Cohesionless, round or angular, rock fragment with particle size between 0.0002” and 0.08" (0.005 mm and 2.0 mm). Seal Coat Surface treatment of bituminous material covered by fine aggregate or sand. Applied to prevent the entry of moisture or air into the course on which it is placed. Shrinkage Reduction in volume when moisture content is reduced. Sieve Analysis Mechanical separation to determine the fractional amounts of various grain size material contained in a soil sample.Glossary of Terms 89 Silt A heavy soil intermediate between clay and sand. Static Force Force exerted on soil or asphalt by the machine’s static weight. Sub-base A thoroughly compacted portion of the embankment or special material directly under the base. Surface Course The top course of a pavement. Also called the wear course. Tack Coat Bituminous material placed on a base or existing pavement prior to laying a bituminous mat on it. The purpose is to insure a thorough bond between courses. Tamping Feet Specially designed and arranged projections on a compactor drum used to achieve compaction by a series of blows. Total Applied Force The sum of the centrifugal force plus the static force. Viscosity A measurement of resistance to flow. Windrow A ridge of loose soil, rock or asphalt mix.Index AASHTO test T-99 (standard)... test T-180 (modified) test 7-245... test 7-209... AASHTO Soil Classifications.................. 37 Asphalt Compaction Categories breakdown .5 i608 105 ERs Sa 8 finish .... intermediate Asphalt Compaction zane combination . pneumatic .. steel wheel static vibratory Asphalt Compaction, influences on ambient temperatur 64 mat thickness... - 64 mixdesign ..... . 61 mix temperature. - 62 Amplitude. . 10 Base Compaction crushed rock native soils. . stabilized soil Capilartty: —sceincesscoric ca eek MANE 30 Centrifugal Force. Compaction BOPNION orcs sie ww icuseaie cores economic impact . . specifications Compressibility .........0.... cece cee eee eee 31Index OL Control Stlip, xcnwaecaay cerca: meee 19 COE Gaps ccccccrcces emenanmame mee 15 Corkew &: Dicks 00: Curve e.scrsssceciasaree conconcee 65 Crowns, compaction of ....................264 81 Curves, compaction of ................. scores Drum Width Calculation ....................4 82 Effective Drum Width................-....--4 84 BRASH Sisvcssreccces dm uemenareecumncrawarsarncan 31 Embankment Compaction clay rock fill . sand and gravel silt Forces of Compaction impact .. manipulation static vibration OOREF sisccn ascccsecnamssmenceteae Marna aoa SE Harmonic Conver gemcce.. :0:5..:c00:0ce wa neswareen 14 TperimeaDHlty sccm erancmiaaws smemnmesisres ie 32 Linear Force (PLD ................2-.0 02220 5 Longitudinal Joints ¢ cx: ic siaqseerroe: cok cae 78 Nijboer Quotient

You might also like

• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4609)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (120)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (588)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1891)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (399)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (838)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (537)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5794)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (344)
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (599)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brene Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1090)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1712)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (895)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (821)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1103)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (440)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2322)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2100)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4200)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1839)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (73)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1937)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• Soil-Cement Inspector Manual PCA

  

  Document34 pages

  Soil-Cement Inspector Manual PCA

  chankawai28

  100% (1)
• Mayne Et Al - CPT 95 US Report

  

  Document16 pages

  Mayne Et Al - CPT 95 US Report

  galermm

  No ratings yet
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1015)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (806)
• Asphalt Paver Technical Manual

  

  Document1,106 pages

  Asphalt Paver Technical Manual

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  75% (12)
• Tack Coat PDF

  

  Document3 pages

  Tack Coat PDF

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet
• Use of Prime Coat

  

  Document3 pages

  Use of Prime Coat

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet
• Tack Coat PDF

  

  Document3 pages

  Tack Coat PDF

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet
• Datasheet Bw65h Bw75h Pre83409010 Sa02

  

  Document2 pages

  Datasheet Bw65h Bw75h Pre83409010 Sa02

  Dani Sherlock

  No ratings yet
• L

  

  Document40 pages

  L

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet
• Directrices Recomendadas de Rendimiento - Aema - Asphalt Emultions Manufacturers Association

  

  Document225 pages

  Directrices Recomendadas de Rendimiento - Aema - Asphalt Emultions Manufacturers Association

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet
• Felipe Halles Papertrb13 4177nov15vfinal

  

  Document15 pages

  Felipe Halles Papertrb13 4177nov15vfinal

  Kristi Rogers

  No ratings yet
• 15 - Asphalt Production and Paving PDF

  

  Document34 pages

  15 - Asphalt Production and Paving PDF

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet
• Dynamic Cone Penetration Test - Pavement Interactive

  

  Document2 pages

  Dynamic Cone Penetration Test - Pavement Interactive

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet
• ASTM D6067 - 10 Standard Practice For Using The Electronic Piezocone Penetrometer Tests For Environmental Site Characterization

  

  Document5 pages

  ASTM D6067 - 10 Standard Practice For Using The Electronic Piezocone Penetrometer Tests For Environmental Site Characterization

  Horacio Martin Basualdo Fiore

  No ratings yet