CHAPTER 7

HEAVY BRACING AND FRAMING CONNECTIONS

Most of the study in previous chapters is concerned with beam-and-column framing
using rolled structural members. However, industrial buildings (as well as some other
specialized building types) require large clear spans and/or heavy loadings, so that
rolled beam shapes are not always adequate to meet design requirements. In such
buildings, structural members built up of plates and/or shapes are often used instead.
This chapter deals with framing frequently used in industrial buildings to provide
large unobstructed work areas and/or to support heavy loads. Many of the details and
practices described will also be typical for other types of construction which require
built-up members in the framing system. The reader should also refer to the AISC
Technical Publication, Light and Heavy Industrial Buildings.
TYPES OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS
Built-up framing members in a roof or floor system usually are one of two types,
depending upon the spans, loads, and permissible depth of framing: built-up girders or
trusses. The building support columns also may be built-up in various configurations.
Built-Up Girders
The simplest type of built-up girder is one in which a rolled beam is reinforced by the
addition of cover plates to its flanges, as shown in Fig. 7-la.
Figure 7-lb shows a beam with a channel attached horizontally to its top flange to
provide greater lateral bending strength. This type of construction is used frequently in
industrial buildings to support crane rails for overhead traveling cranes, since the
operation of these cranes imposes substantial horizontal forces on the girder.
Figure 7-Ic shows a beam used in composite construction, where the concrete floor
slab, engaged by shear connectors, acts as part of the top flange. The bottom flange may
or may not be reinforced by a cover plate.
Deeper girders, built up entirely of plates, are shown in Figs. 7-ld and 7-le. Figure
7-ld shows a girder comprised of a web plate and two flange plates. Each flange usually
is made of a single thickness of plate, but plates of varying thicknesses may be spliced
end to end with groove welds, to provide greater strength in areas of maximum bending.
The box girder in Fig. 7-le is comprised of two flanges and two webs. Box girders are
particularly useful where lateral stability and resistance to torsion are required.
The design of crane girders may be in accordance with the criteria of the AISC
Specification, but may additionally be controlled by the AISE Guide for the Design and

Construction of Mill Buildings, Technical Report No. 13, AWS Welding Handbook or
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. While the design of these
members is beyond the scope of this text, it is important to note that crane runways in
heavy mill buildings should be analyzed carefully for fatigue loading considerations.
Certain critical details of design and fabrication are common to those used in highway
and railroad bridge and trestle work and are covered in text, illustration, and examples
in the AISC publication Bridge Fatigue Guide Design and Details. The reader is
referred to this source for a more comprehensive cause and effect discussion of design
criteria, details, and secondary connections that may also be pertinent and applicable in
heavy construction of all kinds. It is recommended that crane girders supporting heavy
loads be designed as simple spans.
Trusses

For long spans, trusses are often used instead of girders. Because of their greater depth,
trusses usually provide a greater stiffness and, therefore, reduced deflection, when
compared pound-for-pound with rolled beam or plate girder members of equal strength.
Six general types of trusses frequently used in building frames are shown in Fig.
7-2, together with modifications that can be made to suit particular conditions. The Pratt
truss (Fig. 7-2a) and the Warren truss (Fig. 7-2c), along with modifications of these
types shown in Figs. 7-2b and 7-2d, may be used as the principal supporting members in
floor and roof framing. Note that the Pratt and Warren trusses shown have a top chord
which is not quite parallel to the bottom chord. Such an arrangement is used to provide
a slope for the drainage of flat roofs. Most of the connections for the roof beams or
purlins supported by these trusses can be identical. This would not be the case if the top
chord were truly level and the elevation of the purlins had to be varied. When used in
floor framing, the Pratt and Warren trusses are designed with parallel chords.
The Fink truss (Fig. 7-2e) and the Scissors truss (Fig. 7-2h), along with
modifications shown in Figs. 7-2f, 7-2g, and 7-2i, serve a similar function in
symmetrical roofs having a pronounced pitch.
The Bowstring truss (Fig. 7-2j) is used to support a curved roof.
In some multistory buildings, free passage is needed through deep floor trusses.
In other buildings, especially in office areas, the appearance and arrangement of
exposed steel work must be considered. Both conditions may be satisfied with the
Vierendeel truss (Fig. 7-2k).
The chord and web members forming a truss are placed with the work lines of the
members intersecting at common points to form panel point connections. When loads
are applied only at the panel points of the trusses, as shown in Figs. 7-2a and 7-2b and
in Figs. 7-2d through 7-2i, the stress in each member will be a direct axial stress. These
axial stresses produce tension (+) in some of the members and compression () in the
other members, as indicated in the truss diagrams. In the case of the Bowstring truss
shown in Fig. 7-2j, the top chord and vertical members are in compression and the
bottom chord and diagonal members are in tension for the usual truss configuration.
Note, however, that when the top chord of a bowstring truss is actually formed to an arc,
as is frequently the case for small trusses, the deviation from a straight line chord
between panel points will produce a small amount of bending in the member. This will
require that the axial stress be increased by the additional compression induced by the
bending. In the case of the Vierendeel truss shown in Fig. 7-2k, since the sloping
diagonal members used in the other types of trusses are omitted, the top chord and
vertical web members are stressed in both compression and bending, and the bottom
chord members are stressed in both tension and bending. In this case, rigid joints are
required and the design details of all joint connections must be shown by the design
engineer.
When vertical loads are imposed on a truss at locations other than at panel points,

bending moments are produced in the member thus loaded. For example, the loads P
which are not at panel points in Fig. 7-2c create bending stresses in the top chord. These
must be added to the direct compression stress in the top chord. Ordinarily, the
maximum stress produced by such bending is greater than the stress due to direct
compression. Hence, if loads have to be supported at these points, vertical struts usually
are placed under them in the truss to transmit the load directly to the joint or panel point
in the bottom chord, as indicated in Fig. 7-2d. Similarly, if loads are applied at the
bottom chord, additional vertical tension members are added as indicated by the dashed
lines in Fig. 7-2d.
Transverse cross sections through three buildings, framed with trusses of the
general types previously discussed, are shown in Fig. 7-3. The cross section shown in
Fig. 7-3a could be for either a storage building or a light industrial building. In this case
a Fink truss has been used to provide a generous roof slope. Buildings of this type are
often designed to resist only the load from the weight of the roof itself plus the load
from wind and snow. The contents of the building are supported on the ground floor.
When this is the case, the construction is relatively light. The roof and exterior wall
covering may consist of light-gage cold-formed steel roof deck and siding. Ventilation
is provided by roof ventilators or wall louvers, and natural lighting may be obtained by
use of translucent panels installed in the walls and roof.
The cross section shown in Fig. 7-3b depicts a type of framing often used in
industrial buildings, where overhead traveling cranes handle heavy loads from one point
on the ground floor to another. When very large areas are to be covered by a roof, the
supporting trusses may be made continuous over a number of supporting columns, as
shown in Fig. 7-3c. Designed and fabricated as continuous spans, framing of this type is
frequently used for manufacturing buildings, warehouses, shopping centers, and many
other one-story structures.
All of the main members in a transverse frame, taken collectively, are frequently
referred to as a bent.

Columns
Columns of the type shown in Fig. 7-4 support the transverse beams, girders or trusses,
longitudinal crane girders, and other structural members in an industrial building. When
the construction is relatively light, single shaft columns (either one piece or stepped)
may be used, as shown in Figs. 7-4a and 7-4b. The use of a bracket support for a crane
girder such as shown in Fig. 7-4a usually is limited to about a 50-kip reaction.
For heavy mill building work, with heavy bridge cranes, the double and triple
shaft columns shown in Figs. 7-4c and 7-4d respectively provide a means of separately
supporting the crane girder reactions and the roof girder or truss loads. The multiple
shaft columns consist of one or two crane columns tied to the building columns by
diaphragms.

GENERAL BRACING CONSIDERATIONS

Every structure standing above the ground is affected by lateral wind forces, and may
also be subject to mechanical forces and seismic forces. Various systems of bracing are
used to provide paths for these horizontal forces to travel from their points of
application to the foundations. Buildings with traveling cranes are particularly subjected
to longitudinal and transverse horizontal forces resulting from the operation of the
cranes. In such cases, the building frame, the crane runway girders, and special bracing
are designed to provide paths to the building foundations. In addition, the change of the
buildings shape must be kept within acceptable limits. For example, the longitudinal
crane runway must be kept almost exactly straight if the cranes are to operate safely and
without excessive wear on the crane wheels and rails.
The framing members that transfer these forces to the ground may do so by their
resistance to either bending moments or axial forces. Because of the increased cost,
increasing the section of main members to resist bending usually is confined to cases
where axially stressed bracing members would interfere with the use of space. In a tier
building, for example, diagonal members might interfere with windows, doors, or
corridors.

Figure 7-5a shows a section through an imaginary building which is completely

unbraced. The wind forces, acting from the left and resisted at the ground, will cause the
building to deflect as shown in Fig. 7-5b.
In Fig. 7-5c, two knee braces (KB) have been added. These add bending
resistance to the joints between the truss and columns. The deeper the knee brace, the
more effective the bending resistance will be. The column is selected to resist the
bending moment that these knee braces impose when the wind load is applied, and the
deflection is thereby limited. Figure 7-5d shows the deformed shape of the building
(greatly exaggerated) when the bases of the columns are anchored to resist horizontal
and vertical forces. Figure 7-5e shows the deformed shape when the columns are also
anchored to resist moment at their bases. Given the same size columns, the bent in Fig.
7-5e will be much stiffer than the bent in Fig. 7-5d, because of its added resistance to
bending at the column bases.
If the space between the columns of Fig. 7-5a need not be free from obstruction,
a single diagonal rod, added as shown in Fig. 7-5f, will make the bent stable. Before the
roof truss could move horizontally to the right, the diagonal would have to stretch in
response to an axial tension. The () sign on the rod indicates that it is subject to a direct
tensile stress. Since wind may blow from either the right or the left, two diagonal rods
would be used, as in Fig. 7-5g. Rods, because of their extreme slenderness, are subject
to vibration. If vibration were a consideration, single angles, pairs of angles, or even
heavier shapes could be used. If stiff shapes are used in a double-lateral system, as
shown in Fig. 7-5g, the wind forces may divide (not necessarily equally) into two
different paths to the ground. One diagonal will be in tension and the other in
compression. It is normal practice to neglect the compressive capacity and make each
diagonal strong enough to take the whole force in tension.

The top chord plan in Fig. 7-6 shows ridge struts R, eave struts E, trusses T, roof
purlins P, and a system of diagonal braces. This plan actually represents the horizontal
projection of members which are located in the two sloping roof planes established by
the top chords of the trusses.
The ridge struts R, as shown, consist of two channels tied together by
diaphragms. They act to support the roofing and are a part of the bracing system. Each
of the eave struts E consists of a channel and angle combination, which supports the
roof and wall sheeting and forms part of the bracing system. The diagonal bracing
members, usually made up of single angles, act in conjunction with the eave and ridge
struts and the top chords of the roof trusses to provide a path through which wind forces
are delivered to the eaves of the building. These forces are then taken to the foundation,
partly through the action of the knee-braced columns shown in Section A-A and partly
through the end wall diagonals shown in the end view. The various parts of this bracing
system are designed to maintain the total distortion of the building framework within
the desired limits.
Top chord bracing may be designed in many ways. Diagonals usually are not
required in all panels. Usually the sole purpose of this bracing is to provide temporary
support until other components of the building can be installed or to aid in squaring up
the frame during erection.
Wind forces on the end of a building are transmitted partly to the foundation and
partly to the truss bottom chord level through the gable end columns and girts. These
plus other longitudinal forces, such as crane friction or bumper forces, are then
transmitted down to the ground through a system of diagonals as shown in the side
elevation of Fig. 7-6. It is good practice to locate this longitudinal bracing at the
midpoint between building expansion joints or at the midpoint of the building without
expansion joints. This bracing preferably will be in the corresponding bays across the
width of the building.
A Continuous horizontal bracing system should be provided in the bottom chord
plane in buildings with overhead cranes (see bottom chord plan, Figs. 7-6 and 7-7). The
starting and stopping of the crane trolley, traveling from side to side, sets up forces that
in turn may cause an objectionable sidesway in one or more of the bents. To provide for
the lateral and longitudinal forces from the cranes, particular attention should be given
to bracing in the plane of the bottom chord of the roof trusses. A special analysis of the
bracing and affected bents should be made if the bracing is interrupted, as at a crane
repair location or an expansion joint.
While bracing is preferably designed as the X type, it sometimes happens that
operating or architectural clearances prohibit its use. The K brace is a good alternate
and usually can be designed to accommodate access and openings.
When it becomes impossible to provide either an X or K-bracing system, it is
necessary to distribute the horizontal forces to the effective columns in proportion to
their respective stiffnesses, using an acceptable design analysis procedure.

To provide additional bracing, sway frames (SF) frequently are placed between
pairs of roof trusses, as shown in Section A-A, Fig. 7-7.
Wind and other forces in bracing members should be calculated by the design
engineer and noted on the plans. However, the selection of nominal bracing usually is
based upon judgment and experience. An upstanding leg depth of not less than /9 of the
unsupported length is frequently used in proportioning angle bracing in a horizontal or
sloped plane. The size of bracing may be dictated also by a slenderness limitation (ii r),
which will necessitate the use of a section larger than that which stress alone would
require. When this is the case, the designer may proportion the end connections for the
given force, subject to the minimum load provisions of the AISC Specification (Sect. Ji
.6, ASD; Sect. Jl.5, LRFD). However, when the joint is made with fasteners, the usual
practice is to provide a minimum of two fasteners at each end of such members. The
spacing of stitch fasteners or welds in double-angle bracing will depend on whether the
member is subject to a compression force or to tension only (see AISC Specification
Sect. E4 and D2, ASD and LRFD).
To provide adequate lateral restraint for a column or other compression member,
the restraining member must have sufficient stiffness and strength. A rigorous analysis
is beyond the scope of this book, but one procedure of long practice is to provide a
bracing system to resist a force of 2 percent of the compression force it restrains. Recent
studies indicate that this is very conservative.
Because of the tendency of a knee brace to also act as a support, it is
recommended that they not be used under a crane girder unless the resulting continuity
is recognized in the girder design.

EXPANSION JOINTS
Although industrial buildings are often constructed of flexible materials, roof and
structural expansion joints are still required when horizontal dimensions are large. It is
not possible to state exact requirements relative to distances between expansion joints
because of the many variables involved such as ambient temperature during
construction and the expected temperature range during the life of the buildings. An
excellent reference on the topic of thermal expansion in buildings and location of
expansion joints is the Federal Construction Councils Technical Report No. 65,
Expansion Joints in Buildings.
The report presents the figure shown here as Fig. 7-8 as a guide for spacing
structural expansion joints in beam and column frame buildings based on design
temperature change. The report includes data for numerous cities. The report gives five
modifying factors which should be applied to the Allowable Building Length as
appropriate.

The report indicates that the curve is directly applicable to buildings of beam-andcolumn construction, hinged at the base, and with heated interiors. When other conditions
prevail, the following rules are applicable:
1. If the building will be heated only and will have hinged-column bases, use the
allowable length as specified;
2. If the building will be air conditioned as well as heated, increase the allowable length
by 15 percent (provided the environmental control system will run continuously);
3. If the building will be unheated, decrease the allowable length by 33 percent;
4. If the building will have fixed column bases, decrease the allowable length by 15
percent.
5. If the building will have substantially greater stiffness against lateral displacement at
one of the plan dimensions, decrease the allowable length by 25 percent.
When more than one of these design conditions prevail in a building, the percentile factor
to be applied should be the algebraic sum of the adjustment factors of all the various applicable
conditions.
As far as type of structural expansion joint is concerned, most engineers agree that the
best method is to use a line of double columns to provide a complete and positive separation at
the joints. When joints other than the double column type are employed, low friction sliding
elements are generally used. Such systems are never totally free and induce some level of
inherent restraint to movement.
In addition most building codes include restrictions on location and spacing of fire walls.
Such fire walls often become locations for expansion joints. In these cases the detailing of joints
is indeed a challenge.

SIDEWALL AND ROOF FRAMING

The horizontal lines shown between the columns in the elevation views of Figs. 7-6 and 7-9
represent girt framing. Gins, usually channels or angles, support the vertical siding and carry
wind load to the columns. Note in the end view, Fig. 7-6, that intermediate or end wall columns
have been provided in the gable end to reduce the unsupported length of gifts. Note also that a
typical truss is provided at each end of the building. This permits removal and relocation of end
wall framing, in case of a future addition, without having to reinforce the trusses.
Girts that carry the typical metal sheeting are frequently proportioned o that the
horizontal depth is not less than 1/60 of the span. Gins that support steel sash should be stiffer,
and a horizontal depth of not less than s of the span frequently is used. The gifts should be
specially designed for high wind or blast pressure areas or, when required, to accommodate the
type of siding material used.
Roof purlins and wind or girt columns supporting metal sheeting are frequently
proportioned for a ratio of depth-to-length of /32. Other materials, unusual loading, or deflection
requirements must be investigated by the designer.
Round sag rods are usually furnished to distribute the gravity loads of gifts and purlins or
roof beams back to a supporting member. They are also used to control deflection and to stiffen
the girt or purlin. Sag rods are usually of 5/8-in. or 3/4-in, diameter and are spaced about six to
eight feet apart.
The following suggestions and details have been developed over a long period of time,
have proven to be adequate and cost-effective, and are recommended when and where
appropriate:
1. Both channels and wide-flange sections are used as roof purlins, with the latter most
popular on flat roofs. When so used on a sloping roof, the channel toes should point
upward to permit the erector to walk the member. When corrosion is a consideration, the
channel should toe down, but at additional inconvenience and expense of erection. A
channel that is toed upward will be more nearly loaded through its shear center by the
gravity roof loads.
2. Girts usually are placed so that they toe downward to avoid the accumulation of dirt and
debris. Openings for doors and sash, however, will sometimes require the girts to toe up.
3. Figure 7-9, Section B-B, shows the girts located on the column face, where they are
connected to a girt clip angle with field bolts; two bolts normally are used for connecting
each girt end. The girt line is established by the depth of the typical girt member and half
column depth; it is desirable to avoid coping or blocking the girt to clear the column.
When the girt alignment is critical, e.g., at sash or wall panels, it is good practice to
provide a clearance of -in, to -in between the face of column and back of girt and to
provide slotted holes for adjustment.
4. A girt clip angle is bolted or welded to the column flange and positioned to avoid coping
or blocking the girt. Since the gravity loads usually are quite small, only a nominal
connection is required.
5. As a tension member, the sag rod is very efficient in distributing gravity forces in the
girts or purlins. Two methods are in general use and are identified in Figs. 7-9a and 7-9b
as straight sag rods A and trussed sag rods B:
a. Straight type sag rods A:
This method is used for moderate width and height buildings of near symmetrical
dimensions. The gravity loads of the siding are carried up to the eave strut and
then up the roof slope to the ridge with the forces on either side of the building
being utilized to offset those on the opposite side for both the siding and roofing.
In this instance, the sag rods are installed in each space and a suitable diaphragm
is used at the ridge strut for a load transfer. The sag rod size should not exceed
the size of the field bolts, to avoid double punching the purlins.

b. Trussed type sag rods B:

This method is used for those high or wide buildings where the gravity forces
would require excessively large sag rods or for other structural or architectural
reasons, e.g., at windows or louvers. In this instance a trussed sag rod is used to
transfer the forces back to the column, rafter, or truss connection, as shown in
Fig. 7-9, Detail A or B.
The compressive component of this trussed sag rod is usually nominal and may be
assumed resisted by the roofing or siding. When this component would be undesirable,
e.g., at glazed windows or louvers, a strut rod or light angle could be provided as
indicated by the dashed line from the top purlin or girt to the eave strut in Fig. 7-9a
or 7-9b.
6. The sag rod also can be used to advantage to provide lateral support to the inside
flange of the purlin or girt at intermediate lengths by using hole pattern A, as shown in
Section C-C, Fig. 7-8. Hole pattern B does not provide this same control. The sag rods
in Section B-B of Fig. 7-9 are not required to be bent in most cases, since the slope
gradient usually is quite small.
7. Straight sag rods are usually connected with one nut on each end. If oversized holes
are present, a washer should be used. Trussed sag rods should be connected with two
nuts on each end.
8. Girts and purlins may be subject to negative wind pressures that cause compression
stresses in the interior flanges. Lateral bracing must be added as required to support
the interior flange. The exterior flange gains its support from the siding. Sag rods can
provide adequate lateral support if arranged using hole pattern A of section C-C,
Fig. 7-9b. In this case double nuts must be used, as shown in Fig. 7-9c, so that some
compression load can be carried by the sag rod. Also, for the single diagonal sag rod

shown in Fig. 7-9c, four to six girts can generally be carried on a bay size of 20
to 25 ft before excessive twist occurs. For large girts, where double sag rods
are used, support for the inside flange can be provided by the double diagonal
sag rods of Fig. 7-9c.

DESIGN INFORMATION
Figure 7-10 is a design drawing of a light industrial building designed according to the
AJSC ASD Specification. (This drawing and other design drawings in this chapter are
not intended as models of the best design practice. They have been developed primarily to
furnish examples to illustrate principles of shop detailing practices.) This drawing, prepared by
the designer, gives the fabricator the necessary information to prepare shop drawings for the
structural frame. The drawing must indicate whether it is an ASD or an LRFD design if it shows
member forces for connection design.
A composite plan view shows both the top and bottom chord bracing and the braced bays
requiring sway frames. The size of the eave struts is indicated on the plan, but their location is
shown on the typical wall detail. The size and location of the purlins and girts are shown in the
top chord plan and in the side elevation. Sag rods are used to align purlins and girts.
The cross section taken through the 60-ft width of the structure shows the sizes of the
columns, knee braces, and truss components. The designer has indicated the axial tension and
compression forces in the truss and knee braces. These are needed by the steel detailer to
develop adequate connections. Two sets of forces are indicated: those produced by the gravity
loads and those caused by wind. The wind forces are given the designation () to indicate
tension or compression, because the wind may blow in either direction against the sides of the
building. The gravity forces, since they are produced by loads which act in only one direction
(downward), are either () or (), never both.

Under combined gravity and wind loads, or combined gravity and seismic loads,
the AISC ASD Specification (Sect. A5.2) permits the allowable stresses to be increased
by one-third. Two alternative methods for designing truss connections with the onethird allowable stress increase are commonly used. In the first method, 3/4 of the
maximum combined wind and gravity load in the member, i.e.,
3/4 x [(26) + (55)1 = 60.8 kips
is used with the tabulated allowable connection values shown in the ASD Manual Part 4
or with the allowable stresses for welds and bolts in Sect. J of the ASD Specification. In
the second method, the maximum combined member force, i.e.
(26) + (55) = 81 kips
is used and the allowable fastener values or the allowable stresses are increased by onethird.
It is important that the designer and steel detailer understand these are two
alternate methods of arriving at the same answer. Some designers give the required
connection forces as shown in Fig. 7-10 ( 26 kips wind force and 55 kips gravity
force). Others would substitute the single 60.8 kip force previously discussed
(perhaps rounded off to 61 kips). Unless the design drawing clearly shows the total
force produced by wind loading, normal allowable working stresses should be used in
developing the connection details.
One of the advantages of listing the forces, as in Fig. 7-10, is that the design
indicates whether any of the double-angle truss members may be subject to both tension
and compression. If the magnitude of the reversible force is such that a dead load tensile
force is less than the compressive wind force, the spacing of the stitch fasteners or
welds connecting the two angles would then be governed by the more restrictive
Specification criteria for compression members (Specification Sects. D2 and E4).

For LRFD designs, the designer must give the critical factored member forces,
and clearly indicate that they are for factored loads. These can then be used directly with
the design loads for connections tabulated in the LRFD Manual Part 5, or the design
strengths for welds and bolts in Section 1 of the LRFD Specification. No one-third
increase is applied here because the effect has already been considered in the load
factors.
Design drawings of trusses should show all dimensions that are required to
establish the necessary working points and distances between working points. However,
the exact position of the working points locating diagonal bracing is often left for
determination by the steel detailer.
The columns in Fig. 7-10 have been proportioned by the designer to resist in
bending (acting in conjunction with the roof truss) the moderate amount of wind load
against the wall siding. The column bases are assumed to be free to rotate (as in Fig. 7Sd), unless otherwise specified by the designer. Therefore, the column details will be
relatively simple.
Figure 7-11 is a design drawing of an industrial building which must support an
overhead traveling crane having a lifting capacity of 15 tons. In this building the
columns are subject to large bending stresses because, in addition to the bending
moments induced by wind loads, the operations of the crane will impose horizontal
forces at the crane girder level, which must be resisted by the columns in bending.
In designing this structure, the designer needs to give careful attention to the
problem of developing suitable connections for the stepped columns, where the upper
shaft is spliced to the lower shaft and where the lower shaft is fastened to the
foundation. These connections form a very important part of the structure. The designer
has indicated (as he always should) the desired makeup of these connections. The steel
detailer must follow the design drawing in detailing these connections or, in special
cases, obtain approval from the designer before varying any details. If any questions
arise, the designer should be consulted.

TRUSSES
Types of Construction
Figure 7-2 and the accompanying text presented the various types of truss designs in general use
for industrial construction. The current method of construction is. predominantly welded
connections in the shop and bolted connections in the field, although some shop fabrication with
bolted connections will be found. Both types of construction will be discussed in this section.
The practicing engineer may, however, encounter the need to investigate existing riveted truss
construction in older buildings. The same principles apply as for bolts in bearing-type
connections, recognizing the relative strength and condition of the existing material.
Welded trusses have certain inherent advantages over bolted trusses. There is a saving in
material, because the members usually do not have any holes for fasteners; therefore, tension
members may be designed on the basis of gross section. There also is less detail material, as
gusset plates joining truss components are eliminated in most cases, resulting in a savings in
weight and, usually, less expensive fabrication.
The type of welded truss most commonly used consists of tee sections for the top and
bottom chords and angles for the web members, as shown in Figs. 7-11 and 7-13. It will be
noted that the web angles extend over and are welded to the stem of the tee, thus eliminating the
need for gusset plates in most cases.
For lightly loaded trusses, single web members are often used. In this case, placing all
web members on the same side of the chord minimizes twisting of the chord. Staggering the
web members causes a torque on the chord. As shown below, C x e = T x e.

When the forces are too large for a tee section to be used for the chords, W
shapes, with the web vertical, may be used instead. This requires the use of gusset
plates, which are welded to the bottom flange of the top chord section and to the top
flange of the bottom chord section. Web member angles are welded to the gusset plates.
It is important to note that the use of W shapes as truss members may require special
considerations as subsequently discussed under Splices and Connections in Heavy
Shapes.
For heavily loaded trusses and those with very long spans, W shapes are
sometimes used for both chord and web members as shown in Fig. 7-12. With member
orientation as shown for the field-welded truss joint in Fig. 7-12a, connections usually
are made by groove welding flanges to flanges and fillet welding webs directly or
indirectly by the use of gussets. Because the fitting-up of joints in this type of
construction is seriously affected by dimensional variations in the rolled shapes (see
Standard Mill Practice, Rolling Tolerances, Manual Part 1), members made by welding
plates into H-shapes are preferred by some fabricators.

The gusset plate in Fig. 7-12a acts as an erection aid and also transfers the
diagonal web stress. This same joint detail is used frequently for shop connections. It
would appear that the diagonal member could be cut so that the diagonal web would be
extended into the web of the chord for a direct connection. However, such a detail,
while possible, usually will be more difficult in material preparation and assembly,
since the welding access becomes very limited. Note the obvious difficulty of welding
the gusset or diagonal directly to the chord web. As illustrated, this weld is usually
omitted.
The joint detail shown in Fig. 7-12b is typical for the condition when the chord
web is vertical. Access holes (rat holes) are provided for clearance in making the full
penetration welds. The access holes must be made carefully in accordance with the
Specifications (Sect. J1.8, ASD; Sect. Jl.1 1, LRFD; also refer to the Commentaries).
Stiffeners may be required in the chord web. This connection is analogous to that of a
moment connection, and the stiffener design as well as the need for a stiffener can be
established by the rules of the AISC Specifications (Sect. K 1, ASD and LRFD).
When the designer investigates the need for stiffeners or web reinforcement, it may be
prudent to consider the selection of a heavier section and/or a section with a higher yield
strength. Avoiding stiffeners and web doublers may result in considerable economy.
Refer to Chapter 6 for a discussion of stiffeners.

Splices and Connections in Heavy Shapes

Special considerations for materials and fabrication apply when splices are made by full
penetration welding in heavy rolled shapes (ASTM A6 Groups 4 and 5) or in built-up
members with plates exceeding two inches in thickness. The Specifications (Sect. A3. 1
.c, ASD; Sect. A3.la, LRFD) require that the material have a minimum average Charpy
V-notch toughness of 20 ft-lbs at +70F. The Specifications further recommend that
these toughness requirements also be considered for welded full-penetration joints
other than splices in heavy rolled and built-up members subject to primary tensile
stress. In addition to the toughness requirements, the Specifications (Sect. J1.7, ASD;
Sect. Jl.l0, LRFD) give requirements pertaining to weld access hole details (Sect. 11.8,
ASD; Sect. 31.11, LRFD), welding procedures (Sect. 32.6, ASD; Sect. 32.7, LRFD),
welding preheat (Sect. J2.7, ASD; Sect. 32.8, LRFD), and thermal cut surface
preparation and inspection (Sect. M2.2, ASD and LRFD). The purpose of these
requirements is to minimize the possibility of a brittle fracture failure. Heavy sections
are more susceptible than thinner ones because of the additional restraint they afford to
weld shrinkage, and because of zones of low toughness material that may be
encountered. The commentaries to the Specifications (Sect. 31.7, ASD; Sect. 31.10,
LRFD) provide further information, including alternative splice details and details for
weld access holes and beam copes.
It will be noted by referring to Fig. 7-13 that the gravity axes (through the centers
of gravity of the cross sections) of the web and chord sections serve as working lines.
This is a basic difference from bolted construction, where gage lines are used for the
working lines. It is common practice to modify work lines slightly from the gravity axis
to establish repetitive panels and avoid fractional dimensions less than /s-in. Such
adjustments have negligible effect and tend to simplify layout and calculation effort.
Members of bolted trusses, except in the case of very heavily loaded trusses,
usually are made up of angles, because of the ease with which they may be connected
by a single gusset plate at each panel point. Generally a pair of angles, with one angle
placed on either side of the connection gusset plate, is fabricated to act as a single
composite unit.
When equal leg angles are used, there can be no misunderstanding as to which
legs should be placed back-to-back. When unequal leg angles are used in either welded
or bolted construction, it is important that the proper legs be assembled together. In
tension members, the wider legs generally are placed against the stems of chord tee
sections or the gusset plates. In compression members, the proper arrangement of
unequal leg angles is very important. This fact will be appreciated after a careful study
of the Table of Allowable Concentric Loads on double angles, ASD Manual Part 3 or
Design Axial Strength of Double Angles, LRFD Manual Part 2. The total concentric
compression load permitted on a pair of angles having their long legs back-to-back is
considerably greater than the load allowed when the same angles, having the same
unbraced lengths, are assembled with their short legs together.
As can be noted in the sketch at the top of the load tables, the Y-Y axis of the
double-angle member will lie in the plane of the stems of the tee sections or the gusset
plates when they are placed between the angles. In the plane of the tee section stems or
the gussets, the web members of a truss provide transverse support to the compression
top chord at each panel point. Therefore, the unsupported length, as far as the X-X axis
of the top chord is concerned, is the distance between panel points.
To prevent buckling from occurring about the Y-Y axis of the top chord when the
truss is fully loaded, horizontal support must be provided directly by the floor, the roof
construction, or a system of bracing. Thus, the unsupported length of the top chord, as
far as Y-Y axis loads are concerned, may be zero in the case of a directly conneted
floor or roof deck. However, if the loading is applied through beams or purlins, the

unsupported length may be the distance between these members, and may extend over
more than one panel length.

When the angles are to be fabricated with their long legs outstanding, this is
indicated on the design drawing by the notation
. This practice is illustrated in
Figs. 7-10 and 7-11. When the long legs are to be back-to-back, the notation
is used.
Similarly, design drawings must show the relative position of the long and short legs for
a single angle. On detail drawings these symbols are replaced by the standard angle
notation (L). Other notations that may be used include: SLBBShort legs back-toback; LLBBLong legs back-to-back; LLVLong legs vertical; LLHLong legs
horizontal; SLVShort legs vertical; SLHShort legs horizontal. In bolted
construction, the placement of the long and short legs is frequently obvious from the
gages. Otherwise, the size of one of the legs must be dimensioned. In welded
construction, the size of one of the legs of unequal leg angles must always be shown on
the detail drawing.

The Tables of Allowable Axial Loads on Structural Tees Cut from W Shapes in
the ASD Manual Part 3 give allowable compression loads for steels of F = 36 ksi and F
= 50 ksi for each tee section. The effect of 1 / r becomes obvious in these tables and
indicates, by comparison, the load efficiency of the two grades of steel. It will be noted
that the higher strength steel has little or no advantage in a great many of the tabulated
values. The same conclusion can be reached by reviewing the Tables of Design Axial
Strength of Structural Tees Cut from W Shapes included in the LRFD Manual Part 2.
These tables are particularly useful in the design of welded trusses with tee chords and
similar applications.
Truss Panel Point ConnectionsWelded Trusses
Figure 7-1 3a shows an enlarged detail of joint U3 of the truss design shown in Fig. 711; it represents the typical treatment of intermediate web connections. Note that the
gravity axes of the vertical and diagonal members intersect on the neutral axis of the tee
chord. Both ASD and LRFD examples of connection design will be shown for this
truss. Accordingly, the member forces for both ASD and LRFD are shown in Fig. 7-11,
Part III.
In order to lend stiffness to the finished truss, the angles comprising one of the
web members at each joint (in this case, U3L3) are extended to near the edge of the
fillet of the tee (k-distance). The required welds are then applied along the heel and toe
of each angle, beginning at their ends rather than at the edge of the tee stem.
It is common practice to place more weld along the heel of the angle than along its
toe. The intent is to minimize any eccentricity that may arise due to the location of
welds with respect to the gravity axes of the connected angles. Tests have shown,
however, that little difference in static load capacity exists between balanced and
unbalanced connections of this nature, and AISC Specifications (Sect. J1.9, ASD; Sect.
J1.6, LRFD) sanctions placing these welds as the joint geometry dictates for statically
loaded members. As will be seen later, sometimes the limitations on weld size are such
that the same size weld must be used at the heel and toe of the angle, and the geometry
of the joint may result in more weld being placed along the toe than along the heel.
The sizes and lengths of weld are determined in accordance with the principles
outlined in Chapter 2. Generally they are made just large enough to transfer the given
axial loads, but this may be affected by the minimum requirements stipulated in the
Specifications (Sect. Ji .5 and Ji .6, ASD; Sect. J1.5, LRFD). See Design Example 3
later in this section.
The diagonal member at joint U1 (Fig. 7-13b) is cut to provide needed weld
length along the angle toe. It might have been possible to swing this member up and to
the right and thereby obtain the necessary length with a square cut end. However,
moving the diagonal also means moving its gravity axis away from the joint
intersection. This will introduce eccentricity and a consequent moment which, when
added to the axial forces, tends to overstress the chord. All gravity axes should intersect
at a common point at each joint unless the eccentricity is considered.
Despite the above recommendation, it is not always practical to place gravity axes
exactly on work lines. Members are sometimes purposely moved slightly to provide
connections for bottom lateral bracing, purlins, sway frames, etc. The resulting
moments are relatively small and are usually neglected.

Limitations on Weld SizeThe sizes of the fillet welds at the ends of truss members
in Fig. 7-11 are subject to the following restrictions (AISC Specifications, Sect. J2.2b,
ASD and LRFD):
1. The maximum size fillet weld along the toes of angles should be 1/16-in. less
than the angle thickness. However, the maximum strength of the welds cannot
exceed the block shear strength of the gusset plate or tee stem to which it is
attached. See Specifications Sect. J4, ASD and LRFD.
2. The minimum size fillet weld depends on the thickness of the thicker part
joined. In the examples that follow, the top and bottom chord tee stems 1/2..
and 7/16..j, thick) are thicker than the angles connected to them. The minimum
size fillet weld is 3/16j in both cases.
Procedure for Determining Amount of Weld Required The amount of weld
required at ends of truss members can be determined by one of the following methods:
1. Divide the length available for welding into the tensile or compressive force for
which the connection is to be designed. This will give the weld value required
per linear inch, from which the size of fillet weld can be determined. The
length available for welding can be scaled from a detail of the truss if the joint
details are drawn accurately and to sufficiently large scale, preferably 1 in. =
1-O. Unless a separate layout is made to a larger scale, it is advisable to
deduct at least /2-in. from the scaled dimension in determining the length
available for welding.
2. Assume a size of fillet weld and divide the value of this weld into the tensile or
compressive force for which the connection is to be designed. This will give
the length of weld required.
3. Determine the total number of linear inches of l/i6fl. weld required, by dividing
the value per inch of a /16-in. weld into the force for which the connection is
to be designed. Then, by trying various combinations of weld size and length,
the size and length of weld can be determined. This method is particularly
advantageous if different size welds are to be used at the heel and toe of the
angle.
In establishing the length of fillet weld, there must also be sufficient additional
length in which to start and stop the weld in order to obtain the full effective weld size.
Note that the minimum length of a fillet weld is four times its size.

Truss Panel Point ConnectionsBolted Trusses

The 10-panel truss is shown in Fig. 7-14 as it would appear on the designers
plans. Both ASD and LRFD examples of connection design will be shown for this truss.
Accordingly, the member forces for both ASD and LRFD are shown in Fig. 7-14, Part
II.
While the load at each panel point is not indicated, it may be readily determined
from the tabulated member forces. For the ASD design, the 19-kip compression force in
vertical members cg and eh and the 85.5-kip end reaction (4.5 x 19 = 85.5) show that a
load of 19.0 kips is applied at each interior panel point. Similarly, for the LRFD design,
a factored load of 28.5 kips is applied at each interior panel point.
The design calls for 7/8j A325-N shop bolts and a minimum gusset plate thickness
of 3/8-in. The layout of joint b is shown in Fig. 7-15.
Since the left hand diagonal is a compression member, and net section is not
involved, many fabricators would locate the bolts in pairs, as shown in Fig. 7-15. This
fastener pattern meets the requirement of AISC Specifications (Sect. 33.8, ASD; Sect.
J3.9, LRFD).
The force in the top chord and the vertical load at the panel point requires no more
than eight bolts. These bolts are distributed over the full length of the gusset plate. This
length, as dictated by the horizontal distance between the extreme bolt in each of the
two diagonals, is considerably more than required for minimum bolt spacing, even on
one gage line. Nevertheless, two gage lines and staggered bolts have been used in
accordance with usual practice.
No real economy will be achieved by crowding the bolts together along the chord
angles so that the plate can be cut back on a skew to save material. Actually, this may
increase the cost, by increasing the number of cuts required to trim the plate edges,
since the material saved is usually scrap. Therefore, in this case, rectangular gusset
plates are preferable.
Theoretically, if all eccentricity of axial loading is to be avoided, the gravity axis
of the angle members and the working line of the truss should coincide. However, the
resulting eccentricities are so small that AISC Specifications (Sect. Ji .9, ASD) permit
the use of standard gage lines of the angles as truss working lines. (Note that this is not
specifically mentioned in the LRFD Specification but is considered good practice.) In
the case of angle legs 5 in. and more in width, for which two gages are standard, the line
nearest the heel of the angle is the one which is substituted for the gravity axis.
Regardless of their actual shapes, plates usually are billed on a shop drawing by
the dimensions of the smallest rectangle from which they can be cut. If plates can be
multiplied, as indicated in the sketch below, the method of billing depends upon the
practice of the individual fabricator. Some may prefer to bill the plate in the usual
manner, and add a note or small sketch on the shop bill in the Remarks column.
Others may prefer to bill the length required for two plates, and note that 1 cuts 2 after
the billing.

Truss Chord SplicesWelded

Chord splices in welded trusses usually are made with complete penetration groove
welds. Joint preparation and welding are performed in accordance with AISC
Specifications (Sect. J2, ASD and LRFD). Where abutting members of different cross
sections occur in tension splices, it is required to provide a slope through the transition
zone which does not exceed 1 in 2/2 (43/4 in 12, approximately). This is accomplished
by cutting external corners and sloping the weld faces (see Fig. 7-16a). Where the
difference in thickness is too great, it is necessary to chamfer the thicker part as well as
slope the weld face (see Fig. 7-l6b).
Where tee or W shapes are spliced, complete penetration welds on the flanges require
notching of the web to permit the use of backing bars, back welds, or second welds (see
Fig. 7-16c) . Extension bars and backing bar extensions are required to insure that the
full cross-sectional area of the groove weld is effective for the entire width of the flange.
Refer to Chapter 2 for additional discussion of extension bars and backing bars.
The access holes must be carefully made in accordance with the Specifications (Sect.
J1.8, ASD; Sect. Jl.ll, LRFD; also refer to the Commentaries). Also see the previous
discussion in this chapter under Splices and Connections in Heavy Shapes for special
considerations that may apply.
The AISC Specifications recognize that the strength of complete penetration groove
welds is equal to that of the connected material, provided the proper weld metal is used.
Refer to Chapter 2 for additional discussion.
Tension splices should be checked for required net section. Usually the access or notch
hole is left open in the completed joint.
Chord splices are expensive to fabricate and should be avoided wherever possible. Joint
U4, Fig. 7-11, indicates a bend in the top chord because of the roof slope. Some
fabricators would cut and groove weld this chord, while others would substitute a
simple bend. If within the capacity of shop equipment, bending is a satisfactory solution
for most slightly pitched trusses.
In field bolted construction, field splices in chords require splice material which may be
bolted on both sides of the joint, or shop welded on one side and field bolted on the
other side. In either case, the principles involved are the same as or similar to those
discussed in the following section on splices in bolted construction.

Truss Chord SplicesBolted

In Fig. 7-14, the design drawing calls for a change in the size of both the top and bottom
chord angles of the truss. Smaller size members are used in the chord where the force is
less than in the adjacent section. Splice plates are required to connect the different size
chord members.
It might seem that the size of the bottom chord angles could also be changed at panel
point h. However, because of the smaller difference in stress in adjacent chord members
at point h, any saving in plain material probably would be more than offset by the
additional cost of the splice. In general, chord splices in ordinary building trusses are
confined to cases where:
1. The finished truss is too long or too deep to ship in one piece and, therefore,
field splices must be provided.
2. The truss is so long that a single length of plain material is unavailable or may
be purchased only at a premium price.
3. A large reduction in size of chord members justifies the cost of a splice.
4. A sharp change in direction of the chord line occurs, as in Fink or Scissors
trusses.
The splices indicated by the design in Fig. 7-14 might fall in category 3. Assume
that the fabricators plant is so equipped, and so located with respect to the building site,
that the truss can be shipped in one piece. Two methods of splicing the lower chord near
panel point g will be discussed. Design examples for each method are included.
Splice Away from Gusset Plate In Fig. 7-14, the design indicates a chord splice
location just to the left of the panel point. Figure 7-17 is a detail of the chord splice, in
which the splice in the bottom chord has been arbitrarily located two feet to the left of
panel point g, where it is clear of the gusset plate.
In designing a splice, it is good practice to proportion the required fasteners and amount
of splice material for each leg of the splice angles in such a manner that the stress will
be uniformly distributed over the cross section of the member at the splice. following
this practice will avoid any shear lag effect.

Splice at Gusset Plate Although the design indicated the chord splices in Fig. 7-14
to the left of the panel points, in most cases an adequately designed splice at the panel
point also may be used.
In Fig. 7-18a, the bottom chord splice at panel point g (Fig. 7-14) is located l/2-in. to
the left of the panel point. It could have been made right at the panel point, but the
distribution of bolts along the chord angles is more uniform with the splice as shown.
The three bolts through the upstanding legs of the lighter chord angles in this case also
pass through the gusset plate. This, however, does not decrease the number of bolts
required in the 6x6xV2 chord angles, all of which are needed to transmit the horizontal
component of force from the diagonals to these angles.
Figure 7-1 8b is a diagram showing the direction of the forces in the various
components on the right-hand side of the splice. It may be seen that the shear on the
bolts produced by the splice plates and the shear produced by the gusset plate, being on
different transverse planes, are not additive. The splice plates work with the gusset plate
to place the four bolts in bearing on each 6x6xY angle.
In developing the details shown in Fig. 7-18a, which is similar to Fig. 7-17, no part of
the spliced 68.4-kip force (102.6 kip for LRFD design) was assumed to pass through
the gusset plate. The practice of making the splice plates large enough to take all of the
spliced force is conservative and simplifies the design.
When part of the gusset plate (usually the width of the chord angles) is used to splice
the chord, an investigation must be made of the shear and bending capacity of the gusset
plate. Note that the bottom splice plate n also is used as a gusset plate for the bottom
chord struts.
In Fig. 7-19, the top chord splice (shown to the left of joint d in Fig. 7-14) has been
located at the panel point. The six chord bolts to the left of the splice transfer a
proportionate part of the 121 .6-kip force (182.4 kip for LRFD design) from the
horizontal legs of the 6x6x3/8 chord angles to splice plate p. The six bolts to the right of
the splice transfer this force into the 8x8x1/2 chord angles. The four chord bolts in the
gusset plate to the left of the splice transfer a proportionate part of the 121 .6-kip force
(182.4 kip for LRFD design) from the vertical legs of the 6x6x3/8 chord angles to the
splice plates s. The four chord bolts to the right of the splice transmit this force to the
8x8x/2 chord angles. In addition, these four bolts must transmit the horizontal and
vertical components of the forces in the diagonals from the gusset plate to the chord
angles.
Note that the bolts have been spaced along the back of the angles to permit easy
insertion and tightening.

Truss Support Connections

In the truss connection details analyzed thus far in this chapter, the working lines
for all members entering the joint have met at one common working point on the gusset
plate. As a result, the fastener or weld groups connecting each of the several members to
the gussets have been subjected to little, if any, eccentricity. If each group had been
replaced by a single frictionless pin-type connection, the static equilibrium of the joint
would not have been disturbed. As contrasted to this, the case must be considered where
the working point does not fall within the area of the gusset plate, thereby producing a
definite eccentricity of loading on such groups. This condition frequently occurs at the
ends of a truss supported by a column. However, there may be no eccentricity if there
are multiple trusses with a loaded truss on each side of the column.
Due to its importance, the end connection of a truss frequently is shown in detail
on the design drawing. Steps for the design of a connection of this kind are outlined in
the following text. Both shop welded/field bolted and shop bolted/field bolted joints will
be discussed.
When the working lines of the top chord and end diagonal intersect at the center
line of a column, as in Figs. 7-20 and 7-21, a moment is produced which tends to rotate
the gusset plate. This is resisted by the combined bending stiffness of the top chord, the
diagonal, and the outstanding legs of the connection angles bolted to the supporting
column flange. To the extent that these parts are deformed in resisting their share of the
moment, the gusset plate will rotate in a counterclockwise direction.
The chord angles and the diagonal cannot resist a significant moment without
becoming overstressed in bending, whereas the column is relatively stiff. Therefore, the
connection angles and the fasteners or welds for these angles should be made strong
enough and stiff enough to resist all of the moment.
Top Chord to ColumnShop Welded/Field Bolted The top chord connection to
the column (joint U0) of the truss detailed in Fig. 7-11 is shown in Fig. 7-20. The forces
acting on the gusset plate are shown in Fig. 7-20b. Since the intersection of the three
working lines representing the forces intersect at the center line of the column, instead
of on the gusset plate, a moment is produced in the gusset plate. For a more detailed
discussion of the forces and moment in the gusset plate, refer to the section Top Chord
to Column Shop Bolted/Field Bolted, which follows Example 8 in this chapter.
In a problem of this kind, it is convenient to assume a connection and then verify
the material and fasteners, as shown in the examples which follow. When making the
trial calculations, the number and spacing of fasteners and welds and the thickness of
connection angles should be assumed first. Then, investigate the shear and tensile
stresses in the fasteners and the bending stress in the outstanding legs of the connection
angles. As a result of these calculations, it may be necessary to change the assumed
number and spacing of fasteners and the thickness of angles.
If the bending stress in the angles is critical, it may be reduced by increasing the
distance between the first two rows of fasteners at the bottom of the angles, thus
increasing the length of angle tributary to the critical pair of fasteners, and also reducing
the bending stress. Moreover, by spacing the fasteners farther apart (not only the bottom
two rows), the section modulus of the fastener group is increased and the bending stress
is reduced because of the reduction in the tensile force in the fasteners. Obviously, the
gage in the outstanding legs of the connection angles must be made as small as possible,
in order to keep the bending stress in the angles to a minimum.
In addition to the connection design calculations shown below, the need for
stiffeners in the W12x50 column must be investigated. Refer to Chapter 6.