MOTIVATIONS FOR PARTICIPATING IN

CHARITY-AFFILIATED SPORTING EVENTS

Roger Bennett, Wendy Mousley, Paul Kitchin and Rehnuma Ali-Choudhury

London Metropolitan University, UK

Address for correspondence: Centre for Research in Marketing, London Metropolitan

University, 84 Moorgate, London EC2M 6SQ. Tel: 0207 320 1577. Fax: 0207 320 1465.
Email:

r.bennett@londonmet.ac.uk
w.mousley@londonmet.ac.uk
p.kitchin@londonmet.ac.uk
r.alichoudhury@londonmet.ac.uk

Website:

www.londonmet.ac.uk/cermark

MOTIVATIONS FOR PARTICIPATING IN

CHARITY-AFFILIATED SPORTING EVENTS

Abstract
Organisers of charity-affiliated sporting occasions have to attract participants, and thus need to
understand the reasons why people want to take part. This paper examines the motives that
influence participation in mass sporting events with charity connections. Five hundred and
seventy-nine members of the public who reported that they had previously taken part in one or
more charity-related sporting events completed a questionnaire designed to establish their
reasons for participation, the number of events they had attended, and their willingness to
increase their financial contribution to an event based on its charity-credentials. The results
identified ten motives that seemingly determined participation. Four of these dominated the
sample members responses, namely motivations that arose from (i) personal involvement with
the good cause(s) supported by an occasion, (ii) opportunities to lead a healthy lifestyle provided
by the event, (iii) an individuals involvement with the sport in question, and (iv) the desire to
mix socially with other attendees. The research also found that a persons propensity towards
being seriousminded exerted a moderating effect on the impacts on decisions to participate of
three of these motives. A regression analysis revealed that individuals were more inclined to be
willing to pay a higher fee to enter an event of this nature if it was regarded as high in status, if
the participant was heavily involved with the good cause(s) covered by the occasion, and if the
person was intent on pursuing a healthy lifestyle. People who felt a duty to participate and
who wanted to experience fun and enjoyment were more likely than others to participate
frequently in charity-related sporting events.

Key words: Nonprofit marketing, donor behaviour, fundraising, charity-affiliated sporting

events.

Introduction
In 2006, Weight Loss Resources UK (a collection of firms concerned with the supply of dietary
products and services) reported the occurrence of literally hundreds of running and walking
events open to the British general public in 2005 and 2006; ranging from 10k and 5k road races
through to fun runs and sponsored walks (WLR, 2005, p.1). Typically these events are
organised by local government (e.g., the Luton Marathon, the Haslemere Boxing Day Run, the
Whitley 10k Road Race and Fun Run); by sportswear manufacturers or other commercial
organisations (e.g., the Addidas Half Marathons, the Playtex Moonwalk, Baxters Foods Loch
Ness Marathon and Festival of Running, the Flora Light Challenge for Women); or by
fundraising charities (e.g., the Marie Curie Cancer Care Great Forest Run, the Children in Need
Ladies 5k Run, the Race for Life, the Princes Trust 10k and Fun Run). Usually, a portion of the
entrance fee paid to a local government department or commercial organiser of an event is
donated to one or more charities. Additionally, participants themselves might procure sponsors
who pledge to pay to the entrant a certain sum of money if a walk or run is fully or partially
completed. Cycling and hiking events also figure prominently in the mass participation sports
calendar. Examples include the Coast-to-Coast Mountain Bike Race, the Lancashire Cycleway,
the Lyke Wake Walk Challenge, the High Peak Winter Challenge Walk, and the Ambleside 9
Lakes in 9 Hours Mountain Bike and Trek Challenge.

From a charitys perspective the fundraising potential of these events is substantial, consequent
to their frequent occurrence and the large numbers of people involved. For example, Cancer
Research UKs Race for Life celebrated its 13th anniversary in 2006 by putting on 230 races
involving 140,000 women in May and June of that year (Professional Fundraising, 2006).
Novices and non-athletes participate thus extending appreciably the scope (and hence the
fundraising capacity) of an event to embrace anyone actively interested in keeping fit and/or in
pursuing a healthy lifestyle. The size of the potential market is impressive. According to Key

Note (2004), 7.5% of the UK adult population regularly or occasionally go jogging, 26.7%
engage in walking or rambling, 26.4% regularly swim, 13.2% cycle, and 15% regularly or
occasionally participate in aerobics or other keep fit activities. (Key Note [2004] defined
occasional participation as taking part in an activity at least ten times a year.) Overall, twothirds of all British adults each month undertake some kind of physical activity involving the
above. Moreover public participation in sports is expanding, driven by the creation of more
public sports facilities and greater consumer expectations of a healthy, active, leisure lifestyle
(Key Note, 2004, p.5). It is also relevant to note that the late 1990s and early millennium years
witnessed a large rise in the number of people joining health and fitness clubs. Aggregate UK
expenditure on sports participation grew by 22.8% between 2000 and 2004 (from an average of
about 2 to around 3 per household per week), reaching 3.5 billion in 2004 (Key Note, 2005).
In 2005 the British government announced its intention to increase public participation in
sporting activities substantially during the subsequent decade, specifying a target growth rate of
one per cent per year (Sport England, 2005).

Clearly, British adults are participating in vigorous physical exercise to a greater extent than at
any time in the last half-century, and the trend is almost certain to continue. This creates
significant opportunities for charities, not least because of the fact that participation in physical
activity varies widely with respect to socio-economic status, with the affluent and well-educated
reporting the highest levels of participation and the socially disadvantaged (particularly those
from ethnic minorities) reporting the lowest (Sport England, 2005). Males take part in more
sporting events than females, and do so across a broader range of activities. (Females tend to
concentrate on swimming, aerobics and generally keeping fit see Key Note [2004].) Well-off,
well-educated males represent one of the UKs most lucrative donor segments (see Kottasz,
2004), so events that bring individuals of this nature into direct contact with charitable good
causes are clearly of interest to the fundraising community. A further relevant consideration is

the potential of events that lie within any one sporting area (e.g., running) for attracting crossover participants. Thus, for instance, people who regularly swim or cycle might be induced to
enter a 5k mass participation road race. Milne et al. (1996) surveyed 1611 US sports
participants to establish the extents of the participation linkages among the seven sports covered
by their investigation. Substantial overlaps were discovered. For example, two thirds of the
people who went running also went cycling; 75% of those who cycled also ran; 59% of the
runners in the sample went swimming and 37% played soccer.

Unfortunately, little is known about the motives that impel people to enter mass participation
sporting events, other than that a variety of motives apply. For example, Scott and Solomons
(2003) study of a 5k Race for a Cure charity road race in New York City identified a
continuum of types of participant, ranging from event junkies who took part primarily for the
competition through to social butterflies who were there mainly for social interaction. Event
activists who were deeply committed campaigners for the cause supported by the event were
also in attendance (p.47). A sound knowledge of participants reasons for taking part is vital
nevertheless because, for many individuals, joining an event is an optional leisure time activity
chosen voluntarily from a diverse range of alternatives. Thus, people have to be attracted to the
event, i.e., to be convinced that taking part will satisfy a personal need of some kind or other.
An immediate and critically important issue that arises here is whether individuals are motivated
to participate more by considerations related to the sporting activity that defines an event (e.g.,
running or cycling) than by factors associated with support for the charitable good cause(s) in
question. Knowledge of this matter should help event organisers to identify and characterise the
market segments that are available and to devise effective campaigns for reaching various
sectors of the total market. Commercial organisers of mass participant sporting events require
such information to enable them to use events to contribute to corporate or product brandbuilding activities. Fundraising charities and government (typically local government) bodies

seeking to promote health and fitness within the population need this information to increase the
exposure and visibility of events and hence to maximise participation and revenue.

It could be the case that people are willing to pay a substantially higher entry fee to an event that
conspicuously advertises its charity connections. Kyle et al (2003) found that participants
expectations of how much they would have to pay to enter a 10k road race were significantly
greater when the event organiser provided a large amount of information on the cost of
arranging the event and on the personal sacrifices of the event organisers. Possibly therefore the
fact that part of the proceeds from an event is to be donated to charity should be given much
prominence in promotional literature, even to the extent of downplaying the competitive athletic
dimension of the occasion. A study completed by McCarville et al. (1993) found that, where
public sports programmes in general were concerned, potential participants were highly
receptive to the notion of helping others and were prepared voluntarily to contribute substantial
portions of their personal resources in order to improve public welfare. On the other hand,
overemphasising the charitable dimension of an event might create the impression among sports
participation enthusiasts that the event is neither serious nor challenging, hence discouraging
entry and thereby reducing total revenues.

Possible reasons for participating in mass sporting events

Prior research in the field has suggested that individuals participate in a sporting activity for one
or more of a number of specific reasons (for reviews of relevant literature see, for example,
Sloan, 1985; Ryan et al., 1997; Lindner and Kerr, 2001; McDonald et al., 2002; Recours et al.,
2004; Sport England, 2005). Motives for participation can relate to the sporting activity itself,
or to the general desire to pursue a healthy lifestyle. In the present research context, a third form
of motivation needs to be examined, i.e., the wish to take part in an event arising from a strong
desire to support the charitable good cause with which the event is associated.

A. Sport related motives

According to the abovementioned (and other) literature, a common cause of sports participation
is a persons desire to experience personal stimulation, leading to a sense of physical well being
(Haskell, 1987) and of mental tranquillity (Hobson and Rejeski, 1993; Tucker, 1990; Folkins and
Sime, 1981). Benefits may include stress reduction, physical arousal and exhilaration, catharsis
(i.e., the release of aggression giving rise to gratifying sensations - see Spreitzer and Snyder
[1983]), and thrilling experiences [Harter, 1981]). Another possible impetus to participation is
the desire to identify psychologically with a sport (Brodkin and Weiss, 1990), to master its
techniques and hence to improve personal self-esteem (Lindner and Kerr, 2001). A high level of
involvement with a specific sport might cause an adherent to value highly his or her
participation in an event that (in the context of the sport in question) possesses high status, e.g.,
runners may regard the London Marathon as a high status occasion. An event might be
prestigious consequent to its history, objectives and pre-existing public image (Gwinner and
Swanson, 2003), its ability to attract big names in the relevant sport, because it is well
advertised, or through extensive TV coverage (Hansen and Gauthier, 1994). A person might
experience feelings of pride simply through participating in a high status event (cf. Sutton et al.,
1997), as the prestige of the occasion is transferred psychologically to a persons self-esteem and
self-identity (Gwinner and Swanson, 2003). Speed and Thompson (2000) found that the status
of an event was associated with individual intentions to participate and with favourable attitudes
towards organisations connected with the event.

Further motives for participating in sporting events identified by relevant literature in the field
involve social interaction, exhibitionism, competitive spirit, and wanting to experience fun and
entertainment. Social interaction, i.e., the desire to enjoy camaraderie and to mix socially with
others who enjoy the same activity, has been found to represent a significant factor in the

participation decision (see Funk, Mahony and Ridinger, 2002). MORI Research (2004)
observed how participating in sporting events was a major vehicle through which people
interacted with their communities. Exhibitionism in the present context concerns the desire to
look good in front of others, especially friends and acquaintances (see Recours et al., 2004).
Lindner and Kerr (2001) in particular found that social pressures could encourage a person to
take part in a mass sporting activity. Moreover, the authors continued, certain individuals felt
the need to appear to be competent at a sport. Competitive spirit (Harter, 1981) and the desire to
achieve (Wong and Bridges, 1995; Weiss and Chaumeton, 1992 and Nicholls, 1984) are known
to drive many people to participate. Achievement in a chosen sport can lead to feelings of selffulfilment and a sense of deep personal satisfaction at having risen to the challenge of the
demands imposed by a sporting activity (cf. Rudnicki and Wankel, 1988; Johnsgard, 1983).
Finally, the desire to experience fun and entertainment (Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 1986; Scanlan
and Simons, 1992), the pleasure of taking part and the aesthetic attraction of the sport (Wills and
Campbell, 1992) might also induce participation. Sport Englands (2005) review of research in
the area revealed that, in Britain, young women were more likely to participate in sport if the
activity emphasised fun and enjoyment and provided the opportunity for social interaction with
friends.

B. Fitness related motives

Irrespective with the particular sport covered by an event, it is known that certain people are
drawn towards keeping fit and, in general, towards healthy living (see Devine and Lepisto,
2005). These individuals are more likely than others to engage in physical activity (Brodkin and
Weiss, 1990; Granzin et al., 1998; Paffenbarger and Lee, 1996), and as such patently represent
an attractive target market for mass sporting events (see Sport England, 2005). This implies that
advertisements for events that are placed in media concerned with health-related products and
services are more likely than others to achieve a sound response. (Cancer Research UKs Race

for Life explicitly emphasises keeping fit and maintaining a healthy lifestyle in its promotional
literature.) Granzins et al (1998) review of the academic literature concerning the variables
associated with health-related behaviour identified three major factors that influenced the desire
to pursue a healthy lifestyle: age, income level, and educational background. In the USA
females have been found to be more likely than males to exercise, diet, and generally to attempt
to maintain a healthy lifestyle (for details see Granzin et al., 1998; Devine and Lepisto, 2005).

Individuals who wish to pursue healthy lifestyles have been found to continue to participate in a
sporting activity for significantly longer periods than others (see Ryan et al., 1997). Moreover
there exists a substantial body of research literature (see Ryan et al., [1997] for details) which
asserts that the health and fitness conscious are attracted to participate in general exercise
activities (running, cycling, etc.) rather than in specific sports such as tennis or football. Ryan et
al.s (1997) own investigation found that body related (health and fitness) motives were more
influential among people who opted to participate in physically vigorous sports than among
individuals who chose more sedate sporting activities (p. 335).

C. Cause related motives

Certain individuals might be influenced to participate in an event more by their levels of
personal psychological involvement with the act of supporting the charity or charities affiliated
with the event than by any other consideration (cf. Bennett and Gabriel, 1999). The attraction of
such people would require that an event be promoted in ways that strongly and directly connect
it with the relevant charitable organisations. Zaichkowsky (1985) defined involvement as the
perceived relevance of an entity based on a persons needs, values and interests. Bennett and
Gabriel (1999) found that supporters of a charity may come to feel deeply involved with its
activities and existence, i.e., to begin regarding the act of supporting the charity as personally
important, vitally necessary and inherently interesting. In the sport spectatorship context,

attendees of the Womens World Cup in 1999 were found to support the matches not only for
spectatorship reasons but also to champion womens sporting opportunities, which could be
equated to a cause (Funk et al., 2001). Emotions of this type may result from innate altruism
(Bierhoff et al., 1991), or from quintessentially egoistic desires to feel better as a result of
supporting a good cause. Regardless of the specific source of a persons sense of psychological
involvement with helping a charity, it is likely that strong feelings of involvement will
encourage an individual to participate in an event associated with the charity or charities
concerned. This can lead to a sense of duty to take part and to a strong desire to raise a large
amount of money for the good cause(s) supported by the event.

Helpers high is a term sometimes used to describe the surge of self-gratifying positive emotion
and/or the feelings of enhanced self-esteem that some people experience in consequence of
having supported a charity (Williamson and Clark, 1989). Indeed, Strahilevitz and Myers
(1998) went so far as to allege that, as often as not, altruistic behaviour was little more than the
purchase of moral satisfaction undertaken for the egoistic reason of wanting to feel better (p.
435). To the extent that this is true it clearly creates opportunities for the marketing of charityaffiliated mass participation sporting events, as they provide entrants with possibilities for
inwardly asserting that they are altruistic and possess high ideals and moral values. Moreover,
participation carries the capacity to convey a (positive) symbolic statement about the individual,
which fits in with his or her self-identity (cf. Strahilevitz and Myers, 1998; see also Bennett and
Gabriel, 1999).

Role of seriousmindedness
Lindner and Kerr (2001) argued that the motivation to participate in a sport was both complex
and multifaceted. Different motives could determine participation decisions at various times and
in disparate circumstances. Nevertheless, Lindner and Kerr (2001) continued, an internal

tendency towards seriousmindedness pushed the individual into participation in consequence

of serious rather than playful motives (p.760). Seriousmindedness, according to Murgatroyd
et al. (1978), is the degree to which a person is orientated toward goals seen as important to him
or herself, physically or psychologically, rather than goals seen as trivial, arbitrary or inessential
(p. 520). Cogan and Brown (1999) reported a substantial amount of evidence supporting the
proposition that people selected sports activities that corresponded with their dominant
psychological characteristics (including seriousmindedness). Thus, a serious person might be
expected to be attracted to take part in an event for serious reasons (e.g., to maintain personal
health and fitness) rather than for fun and enjoyment. A study completed by Ryan et al. (1997)
concluded that the health and fitness motive to engage in sporting activities was considerably
stronger among people who derived relatively less enjoyment from the activity itself than among
individuals who obtained great hedonic pleasure from participation. On the other hand,
seriousminded people might use sport and physical activity to reverse the mood states induced
by their very seriousmindedness. Thus, for example, an individual with this predisposition may
enter a jogging or cycling event fundamentally for fun and with the deliberate intention of
inducing a superficial pleasurable emotional state (Kerr, 1997). In the context of the current
research, the desire to help a charity or charities may reasonably be assumed to represent a
serious reason for participation.

A provisional model
A model tentatively suggested by the abovementioned literature is presented in Figure 1, which
posits that 12 motives have the potential to determine a decision to participate in a charityaffiliated sporting event and (following Lindner and Kerr [2001]) that some of these motives are
moderated by the degree of a persons seriousmindedness. Thus, for instance, it is assumed that
the strength of the relationship between a persons desire to succeed and to improve his or her
performance will be greater the more seriousmindedness the individual. Likewise, positive

10

moderating influences exerted by seriousmindedness are posited to apply to the effects of the
desires to help a charity and to pursue a healthy lifestyle, and to feelings of a duty to participate.
Conversely it is hypothesised that the impact on the participation decision of the desire to
experience fun and enjoyment is moderated downwards by seriousmindedness. Involvement
with the particular sport covered by an event (running, cycling etc.) should, it is suggested,
influence two of the proposed motives to participate, i.e., the desire to take part in order to
succeed and improve ones performance, and wanting to participate because the event is
regarded as possessing high status in the relevant sporting field. Concomitantly, heavy personal
involvement with the good causes(s) associated with an event arguably results in a strong desire
to help these good cause(s) and in the person feeling that he or she has a duty to participate. The
latter variable should also be determined in part by the desire to help the good cause.

11

FIGURE 1. A SUGGESTED MODEL

Desire to mix
socially

Exhibitionism

Desire to experience fun and

enjoyment (moderated downwards by
seriousmindedness)

Involvement
with the good
cause

Attracted by the
status of the event
Decision to
participate

Involvement with
the sport

Desire to succeed/ improve

performance (moderated
upwards by
seriousmindedness)

Desire to
experience
helpers high
Desire to
experience
physical and
mental
stimulation

Desire to pursue a
healthy lifestyle
(moderated upwards
by seriousmindedness)

Desire to help
the charity

Feels a duty to participate

(moderated upwards by
seriousmindedness)

12

Research questions and method

The study sought to establish which of the 12 motives shown in Figure 1 dominated the decision
to take part in a charity-affiliated mass sporting event. Specifically it attempted to discover the
relative importance of the role of each of the following: (i) motives connected in some way or
other with altruistic considerations (desire to help the charity, feelings of a duty to participate,
involvement with a good cause, helpers high), (ii) motives concerned with the relevant sport
and/or with sporting achievement (desires to improve performance, to experience physical or
mental stimulation and to follow a healthy lifestyle; involvement with the sport, and the status of
the event), and (iii) motives with a social dimension (exhibitionism, the desire to mix socially
and to experience fun and enjoyment). Additionally, the investigation queried how much extra
(if anything) people were on average willing to pay in terms of the entrance fee to an event
simply because it was associated with charitable giving, and whether altruistically motivated
individuals were prepared to pay more than others. The motivational determinants of how
frequently a person took part in events of this nature were also examined.

TABLE 1. QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT

Construct
Desire to mix socially

No. of items
5

Desire to experience fun and

enjoyment

Desire to pursue a healthy lifestyle

Desire to experience helpers high

Feels a duty to participate

4
5

Desire to experience physical and

mental stimulation

Exhibitionism

Desire to succeed/improve
performance
Involvement with the sport

5
5

Sources
Funk et al., (2004)
McDonald et al., (2002)
Funk et al., (2004)
Lindner and Kerr, (2001)
Ryan et al., (1997)
McDonald et al., (2002)
Lindner and Kerr, (2001)
Bennett and Gabriel (1999)
Gladden et al., (2005)
Kasser and Ryan, (1996)
Recours et al., (2004)
Swanson et al., (2003)
Ryan et al., (1997)
Recours et al., (2004)
Kasser and Ryan, (1996)
McDonald et al., (2002)
Frederick and Ryan, (1996)
Funk et al., (2004)
Gwinner and Swanson, (2003)

13

Attracted by the status of the event

Involvement with a good cause

3
5

Desire to help the charity

Seriousmindedness

Stewart et al., (2003)

Gwinner and Swanson, (2003)
Bennett and Gabriel, (1999)
Lumpkin and Darden, (1982)
Gladden et al., (2005)
Funk et al., (2004)
Lindner and Kerr, (2001)
Murgatroyd et al., (1978)

These matters were addressed via a questionnaire that was administered to a sample of 579
people who reported having taken part in at least one charity-affiliated sporting event. The
responses were factor analysed (through SPSS 14) and then subjected to a confirmatory factor
analysis using the AMOS 5 package. A stepwise regression procedure was employed to
ascertain the motives that significantly helped to explain (i) the price premium that people were
willing to pay to participate in a charity-affiliated event and (ii) an individuals propensity to
take part in a large number of these events.

The questionnaire
A draft questionnaire was developed with sets of items (five-point agree/disagree scales) related
to each of the motives shown in Figure 1, plus a group of items concerning the extent to which a
person was seriousminded. Some of the questionnaire items were taken directly from preexisting instruments; others had to be reworded to make them relevant to the specific context of
the study (notably items to do with a feeling a duty to participate and with the desire to help the
charity). Table 1 lists the literature sources used to construct the various sections of the
questionnaire. Where items were adapted rather than taken directly, the adaptation procedure
applied followed that recommended by Engelland et al., (2001). Thus, three independent
academics within the authors' home university were asked to examine the proposed amended
items and ensure that (i) they fell well within the scope of the domain of the relevant construct,
(ii) they achieved the appropriate level of abstraction, (iii) they were worded in a way that was
compatible with the target respondents' educational level and vocabulary, and (iv) the anticipated

14

outcomes of the adaptations matched those of the original scales. Each of the items concerning
a motive to participate was preceded by the words 'I decided to participate in the event because'.

The questionnaire also contained a section that queried general matters such as the respondents
age, gender, financial status, educational level, the number of events the individual had taken
part in, and the name of the last event in which the person had participated. Then the
questionnaire asked the following question:

Assuming the basic entry fee to an event was 25, how much more would you be prepared
to pay for the entrance fee to an event that donated part of its total receipts to charitable
good causes?
Nothing / 1 - 3 / 4 - 6 / 7 - 9 / 10 or more

Pretesting of the questionnaire occurred through (i) an internal mail shot to 750 administrative
and academic staff within the authors home university, plus (ii) administration of the
questionnaire face-to-face to 40 members of the public who, when approached of random in
street locations near to the authors institution in London, confirmed that they had taken part in
an event of this type and agreed to be interviewed. The internal mail shot generated 49 replies.
Analysis of this and the other set of responses did not suggest any misunderstandings of the
wordings of questions or any evidence of excessively overlapping items. Hence the
questionnaire was distributed in its original form more widely via additional street interviews
(N=120) and through contacts with participants at charity-affiliated sporting events (N=370). As
regards the latter, each of the researchers contributing to the study visited four different events
taking place in the Greater London area between February and July 2006 (over 100 such events
were identified during this period) and, at random, asked participants if they would be kind
enough to take a copy of the questionnaire home with them, complete it, and then return the

15

document by post in a reply paid envelope. Each researcher continued to approach people in
this manner until a target of 50 participants had agreed to take the questionnaire (though in some
instances only 20 to 30 positive responses were evoked). This generated a new sampling frame
of 612 individuals, of which 370 (60.5%) actually replied. The responses of these 370 people
were compared with those of the other groups, no meaningfully significant differences in
response patterns emerging. Hence, all the replies were pooled to form a 579-strong sample.

Results
A. Descriptive results
The people in the sample had a median age of 31.4 years. Forty-three per cent were male and
57% female. (The female majority in the sample is attributable to the fact that a number of the
events sampled were women-only runs concerned with breast cancer and other female medical
issues.) Seventeen per cent of the respondents described themselves as financially better off
than most other people, 65% as about the same, ten per cent as slightly worse off, and six per
cent as worse off. Ten per cent claimed they were much better educated, 40% better
educated, 35% about the same, and 15% less well-educated than most other people. Fiftyfour per cent of the respondents had participated in between two and four events of this nature.
Twenty six per cent had taken part in just one, 13% in five to eight, and seven per cent in more
than nine. Respondents had recently been involved in a wide range of charity-affiliated sporting
events, concerned mainly with running (52%), cycling (20%), walking (14%) and swimming
and other activities (14%). The respondents reported that, on average, they were prepared to pay
4 to 6 on top of a 25 entry fee in consequence of an event having a charity connection.
Nineteen per cent would pay nothing extra, six per cent between 1 and 3, eight per cent 7 to
9, and 37% more than 10.

B. Factor analysis

16

Items relating to the 12 hypothesised motives were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis
using SPSS 14. A ten-factor solution emerged, explaining 78% of the total variation in the data.
Items within the constructs Involvement with the good cause and Desire to help the charity
loaded significantly onto the same factor, indicating that they in fact belonged to a single
underlying construct and not to two distinct constructs as had been presupposed. Hereafter this
single construct is referred to as Involvement with the charity. Otherwise items loaded
significantly onto all the expected constructs except for the two items shown in Table 3 as
loading on Factor 1 (f) and Factor 6 (a). (On the basis of prior literature in the field these items
had originally been assumed to belong to the construct Desire to experience helpers high'.)
None of the items relating to the construct Desire to succeed/improve performance (see Figure
1) loaded significantly onto any of the ten factors. Hence all the items relating to this construct
were removed (see Table 2 [a to d] for details). It emerged moreover that four items correlated
very highly with others within the same construct, to the extent that they could not be regarded
as separate entities. Thus, these items (see Table 2 [e to h]) were also discarded.

TABLE 2. DISCARDED QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Discarded Items
I like engaging in activities which physically challenge me.
I wanted to improve my performance.
I wanted to improve technically at the sport covered by this event.
I want to be outstanding in my favourite sport.
Supporting the charity or charities involved with the event matters a great deal to
me.
Supporting charity is an important part of my life.
My support for the event was a reflection of my support for the charity or charities
involved.
My decision to participate in the event was mainly determined by my desire to
help the charity or charities involved.

Varimax (orthogonal) and Oblimin (oblique) rotations of the ten-factor solution to the initial
(principal components) factor analysis did not alter the pattern of the results. Also the Oblimin
solution showed that no pair of factors was substantially correlated (R<.3 in all cases; R<.18 for

17

all correlations concerning eight of the factors). Thus, a confirmatory factor analysis was
completed on the ten-factor solution, the goodness-of-fit statistics of which (see Table 3)
significantly outperformed those for competing solutions (e. g. GFI = .82, RMSEA = .09 for the
nine factor solution; GFI = .79, RMSEA = .11 for the eleven factor solution).

TABLE 3. CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS

Scale item

Loading
(T-values in
parentheses)

Factor 1. Involvement with the charity.

9.90 = 1 , explaining 22% of total variation.
Cronbachs alpha = .91
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

I regularly feel that I want to become involved in events

supporting the charity or charities concerned.
Supporting the charity or charities makes my own life better.
I am interested in the work of charities I support even when I
am not able to make a contribution.
A major reason I participated in the event was to help
enhance the status of the charity or charities involved.
My decision to participate in the event was mainly
determined by my desire to help the charity or charities
involved.
Supporting a charity gives me an inherent sense of
satisfaction.

.78 (NA)*
.63 (4.61)
.64 (4.50)
.78 (5.50)
.74 (5.41)
.64 (4.50)

Factor 2. Desire to pursue a healthy lifestyle.

7.65 = 2 , explaining 17% of total variation.
Cronbachs alpha = .96
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

It would keep me fit and active.

It would keep me healthy.
It would develop my physical fitness.
It would help me stay in shape.
I want to be physically fit.

.92
.95
.90
.87
.79

(NA)
(21.46)
(17.34)
(16.91)
(11.01)

Factor 3. Involvement with the sport.

3.60 = 3 , explaining 8% of total variance.
Cronbachs alpha = .90
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I have a strong desire to succeed at the sport covered by this

event.
Participating in this particular sport is an important part of
my life.
I think about this sport all of the time.
I feel a deep emotional attachment to this sport.

.63 (NA)
.83 (6.09)
.83 (6.52)
.89 (6.73)

18

(e)
(f)

I am a true enthusiast where this sport is concerned.

My deep interest in the sport sparked my interest in the
event.

.81 (6.27)
.67 (4.80)

Factor 4. Exhibitionism.
3.15 = 4 , explaining 7% of total variance.
Cronbachs alpha = .89
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

I like impressing the people who are watching me

participate.
I enjoy the positive reactions of the spectators.
I like to be noticed for what I do.
I enjoy the feeling of being held in esteem by others.
It created a positive image of myself that others were likely
to find appealing.

.76 (NA)
.72
.87
.83
.84

(5.97)
(7.29)
(7.15)
(7.29)

Factor 5. Desire to mix socially.

3.15 = 5 , explaining 7% of total variance.
Cronbachs alpha = .90
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

It gave me a chance to meet new people.

I enjoy interacting with other participants.
It gave me a chance to meet new people with similar
interests as myself.
I like the social interaction.
I enjoy sharing the experience of participating with other
people.

.84 (NA)
.78 (8.82)
.85 (11.45)
.86 (8.96)
.85 (8.98)

Factor 6. Feels a duty to participate.

1.80 = 6 , explaining 4% of total variance.
Cronbachs alpha = .89
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I would have felt guilty if I had not participated.

I felt it was my duty to participate in an event supporting the
charitable good cause.
I felt it was my duty to participate in order to assist people
who need it, asking nothing in return.
I felt it was my duty to participate in order to help others to
improve their lives.

.68 (NA)
.87 (5.67)
.81 (6.02)
.80 (5.88)

Factor 7. Desire to experience fun and enjoyment.

1.81 = 7 , explaining 4% of total variance.
Cronbachs alpha = .89
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Participating in physical activity is fun.

I liked the excitement associated with the event.
I enjoyed the atmosphere surrounding the event.
I thought the activity would be fun.
I enjoyed taking part because it was a highly entertaining
experience.

Factor 8. Attracted to the status of the event.

.57
.79
.83
.63
.83

(NA)
(8.63)
(8.48)
(6.04)
(8.45)

19
1.35 = 8 , explaining 3% of total variance.

Cronbachs alpha = .93

(a)
(b)
(c)

The event was highly ranked by people who follow this

sport.
It was a highly prestigious event.
The event has a good reputation among people who follow
this sport.

.78 (NA)
.86 (12.49)
.79 (12.43)

Factor 9. Desire to experience physical and mental stimulation.

1.33 = 9 , explaining 3% of total variance.
Cronbachs alpha = .83
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I like confronting obstacles without knowing for sure

whether I can conquer them.
I like to attempt something that is difficult for me.
I like pushing myself to the limit.
I like the stimulation I get from participating in these events.

.56 (NA)
.81 (6.00)
.74 (6.13)
.52 (5.20)

Factor 10. Desire to experience helpers high.

1.30 = 10 , explaining 3% of total variance.
R = .47
(a)
(b)

I believe that supporting charitable causes is almost like

giving something to yourself.
Supporting charitable causes gives me a lot of pleasure.

.69 (NA)
.65 (5.89)

GFI = .92, AGFI = .89, RMSEA = .04. Measure of sampling adequacy = .82.
* The AMOS 5 package does not give a T-value for the first loading on a factor. However, when the
order of the items in each group was reversed the T-value on the relevant item was in all cases
approximately the same as the others in the set.

Table 3 presents the results of the confirmatory factor analysis together with reliability statistics.
It can be seen from Table 3 that 'Involvement with the charity and Desire to pursue a healthy
lifestyle dominated the analysis, respectively explaining 22% and 17% of the total variation in
the data. The next three factors (Involvement with the sport, Exhibitionism, and Desire to
mix socially) collectively accounted for 22% of total variance, though each factor only
explained seven or eight per cent. Thereafter none of the remaining factors individually
explained more than four per cent of the variation in the data. Composite variables were formed
for each of the five main factors by averaging each set of items involved. As might be expected
from a sample of participants in sporting events, a majority of the responses (69%) fell in the top
two categories (strongly agree or agree) of the Desire to pursue a healthy lifestyle composite.

20

Only 12% of the responses were in the bottom two categories (strongly disagree or disagree) for
this construct. Around a third (32%) of the replies fell in the strongly agree or agree divisions of
the Involvement with the charity composite. The corresponding figures for Involvement with
the sport, Exhibitionism, and Desire to mix socially were 38%, 26% and 32% respectively.
Thus Desire to pursue a healthy lifestyle was the only area in which the responses were heavily
skewed. The composite for Involvement with the charity was correlated significantly (p <.05),
but not substantially (R = .25), with a composite created from the items for factor six, i.e., Feels
a duty to participate. This indicates the existence of a moderate overlap between the two
constructs. Otherwise no discernible characteristics applied to people who scored high or low in
relation to the abovementioned factors

TABLE 4. SERIOUSMINDEDNESS
2.70 = , explaining 54% of total variance.

Cronbachs alpha = .84

Scale Items
-

I tend to take life very seriously rather than light-heartedly.

I am a person who in general prefers work activities to leisure
activities.
I would rather read something in order to obtain information than
simply for fun.
I would prefer to read a biography than glance at pictures in a
book or magazine.
In most things I do I am: very serious and goal orientated / more
often serious than playful / about 50-50 serious and playful /
more often playful than serious / very playful and pleasureoriented.

Loading
(T-values in
parentheses)
.80 (5.69)
.78 (5.61)
.82 (5.88)
.60 (4.15)
.65 (4.50)

C. Role of seriousmindedness
All the items in the seriousmindedness construct loaded significantly onto a single factor. Hence
the 5 items (see Table 4) were composited into a single scale reflecting this construct. Given
that all the respondents had actually participated in a charity-affiliated sporting event, the

21

moderating impact of seriousmindedness could be assessed by examining the correlations

between the composite for seriousmindedness and the composites formed for (i) the newly
created construct 'Involvement with the charity' (see above), (ii) the Desire to pursue a healthy
lifestyle, (iii) the Desire to experience fun and enjoyment, and (iv) Feelings of a duty to
participate. (The reliability figures for these constructs [see Table 2] were satisfactory [alpha
> .83 in all cases] indicating that all the items pertaining to a construct were measuring that
construct, so that the formation of composites was acceptable.) Table 5 shows the correlations
among the composites, from which it can be seen that there were positive and significant
correlations (p < .001) between the seriousmindedness construct and the constructs 'Feels a duty
to participate and Involvement with the charity. The first of these significant correlations
indicates that, among people who had participated in an event, motivation to participate arising
from a feeling of a duty to take part was higher among those who were seriousminded, implying
a significant interaction effect; likewise for the second of the significant correlations.

Examination of the data revealed that seriousmindedness appeared to be connected with the
composites for two further constructs: Involvement with the sport (R = .37, p < .007), and
'Desire to mix socially' (R = .39, p < .000). Neither of these relationships had been predicted.
While the former appears plausible on a-priori grounds, reasons for the latter are not entirely
clear. This is a matter for further research.

TABLE 5. CORRELATION MATRIX

Seriousmindedness
Feels a duty to
participate
Involvement with
the charity

Feels a
duty to
participate

Mean

SD

Seriousmindedness

3.18

1.11

3.10

1.13

.39*

3.00

1.08

.38*

.25

Involvement
with the
charity

Desire to
pursue a
healthy
lifestyle

Desire to
experience
fun and
enjoyment

22

Desire to pursue
a healthy lifestyle
Desire to
experience fun
and enjoyment

1.96

1.04

.08

-.105

-.04

2.03

.87

-.16

-.04

-.13

.10

* Indicates statistical significance at the .05 level.

D. Regression analysis
A stepwise regression analysis was completed to identify the types of people who were prepared
to pay a high premium on top of the normal entrance fee for a charity-affiliated event.
Candidate explanatory variables were identified through an examination of the correlation
matrix of this variable and the composites formed for each of the ten motives listed in Table 2,
plus the respondents levels of seriousmindedness and their socio-economic characteristics. Any
variable that correlated significantly at the p = .1 level or below was entered in the stepwise
procedure. Variables were then removed if they failed to attain significance at the .1 level, but
were re-entered on a one-by-one basis post-hoc to ensure that they did not in fact exert an
influence. The final outcome to the procedure is shown in Table 6, from which it can be seen
that people who were inclined to pay a high premium on top of the normal entrance fee for a
charity-affiliated event were more likely to have been motivated by the desire to pursue a
healthy lifestyle, to have been attracted to the status of an event, and to have had a high level of
involvement with the charity or charities with which the event was affiliated. Exhibitionists
were less inclined to pay an additional fee. Interestingly, socio-economic status was not
significant in this particular sample.

TABLE 6. REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Regression A: How much more would you be prepared to pay in consequence of an event
having a charity affiliation?
Regression B: Number of charity-affiliated sporting events in which a respondent had
participated.

23

Standardised coefficients, T-values in parentheses. All coefficients are significant at the .05
level or below.
Variable
Desire to pursue a healthy lifestyle
Exhibitionism
Attracted by the status of the event
Involvement with the charity
Desire to experience fun and enjoyment
Feels a duty to participate

.23
-.37
.25
.34

A
(2.30)
(-3.84)
(2.54)
(3.63)

.23 (2.17)
.24 (2.26)

Table 6 also gives the outputs to a stepwise regression completed to identify the determinants of
regular participation in events of this type. Here it can be seen that those who had taken part in a
greater number of events did so because they sought fun and enjoyment and/or felt a duty to
participate.

E. Other results
The relationship between Involvement with the sport and Attracted by the status of the event,
hypothesised in Figure 1 was significant as predicted (Beta = .49, T = 5.29). The hypothesised
relationship between Involvement with the charity and Feels a duty to participate' was also
confirmed (Beta = .3, T = 3.05). It is interesting to note that people who expressed a high
involvement with the sport also tended to state that they were highly involved with the charity
(R = .30), implying that some people have a natural tendency to 'get involved'. As previously
stated, the two involvement constructs were also significantly correlated with
seriousmindedness, which indicates that people who get involved tend to be seriousminded. A
revised model arising from this finding and other outputs from the statistical analysis is
presented in Figure 2.

Conclusion
Two motives for taking part in charity-affiliated sporting events dominated the analysis, namely
a persons level of involvement with the good cause(s) in question, and the desire to pursue a

24

healthy lifestyle. Furthermore, these motives induced individuals to be willing to pay higher
fees to enter events. Involvement with the good cause(s) accounted for over a fifth of the total
variation in the responses concerning the sample members motives for participating, suggesting
that advertisements and other promotional materials for these occasions should focus on their
capacity to enable people to demonstrate their enthusiasm for and affinity with the relevant
charitable organisations. This outcome is consistent with the findings of earlier research which
concluded that a charity affiliation could exert powerful influences on consumer behaviour (see
for example Bennett and Gabriel, 1999, Funk et al., 2001). The desire to pursue a healthy
lifestyle constituted the second most important factor underlying participation decisions,
implying that the establishment of an events health credentials should figure prominently in the
event organisers marketing strategy. Seventy-four per cent of the respondents had taken part in
two or more events of this nature, so it may be that many people regard these occasions as
significant parts of their health and fitness routines. It follows that positive responses are likely
to ensue from advertisements for charity-affiliated events placed in media concerned with
health-related products and services, as well as in running, cycling and swimming magazines.

25

FIGURE 2. THE REVISED MODEL

Desire to mix socially
(moderated by
seriousmindedness)

Exhibitionism

Desire to experience fun

and enjoyment
Desire to
experience
helpers
high

Attracted by the status

of the event
Decision to participate
Involvement with the
sport (moderated by
seriousmindedness)

Desire to experience
physical and mental
stimulation

Involvement with the

good cause (moderated by
seriousmindedness)

Desire to pursue
a healthy
lifestyle

Feels a duty to
participate
(moderated by
seriousmindedness)

26

The connection between participation decisions and a persons regard for matters relating to
health and fitness is auspicious, moreover, in view of the large numbers of people who
nowadays are interested in pursuing healthy lifestyles, as evidenced by the steady growth in the
number of British adults who take part in some kind of physical activity.

Participation in charity-related sporting events appeared to be popular among females, and it is

known that many women wish to maintain healthy lifestyles (see Devine and Lepisto, 2005).
Also, individuals of either gender who are committed to healthy living have been found to take
part in running, walking and swimming sporting events more regularly than others, and to
continue to participate throughout their mature lives (Ryan et al., 1997). There was no evidence
from the present study to suggest that desires to experience fun and enjoyment or to interact
socially motivated participation decisions among women to greater degrees than among men (cf.
Sport England, 2005). Nor were there any discernible differences between the motives of males
and females in respect of any of the other factors listed in Table 3. Although it is known that, in
general, men (especially affluent men) participate in sporting activities more frequently than
women (Key Note, 2004), no national figures are available on this matter in relation to charityrelated occasions. This is unfortunate considering that well-off males represent an important
market segment for charity fundraisers (see Kottasz, 2004). If it is indeed the case that affluent
males are underrepresented vis--vis charity affiliated sporting events, then arguably more
should be done to attract males to participate.

Involvement with a sport had a significant (although relatively minor) influence on

participation decisions. This confirms the conclusions of Lindner and Kerr (2001) and Gwinner
and Swanson (2003) that involved individuals proactively seek participation in events
connected with their favoured sporting activity. Involved people are highly informed and
knowledgeable about their chosen sport. Thus, advertisements in publications dedicated to the

27

sport in question are likely to reach this group of potential participants. The desire to mix
socially explained seven per cent of the total variation in the motivational responses, intimating
that the gathering of like-minded individuals at charity-affiliated sporting events represents an
attractive communal environment for many people. Exhibitionism, i.e., the wish to be seen to
be taking part in an event, also accounted for seven per cent of the variation in the data.
Perhaps, therefore, images portraying the social dimensions of an event plus the opportunity it
provides for enabling individuals to be observed by spectators might profitably be woven into
advertisements. Each of the other factors listed in Table 3 (feelings of a duty to participate,
status of the event, etc.) only contributed three or four per cent to the explanation of total
variation. The significance of these minor factors (in the sense that their eigenvalues exceeded
unity) provides support for the hypothesised model, but it is unlikely that the weight of any one
of them is sufficient to justify dedicated marketing strategies based on their existence.

Seriousmindedness was positively connected to the motivation to participate that arose from
high personal involvement with the charity or charities supported by the occasion. As this was
the dominant motivational factor, event organisers and/or charity managers may wish to explore
the usefulness of advertising in the more serious media (e.g., in newspapers that cater for better
educated readers rather than in tabloids), and of adopting a more sombre tone when framing
promotional messages. Seriousmindedness also strengthened the impact on participation
decisions of the desire to mix socially. A possible reason for this could relate to seriousminded
people wanting to gain multiple avenues for social interaction, resulting in the addition of
charity sporting events to their social calendars. Equally, the result may indicate that those with
a serious mindset find these events a release from their general activities and allow them to mix
socially in a friendly environment. Nevertheless, the outcome was unexpected and could be a
useful area for further research.

28

Eighty-one per cent of the sample were willing to pay an additional entrance fee for events with
a charity connection. Certain individuals were prepared to pay higher fees than others, notably
those who experienced feelings of personal involvement with the relevant good cause(s), who
wished to pursue healthy lifestyles, and/or who regarded an event as being of high status. As
regards the last of these influences, it is worth noting that the higher the status of the occasion
then possibly the greater the degrees to which the participants might be prepared to devote
intense effort to raising significant amounts of funds from friends, relatives and work colleagues
who they ask to sponsor their participation. It is hardly surprising that individuals who felt
personally involved with the charity or charities supported by an event were prepared to pay
higher entry fees. This does imply however a low level of price sensitivity within this group and
hence the potential for raising prices without losing any income, as people who are involved
with charities will understand the uses to which the revenues from higher entry fees will be
applied (cf. Kyle et al., 2003). Exhibitionists were not normally willing to pay higher entry
fees for events with charity connections. Conversely, the less exhibitionistic the participant the
more likely the person was prepared to pay an entry fee premium. Prior research has confirmed
the importance of exhibitionism as a motive for entering sporting events (see Recours et al.,
2004). Arguably, charity-sporting events are well suited to exhibitionists because these
occasions are typically less competitive than normal sporting events, meaning that participants
can display themselves conspicuously but without risking the exposure of deficiencies in their
sporting prowess. Desires to experience fun and enjoyment and feelings of a sense of duty
encouraged individuals to repeat their participation in events. Fun-related and duty-related
themes could be emphasised in follow-up promotional materials sent to the contact addresses of
past participants.

Overall the results imply the need for event managers to promote charity-affiliated occasions in
manners that complement the core motives of potential participants. Careful market

29

segmentation is necessary, and appropriate advertising media must be selected. Additionally, the
environment of an event has to be managed in a manner that encourages repeat attendance, e.g.,
by creating opportunities for extensive social interaction. The website carrying the details of an
event could contain information on various social and ancillary activities connected with it.
Furthermore, websites could attract exhibitionists by displaying photographs and videos
featuring individuals who participated in the last couple of events. It is relevant to note in this
connection that events organised by sportswear manufacturers (e.g., the Nike 10k Road Race)
often utilise multimedia to provide those who take part with film clips of them crossing the
finishing line. These clips are made available to participants to be sent virally though email,
once again allowing individuals to demonstrate the fact that they took part. Similar devices
could be employed by the managers of charity-affiliated sporting occasions.

A number of limitations apply to the research. The questionnaire was distributed only to people
who had already participated in at least one event of this nature. Thus it was not possible to
explore variables that might inhibit participation. Also the factors that attract first-time
participants could not be examined. The sample was restricted to events that had occurred in
South East England, where most of the entrants probably resided. Another difficulty was the
length of the questionnaire, which at three pages risked respondent fatigue and meant that openended questions were unlikely to be answered. Focus groups conducted with participants who
possess certain motivational and socio-demographic characteristics would be a useful way of
gathering information on participants views on specific topics. Future research in the field
could include examinations of (i) the antecedents of price sensitivity among disparate groups of
people vis--vis entrance fees, (ii) differences in attitude and behaviour between novices in a
sport and individuals with greater ability and experience, and (iii) possibilities for extending the
range of the sports covered by charity-affiliated occasions. For example, in comparison with
(say) running or cycling, sports such as archery or sailing require considerable skill of a highly

30

specialised nature. In these instances the motives to participate in an event may be unique to a
particular setting. Research could be undertaken within these more specialised sporting
communities to establish the degrees to which charity-affiliated events might be inaugurated.

31

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