Sustainable architecture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hanging gardens of One Central Park, Sydney

Energy-plus-houses at Freiburg-Vauban in Germany

Sustainable architecture is architecture that seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact
of buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and development space
and the ecosystem at large. Sustainable architecture uses a conscious approach to energy and
ecological conservation in the design of the built environment.[1]
The idea of sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that our actions and decisions today do
not inhibit the opportunities of future generations.[2]
Contents
[hide]

1Sustainable energy use

o

1.1Heating, ventilation and cooling system efficiency

1.2Renewable energy generation

1.2.1Solar panels

1.2.2Wind turbines

1.2.3Solar water heating

1.2.4Heat pumps
2Sustainable building materials

2.1Recycled materials

2.2Lower volatile organic compounds

2.3Materials sustainability standards

3Waste management

4Building placement

5Sustainable building consulting

6Changing pedagogies

7Sustainable urbanism and architecture

8Criticism

9See also

10References

11External links

Sustainable energy use[edit]

Main articles: Low-energy house and Zero-energy building

K2 sustainable apartments inWindsor, Victoria, Australia by DesignInc (2006) features passive solar design,
recycled and sustainable materials, photovoltaic cells,wastewater treatment, rainwater collection and solar hot
water.

The passivhaus standard combines a variety of techniques and technologies to achieve ultra-low energy use.

Following its destruction by a tornado in 2007, the town ofGreensburg, Kansas (USA) elected to rebuild to
highly stringent LEED Platinum environmental standards. Shown is the town's new art center, which integrates
its own solar panels and wind generators for energy self-sufficiency.

Energy efficiency over the entire life cycle of a building is the most important goal of sustainable
architecture. Architects use many different passive and active techniques to reduce the energy
needs of buildings and increase their ability to capture or generate their own energy.[3] One of the
keys to exploit local environmental resources and influence energy-related factors such as daylight,
solar heat gains and ventilation is the use of site analysis.

Heating, ventilation and cooling system efficiency[edit]

Numerous passive architectural strategies have been developed over time. Examples of such
strategies include the arrangement of rooms or the sizing and orientation of windows in a building,
[3]
and the orientation of facades and streets or the ratio between building heights and street widths
for urban planning.[4]
An important and cost-effective element of an efficient heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
(HVAC) system is a well-insulated building. A more efficient building requires less heat generating or
dissipating power, but may require more ventilation capacity to expel polluted indoor air.
Significant amounts of energy are flushed out of buildings in the water, air and compost streams. Off
the shelf, on-site energy recycling technologies can effectively recapture energy from waste hot
water and stale air and transfer that energy into incoming fresh cold water or fresh air. Recapture of
energy for uses other than gardening from compost leaving buildings requires centralized anaerobic
digesters.
HVAC systems are powered by motors. Copper, versus other metal conductors, helps to improve the
electrical energy efficiencies of motors, thereby enhancing the sustainability of electrical building
components.
Site and building orientation have some major effects on a building's HVAC efficiency.
Passive solar building design allows buildings to harness the energy of the sun efficiently without the
use of any active solar mechanisms such asphotovoltaic cells or solar hot water panels.
Typically passive solar building designs incorporate materials with high thermal mass that retain heat
effectively and strong insulation that works to prevent heat escape. Low energy designs also
requires the use of solar shading, by means of awnings, blinds or shutters, to relieve the solar heat
gain in summer and to reduce the need for artificial cooling. In addition, low energy
buildings typically have a very low surface area to volume ratio to minimize heat loss. This means
that sprawling multi-winged building designs (often thought to look more "organic") are often avoided
in favor of more centralized structures. Traditional cold climate buildings such
as American colonial saltbox designs provide a good historical model for centralized heat efficiency
in a small-scale building.
Windows are placed to maximize the input of heat-creating light while minimizing the loss of heat
through glass, a poor insulator. In the northern hemisphere this usually involves installing a large
number of south-facing windows to collect direct sun and severely restricting the number of northfacing windows. Certain window types, such as double or triple glazed insulated windows with gas
filled spaces and low emissivity (low-E) coatings, provide much better insulation than single-pane
glass windows. Preventing excess solar gain by means of solar shading devices in the summer

months is important to reduce cooling needs. Deciduous trees are often planted in front of windows
to block excessive sun in summer with their leaves but allow light through in winter when their leaves
fall off. Louvers or light shelves are installed to allow the sunlight in during the winter (when the sun
is lower in the sky) and keep it out in the summer (when the sun is high in the
sky). Coniferous or evergreen plants are often planted to the north of buildings to shield against cold
north winds.
In colder climates, heating systems are a primary focus for sustainable architecture because they
are typically one of the largest single energy drains in buildings.
In warmer climates where cooling is a primary concern, passive solar designs can also be very
effective. Masonry building materials with high thermal mass are very valuable for retaining the cool
temperatures of night throughout the day. In addition builders often opt for sprawling single story
structures in order to maximize surface area and heat loss.[citation needed] Buildings are often designed to
capture and channel existing winds, particularly the especially cool winds coming from
nearby bodies of water. Many of these valuable strategies are employed in some way by
the traditional architecture of warm regions, such as south-western mission buildings.
In climates with four seasons, an integrated energy system will increase in efficiency: when the
building is well insulated, when it is sited to work with the forces of nature, when heat is recaptured
(to be used immediately or stored), when the heat plant relying on fossil fuels or electricity is greater
than 100% efficient, and when renewable energy is used.

Renewable energy generation[edit]

BedZED (Beddington Zero Energy Development), the UK's largest and first carbon-neutral eco-community: the
distinctive roofscape with solar panels and passive ventilation chimneys

Solar panels[edit]
Main article: Solar PV
Active solar devices such as photovoltaic solar panels help to provide sustainable electricity for any
use. Electrical output of a solar panel is dependent on orientation, efficiency, latitude, and climate
solar gain varies even at the same latitude. Typical efficiencies for commercially available PV panels
range from 4% to 28%. The low efficiency of certain photovoltaic panels can significantly affect the
payback period of their installation.[5] This low efficiency does not mean that solar panels are not a
viable energy alternative. In Germany for example, Solar Panels are commonly installed in
residential home construction.
Roofs are often angled toward the sun to allow photovoltaic panels to collect at maximum efficiency.
In the northern hemisphere, a true-south facing orientation maximizes yield for solar panels. If truesouth is not possible, solar panels can produce adequate energy if aligned within 30 of south.
However, at higher latitudes, winter energy yield will be significantly reduced for non-south
orientation.
To maximize efficiency in winter, the collector can be angled above horizontal Latitude +15. To
maximize efficiency in summer, the angle should be Latitude -15. However, for an annual maximum
production, the angle of the panel above horizontal should be equal to its latitude. [6]

Wind turbines[edit]
Main article: Wind power
The use of undersized wind turbines in energy production in sustainable structures requires the
consideration of many factors. In considering costs, small wind systems are generally more
expensive than larger wind turbines relative to the amount of energy they produce. For small wind
turbines, maintenance costs can be a deciding factor at sites with marginal wind-harnessing
capabilities. At low-wind sites, maintenance can consume much of a small wind turbine's revenue.
[7]
Wind turbines begin operating when winds reach 8 mph, achieve energy production capacity at
speeds of 32-37 mph, and shut off to avoid damage at speeds exceeding 55 mph.[7] The energy
potential of a wind turbine is proportional to the square of the length of its blades and to the cube of
the speed at which its blades spin. Though wind turbines are available that can supplement power
for a single building, because of these factors, the efficiency of the wind turbine depends much upon
the wind conditions at the building site. For these reasons, for wind turbines to be at all efficient, they
must be installed at locations that are known to receive a constant amount of wind (with average
wind speeds of more than 15 mph), rather than locations that receive wind sporadically.[8] A small
wind turbine can be installed on a roof. Installation issues then include the strength of the roof,
vibration, and the turbulence caused by the roof ledge. Small-scale rooftop wind turbines have been
known to be able to generate power from 10% to up to 25% of the electricity required of a regular
domestic household dwelling.[9] Turbines for residential scale use are usually between 7 feet (2 m) to
25 feet (8 m) in diameter and produce electricity at a rate of 900 watts to 10,000 watts at their tested
wind speed.[10] Building integrated wind turbine performance can be enhanced with the addition of an
aerofoil wing on top of a roof mounted turbine.[11]
See also: Design feasibilIty of Wind turbine systems
Solar water heating[edit]
Main article: Solar thermal power
Solar water heaters, also called solar domestic hot water systems, can be a cost-effective way to
generate hot water for a home. They can be used in any climate, and the fuel they usesunshine
is free.[12]
There are two types of solar water systems- active and passive. An active solar collector system can
produce about 80 to 100 gallons of hot water per day. A passive system will have a lower capacity.[13]
There are also two types of circulation, direct circulation systems and indirect circulation systems.
Direct circulation systems loop the domestic water through the panels. They should not be used in
climates with temperatures below freezing. Indirect circulation loops glycol or some other fluid
through the solar panels and uses a heat exchanger to heat up the domestic water.
The two most common types of collector panels are Flat-Plate and Evacuated-tube. The two work
similarly except that evacuated tubes do not convectively lose heat, which greatly improves their
efficiency (5%-25% more efficient). With these higher efficiencies, Evacuated-tube solar collectors
can also produce higher-temperature space heating, and even higher temperatures for absorption
cooling systems.[14]
Electric-resistance water heaters that are common in homes today have an electrical demand
around 4500 kWh/year. With the use of solar collectors, the energy use is cut in half. The up-front
cost of installing solar collectors is high, but with the annual energy savings, payback periods are
relatively short.[14]
Heat pumps[edit]
Air-source heat pumps (ASHP) can be thought of as reversible air conditioners. Like an air
conditioner, an ASHP can take heat from a relatively cool space (e.g. a house at 70 F) and dump it
into a hot place (e.g. outside at 85 F). However, unlike an air conditioner, the condenser and

evaporator of an ASHP can switch roles and absorb heat from the cool outside air and dump it into a
warm house.
Air-source heat pumps are inexpensive relative to other heat pump systems. However, the efficiency
of air-source heat pumps decline when the outdoor temperature is very cold or very hot; therefore,
they are only really applicable in temperate climates.[14]
For areas not located in temperate climates, ground-source (or geothermal) heat pumps provide an
efficient alternative. The difference between the two heat pumps is that the ground-source has one
of its heat exchangers placed undergroundusually in a horizontal or vertical arrangement. Groundsource takes advantage of the relatively constant, mild temperatures underground, which means
their efficiencies can be much greater than that of an air-source heat pump. The in-ground heat
exchanger generally needs a considerable amount of area. Designers have placed them in an open
area next to the building or underneath a parking lot.
Energy Star ground-source heat pumps can be 40% to 60% more efficient than their air-source
counterparts. They are also quieter and can also be applied to other functions like domestic hot
water heating.[14]
In terms of initial cost, the ground-source heat pump system costs about twice as much as a
standard air-source heat pump to be installed. However, the up-front costs can be more than offset
by the decrease in energy costs. The reduction in energy costs is especially apparent in areas with
typically hot summers and cold winters.[14]
Other types of heat pumps are water-source and air-earth. If the building is located near a body of
water, the pond or lake could be used as a heat source or sink. Air-earth heat pumps circulate the
building's air through underground ducts. With higher fan power requirements and inefficient heat
transfer, Air-earth heat pumps are generally not practical for major construction.

Sustainable building materials[edit]

See also: Green building
Some examples of sustainable building materials include recycled denim or blown-in fiber glass
insulation, sustainably harvested wood, Trass, Linoleum,[15] sheep wool, concrete (high and ultra high
performance[16] roman self-healing concrete[17]), panels made from paper flakes, baked earth, rammed
earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linnen, sisal, seegrass, expanded clay grains, coconut, wood fibre plates,
calcium sand stone, locally obtained stone and rock, and bamboo, which is one of the strongest and
fastest growing woody plants, and non-toxic low-VOC glues and paints.Vegitative cover or sheild
over building envelopes also helps in the same.Paper which is fabricated or manufactured out of
forest wood is supposedly hundred percent recyclable .thus it regenrates and saves almost all the
forest wood that it takes during its manufacturing process.

Recycled materials[edit]

Recycling items for building

Sustainable architecture often incorporates the use of recycled or second hand materials, such
as reclaimed lumber and recycled copper. The reduction in use of new materials creates a
corresponding reduction in embodied energy (energy used in the production of materials). Often
sustainable architects attempt to retrofit old structures to serve new needs in order to avoid
unnecessary development. Architectural salvage and reclaimed materials are used when
appropriate. When older buildings are demolished, frequently any good wood is reclaimed, renewed,
and sold as flooring. Any good dimension stone is similarly reclaimed. Many other parts are reused
as well, such as doors, windows, mantels, and hardware, thus reducing the consumption of new
goods. When new materials are employed, green designers look for materials that are rapidly
replenished, such asbamboo, which can be harvested for commercial use after only 6 years of
growth, sorghum or wheat straw, both of which are waste material that can be pressed into panels,
or cork oak, in which only the outer bark is removed for use, thus preserving the tree. When
possible, building materials may be gleaned from the site itself; for example, if a new structure is
being constructed in a wooded area, wood from the trees which were cut to make room for the
building would be re-used as part of the building itself.

Lower volatile organic compounds[edit]

Low-impact building materials are used wherever feasible: for example, insulation may be made
from low VOC (volatile organic compound)-emitting materials such as recycled denim or cellulose
insulation, rather than the building insulation materials that may contain carcinogenic or toxic
materials such as formaldehyde. To discourage insect damage, these alternate insulation materials
may be treated with boric acid. Organic or milk-based paints may be used.[18] However, a common
fallacy is that "green" materials are always better for the health of occupants or the environment.
Many harmful substances (including formaldehyde, arsenic, and asbestos) are naturally occurring
and are not without their histories of use with the best of intentions. A study of emissions from
materials by the State of California has shown that there are some green materials that have
substantial emissions whereas some more "traditional" materials actually were lower emitters. Thus,
the subject of emissions must be carefully investigated before concluding that natural materials are
always the healthiest alternatives for occupants and for the Earth. [19]

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) can be found in any indoor environment coming from a variety of
different sources. VOCs have a high vapor pressure and low water solubility, and are suspected of
causing sick building syndrome type symptoms. This is because many VOCs have been known to
cause sensory irritation and central nervous system symptoms characteristic to sick building
syndrome, indoor concentrations of VOCs are higher than in the outdoor atmosphere, and when
there are many VOCs present, they can cause additive and multiplicative effects.
Green products are usually considered to contain fewer VOCs and be better for human and
environmental health. A case study conducted by the Department of Civil, Architectural, and
Environmental Engineering at the University of Miami that compared three green products and their
non-green counterparts found that even though both the green products and the non-green
counterparts both emitted levels of VOCs, the amount and intensity of the VOCs emitted from the
green products were much safer and comfortable for human exposure.[20]

Materials sustainability standards[edit]

Despite the importance of materials to overall building sustainability, quantifying and evaluating the
sustainability of building materials has proven difficult. There is little coherence in the measurement
and assessment of materials sustainability attributes, resulting in a landscape today that is littered
with hundreds of competing, inconsistent and often imprecise ecolabels,standards and certifications. This discord has led both to confusion among consumers and
commercial purchasers and to the incorporation of inconsistent sustainability criteria in larger
building certification programs such as LEED. Various proposals have been made regarding
rationalization of the standardization landscape for sustainable building materials. [21]

Waste management[edit]
Waste takes the form of spent or useless materials generated from households and businesses,
construction and demolition processes, and manufacturing and agricultural industries. These
materials are loosely categorized as municipal solid waste, construction and demolition (C&D)
debris, and industrial or agricultural by-products.[22] Sustainable architecture focuses on the on-site
use of waste management, incorporating things such as grey water systems for use on garden beds,
and composting toilets to reduce sewage. These methods, when combined with on-site food waste
composting and off-site recycling, can reduce a house's waste to a small amount of packaging
waste.This is the new techniques of sustainable architecture .

Building placement[edit]

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One central and often ignored aspect of sustainable architecture is building placement. Although the
ideal environmental home or office structure is often envisioned as an isolated place, this kind of
placement is usually detrimental to the environment. First, such structures often serve as the
unknowing frontlines of suburban sprawl. Second, they usually increase the energy
consumption required for transportation and lead to unnecessary auto emissions. Ideally, most
building should avoid suburban sprawl in favor of the kind of light urban developmentarticulated by
the New Urbanist movement. Careful mixed use zoning can make commercial, residential, and light
industrial areas more accessible for those traveling by foot, bicycle, or public transit, as proposed in
the Principles of Intelligent Urbanism. The study of Permaculture, in its holistic application, can also
greatly help in proper building placement that minimizes energy consumption and works with the
surroundings rather than against them, especially in rural and forested zones.

Sustainable building consulting[edit]

A sustainable building consultant may be engaged early in the design process, to forecast the
sustainability implications of building materials, orientation, glazing and other physical factors, so as
to identify a sustainable approach that meets the specific requirements of a project.
Norms and standards have been formalized by performance-based rating systems
e.g. LEED[23] and Energy Star for homes.[24] They define benchmarks to be met and
provide metrics and testing to meet those benchmarks. It is up to the parties involved in the project
to determine the best approach to meet those standards.

Changing pedagogies[edit]
Critics of the reductionism of modernism often noted the abandonment of the teaching of
architectural history as a causal factor. The fact that a number of the major players in the shift away
from modernism were trained at Princeton University's School of Architecture, where recourse to
history continued to be a part of design training in the 1940s and 1950s, was significant. The
increasing rise of interest in history had a profound impact on architectural education. History
courses became more typical and regularized. With the demand for professors knowledgeable in the
history of architecture, several PhD programs in schools of architecture arose in order to differentiate
themselves from art history PhD programs, where architectural historians had previously trained. In
the US, MIT and Cornell were the first, created in the mid-1970s, followed by Columbia, Berkeley,
and Princeton. Among the founders of new architectural history programs were Bruno Zevi at the
Institute for the History of Architecture in Venice, Stanford Anderson and Henry Millon at MIT,
Alexander Tzonis at the Architectural Association, Anthony Vidler at Princeton, Manfredo Tafuri at the
University of Venice, Kenneth Frampton at Columbia University, and Werner Oechslin and Kurt
Forster at ETH Zrich.[25]
The term sustainability in relation to architecture has so far been mostly considered through the
lens of building technology and its transformations. Going beyond the technical sphere of green
design, invention and expertise, some scholars are starting to position architecture within a much
broader cultural framework of the human interrelationship with nature. Adopting this framework
allows tracing a rich history of cultural debates about our relationship to nature and the environment,
from the point of view of different historical and geographical contexts.[26]

Sustainable urbanism and architecture[edit]

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture promote a
sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates and develops smart
growth,architectural tradition and classical design.[27][28] This in contrast to modernist and globally
uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.[29]Both
trends started in the 1980s. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is an award that recognizes efforts in
New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture, and is endowed with a prize money twice as high as
that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.[30]

Criticism[edit]
There are conflicting ethical, engineering, and political orientations depending on the viewpoints. [31]
There is no doubt Green Technology has made its headway into the architectural community, the
implementation of given technologies have changed the ways we see and perceive modern day
architecture. While green architecture has been proven to show great improvements of ways of living
both environmentally and technologically the question remains, is all this sustainable? Many building
codes have been demeaned to international standards. "LEED" (Leadership in Energy &

Environmental Design) has been criticized for exercising flexible codes for building to follow.
Contractors do this to save as much money as they possibly can. For example, a building may have
solar paneling but if the infrastructure of the building's core doesn't support that over a long period of
time improvements would have to be made on a constant basis and the building itself would be
vulnerable to disasters or enhancements. With companies cutting paths to make shortcuts with
sustainable architecture when building their structures it fuels to the irony that the "sustainable"
architecture isn't sustainable at all. Sustainability comes in reference to longevity and effectiveness.
Ethics and Politics also play into sustainable architecture and its ability to grow in urban
environment. Conflicting viewpoints between engineering techniques and environmental impacts still
are popular issues that resonate in the architectural community. With every revolutionary technology
or innovation there comes criticisms of legitimacy and effectiveness when and how it is being
utilized. Many of the criticisms of sustainable architecture do not reflect every aspect of it but rather a
broader spectrum across the international community.

Crowdsourced Office Design that Increases Productivity

and Inspires Innovation
December 27, 2013 - Airport Business Hub
Author : Rebecca Paul

Recent research suggests that open work spaces, alternative to the traditional cubical,
will improve employee productivity and foster collaboration and creativity. To further
explore this concept we recently ran a special design contest focused around one of our
current investment opportunities in Bogot, Colombia Airport Business Hub. The goal
for this contest was to utilize crowdsourcing to inspire innovations in office design. In
partnership with the online platform Jovoto, we invited thousands of people to share
with us their vision of the ideal working environment. In response, we received 82
proposals from 20 countries. The contest also attracted over 40,000 Facebook fans who
weighed in and helped us to select the top four entries. Although there was only one
official winner, we received dozens of inspiring entries, and in the spirit of open sourced
data weve decided to feature some of our favorite projects on our blog and Facebook
fan page. Be sure to check back in with us over the next few weeks to see what your
future office might look like.
Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to both a
structure and the using of processes that are environmentally responsible and resourceefficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to design, construction, operation,
maintenance, renovation, and demolition.[1] In other words, green building design involves finding the
balance between homebuilding and the sustainable environment. This requires close cooperation of
the design team, the architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages. [2] The Green
Building practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy,
utility, durability, and comfort.[3]
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a set of rating systems for the design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings which was Developed by the U.S.
Green Building Council. Other certificates system that confirms the sustainability of buildings is the
British BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) for buildings
and large scale developments. Currently, World Green Building Council is conducting research on
the effects of green buildings on the health and productivity of their users and is working with World
Bank to promote Green Buildings in Emerging Markets through EDGE Excellence in Design for
Greater Efficiencies Market Transformation Program and certification.[4]

Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in
creating greener structures, the common objective of green buildings is to reduce the overall impact
of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by:

Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources

Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity

Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation[3]

A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to focus on the
use of natural materials that are available locally.[5] Other related topics include sustainable
design and green architecture. Sustainability may be defined as meeting the needs of present
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. [6] Although
some green building programs don't address the issue of the retrofitting existing homes, others do,
especially through public schemes for energy efficient refurbishment. Green construction principles
can easily be applied to retrofit work as well as new construction.
A 2009 report by the U.S. General Services Administration found 12 sustainably-designed buildings
that cost less to operate and have excellent energy performance. In addition, occupants were overall
more satisfied with the building than those in typical commercial buildings.These are eco-friendly
buildings.[7]
Contents
[hide]

1Reducing environmental impact

2Goals of green building

o

2.1Life cycle assessment

2.2Siting and structure design efficiency

2.3Energy efficiency

2.4Water efficiency

2.5Materials efficiency

2.6Indoor environmental quality enhancement

2.7Operations and maintenance optimization

2.8Waste reduction

3Cost and payoff

4Regulation and operation

5International frameworks and assessment tools

6See also
o

6.1Green building by country

6.2General

7References

8External links

Reducing environmental impact[edit]

Hanging gardens of One Central Park, Sydney

Globally buildings are responsible for a huge share of energy, electricity, water and materials
consumption. The building sector has the greatest potential to deliver significant cuts in emissions at
little or no cost. Buildings account for 18%

[8]

of global emissions today, or the equivalent of 9 billion

tonnes of CO2 annually. If new technologies in construction are not adopted during this time of rapid
growth, emissions could double by 2050, according to the United Nations Environment
Program.Green building practices aim to reduce theenvironmental impact of building. Since
construction almost always degrades a building site, not building at all is preferable to green
building, in terms of reducing environmental impact. The second rule is that every building should be
as small as possible. The third rule is not to contribute to sprawl, even if the most energy-efficient,
environmentally sound methods are used in design and construction.
Buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the National Resources Inventory,
approximately 107 million acres (430,000 km2) of land in the United States are developed.
The International Energy Agency released a publication that estimated that existing buildings are

responsible for more than 40% of the worlds total primary energy consumption and for 24% of
global carbon dioxide emissions.[9]

Goals of green building[edit]

Blu Homes mkSolaire, a green building designed by Michelle Kaufmann.

Taipei 101, the tallest and largest green building of LEED Platinum certification in the world since 2011.

The concept of sustainable development can be traced to the energy (especially fossil oil) crisis and
environmental pollution concerns of the 1960s and 1970s.[10] The Rachel Carson book, Silent
Spring,[11] published in 1962, is considered to be one of the first initial efforts to describe sustainable
development as related to green building.[12] The green building movement in the U.S. originated from
the need and desire for more energy efficient and environmentally friendly construction practices.
There are a number of motives for building green, including environmental, economic, and social
benefits. However, modern sustainability initiatives call for an integrated and synergistic design to
both new construction and in the retrofitting of existing structures. Also known as sustainable design,
this approach integrates the building life-cycle with each green practice employed with a designpurpose to create a synergy among the practices used.

Green building brings together a vast array of practices, techniques, and skills to reduce and
ultimately eliminate the impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. It often
emphasizes taking advantage of renewable resources, e.g., using sunlight through passive
solar, active solar, and photovoltaic equipment, and using plants and trees through green roofs, rain
gardens, and reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other techniques are used, such as using lowimpact building materials or using packed gravel or permeable concrete instead of conventional
concrete or asphalt to enhance replenishment of ground water.
While the practices or technologies employed in green building are constantly evolving and may
differ from region to region, fundamental principles persist from which the method is derived: siting
and structure design efficiency, energy efficiency, water efficiency, materials efficiency, indoor
environmental quality enhancement, operations and maintenance optimization and waste and toxics
reduction.[13][14] The essence of green building is an optimization of one or more of these principles.
Also, with the proper synergistic design, individual green building technologies may work together to
produce a greater cumulative effect.
On the aesthetic side of green architecture or sustainable design is the philosophy of designing a
building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources surrounding the site. There are
several key steps in designing sustainable buildings: specify 'green' building materials from local
sources, reduce loads, optimize systems, and generate on-site renewable energy.

Life cycle assessment[edit]

A life cycle assessment (LCA) can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental, social and
economic concerns[15] by assessing a full range of impacts associated with all cradle-to-grave stages
of a process: from extraction of raw materials through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Impacts taken into account
include (among others) embodied energy, global warming potential, resource use, air pollution, water
pollution, and waste.
In terms of green building, the last few years have seen a shift away from a prescriptive approach,
which assumes that certain prescribed practices are better for the environment, toward the scientific
evaluation of actual performance through LCA.
Although LCA is widely recognized as the best way to evaluate the environmental impacts of
buildings (ISO 14040 provides a recognized LCA methodology), it is not yet a consistent requirement
of green building rating systems and codes, despite the fact that embodied energy and other life
cycle impacts are critical to the design of environmentally responsible buildings.

In North America, LCA is rewarded to some extent in the Green Globes rating system, and is part
of the new American National Standard based on Green Globes, ANSI/GBI 01-2010: Green Building
Protocol for Commercial Buildings. LCA is also included as a pilot credit in the LEED system, though
a decision has not been made as to whether it will be incorporated fully into the next major revision.
The state of California also included LCA as a voluntary measure in its 2010 draft Green Building
Standards Code.
Although LCA is often perceived as overly complex and time consuming for regular use by design
professionals, research organizations such as BRE in the UK and the Athena Sustainable Materials
Institute in North America are working to make it more accessible.
In the UK, the BRE Green Guide to Specifications offers ratings for 1,500 building materials based
on LCA.
In North America, the ATHENA EcoCalculator for Assemblies provides LCA results for several
hundred common building assembles based on data generated by its more complex parent
software, the ATHENA Impact Estimator for Buildings. (The EcoCalculator is available free at
www.athenasmi.org.) Athena software tools are especially useful early in the design process when
material choices have far-reaching implications for overall environmental impact. They allow
designers to experiment with different material mixes to achieve the most effective combination.

Siting and structure design efficiency[edit]

See also: Sustainable design
The foundation of any construction project is rooted in the concept and design stages. The concept
stage, in fact, is one of the major steps in a project life cycle, as it has the largest impact on cost and
performance.[16] In designing environmentally optimal buildings, the objective is to minimize the total
environmental impact associated with all life-cycle stages of the building project.

Exterior Light Shelves - Green Office Building, Denver Colorado

However, building as a process is not as streamlined as an industrial process, and varies from one
building to the other, never repeating itself identically. In addition, buildings are much more complex
products, composed of a multitude of materials and components each constituting various design
variables to be decided at the design stage. A variation of every design variable may affect the
environment during all the building's relevant life-cycle stages.[17]

Energy efficiency[edit]
Main articles: Low-energy house and Zero-energy building

An eco-house at Findhorn Ecovillage with a turf roof and solar panels

Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy consumption both the embodied energy
required to extract, process, transport and install building materials and operating energy to provide
services such as heating and power for equipment.
As high-performance buildings use less operating energy, embodied energy has assumed much
greater importance and may make up as much as 30% of the overall life cycle energy
consumption. Studies such as the U.S. LCI Database Project[18] show buildings built primarily with
wood will have a lower embodied energy than those built primarily with brick, concrete, or steel. [19]
To reduce operating energy use, designers use details that reduce air leakage through the building
envelope (the barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space). They also specify highperformance windows and extra insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors. Another strategy, passive
solar building design, is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orient windows and
walls and place awnings, porches, and trees[20] to shade windows and roofs during the summer while
maximizing solar gain in the winter. In addition, effective window placement (daylighting) can provide
more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the day. Solar water heating further
reduces energy costs.

Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power,
or biomass can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building. Power generation is
generally the most expensive feature to add to a building.

Water efficiency[edit]
See also: Water conservation
Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building.
One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer
exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their
dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and
conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual
plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using water for washing of the cars. Waste-water
may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow
shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing
possibilities of re-using water on-site. Point of use water treatment and heating improves both water
quality and energy efficiency while reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of nonsewage and greywater for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local
aquifer.[21]
Large commercial buildings with water and energy efficiency can qualify for an LEED Certification.
Philadelphia's Comcast Center is the tallest building in Philadelphia. It's also one of the tallest
buildings in the USA that is LEED Certified. Their environmental engineering consists of a hybrid
central chilled water system which cools floor-by-floor with steam instead of water. Burn's
Mechanical set-up the entire renovation of the 58 story, 1.4 million square foot sky scraper.

Materials efficiency[edit]
See also: Sustainable architecture
Building materials typically considered to be 'green' include lumber from forests that have been
certified to a third-party forest standard, rapidly renewable plant materials like bamboo and
straw, dimension stone, recycled stone, recycled metal (see: copper sustainability and recyclability),
and other products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable. For concrete a high
performance or Roman self-healing concrete is available. [22][23] The EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion products, foundry
sand, and demolition debris in construction projects.[24] Energy efficient building materials and
appliances are promoted in the United States through energy rebate programs.

Indoor environmental quality enhancement[edit]

See also: Indoor air quality
The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) category in LEED standards, one of the five environmental
categories, was created to provide comfort, well-being, and productivity of occupants. The LEED IEQ
category addresses design and construction guidelines especially: indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal
quality, and lighting quality.[25][26][27]
Indoor Air Quality seeks to reduce volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, and other air impurities
such as microbial contaminants. Buildings rely on a properly designed ventilation system
(passively/naturally or mechanically powered) to provide adequate ventilation of cleaner air from
outdoors or recirculated, filtered air as well as isolated operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from
other occupancies. During the design and construction process choosing construction materials and
interior finish products with zero or low VOC emissions will improve IAQ. Most building materials and
cleaning/maintenance products emit gases, some of them toxic, such as many VOCs including
formaldehyde. These gases can have a detrimental impact on occupants' health, comfort, and
productivity. Avoiding these products will increase a building's IEQ. LEED, [28] HQE[29] and Green Star
contain specifications on use of low-emitting interior. Draft LEED 2012 [30] is about to expand the
scope of the involved products. BREEAM[31] limits formaldehyde emissions, no other VOCs. MAS
Certified Green is a registered trademark to delineate low VOC-emitting products in the marketplace.
[32]

The MAS Certified Green Program ensures that any potentially hazardous chemicals released

from manufactured products have been thoroughly tested and meet rigorous standards established
by independent toxicologists to address recognized long term health concerns. These IAQ standards
have been adopted by and incorporated into the following programs: (1) The United States Green
Building Council (USGBC) in their LEED rating system[33] (2) The California Department of Public
Health (CDPH) in their section 01350 standards[34] (3) The Collaborative for High Performance
Schools (CHPS) in their Best Practices Manual[35] and (4) The Business and Institutional Furniture
Manufacturers Association (BIFMA) in their level sustainability standard.[36]
Also important to indoor air quality is the control of moisture accumulation (dampness) leading to
mold growth and the presence of bacteria and viruses as well as dust mites and other organisms
and microbiological concerns. Water intrusion through a building's envelope or water condensing on
cold surfaces on the building's interior can enhance and sustain microbial growth. A well-insulated
and tightly sealed envelope will reduce moisture problems but adequate ventilation is also necessary
to eliminate moisture from sources indoors including human metabolic processes, cooking, bathing,
cleaning, and other activities.

Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system coupled with a properly
designed building envelope will also aid in increasing a building's thermal quality. Creating a high
performance luminous environment through the careful integration of daylight and electrical light
sources will improve on the lighting quality and energy performance of a structure. [21][37]
Solid wood products, particularly flooring, are often specified in environments where occupants are
known to have allergies to dust or other particulates. Wood itself is considered to be hypo-allergenic
and its smooth surfaces prevent the buildup of particles common in soft finishes like carpet. The
Asthma and Allergy Foundation of American recommends hardwood, vinyl, linoleum tile or slate
flooring instead of carpet.[38] The use of wood products can also improve air quality by absorbing or
releasing moisture in the air to moderate humidity.[39]
Interactions among all the indoor components and the occupants together form the processes that
determine the indoor air quality. Extensive investigation of such processes is the subject of indoor air
scientific research and is well documented in the journal Indoor Air.[40]

Operations and maintenance optimization[edit]

No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can only
remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. Ensuring operations and
maintenance(O&M) personnel are part of the project's planning and development process will help
retain the green criteria designed at the onset of the project.[41]Every aspect of green building is
integrated into the O&M phase of a building's life. The addition of new green technologies also falls
on the O&M staff. Although the goal of waste reduction may be applied during the design,
construction and demolition phases of a building's life-cycle, it is in the O&M phase that green
practices such as recycling and air quality enhancement take place. O&M staff should aim to
establish best practices in energy efficiency, resource conservation, ecologically sensitive products
and other sustainable practices. Education of building operators and occupants is key to effective
implementation of sustainable strategies in O&M services.[42]

Waste reduction[edit]
Green architecture also seeks to reduce waste of energy, water and materials used during
construction. For example, in California nearly 60% of the state's waste comes from commercial
buildings[43] During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce the amount of material
going to landfills. Well-designed buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated by the
occupants as well, by providing on-site solutions such as compost bins to reduce matter going to
landfills.

To reduce the amount of wood that goes to landfill, Neutral Alliance (a coalition of government,
NGOs and the forest industry) created the website dontwastewood.com. The site includes a variety
of resources for regulators, municipalities, developers, contractors, owner/operators and
individuals/homeowners looking for information on wood recycling.
When buildings reach the end of their useful life, they are typically demolished and hauled to
landfills. Deconstruction is a method of harvesting what is commonly considered "waste" and
reclaiming it into useful building material.[44] Extending the useful life of a structure also reduces
waste building materials such as wood that are light and easy to work with make renovations
easier.[45]
To reduce the impact on wells or water treatment plants, several options exist. "Greywater",
wastewater from sources such as dishwashing or washing machines, can be used for subsurface
irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash cars. Rainwater
collectors are used for similar purposes.
Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to
this process is converting waste and wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and shows
other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a semicentralized biogas plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This concept
was demonstrated by a settlement in Lubeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like these provide
soil with organic nutrients and create carbon sinksthat remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
offsetting greenhouse gas emission. Producing artificial fertilizer is also more costly in energy than
this process.[46]

Cost and payoff[edit]

The most criticized issue about constructing environmentally friendly buildings is the price. Photovoltaics, new appliances, and modern technologies tend to cost more money. Most green buildings
cost a premium of <2%, but yield 10 times as much over the entire life of the building. [47] In regards to
the financial benefits of green building, Over 20 years, the financial payback typically exceeds the
additional cost of greening by a factor of 4-6 times. And broader benefits, such as reductions in
greenhouse gases (GHGs) and other pollutants have large positive impacts on surrounding
communities and on the planet.[48] The stigma is between the knowledge of up-front cost[49] vs. lifecycle cost. The savings in money come from more efficient use of utilities which result in decreased
energy bills. It is projected that different sectors could save $130 Billion on energy bills. [50]Also, higher
worker or student productivity can be factored into savings and cost deductions.

Numerous studies have shown the measurable benefit of green building initiatives on worker
productivity. In general it has been found that, "there is a direct correlation between increased
productivity and employees who love being in their work space.[51] Specifically, worker productivity
can be significantly impacted by certain aspects of green building design such as improved lighting,
reduction of pollutants, advanced ventilation systems and the use of non-toxic building materials.
[52]

In The Business Case for Green Building, the U.S. Green Building Council gives another specific

example of how commercial energy retrofits increase worker health and thus productivity, People in
the U.S. spend about 90% of their time indoors. EPA studies indicate indoor levels of pollutants may
be up to ten times higher than outdoor levels. LEED-certified buildings are designed to have
healthier, cleaner indoor environmental quality, which means health benefits for occupants." [53]
Studies have shown over a 20-year life period, some green buildings have yielded $53 to $71 per
square foot back on investment.[54] Confirming the rentability of green building investments, further
studies of the commercial real estate market have found that LEED and Energy Star certified
buildings achieve significantly higher rents, sale prices and occupancy rates as well as lower
capitalization rates potentially reflecting lower investment risk. [55][56][57]

Regulation and operation[edit]

As a result of the increased interest in green building concepts and practices, a number of
organizations have developed standards, codes and rating systems that let government regulators,
building professionals and consumers embrace green building with confidence. In some cases,
codes are written so local governments can adopt them as bylaws to reduce the local environmental
impact of buildings.
Green building rating systems such as BREEAM (United Kingdom), LEED (United States and
Canada), DGNB (Germany), CASBEE (Japan), and VERDEGBCe (Spain) help consumers determine a
structures level of environmental performance. They award credits for optional building features that
support green design in categories such as location and maintenance of building site, conservation
of water, energy, and building materials, and occupant comfort and health. The number of credits
generally determines the level of achievement.[58]
Green building codes and standards, such as the International Code Councils draft International
Green Construction Code,[59] are sets of rules created by standards development organizations that
establish minimum requirements for elements of green building such as materials or heating and
cooling.
Some of the major building environmental assessment tools currently in use include:

United States: International Green Construction Code (IGCC)

International frameworks and assessment tools[edit]

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is the fourth in a series of such reports. The
IPCC was established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information
concerning climate change, its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation. [60]
UNEP and Climate change
United Nations Environment Program UNEP works to facilitate the transition to low-carbon societies,
support climate proofing efforts, improve understanding of climate change science, and raise public
awareness about this global challenge.
GHG Indicator
The Greenhouse Gas Indicator: UNEP Guidelines for Calculating Greenhouse Gas Emissions for
Businesses and Non-Commercial Organizations
Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It is
a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organizations of
the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans impact on the environment.
The number 21 refers to the 21st century.
FIDIC's PSM
The International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) Project Sustainability Management
Guidelines were created in order to assist project engineers and other stakeholders in setting
sustainable development goals for their projects that are recognized and accepted by as being in the
interests of society as a whole. The process is also intended to allow the alignment of project goals
with local conditions and priorities and to assist those involved in managing projects to measure and
verify their progress.

The Project Sustainability Management Guidelines are structured with Themes and Sub-Themes
under the three main sustainability headings of Social, Environmental and Economic. For each
individual Sub-Theme a core project indicator is defined along with guidance as to the relevance of
that issue in the context of an individual project.
The Sustainability Reporting Framework provides guidance for organizations to use as the basis for
disclosure about their sustainability performance, and also provides stakeholders a universally
applicable, comparable framework in which to understand disclosed information.
The Reporting Framework contains the core product of the Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, as
well as Protocols and Sector Supplements. The Guidelines are used as the basis for all reporting.
They are the foundation upon which all other reporting guidance is based, and outline core content
for reporting that is broadly relevant to all organizations regardless of size, sector, or location. The
Guidelines contain principles and guidance as well as standard disclosures including indicators
to outline a disclosure framework that organizations can voluntarily, exibly, and incrementally,
adopt.
Protocols underpin each indicator in the Guidelines and include definitions for key terms in the
indicator, compilation methodologies, intended scope of the indicator, and other technical references.
Sector Supplements respond to the limits of a one-size-ts-all approach. Sector Supplements
complement the use of the core Guidelines by capturing the unique set of sustainability issues faced
by different sectors such as mining, automotive, banking, public agencies and others.
IPD Environment Code
The IPD Environment Code[61] was launched in February 2008. The Code is intended as a good
practice global standard for measuring the environmental performance of corporate buildings. Its aim
is to accurately measure and manage the environmental impacts of corporate buildings and enable
property executives to generate high quality, comparable performance information about their
buildings anywhere in the world. The Code covers a wide range of building types (from ofces to
airports) and aims to inform and support the following;

Creating an environmental strategy

Inputting to real estate strategy

Communicating a commitment to environmental improvement

Creating performance targets

Environmental improvement plans

Performance assessment and measurement

Life cycle assessments

Acquisition and disposal of buildings

Supplier management

Information systems and data population

Compliance with regulations

Team and personal objectives

IPD estimate that it will take approximately three years to gather significant data to develop a robust
set of baseline data that could be used across a typical corporate estate.
ISO 21931
ISO/TS 21931:2006, Sustainability in building constructionFramework for methods of assessment
for environmental performance of construction worksPart 1: Buildings, is intended to provide a
general framework for improving the quality and comparability of methods for assessing the
environmental performance of buildings. It identifies and describes issues to be taken into account
when using methods for the assessment of environmental performance for new or existing building
properties in the design, construction, operation, refurbishment and deconstruction stages. It is not
an assessment system in itself but is intended be used in conjunction with, and following the
principles set out in, the ISO 14000 series of standards.

A natural building involves a range of building systems and materials that place major emphasis
on sustainability. Ways of achieving sustainability through natural building focus on durability and the
use of minimally processed, plentiful or renewable resources, as well as those that, while recycled or
salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain indoor air quality. Natural building tends
to rely on human labor, more than technology. As Michael G. Smith observes, it depends on "local
ecology, geology and climate; on the character of the particular building site, and on the needs and
personalities of the builders and users."[1]

The basis of natural building is the need to lessen the environmental impact of buildings and other
supporting systems, without sacrificing comfort or health. To be more sustainable, natural building
uses primarily abundantly available, renewable, reused or recycled materials. The use of rapidly
renewable materials is increasingly a focus. In addition to relying on natural building materials, the
emphasis on the architectural design is heightened. The orientation of a building, the utilization of
local climate and site conditions, the emphasis on natural ventilation through design, fundamentally
lessen operational costs and positively impact the environmental. Building compactly and minimizing
the ecological footprint is common, as are on-site handling of energy acquisition, on-site water
capture, alternate sewage treatment and water reuse.[citation needed]

Porch of a modern timber framed home

Contents
[hide]

1Materials

2Techniques
o

2.1Adobe

2.2Cob

2.3Cordwood

2.4Earthbag

2.5Rammed earth

2.6Stone

2.7Straw bale

2.8Timber frame

3See also

4Notes

5References

Materials[edit]
The materials common to many types of natural building are clay and sand. When mixed with water
and, usually, straw or another fiber, the mixture may form cob or adobe (clay blocks). Other materials
commonly used in natural building are: earth (as rammed earth or earth bag), wood
(cordwood or timber frame/post-and-beam), straw, rice-hulls,bamboo and stone. A wide variety of
reused or recycled non-toxic materials are common in natural building, including urbanite (salvaged
chunks of used concrete), vehicle windscreens and other recycled glass.
Other materials are avoided by practitioners of this building approach, due to their major negative
environmental or health impacts. These include unsustainably harvested wood, toxic woodpreservatives, portland cement-based mixes, paints and other coatings that off-gas volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and some plastics, particularly polyvinyl chloride (PVC or "vinyl") and those
containing harmful plasticizers or hormone-mimicking formulations.[citation needed]

Techniques[edit]
Many traditional techniques and materials are now experiencing a resurgence of popularity. This
differs around the world based on climate appropriate building design and the availability of local
materials.

Adobe[edit]
Main articles: Adobe and Mudbrick
One of the oldest building methods, adobe is simply clay and sand mixed with water. Often, chopped
straw or other fibers are added for strength. The mixture is then allowed to dry in the desired shape.
Usually adobe is shaped into bricks that can be stacked to form walls. [2]

Various claims are made about the optimal proportions of clay and sand (or larger aggregate). Some
say that the best adobe soil contains 15% - 30% clay to bind the material together. Others say equal
proportions of clay and sand are best to prevent cracking or fragmenting of the bricks. The blocks
can either be poured into molds and dried, or pressed into blocks. Adobe colored with clay and
polished with natural oil makes an attractive and resilient floor.[3]
To protect the walls and reduce maintenance, adobe buildings usually have large overhanging eaves
and sizeable foundations. Adobe can be plastered over with cob or lime-based mixes for both
appearance and protection. Adobe has good thermal mass, meaning that it is slow to transmit heat
or cold. It is not a good insulator, however, so insulation can be added (preferably on the outside), or
a double wall built with airspace or insulation in between. The traditional thick, un-insulated adobe
has proven to perform best in regions without harsh winters or where daily sun is predictably
available during those cold periods.[citation needed]

Cob[edit]
Main article: Cob (building)

A small cob building with a living roof

The term cob is used to describe a monolithic building system based on a mixture of clay, sand,
straw and earth. The construction uses no forms, bricks or wooden framework; it is built from the
ground up. Various forms of "mud" building have been used in many parts of the world for centuries,
under a variety of names, and date from at least 10,000 years ago. Cob building began use in
England prior to the 13th century, and fell out of favor after World War I, although it is seeing a
resurgence today. Cob is one of the simplest and least expensive building techniques available,
though it is typically very labor-intensive. Cob's other great advantage is versatility; It can easily be
shaped into any form. While cob building was falling out of favor in England by the late 19th century,
thousands of cob structures have endured to the present (20,000 in Devon, England alone).[4] It is
estimated that from one third to one half of the world's population lives in earthen dwellings today.

Although typically associated with "low-rise" structures, in Yemen and other Middle-Eastern countries
it has, for centuries, been used in "apartment" buildings of eight stories and more. [5]
Cob-like mixes are also used as plaster or filler in several methods of natural building, such as
adobe, earth bags, timber frames, cordwood, and straw bales. Earth is thus a primary ingredient of
natural building.[citation needed]

Cordwood[edit]
Main article: Cordwood construction

A section of a cordwood home.

Cordwood construction is a term used for a natural building method in which "cordwood" or short
lengths of pieces of debarked tree are laid up crosswise with masonry or cob mixtures to build a
wall. The cordwood, thus, becomes infill for the walls, usually between posts in a timber
framestructure. Cordwood masonry can be combined with other methods (e.g., rammed earth, cob
or light clay) to produce attractive combinations. Cordwood masonry construction provides a
relatively high thermal mass, which helps to minimise fluctuations in temperature. [6]

Earthbag[edit]
Main articles: Earthbag construction and Super Adobe
Earth is the most typical fill material used in bag-wall construction techniques. This building method
utilizes stacked polypropylene or natural-fiber (burlap) bags filled with earth or other mixes without a
stabilizer such as portland cement, to form footings, foundations, walls and even vaulted or domed
roofs. In recent years, building with earth bags has become one of the increasingly practiced
techniques in natural building. It facilitates self-contained, often free-form rammed-earth structures.
Its growing popularity relates to its use of an abundant and readily available often site-available
material (earth) in a potentially inexpensive building technique that is flexible, and easy to learn and
use. However, because earth is a poor insulator, in more extreme climates other filler variations are

now being explored, substituting pumice, rice-hulls or another material with better insulating value for
all or part of the earth (see also Rice-hull bagwall construction).
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Rammed earth[edit]
Main article: Rammed earth
Rammed earth is a wall system made of compacted earth, or another material that is compacted. [7] It
is extremely strong and durable. Quality rammed earth walls are dense, solid, and stone-like with
great environmental benefits and superior low maintenance characteristics. [citation needed] As an option
depending on climate or seismic concerns rigid insulation can be placed inside the wall as well as
steel reinforcement. Rammed earth has been used for around 10,000 years in all types of buildings
from low rise to high-rise and from small huts to palaces.[8]
Rammed earth walls are formed in place by pounding damp sub-soil (containing sand, clay and
sometimes gravel) into movable, reusable forms with manual or machine-powered tampers. In
traditional rammed earth, a mixture of around 70% aggregate (gravel,sand) and 30% clay is optimal.
Pigmentation may be added if the mix to achieve the desired color. Around 5-10 inches of mixed
damp sub-soil are placed inside the forms and pounded to total compaction and the process is
repeated until the desired height is achieved. What is left after the forms are removed is a wall that is
structural and can last over 1000 years.[9]

Stone[edit]

Dry limestone bridge across Hubb Creek, Wellington, Ontario, Canada. It was built by members of 'Dry Stone
Walling Across Canada' using 38 tons of stone

Stone has been used as a building material for thousands of years. It has long been recognized as a
material of great durability. The pyramids in Giza, burial chambers in the UK and temples in Malta
were all built from stone over 4000 years ago and are still standing. The earliest form of stone
construction is known as dry stone, or dry stacking. These are freestanding structures such as field
walls, bridges and buildings that use irregularly shaped stones carefully selected and placed so that
they fit closely together without slipping. Structures are typically wider at the base and taper in as
height increases. They do not require any special tools, only the skill of the craftsman in choosing
and placing the stones.
Traditional stone masonry evolved from dry stone stacking. Stone blocks are laid in rows of even
(courses) or uneven (un-coursed) height, and fixed in place with lime mortar pasted between the
stones. Traditional stone masonry is rarely used today because stone is expensive to quarry, cut and
transport, and the building process is labor and skill-intensive.
Stone is a highly durable, low maintenance building material with high thermal mass. It is versatile,
available in many shapes, sizes, colors and textures, and can be used for floors, walls, arches and
roofs. Stone blends well with the natural landscape, and can easily be recycled for other building
purposes.

Straw bale[edit]
Main article: Straw bale construction

Straw bale construction in Santa Cruz, CA

Although grasses and straw have been in use in a range of ways in building since pre-history around
the world, their incorporation in machine-manufactured modular bales seems to date back to the
early 20th century in the midwestern United States, particularly the sand-hills ofNebraska, where
grass was plentiful and other building materials (even quality sods) were not. Straw bale building
typically consists of stacking a series of rows of bales (often in running-bond) on a raised footing
or foundation, with a moisture barrier between. Bale walls are often tied together with pins of
bamboo or wood (internal to the bales or on their faces), or with surface wire meshes, and
then stuccoed or plastered either lime-based formulations or earth/clay renders. Bale buildings can
either have a structural frame of other materials, with bales between (simply serving as insulation
and stucco substrate), referred to as "infill",or the bales may actually provide the support for
openings and roof, referred to as "load-bearing" or "Nebraska-style", or a combination of framing and
load-bearing may be employed, referred to a "hybrid" straw bale.[citation needed]
Typically, bales created on farms with mobile machinery have been used ("field-bales"), but recently
higher-density "recompressed" bales (or "straw-blocks") are increasing the loads that may be
supported; where field bales might support around 600 pounds per linear foot of wall, the high
density bales bear up to 4,000 lb./lin.ft. and more. And the basic bale-building method is now
increasingly being extended to bound modules of other often-recycled materials, including tire-bales,
as well as those of cardboard, paper, plastics and used carpeting, and to bag-contained "bales" of
wood-chips, rice-hulls, etc.[citation needed]

Timber frame[edit]
Main article: Timber frame

The completed frame of a modern timber frame home

The basic elements of timber frame buildingjoined timbers, clay walls and thatch roofs were in
place in Europe and Asia by the 9th century. It remained the common mode of house construction in

northern cultures until the 19th century. Craftsmanship was, and is, an important value in timber
frame building. The oldest timber frame structures (for example, the timber framed stave churches
ofScandinavia) show both craftsmanship and a strong grasp of the technical aspects of structural
design, as do such structures inJapan.[citation needed]
Timber framing typically uses a "bent." A bent is a structural support, like a truss, consisting of two
posts, a tie beam and two rafters. These are connected into a framework through joinery. To practice
the craft, one must understand the basic structural aspects of the bent. This, along with a knowledge
of joinery, are the basis of timber frame building.[citation needed]
Timber framing is now a modern method of construction, Ideally suited to mass house building as
well as public buildings. In conjunction with a number of natural insulations and timber cladding or
modern lime renders, it is possible to quickly construct a high performance, sustainable building,
using completely natural products. The benefits are manythe building performs better over its
lifespan, waste is reduced (much can be re-cycled, composted or used as fuel). Timber frame
structures are frequently used in combination with other natural building techniques, such as cob,
straw bale, or cordwood/masonry.[citation needed]

Green architecture, or green design, is an approach to building that minimizes harmful

effects on human health and the environment. The "green" architect or designer
attempts to safeguard air, water, and earth by choosing eco-friendly building materials
and construction practices.

Common Characteristics of a "Green" Building:

Green architecture may have many of these features:

Ventilation systems designed for efficient heating and cooling

Energy-efficient lighting and appliances

Water-saving plumbing fixtures

Landscapes planned to maximize passive solar energy

Minimal harm to the natural habitat

Alternate power sources such as solar power or wind power

Non-synthetic, non-toxic materials used inside and out

Locally-obtained woods and stone, eliminating long-haul transportation

Responsibly-harvested woods

Adaptive reuse of older buildings

Use of recycled architectural salvage

Efficient use of space

Optimal location on the land, maximizing sunlight, winds, and natural sheltering

While most green buildings do not have all of these features, the highest goal of green
architecture is to be fully sustainable. Simply put, you do "green" things in order to
achieve sustainability.

Related Names and Concepts:

sustainable development

eco-design

eco-friendly architecture

earth-friendly architecture

environmental architecture

natural architecture

Green Verification:
Since 1993, the U.S. Green Building Council has been promoting green design. In 2000,
they created a rating system that builders, developers, and architects can adhere to, and
then apply for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification.
"Projects pursuing LEED certification earn points across several areas that address
sustainability issues," writes the USGBC. "Based on the number of points achieved, a
project then receives one of four LEED rating levels: Certified, Silver, Gold and
Platinum." The certification comes with a fee, but it can be adapted and applied to any
building, "from homes to corporate headquarters."

Understanding the LEED Certification Basics by our Construction Expert

What Is LEED? by our Green Living Expert

A Step-By-Step Guide to Achieving LEED Certification by our Construction Management

Expert

Examples of Green Architecture:

US Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington, DC

The Magney House: Energy-conserving home by Australian architect Glenn Murcutt

LEAFHouse: A vine-covered solar house designed by students from the University of

Maryland

Katrina Kernel Cottage II: Low-cost and energy-efficient emergency pre-fab housing

Solar-Powered Victorian: A historic inn with high-tech photovoltaic panels

Earth House: This home in Loreto Bay, Mexico is made with compressed earth blocks

How to Reclaim the Land - 12 Green Ideas: How did Great Britain transform a brownfield
into the site of the London 2012 summer Olympic Games?

California Academy of Sciences: Italian architect Renzo Piano not only created a green
roof, but also used recycled blue jeans as insulation throughout the building.

Mimetic House by Dominic Stevens and Brian Ward, Ireland

Whole Building Design:

A building can look beautiful and even be constructed from very expensive materials,
but not be "green." Likewise, a building can be very "green" but visually unappealing.
How do we get good architecture? How do we move toward what Roman architect
Vitruvius suggested to be the three rules of architectureto be well-built, useful by
serving a purpose, and beautiful to look at?
The National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) argues that sustainability has to be
part of the whole design process, from the very start of the project. They devote an
entire Website to WBDGWhole Building Design Guide at www.wbdg.org/. Design
objectives are interrelated, where designing for sustainability is just one aspect. "A truly
successful project is one where project goals are identified early on," they write, "and
where the interdependencies of all building systems are coordinated concurrently from
the planning and programming phase." Green architectural design should not be an
add-on. It should be the way of doing the business of creating a built environment. NIBS
suggests that these systems must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately applied:

accessibility

aesthetics

cost-effectiveness

functional or operational

historic preservation

productivity (comfort and health of the occupants)

security and safety

sustainability

The 2030 Challenge:

Climate change will not destroy the Earth. The planet will go on for millions of years,
long after human life has expired. Climate change, however, will destroy the species of
life on Earth that cannot adapt fast enough to new conditions.
The building trades have collectively recognized its role in contributing to the
greenhouse gases put into the atmosphere. For example, the manufacturing of cement,
the basic ingredient in concrete, is reportedly one of the largest global contributors to
carbon dioxide emissions. From poor designs to construction materials, the industry is
challenged to change its ways.
Architect Edward Mazria has taken the lead to transform the building industry from a
major polluter to an agent of change. He has suspended his own architectural
practice (mazria.com) to concentrate on the nonprofit organization he established in
2002. The goal set for Architecture 2030 is simply this: "All new buildings,
developments, and major renovations shall be carbon-neutral by 2030."
Will governments and the private sector choose to do the green thing?

Green Architecture as a Choice:

"Typically, buildings are designed to meet building code requirements, whereas green building
design challenges designers to go beyond the codes to improve overall building performance
and minimize life-cycle environmental impact and cost."American Institute of Architects, How
Can I Determine If a Building Is Green?