1. They have a dorsal fin that is continuous with the caudal and anal fin.

2. They have very small , embedded scales or no scales.

3. As juveniles and adults, members of the family Anguillidae live in fresh water,
but they breed in the ocean, where most other members of the eel order,
including the Moray, spend their entire lives. These freshwater eels are skinbreathers, absorbing oxygen into dense beds of capillaries that lie very close
under the skin.
4. They are "slippery as an eel" due to the production of slime. In the green
moray, yellow slime overlying a blue body produces its greenish color.
5. Larval eels are flattened ribbonlike creatures and look so different from the
adults that some larval forms were once considered to be separate species of
fish!
6. They have numerous sharp teeth.
7. Freshwater eels are an important food fish in many countries. Moray eels, on
the other hand, are toxic.

Description[edit]
Eels are elongated fish, ranging in length from 5 cm (2.0 in) in the one-jawed eel
(Monognathus ahlstromi)[dubious discuss] to 4 m (13 ft) in the slender giant moray.[2] Adults range in
weight from 30 g (1.1 oz) to well over 25 kg (55 lb). They possess no pelvic fins, and many
species also lack pectoral fins. The dorsal and anal fins are fused with the caudal fin, forming a
single ribbon running along much of the length of the animal. [1] Eels swim by generating body
waves which travel the length of their bodies. They can swim backwards by reversing the
direction of the wave.[3]
Most eels live in the shallow waters of the ocean and burrow into sand, mud, or amongst rocks. A
majority of eel species are nocturnal, thus are rarely seen. Sometimes, they are seen living
together in holes, or "eel pits". Some species of eels also live in deeper water on the continental
shelves and over the slopes deep as 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Only members of the Anguilla regularly
inhabit fresh water, but they, too, return to the sea to breed.[4]
The heaviest true eel is the European conger. The maximum size of this species has been
reported as reaching a length of 3 m (10 ft) and a weight of 110 kg (240 lb).[5] Other eels are
longer, but do not weigh as much, such as the slender giant moray which reaches 4 m (13 ft).[6]

Life cycle[edit]
Main article: Eel life history

Lifecycle

Eels begin life as flat and transparent larvae, called leptocephali. Eel larvae drift in the surface
waters of the sea, feeding on marine snow, small particles that float in the water. Eel larvae then
metamorphose into glass eels and then become elvers before finally seeking out their juvenile
and adult habitats.[2] Freshwater elvers travel upstream and are forced to climb up obstructions,
such as weirs, dam walls, and natural waterfalls. Lady Colin Campbell found, at Ballisodare, the
eel fisheries were greatly improved by the hanging of loosely plaited grass ladders over barriers,
enabling the elvers to ascend.[7]

Classification[edit]
This classification follows FishBase in dividing the eels into 20 families. Additional families
included in other classifications (notably ITISand Systema Naturae 2000) are noted below the
family with which they are synomized in the Fish Base system.
Identifying the origin of the freshwater species has been problematic. Genomic studies indicate
they are a monophyletic group which originated among the deep-sea eels.[8]

Suborders and families[edit]

A moray eel

Gorgasia barnesi, a species of garden eel

Juvenile American eels

Suborder Anguilloidei

Anguillidae (freshwater eels)

Chlopsidae (false morays)

Heterenchelyidae (mud eels)

Moringuidae (spaghetti eels)

Muraenidae (moray eels)

Myrocongridae (thin eels)

Protanguillidae

Suborder Congroidei

Colocongridae (worm eels)

Congridae (congers)

Including Macrocephenchelyidae
Derichthyidae (longneck eels)

Including Nessorhamphidae

Muraenesocidae (pike congers)

Nettastomatidae (duckbill eels)

Ophichthidae (snake eels)

Suborder Nemichthyoidei

Nemichthyidae (snipe eels)

Serrivomeridae (sawtooth eels)

Suborder Synaphobranchoidei

Synaphobranchidae (cutthroat eels)

Including Dysommidae, Nettodaridae, and Simenchelyidae

In some classifications, the family Cyematidae of bobtail snipe eels is included in the
Anguilliformes, but in the FishBase system that family is included in the
order Saccopharyngiformes.
The electric eel of South America is not a true eel, but is a South American knifefish more closely
related to the carps and catfishes.

Commercial species[edit]
This article is
one of a series on

Commercial fish

Large pelagic

billfish, bonito
mackerel, salmon
shark, tuna

Forage
anchovy, herring
menhaden, sardine
shad, sprat

Demersal
cod, eel, flatfish
pollock, ray

Mixed
carp, tilapia

[hide]Main commercial species

Com
mon
name

Scientific
name

Maxi
mum
length

Com
mon
lengt
h

Maxi
mum
weigh
t

Maxi
mum
age

Ameri
can
eel

Anguilla
rostrata (Les

152 c
m

50 cm

7.33 k
g

Europ
ean
eel

Anguilla
anguilla (Linn

150 c
m

35 cm

6.6 kg

Japan
ese
eel

Anguilla
japonica Tem

150 c
m

40 cm

1.89 k
g

Shortfinned
eel

Anguilla
australis Rich

130 c
m

45 cm

7.48 k
g

ueur, 1817)

aeus, 1758)

minck &
Schlegel, 1846

ardson, 1841

Use by humans[edit]
See also: Eel as food

Eel picker in Maasholm, sculpture by Bernd Maro

Trop
hic
level

FishB
ase

43
years

3.7

[9]

88
years

3.5

[11]

[12]

[13]

3.6

[15]

[16]

[17]

Not
assessed

4.1

[18]

[19]

Not
assessed

32
years

FA ITI
O
S

[10]

IUCN
status

Not
assessed

Crit
ically
endanger
ed[14]

Green water culture system forJapanese eel

Freshwater eels (unagi) and marine eels (conger eel, anago) are commonly used in Japanese
cuisine; foods such as unadon and unaj are popular, but expensive. Eels are also very popular
in Chinese cuisine, and are prepared in many different ways. Hong Kong eel prices have often
reached 1000 HKD(128.86 US Dollars) per kg, and once exceeded 5000 HKD per kg.
The European eel and other freshwater eels are eaten in Europe, the United States, and other
places. A traditional east London food is jellied eels, although the demand has significantly
declined since World War II. The Basquedelicacy angulas consists of elver (young
eels) sauted in olive oil with garlic; elvers usually reach prices of up to 1000 euro per kg.[20]New
Zealand longfin eel is a traditional Mori food in New Zealand. In Italian cuisine, eels from
the Valli di Comacchio, a swampy zone along the Adriatic coast, are especially prized, along with
freshwater eels of Bolsena Lake and pond eels from Cabras, Sardinia. In northern Germany, the
Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Poland, Denmark, and Sweden, smoked eel is considered
a delicacy.
Elvers, often fried, used to be a cheap dish in the United Kingdom; but, as across Europe, their
numbers collapsed during the 1990s.[21]They are now not just a delicacy, but the UK's most
expensive species.[22]
Eels, particularly the moray eel, are popular among marine aquarists.
Eel blood is toxic to humans[23] and other mammals,[24][25][26] but both cooking and the digestive
process destroy the toxic protein. The toxin derived from eel blood serum was used by Charles
Robert Richet in his Nobel Prize-winning research which discovered anaphylaxis(by injecting it
into dogs and observing the effect).[citation needed] The poison used by Richet was actually obtained
from sea anemones.[27]
Eelskin leather is highly prized. It is very smooth and exceptionally strong. However, it does not
come from eels. It comes from the Pacific hagfish, a jawless fish which is also known as the
slime eel.[28][29]

In human culture[edit]
A famous attraction on the French Polynesian island of Huahine (part of the Society Islands) is
the bridge across a stream hosting 3- to 6-ft-long eels, deemed sacred by local culture.

Sustainable consumption[edit]
In 2010, Greenpeace International has added the European eel, Japanese eel, and American
eel to its seafood red list.[30] Japan consumes more than 70% of the global eel catch. [31]

Eel fishing boat in France

Special boats to transport live eelsComacchio

Eel trap in Denmark around 1900

Gerookte paling (Dutch for smoked eel)

Etymology[edit]
The English name "eel" descends from Old English l, Common Germanic *laz. Also from the
common Germanic are German Aal, Middle Dutch ael, Old High German l, andOld Norse ll.
Katz (1998) identifies a number of Indo-European cognates, among them the second part of the
Latin word for eels, anguilla, attested in its simplex form illa (in a glossary only), and the Greek
word for "eel", egkhelys (the second part of which is attested in Hesychius as elyes).[32] The first
compound member, anguis ("snake"), is cognate to other Indo-European words for "snake"
(compare Old Irish escung "eel", Old High German unc "snake", Lithuanian angs, Greek ophis,
okhis, Vedic Sanskrit hi, Avestan ai, Armenian auj, i, Old Church Slavonic *, all from ProtoIndo-European *oguhis, guhis). The word also appears in the Old English word for "hedgehog,"
which is igil (meaning "snake eater"), and perhaps in the egi- of Old High German egidehsa "wall
lizard". According to this theory, the name Bellerophon (, attested in a variant
in Eustathius of Thessalonica), is also related, translating to "the slayer of the
serpent" (ahihn). On this theory, the - is an adjective form of an older word, ,
meaning "snake", which is directly comparable to Hittite ellu-essar- "snake pit". This myth likely
came to Greece via Anatolia. In the Hittite version of the myth, the dragon is called Illuyanka:
the illuy- part is cognate to the word illa, and the -anka part is cognate to angu, a word for
"snake". Since the words for "snake" (and similarly shaped animals) are often subject to taboo in
many Indo-European (and non-Indo-European) languages, no unambiguous Proto-IndoEuropean form of the word for eel can be reconstructed. It may have been *l(l)-u-, *l(l)-o-, or
something similar.
The daylight passage in the spring of elvers upstream along the Thames was at one time called
"eel fare". The word 'elver' is thought to be a corruption of "eel fare."[7]

There are over 400 species of Eels in the world, occupying both saltwater and fresh water habitats.
Although eels look like snakes, they are fish and come from the order Anguilliformes. All eels have
elongated, narrow bodies with long dorsal and anal fins. Most species of eels act as ambush
predators, hiding in rocky crevices or reefs, or burrowing under mud or sand. Some eels prefer a more
active, hunting life, using their length to reach into holes and crannies after prey.
Eels start life as transparent larva and remain in that state for 6 12 months. During this time they
can float thousands of miles through the open seas. After the larval phase, they become elvers and
although not sexually mature, they look more like an adult eel. Elvers, like lobster, were once
considered a cheap food and were a staple of coastal fishermen. Elvers are now considered a
delicacy and command a hefty price.
The Moray Eel is perhaps the most well-known eel with over 100 species occupying tropical oceans
worldwide. They are nocturnal hunters who prey on other eels, fish and mollusks. They have poor
hearing and eyesight, but a keen sense of smell which makes them a formidable predator. Groupers,
barracudas and larger moray eels are their only natural enemies. Humans do not generally hunt
moray eels as many of the species are toxic to us.
Morays are scaleless and cover their camouflaged bodies with protective mucus. They have small
circular gills and their mouths must remain open to facilitate breathing. The moray eel has many
sharp, backward curving teeth and can inflict serious wounds on both their prey and humans. Not
intentionally aggressive, the moray can not always distinguish between potential food and a divers
curious fingers. Moray eels generally reach 5 feet in length, but a species inhabiting the Pacific Ocean
can grow to lengths of 10 feet.

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Interaction

Economic Value

About Me

References

The Cycle of Life...

The Japanese eel has a very unusual life cycle. First of all,
the eel, like all freshwater eels, is catadromous. This
means that the organism splits its life cycle into freshwater
stages and marine stages, much like how your
grandparents run for warmer pastures as soon as winter
knocks on the door. (Wisconsin specific joke, sorry if you
missed out) In the case of the eel, it isnt the weather
theyre seeking, but rather appropriate spawning

conditions. When a mature eel is ready to spawn, it begins

its journey to the sea. At this point, the eel actually stops
eating and loses digestive functioning! It will make the
journey powered solely by fat reserves. Once undertaking
the journey, they are very persistent. They can actually
leave the water to travel around obstacles or to other
bodies of water! They do this by taking advantage of their
elongated, muscular body. They have developed similar
adaptations to terrestrial snakes, which allows them to
slither.

EELS AWAITING COOKING

A bucket of eels sitting in a Japanese restaurant. Image courtesy of angellari18.

Whats the life of a Japanese eel like?

Once the eel reaches the ocean, its task is not yet
complete. The Japanese eel has a very specific spawning
point, where every member of the species on the planet
goes to spawn. This location is nearby an area known as
the Suruga Seamount, located East of Guam. This location
was only recently revealed, and the extent of its
significance is not yet know. For now, we only know that
the location maximizes the effi ciency of entry into the
Kuroshio current, a powerful ocean current that leads
them directly into the coastal areas they are normally
found. The eggs are laid, and the mature eels die. The eggs
hatch into leptocephali, paper thin transparent larva, and
are carried by the Kuroshio current.. This process takes
from 1 to 5 years before the eels reach freshwater.
Sometime during the journey, they transform into glass
eels, which are more elongated and eel like, but still
transparent. Once they reach freshwater, they develop
into elvers, which are smaller versions of the adult form.

Over the next two years, they mature into yellow eel
adults. They live as yellow eels for 5-20 years before
maturing into silver eels which return to the ocean to
spawn. As you can tell, this is a complex, and seemingly
long life cycle for a fish!
Want to know more?
Click here for a great source of information on the
whole Anguilla genus, including great life cycle
information. Also, try here for a direct link to an excellent
picture of leptocephali devolopment from the same article.
An eel slithering on the grass. He is leaving an isolated pond,
presumably for a stream or river.
Photo courtesy of BluesKyPol.

An excellent representation of the Eel life cycle. Queen's Printer for Ontario, 2009.

Above: Elvers climbing over an obstacle.

Below: A mix of glass eel and elvers. Images
courtesy of Tim Watts.

Abstract
Go to:

Introduction
The eel has long been esteemed not only in Japan but also in European countries as an
important food fish. The aquacultural production of Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica, in Japan
is about 30,000 tons a year in recent years. Japan also imports a total of 80,000 tons of eel
from mainly China and Taiwan, and other countries. Seedlings for eel aquaculture are totally
dependent on glass eels, natural juveniles of eel which captured in estuaries. However, in
both East Asia and Europe the catches of glass eels differ greatly from year to year and
especially in the past 25 years, have been decreasing, resulting in a sharp rise in its price.
Therefore, to maintain the natural glass eel resources and to obtain reliable supplies of glass
eels for aquaculture, development of an artificially induced breeding procedure for eels has
been eagerly desired.
Techniques for artificial breeding of the Japanese eel have been studied intensively since the
1960s.Yamamoto and Yamauchi (1974) first succeeded in obtaining fertilized eggs and larvae
of the Japanese eel by hormone treatment, and preleptocephalus larvae were reared for 2
weeks (Yamauchi et al. 1976). Thereafter, many researchers have succeeded in obtaining eel

larvae, but preleptocephalus larvae could not survive beyond the depletion of their yolk and
oil droplet stores. Failures of production of the glass eel may be caused by incomplete
techniques for inducing sexual maturation of both male and female Japanese eels and
incomplete rearing techniques of larvae. Basic science on reproductive biology of fish has
remarkably progressed, especially in the fields of endocrine mechanisms of oogenesis and
spermatogenesis. Therefore, it is expected that information from the basic science facilitate to
develop techniques for induction of sexual maturation and rearing techniques of the Japanese
eel larvae. Therefore, in this paper, our recent researches on glass eel production, mainly on
induction of sexual maturation, are reviewed. Using newly developed techniques, our group
has succeeded for the first time to obtain glass eels.
Go to:

Maturation and ovulation

Cultivated female eels or silver eels that migrate down river are sexually immature and their
gonadosomatic index slightly increase to around 12% in fall and their ovaries contain
oocytes at the oil stage or oocytes at the primary yolk globule stage (Kagawa et al. 1998).
However, cultivated and silver eels do not mature and ovulate under normal culture
conditions. Yamamoto and Yamauchi (1974) succeeded in inducing oocyte growth and
obtaining full-grown oocytes in almost of all fish by repeated injections of salmon pituitary
extracts. Since then, repeated injections of piscine pituitary (mainly carp or salmon pituitary)
extracts are now routinely used for induction of vitellogenesis in female eels. However, the
percentage of ovulated females is very low, and even if ovulated eggs are obtained, these
eggs show low fertility and hatchability.
After 813 injections of salmon pituitary extracts (20 mg/fish/week), females have ovaries
containing the full-grown oocytes which complete vitellogenesis and attain the migratory
nucleus stage (about 750800 m in diameter in Japanese eel, Ohta et al. 1997; Kagawa et al.
1998). However, their oocytes do not undergo maturation and become over-ripe with oocyte
cytoplasmic degeneration in response to further injections of salmon pituitary extracts.
After the oocytes complete vitellogenesis, oocyte maturation occurs prior to ovulation and is
a prerequisite for successful fertilization; it consists of breakdown of germinal vesicle
(GVBD), the resumption of meiosis, and oocyte cytoplamic maturation (see Nagahama et al.
1995). These processes of oocyte maturation are regulated by the pituitary gonadotropin
(primary endocrine factor responsible for triggering meiotic maturation) and maturationinducing steroid which is synthesized in the ovarian follicle under the influence of
gonadotropin. The maturation-inducing steroid directly acts on the oocyte to initiate the
process of oocyte maturation (Nagahama et al. 1995). The maturation-inducing steroid ( 17;
20-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one, DHP) of a salmonid fish, amago salmon (Oncorhynchus
rhodurus), was isolated for the first time in vertebrate species (Nagahama and Adachi 1985)
and thereafter DHP has been found to be the most effective steroid in inducing oocyte
maturation of many fish species. Yamauchi and Yamamoto (1982) reported that in
vitro administration of DHP into the incubation medium induced oocyte maturation in the
Japanese eel. From these fundamental researches, it is expected that in vivo administration of
DHP could induce oocyte maturation and ovulation.
For application of DHP on artificial induction of maturation and ovulation in the Japanese
eel, other valuable information on oocyte maturation and ovulation have been obtained. From
basic researches of red seabream (Kagawa et al. 1994a, b; Patino et al. 2001), we have found
that process of oocyte maturation consists of two critical periods. During the first stage of

maturation, oocytes acquire ability to respond to maturation inducing steroid, whereas in the
second stage the follicles produce maturation-inducing steroid and, consequently, the oocyte
undergo germinal vesicle breakdown. In vitro incubation of oocyte of the Japanese eel at
various developmental stages revealed (Kagawa et al. 1995) that oocytes undergo GVBD in
response to both 17-hydroxyprogesterone and DHP when oocytes diameter attain the
migratory nucleus stage (approximately 700800 m in diameter). These results suggest that
oocytes acquire the ability to respond to maturation-inducing steroid (maturational
competence) at the migratory nucleus stage. However, the production of maturation-inducing
steroid is not induced by further injections of salmon pituitary extracts, possibly due to a lack
of precursor synthesis (Ijiri et al. 1995), resulting in failure of induction of maturation and
ovulation by injection of salmon pituitary extracts. Our data also indicate that DHP can
induce not only in vitro maturation but also in vitro ovulation (Kagawa et al. 2003).
Moreover, DHP-induced in vitro ovulation occurred earlier in larger oocytes more than 860
m in diameter compared to smaller oocytes less than 860 m in diameter (Fig. (Fig.1).1).
Data obtained from one female eel show that ovulation rates rapidly decreased after oocytes
attain more than 860 m in diameter (Fig. (Fig.2).2). These data suggest that not only oocyte
maturation but also ovulation can be induced by in vivo administration of DHP, when female
eels have ovaries containing maturational competent oocytes at the migratory nucleus stage.

Fig. 1
Effects of 17; 20-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP) on in vitroovulation in the Japanese
eel. Oocytes with follicular layers obtained from female eels were incubated in 1 ml L-15
incubation media with DHP (100 ng/ml). Dotted line and solid line ...

Fig. 2
Changes in oocyte diameter and in vitro ovulation rates of oocytes with follicle layers
obtained from one female Japanese eel. Oocytes with follicle layers sequentially obtained
from one female which was induce by repeated injection of salmon pituitary ...
From these in vitro experiments, the following techniques of induction of maturation and
ovulation were developed (Fig. (Fig.3).3). Female eels that possess oocytes at the migratory
nucleus stage (approximately 800850 m in diameter) were injected with salmon pituitary
extracts (20 mg/fish) as a priming dose followed 24 h later by an injection of DHP (2 g/g
body weight) (Ohta et al. 1996a; Kagawa 2003). Injection of DHP succeeded in inducing
oocyte maturation and ovulation in almost all females used in the experiments. Fertilization
and hatching rates are approximately 60 and 40% respectively (Kagawa et al. 1997). Both
fertilization and hatching rates of ovulated females decreased rapidly to almost 0% by 6 h
after ovulation, suggesting that artificial fertilization must be carried out immediately after
ovulation in order to obtain good quality eggs (Ohta et al. 1996a).

Fig. 3

Summary of the artificial induction method of maturation and fertilization in the Japanese eel.
SPE, salmon pituitary extract; DHP, 17; 20-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one; ASP, artificial
seminal plasma; hCG, human chorionic gonadotropin. Slightly ...
Go to:

Induction of spermatogenesis and spermiation

Cultivated male Japanese eels are also sexually immature and do not mature under normal
culture conditions. Injecting them with human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) can easily
induce maturation (Miura et al. 1991) and spermiation (Ohta et al. 1996b). After 6 weekly
injections of HCG at a dose of 1 IU/g BW, most fish spermiate small volumes of milt, and
milt volume increase and become stable after 11th injection. However, there are major
differences in the extent of maturity induced in individual fish after the same treatment with
HCG. The effectiveness of HCG injection in inducing spermatogenesis is to be a considerable
extent influenced by individual difference in the rates of HCG clearance among fish (Ohta
and Tanaka 1997). Moreover, individual differences in the rate of sperm motility are
significant problems among hormonally matured males, ranging between less than 10% and
more than 90% (Ohta et al. 2001), leading to an obvious varying degree of successful
fertilization. Therefore, techniques for successful fertilization with a small quantity of
inadequate quality of sperm need to be developed.
Recent progress of basic science on mechanism of spermatogenesis in the Japanese eel
revealed that DHP is related to the regulation of sperm maturation (Miura et al. 2003). DHP
increases pH in the seminal plasma, which in turn increases the sperm content of cAMP,
thereby allowing the acquisition of sperm motility. Our data also indicate that injection of
hCG affects the aqueous environment around the spermatozoa in the sperm duct and the
potential for motility in the spermatozoa fluctuates with environmental factor(s) (Ohta and
Unuma 2003). Milt with higher pH and potassium concentration of seminal plasma shows
higher rate of motility in the spermiated male eel injected with hCG. From these fundamental
researches, the effects of an artificial seminal plasma (ASP), which was produced based on
the measurements of seminal plasma, on acquisition of the potential for motility of
spermatozoa were examined. After immotile spermatozoa from testis were incubated with
ASP in vitro, significant increase of the motility rate is observed (Ohta and Unuma 2003).
Moreover, the rate of motility of the spermatozoa was controlled by adjusting the
concentration of potassium ions and hydrogen bicarbonate ions in ASP. Therefore, from these
studies, diluted spermatozoa with the ASP were stocked in refrigerator one day before
fertilization and artificial fertilization was performed using the diluted spermatozoa and
ovulated eggs (Fig. (Fig.33).
Go to:

Techniques for larval rearing

Fertilized eggs begin to hatch about 40 h after fertilization at a water temperature of 2223C.
By 7 days after hatching, several marked changes are observed, such as pigmentation of eye
and synthesis of digestive enzymes in the pancreas, suggesting that larvae acquire the ability
to take feeds and digest them (Kurokawa et al. 1995). We first reported that preleptocephalus
larvae at 13 day after hatching ingested rotifers, the most common initial feed used in the
production of marine fish fry (Tanaka et al. 1995). However, even the larvae that ingest
rotifers do not grow much larger and their survival period does not extend. Among feed items
examined, finally, we found that eel larvae actively ingest a slurry-type diet made from shark

egg powder. Eel larvae grow up from 3.7 mm long at just after hatch to about 8.1 mm in total
length and the survival rate was 56% on 18th day. Therefore, we newly mixed soybean
peptide, extract of krill, vitamin and mineral mixture to shark egg powder and made slurry
diet. The eel larvae continued to survive and grow up linearly up to 50 days after hatching,
their total length attained about 16 mm on the day and body depth gradually increased to
yield the willow leaf-like form typical of wild leptocephali (Tanaka et al. 2001). Thereafter,
larvae fed on further modified diet become fully grown leptocephali 5060 mm in TL and
have begun to metamorphose into glass eels approximately 250 after hatching (Tanaka 2003)
(Fig. (Fig.44).

Fig. 4
Growth of captive-bred Anguilla japonica larvae. Age in days after hatching (dah), total
length: 100 dah, 24.8 mm; 150 dah, 39.0 mm; 200 dah, 45.1 mm; 250 dah, 57.1 mm; 270 dah
(glass eel), 52.6 mm. Scale bar=10 mm. Reproduced from Tanaka (2003) with ...
Go to:

Conclusion
We developed the method for induction of maturation and ovulation in the Japanese eel by
using the maturation-inducing steroid (DHP). In the male eels, in vitro incubation of the
immotile spermatozoa with ASP shows significant increase of the motility rate. However,
there are major differences in the extent of egg quality of the female eels induced in
individual fish after the same hormonal treatments. The reason of inadequate quality of egg
have not been clarified. Recent progress of researches on hypothalamus (gonadotropinreleasing hormone, GnRH)-pituitary (gonadotropin) axis (Suetake et al. 2003) and
mechanisms of steroid production in eel ovary (Adachi et al. 2003) would facilitate to
develop new techniques for inducing maturation of the Japanese eel. For example, synthetic
GnRH will be able to use effectively for inducing sexual maturation of the Japanese eel, since
they are effective in inducing sexual maturation in several commercially important fish
(Matsuyama et al. 1995; Kumakura et al. 2003), including eels (Hirose 1992). Moreover,
biotechnology for production of recombinant eel gonadotropins (Kamei et al. 2003) would be
also useful tools for controlling all processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis normally.

Eel farming is an aquaculture industry that takes place

worldwide. It specialises in raising and growing eels, which
provide a nutritious meat, to be sold at market. Growing young
eels on until they are large enough to be sold for meat can be a
lucrative business. It is estimated that the industry is worth
over 1 billion US dollars, with eel farms producing around 60%
of the eel meat consumed, writes Georgina Starmer for
TheFishSite.com.
Eels are fish that are characterised by their round, elongated and
slender bodies. They are a carnivorous, long-living species that

spend most of their life in fresh water, but return to the sea to breed.
On average, the young eels live in the fresh water of rivers and
streams for up to 12 years for males and up to 18 years for the
females. Some species may reach even greater ages. Then, as they
reach sexual maturity their skin pigment becomes silvery, they put on
weight and they migrate miles out into the seas to find the spawning
grounds to breed. The eel only breeds once during its lifetime.
The fertilised eggs are carried by the ocean current as they change
into larvae, and then after around 18 months they have developed
into glass eels. These are juvenile eels that have an underdeveloped, transparent appearance. When the glass eels reach 2-3
years old, the ocean currents have carried them towards the shores.
Their pigmentation becomes darker and they resemble adult eels,
only much smaller at around 8-20 cm in length. These young eels
are called elvers. They have reached the estuaries, and now must
migrate further up into the fresh water rivers to feed and grow for
some years, beginning the cycle once more.
Farming Eels

Eel farms are found in many countries, and the significant producers
are European countries, Scandinavian countries, China, Taiwan,
Australia and Morocco, with the largest single producer being Japan.
The farms begin by sourcing stock, usually obtained by purchasing
the wild, glass eels which are sold on and used to replenish the
stock on the farms. Once the juvenile eels reach the glass eel stage
of development, they are much closer to the shores and can be
captured in nets. The young eels, sometimes called fingerlings, are
sold and brought to the farms to restock the supply. It is important for
them to be quarantined for several weeks and carefully inspected for
any signs of pest or disease.
Passing diseases on to the established eels could have a significant
effect on the health and profitability of the farm. Eels are an ideal
species of fish to be farmed because they are very tolerant of many
conditions, including being kept in large numbers.
After the fingerlings have been in quarantine, they can then be
grown-on in ponds or in specialised tanks that recirculate the water.
The temperature of the water must be kept between 23C and 28C
to ensure optimal growth and health of the fish. This means that in
hotter climates, growing eels in pond set-ups may be more suitable
as the water will naturally be at a warmer temperature. In cooler
climates, the most common way to farm is by using the tank system,
although there are methods of heating the water in the ponds also,

such as using solar or geo thermal heating methods. Due to ponds

generally being larger than tanks, they can produce a higher yield of
eels and therefore more profit for the farm.
For the most intensively farmed eels, tanks that incorporate
recirculation systems are mostly used. The tank system requires
access to a large amount of clean water, needed to recirculate
around the tanks to keep them aerated and clean. An electricity
supply is also required to heat the water to the optimal temperature
and to pump the water around the system. The tanks are usually
made from concrete or fibre glass, and the setup also features
filtration systems to remove debris such as faeces and waste food
particles from the water. Using a recirculation system means that the
environment that the eels are in can be completely controlled,
allowing the farmers to provide the best conditions for growth.
Another way of cultivating eels is by a method called valliculture.
Rather than using pond or tanks, farmers use the natural areas of
the coast to grow the eels. This might be from making use of natural
lagoons and by setting up a weir to keep the eels from escaping into
the open waters, keeping them contained so that the can be
harvested once they reach the desired size. This method of farming
eels is popular in the Mediterranean region.
When growing eels on in ponds or tanks, regular grading must take
place to reduce cannibalism and competition for food. Every 6
weeks, the eels must be graded and separated into different size
categories. If all different sizes are kept together, the larger eels will
eat the smaller eels. There are many designs of fish grading
equipment commercially available, yet they all work using the same
principle. The consist of an entrance that the fish swim into, and then
there are different sized gaps that allow the smaller fish to return to
the ponds or tanks, while retaining the larger fish that can be moved
to other tanks or to be prepared for harvesting.
Providing eels with the right food is important to their health and
growth. Being meat eaters, protein is an essential requirement.
Commercial foods are widely available, consisting of a protein paste
for young eels and pellets for older eels. These foods consist of high
quality fish proteins, oils and nutrients to produce optimal growth.
The protein based food, and also the high volume of eels that are
kept together, mean that the water in the ponds or tanks becomes
dirty quickly. Although very tolerant of many conditions, when the
water becomes too dirty it can cause stress for the eels. This is
another reason why access to lots of clean water is essential.
Harvesting the eels is done by grading the sizes to make sure each
eel is large enough to reach market value. It is important to keep

stress to a minimum while grading, so as not to affect the health of

the eel. The large eels that are ready for harvesting are put into
tanks with clean water to flush out any possible impurities in their
systems that could affect the taste. Their food is also stopped 1-2
days prior to harvest.
Eels that are to be freshly consumed are chilled and put into bags
that are filled with oxygen. There should also be enough water in the
bag to keep their skin moist. They are then ready for transportation
to market. Eels that are to be smoked are usually transported alive to
the processors.
Common Farmed Species of Eel

Longfin eel (Anguilla reinhardtii) and the Shortfin eel (Anguilla

australis) found in brackish and fresh waters of Australia and New
Zealand, and are the most commonly farmed species in the
countries.
European Eel (Anguilla Anguilla) - found in fresh and brackish water
in the UK, Ireland, Mediterranean, Northern Africa the Baltic Sea,
and Iceland up to mid Norway.
American eel (Anguilla rostrata) found in brackish and fresh water
on the eastern side of the United States, the south- east of Canada
and the Gulf of Mexico.
Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) most common in the fresh and
brackish waters of Japan, Korea, China and Taiwan. This eel is
particularly suited to pond cultivation in these countries as they are
naturally acclimatised to higher water temperatures.
Common Ailments and Treatment

The young glass eels most commonly come from the wild, so they
are more prone to carry parasites or diseases. It is important to
quarantine the glass eels before introducing them to tanks with other
fish. The change from salt to fresh water also helps to eliminate
many parasites naturally. However, here are some parasites and
diseases that need further attention.
Fungal Infections symptoms include swellings on the body, gills
or fins. There can also be white or brown fibrous patches on the skin,
which can cause the eel to die when on the gill area. Treatments
include salt water solutions or the removal of the infected eel so the
fungus does not spread to other eels.
Parasites symptoms of a parasitic infection include an increase
in mucus, frayed fins, lethargy, respiratory distress and white

patches on skin. The eel may display changes in behaviour such as

attempting to rub off parasites on the surface of the enclosure.
Treatments for parasites include formaldehyde or salt solutions.
Red Fin this is a bacterial disease that affects the fins. The
symptoms are a rotting of the tail and fin areas. Treatment is with a
salt solution.
Red Eel Pest this bacterial disease causes symptoms of
swelling, red spots and ulcerated lesions on skin. Treatment is with
antibiotics.
Red Head a viral disease that shows as haemorrhages that
spread from the head to other parts of the eels body. Treatment is
through vaccination of young fingerlings, salt water solutions and
also by decreasing the temperature of the water.
During times of stress, such as when being handled, graded or if the
water becomes poor quality, eels can also become more susceptible
to infections. Care must be taken to keep the stress levels to a
minimum at all times in order to produce healthy fish. Prevention is
always better than cure, so regular maintenance and cleaning of
equipment are recommended, and also routine inspections of eel
stock.
The Future of Eel Farming

Eel farming has long been a worldwide industry. However, there is

now concern over its sustainability, due the decreasing amount of
elvers found in the wild. This is particularly significant for the
European eel, whose numbers have dramatically declined in recent
years. The reason for the decline is not yet known, although there
are a few contributing factors.
One reason could be from the over fishing of glass eels, meaning
less eels reach maturity in rivers and streams, leading to the decline
in the overall wild population.
Another factor could be the increasing amount of flood defence
construction, that prevent the elvers from being able to progress up
the rivers and streams as they could do with ease before. Again this
would affect the numbers of the wild population. This means that in
the future there may be regulations in place as to the quantities of
elvers that can be caught for the purpose of restocking eel farms.
There are programmes now in place in parts of the UK whereby 60%
of all caught elvers can be sold to farms, and the other 40% are
taken and released further upstream, in an effort to boost the
population numbers. Because of the complex lifecycle of the eel,
breeding stock in captivity is something that is not possible as yet.

Eels spend months travelling to the spawning grounds to breed in

the sea.
So far, artificial ways of breeding eels for commercial farming
purposes has not been successful. Until methods are discovered as
to how to breed hatchings from the eel spawn, the industry will not
be truly sustainable and will always depend on the supply of wild
glass eels for its success.