Transpose is a function from Rm;n to Rn;m.

If A 2 Rm;n; At 2 Rn;m is the matrix

whose (i; j) term is the (j; i) term of A. So row i (column i) of A becomes column
i (row i) of At: If A is an n-dimensional row vector, then At is an n-dimensional
column vector. If A is a square matrix, At is also square.
Theorem 1) (At)t = A
2) (A + B)t = At + Bt
3) If c 2 R; (Ac)t = Atc
4) (AB)t = BtAt
5) If A 2 Rn, then A is invertible i At is invertible.
In this case (A 1)t = (At) 1.
Proof of 5) Suppose A is invertible. Then I = It = (AA 1)t = (A 1)tAt.
Exercise Characterize those invertible matrices A 2 R2 which have A 1 = At.
Show that they form a subgroup of GL2(R).
Triangular Matrices
If A 2 Rn, then A is upper (lower) triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i > j (all
j > i). A is strictly upper (lower) triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i j (all j i).
A is diagonal if it is upper and lower triangular, i.e., ai;j = 0 for all i 6= j: Note
that if A is upper (lower) triangular, then At is lower (upper) triangular.
Theorem If A 2 Rn is strictly upper (or lower) triangular, then An = 0.
Proof The way to understand this is just multiply it out for n = 2 and n = 3:
The geometry of this theorem will become transparent later in Chapter 5 when
the
matrix A denes an R-module endomorphism on Rn (see page 93).
Denition If T is any ring, an element t 2 T is said to be nilpotent provided 9n
such that tn = 0. In this case, (1 t) is a unit with inverse 1 + t + t2 + + tn 1.

Transpose is a function from Rm;n to Rn;m. If A 2 Rm;n; At 2 Rn;m is the matrix

whose (i; j) term is the (j; i) term of A. So row i (column i) of A becomes column
i (row i) of At: If A is an n-dimensional row vector, then At is an n-dimensional
column vector. If A is a square matrix, At is also square.
Theorem 1) (At)t = A
2) (A + B)t = At + Bt
3) If c 2 R; (Ac)t = Atc
4) (AB)t = BtAt
5) If A 2 Rn, then A is invertible i At is invertible.
In this case (A 1)t = (At) 1.
Proof of 5) Suppose A is invertible. Then I = It = (AA 1)t = (A 1)tAt.
Exercise Characterize those invertible matrices A 2 R2 which have A 1 = At.
Show that they form a subgroup of GL2(R).
Triangular Matrices
If A 2 Rn, then A is upper (lower) triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i > j (all
j > i). A is strictly upper (lower) triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i j (all j i).
A is diagonal if it is upper and lower triangular, i.e., ai;j = 0 for all i 6= j: Note
that if A is upper (lower) triangular, then At is lower (upper) triangular.
Theorem If A 2 Rn is strictly upper (or lower) triangular, then An = 0.
Proof The way to understand this is just multiply it out for n = 2 and n = 3:
The geometry of this theorem will become transparent later in Chapter 5 when
the
matrix A denes an R-module endomorphism on Rn (see page 93).
Denition If T is any ring, an element t 2 T is said to be nilpotent provided 9n
such that tn = 0. In this case, (1 t) is a unit with inverse 1 + t + t2 + + tn 1.

T is said to be nilpotent provided 9n

Transpose is a function from Rm;n such that tn = 0. In this case, (1 t) is a
to Rn;m. If A 2 Rm;n; At 2 Rn;m is the unit with inverse 1 + t + t2 + + tn 1.
matrix
whose (i; j) term is the (j; i) term of A.
So row i (column i) of A becomes
column
i (row i) of At: If A is an n-dimensional Transpose is a function from Rm;n to
row vector, then At is an n-dimensional Rn;m. If A 2 Rm;n; At 2 Rn;m is the matrix
column vector. If A is a square matrix, whose (i; j) term is the (j; i) term of A.
At is also square. So row i (column i) of A becomes
Theorem 1) (At)t = A column
2) (A + B)t = At + Bt i (row i) of At: If A is an n-dimensional
3) If c 2 R; (Ac)t = Atc row vector, then At is an n-dimensional
4) (AB)t = BtAt column vector. If A is a square matrix,
5) If A 2 Rn, then A is invertible i At is At is also square.
invertible. Theorem 1) (At)t = A
In this case (A 1)t = (At) 1. 2) (A + B)t = At + Bt
Proof of 5) Suppose A is invertible. 3) If c 2 R; (Ac)t = Atc
Then I = It = (AA 1)t = (A 1)tAt. 4) (AB)t = BtAt
Exercise Characterize those invertible 5) If A 2 Rn, then A is invertible i At is
matrices A 2 R2 which have A 1 = At. invertible.
Show that they form a subgroup of In this case (A 1)t = (At) 1.
GL2(R). Proof of 5) Suppose A is invertible.
Triangular Matrices Then I = It = (AA 1)t = (A 1)tAt.
If A 2 Rn, then A is upper (lower) Exercise Characterize those invertible
triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i > j matrices A 2 R2 which have A 1 = At.
(all Show that they form a subgroup of
j > i). A is strictly upper (lower) GL2(R).
triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i j (all j Triangular Matrices
i). If A 2 Rn, then A is upper (lower)
A is diagonal if it is upper and lower triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i > j
triangular, i.e., ai;j = 0 for all i 6= j: (all
Note j > i). A is strictly upper (lower)
that if A is upper (lower) triangular, triangular provided ai;j = 0 for all i j (all j
then At is lower (upper) triangular. i).
Theorem If A 2 Rn is strictly upper (or A is diagonal if it is upper and lower
lower) triangular, then An = 0. triangular, i.e., ai;j = 0 for all i 6= j:
Proof The way to understand this is just Note
multiply it out for n = 2 and n = 3: that if A is upper (lower) triangular,
The geometry of this theorem will then At is lower (upper) triangular.
become transparent later in Chapter 5 Theorem If A 2 Rn is strictly upper (or
when the lower) triangular, then An = 0.
matrix A denes an R-module Proof The way to understand this is just
endomorphism on Rn (see page 93). multiply it out for n = 2 and n = 3:
Denition If T is any ring, an element t 2 The geometry of this theorem will
become transparent later in Chapter 5 Denition If T is any ring, an element t 2
when the T is said to be nilpotent provided 9n
matrix A denes an R-module such that tn = 0. In this case, (1 t) is a
endomorphism on Rn (see page 93). unit with inverse 1 + t + t2 + + tn 1.