MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR CONTROL OF

AIRCRAFT AND SATELLITES

THOR I. FOSSEN
Professor of Guidance, Navigation and Control
Department of Engineering Cybernetics
Norwegian University of Science and Technology

January 2011
2nd edition

Copyright c 1998-2011 Department of Engineering Cybernetics, NTNU.

1st edition published February 1998.
2nd edition published January 2011.

Contents
Figures

iii

1 Introduction

2 Aircraft Modeling
2.1 Denition of Aircraft State-Space Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Body-Fixed Coordinate Systems for Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Rotation matrices for wind and stability axes . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
3
4
5

2.3 Aircraft Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.1 Kinematic equations for translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Kinematic equations for attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6
6
7

2.3.3 Rigid-body kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.4 Sensors and measurement systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Perturbation Theory (Linear Theory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Denition of nominal and perturbation values . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Linearization of the rigid-body kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Linear state-space model based using wind and stability axes
2.5 Decoupling in Longitudinal and Lateral Modes . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Longitudinal equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2

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13

Lateral equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

2.6 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.1 Longitudinal aerodynamic forces and moments . . . . .
2.6.2 Lateral aerodynamic forces and moments . . . . . . . .
2.7 Standard Aircraft Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1 Dynamic equation for coordinated turn (bank-to-turn)

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2.7.2 Dynamic equation for altitude

2.8 Aircraft Stability Properties . . . . .
2.8.1 Longitudinal stability analysis
2.8.2 Lateral stability analysis . . .
2.9 Design of ight control systems . . .

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3 Satellite Modeling
3.1 Attitude Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Eulers 2nd Axiom Applied to Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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23

control
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ii

CONTENTS
3.1.2 Skew-symmetric representation of the satellite model . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Satellite Model Stability Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Design of Satellite Attitude Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Matlab Simulation Models

4.1 Boeing-767 . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Longitudinal model
4.1.2 Lateral model . . .
4.2 F-16 Fighter . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Longitudinal model
4.3 F2B Bristol Fighter . . . .
4.3.1 Lateral model . . .

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29

List of Figures
1.1 Sketch showing a modern ghter aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992). . . . . .

2.1 Denition of aircraft body axes, velocities, forces, moments and Euler angles
(McLean 1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Denition of stability and wind axes for an aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992).
2.3 Control inputs for conventional aircraft. Notice that the two ailerons can be
controlled by using one control input: A = 1=2( AL + AR ): . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Aircraft longitudinal eigenvalue conguration plotted in the complex plane. .

14
21

4.1 Schematic drawing of the Bristol F.2B Fighter (McRuer et al 1973). . . . . .

28

iii

4
5

iv

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1
Introduction
This note uses a vectorial notation to describe aircraft and satellites. The notation is similar
to the one used for marine craft (ships, high-speed craft and underwater vehicles). The
equations of motion are based on:
Fossen, T. I. (1994). Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles
(John Wiley & Sons Ltd), Chapter 2.
Fossen, T. I. (2011). Handbook of Marine Craft Hydrodynamics and Motion Control
(John Wiley & Sons Ltd.), Chapters 2 and 3.
The kinematic and kinetic equations of a marine craft can be modied to describe aircraft
and satellites by minor adjustments of notation and assumptions.

Figure 1.1: Sketch showing a modern ghter aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992).
The note is organized according to:
Chapter 2: Aircraft Modeling
Chapter 3: Satellite Modeling
Chapter 4: Matlab Simulation Models
1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

This note is in addition to the textbook Handbook of Marine Craft Hydrodynamics and
Motion Control in the course TTK4109 Guidance and Control that is given at the Department of Engineering Cybernetics, NTNU.
Other useful references on ight control are:
Blakelock, J. H. (1991). Aircraft and Missiles (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
Etkin, B. and L. D. Reid (1996). Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control (John
Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
McLean, D. (1990). Automatic Flight Control Systems (Prentice Hall Inc.)
McRuer, D., D. Ashkenas and A. I. Graham (1973). Aircraft Dynamics and Automatic Control (Princeton University Press)
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight Stability and Automatic Control (McGraw-Hill int.)
Roskam, J. (1999). Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Controls (Darcorporation)
Stevens, B. L. and F. L. Lewis (1992). Aircraft Control and Simulation (John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.)
Information about the author as well as the graduate coursesTTK4109 Guidance and Control
and TK8109 Advanced Guidance and Control are found on the web-pages:
Thor I. Fossen: http://www.itk.ntnu.no/ansatte/Fossen_Thor
TTK4109 Guidance and Control: http://www.itk.ntnu.no/emner/ttk4190
TK8109 Advanced Guidance and Control: http://www.itk.ntnu.no/emner/tk8109

Thor I. Fossen
Trondheim 3 January 2011

Chapter 2
Aircraft Modeling
This chapter gives an introduction to aircraft modeling. The equations of motion are linearized using perturbation theory and the nal results are state-space models for the longitudinal and lateral motions. The models can be used for aircraft simulation and design of
ight control systems.

2.1

Denition of Aircraft State-Space Vectors

The aircraft velocity vector is dened according to (see Figure 2.1):

2

6
6
6
:= 6
6
6
4

6
6
6
:= 6
6
6
4

3
longitudinal (forward) velocity
7 6 lateral (transverse) velocity
7
7 6
7
7 6 vertical velocity
7
7=6
7
7 6 roll rate
7
7 6
7
5 4 pitch rate
5
yaw rate
3 2
3
XE
Earth-xed x-position
7 6 Earth-xed y-position
7
YE
7 6
7
6
7
ZE ; h 7 6 Earth-xed z-position (axis downwards), altitude 7
7
7 = 6 roll angle
7
7 6
7
5 4 pitch angle
5
yaw angle

U
V
W
P
Q
R

Forces and moments are dened in a similar manner:

2
3
2
X
longitudinal force
6 transverse force
6 Y 7
7
6
6
6 Z 7
6
6
7 := 6 vertical force
6 L 7
6 roll moment
6
7
6
4 M 5
4 pitch moment
yaw moment
N

(2.1)

(2.2)

3
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

(2.3)

Comment 1: Notice that the capital letters L; M; N for the moments are dierent from
3

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

Figure 2.1: Denition of aircraft body axes, velocities, forces, moments and Euler angles
(McLean 1990).
those used for marine craftthat is, K; M; N: The reason for this is that L is reserved as
length parameter for ships and underwater vehicles.
Comment 2: For aircraft it is common to use capital letters for the states U; V; W; etc.
while it is common to use small letters for marine craft.

2.2

Body-Fixed Coordinate Systems for Aircraft

For aircraft it is common to use the following body-xed coordinate systems:

Body axes
Stability axes
Wind axes
The axis systems are shown in Figure 2.2 where the angle of attack
are dened as:
W
U
V
sin( ) :=
VT

tan( ) :=

where
VT =

U2 + V 2 + W 2

and sideslip angle

(2.4)
(2.5)

(2.6)

2.2. BODY-FIXED COORDINATE SYSTEMS FOR AIRCRAFT

Figure 2.2: Denition of stability and wind axes for an aircraft (Stevens and Lewis 1992).
is the total speed of the aircraft. Aerodynamic eects are classied according to the Mach
number:
VT
(2.7)
M :=
a
where a = 340 m/s = 1224 km/h is the speed of sound in air at a temperature of 20o C on
the ocean surface. The following terminology is speed:
Subsonic speed
Transonic speed
Supersonic speed
Hypersonic speed

M < 1:0
0:8 M
1:0 M
5:0 M

1:2
5:0

An aircraft will break the sound barrier at M = 1:0 and this is clearly heard as a sharp
crack. If you y at low altitude and break the sound barrier, windows in building will break
due to pressure-induced waves.

2.2.1

Rotation matrices for wind and stability axes

The relationship between vectors expressed in dierent coordinate systems can be derived
using rotation matrices. The body-xed coordinate system is rst rotated a negative sideslip
angle
about the z-axis. The new coordinate system is then rotated a positive angle of
attack about the new y-axis such that the resulting x-axis points in the direction of the
total speed VT . The rst rotation denes the wind axes while the second rotation denes

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

the stability axes. This can be mathematically expressed as:

2
cos( ) sin( )
pwind = Rz; pstab = 4 sin( ) cos( )
0
0
2
cos( ) 0 sin(
0
1
0
pstab = Ry; pbody = 4
sin( ) 0 cos(

The rotation matrix becomes:

Rwind
body = Rz;

3
0
0 5 pstab
1
3
)
5 pbody
)

Ry;

(2.8)

(2.9)

(2.10)

Hence,
body
pwind = Rwind
body p
m
2
32
3
cos( ) sin( ) 0
cos( ) 0 sin( )
5 pbody
0
1
0
pwind = 4 sin( ) cos( ) 0 5 4
0
0
1
sin( ) 0 cos( )
m
2
3
cos( ) cos( ) sin( ) sin( ) cos( )
sin( ) sin( ) 5 pbody
pwind = 4 cos( ) sin( ) cos( )
sin( )
0
cos( )

(2.11)

(2.12)

(2.13)

This gives the following relationship between the velocities in body and wind axes:

vbody

3
U
> wind
>
= 4 V 5 = (Rwind
= R>
body ) v
y; Rz;
W

Consequently,

3 2
3
VT
VT cos( ) cos( )
4 0 5 = 4 VT sin( )
5
0
VT sin( ) cos( )

U = VT cos( ) cos( )
V = VT sin( )
W = VT sin( ) cos( )

2.3
2.3.1

(2.14)

(2.15)

Aircraft Equations of Motion

Kinematic equations for translation

The kinematic equations for translation and rotation of a body-xed coordinate system
ABC with respect to a local geographic coordinate system NED (North-East-Down) can be
expressed in terms or the Euler angles:
2
3
2
3
2
3
X_ E
U
U
4 Y_ E 5 = Rned
4 V 5 = Rz; Ry; Rx; 4 V 5
(2.16)
abc
_
W
W
ZE

2.3. AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Expanding this expression gives:
2
3
2
X_ E
c
s
4 Y_ E 5 = 4 s
c
0
0
Z_ E
m
3
2
_
XE
c c
4 Y_ E 5 = 4 s c
s
Z_ E
2

2.3.2

32
0
c
0 54 0
1
s

32
0 s
1 0
1 0 54 0 c
0 c
0 s

s c +c s s
c c +s s s
c s

32

3
U
54 V 5
W

0
s
c

s s +c c s
c s +s s c
c c

32

(2.17)

U
54 V 5
W

Kinematic equations for attitude

The attitude is given by:

2
3 2
3
2
3
2
3
_
0
0
P
> 4
4 Q 5 = 4 0 5 + R>
4 _ 5 + R>
0 5
x;
x; Ry;
_
R
0
0

which gives:

2.3.3

3 2
_
1 s t
4 _ 5=4 0
c
_
0 s =c
2

c t
s
c =c

32

3
P
54 Q 5;
R

6= 0

(2.18)

(2.19)

Rigid-body kinetics

The aircraft rigid-body kinetics can be expressed as (Fossen 1994, 2011):

m( _ 1 + 2
ICG _ 2 + 2 (ICG

1)

=
2) =

(2.20)
(2.21)

1
2

where 1 := [U; V; W ]T ; 2 := [P; Q; R]T ; 1 := [X; Y; Z]T and 2 := [L; M; N ]T : It is assumed that the coordinate system is located in the aircraft center of gravity (CG). The
resulting model is written:
MRB _ + CRB ( ) = RB
(2.22)
where
MRB =

mI3
O3

3
3

O3 3
ICG

CRB ( ) =

mS(
O3

2)
3

O3 3
S(ICG 2 )

(2.23)

The inertia tensor is dened as (assume that Ixy = Iyz = 0 which corresponds to xz plane
symmetry):
2
3
Ix
0
Ixz
Iy
0 5
ICG := 4 0
(2.24)
Ixz 0
Iz
The forces and moments acting on the aircraft can be expressed as:
RB

g( ) +

(2.25)

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

where is a generalized vector that includes aerodynamic and control forces. The gravitational force fG = [0 0 mg]T acts in the CG (origin of the body-xed coordinate system) and
this gives the following vector expressed in NED:
2
3
mg sin( )
6 mg cos( ) sin( ) 7
7
6
6 mg cos( ) cos( ) 7
fG
ned >
7
g( ) = (Rabc )
=6
(2.26)
6
7
O3 1
0
6
7
4
5
0
0
Hence, the aircraft model can be written in matrix form as:

(2.27)

MRB _ + CRB ( ) + g( ) =
or in component form:
m(U_ + QW RV + g sin( ))
m(V_ + U R W P g cos( ) sin( ))
_ + V P QU g cos( ) cos( ))
m(W
Ix P_ Ixz (R_ + P Q) + (Iz Iy )QR
Iy Q_ + Ixz (P 2 R2 ) + (Ix Iz )P R
Iz R_ Ixz P_ + (Iy Ix )P Q + Ixz QR

2.3.4

=
=
=
=
=
=

X
Y
Z
L
M
N

(2.28)

Sensors and measurement systems

It is common that aircraft sensor systems are equipped with three accelerometers. If the
accelerometers are located in the CG, the measurement equations take the following form:
X
= U_ + QW
m
Y
=
= V_ + U R
m
Z
_ +VP
=
=W
m

axCG =
ayCG
azCG

RV + g sin( )

(2.29)

WP

g cos( ) sin( )

(2.30)

QU

g cos( ) cos( )

(2.31)

In addition to these sensors, an aircraft is equipped with gyros, magnetometers and a sensor
for altitude h and wind speed VT : These sensors are used in inertial navigation systems (INS)
which again use a Kalman lter to compute estimates of U; V; W; P; Q and R as well as the
Euler angles , and : Other measurement systems that are used onboard aircraft are
global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), radar and sensors for angle of attack.

2.4

Perturbation Theory (Linear Theory)

The nonlinear equations of motion can be linearized by using perturbation theory. This is
illustrated below.

2.4. PERTURBATION THEORY (LINEAR THEORY)

2.4.1

Denition of nominal and perturbation values

According to linear theory it is possible to write the states as the sum of a nominal value
(usually constant) and a perturbation (deviation from the nominal value). Moreover,
Total state = Nominal value + Perturbation
The following denitions are made:
2
3 2
X0
6 Y0 7 6
6
7 6
6 Z0 7 6
6
7+6
:= 0 +
=6
7 6
L
0
6
7 6
4 M0 5 4
N0

X
Y
Z
L
M
N

7
7
7
7;
7
7
5

Similar, the angles are dened according to:

2
3
2
4

5 := 4

:=

0
0
0

6
6
6
=6
6
6
4

5+4

U0
V0
W0
P0
Q0
R0

7 6
7 6
7 6
7+6
7 6
7 6
5 4

3
5

u
v
w
p
q
r

3
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

(2.32)

(2.33)

Consequently, a linearized state-space model will consist of the following states u; v; w; p; q; r; ;

and :

2.4.2

Linearization of the rigid-body kinetics

The rigid-body kinetics can be linearized by using perturbation theory.

Equilibrium condition
If the aerodynamic forces and moments, velocities, angles and control inputs are expressed
as nominal values and perturbations = 0 + ; = 0 +
and = 0 + ; the aircraft
equilibrium point will satisfy (it is assumed that _ 0 = 0):
CRB (

0) 0

+ g(

0)

(2.34)

This can be expanded according to:

m(Q0 W0 R0 V0 + g sin( 0 ))
m(U0 R0 P0 W0 g cos( 0 ) sin( 0 ))
m(P0 V0 Q0 U0 g cos( 0 ) cos( 0 ))
(Iz Iy )Q0 R0 P0 Q0 Ixz
2
(P0 R02 )Ixz + (Ix Iz )P0 R0
(Iy Ix )P0 Q0 + Q0 R0 Ixz

=
=
=
=
=
=

X0
Y0
Z0
L0
M0
N0

(2.35)

10

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

Perturbed equations
The perturbed equationsthat is, the linearized equations of motion are usually derived by
a 1st-order Taylor series expansion about the nominal values. Alternatively, it is possible
to substitute (2.32) and (2.35) into (2.27) and neglect higher-order terms of the perturbed
states. This is illustrated for the rst degree of freedom (DOF):
Example 1 (Linearization of surge using perturbation theory)
m[U_ + QW

m[U_ 0 + u_ + (Q0 + q)(W0 + w)

RV + g sin( )] = X
+
(2.36)
(R0 + r)(V0 + v) + g sin( 0 + )] = X0 + X

This can be written:

sin(

+ ) = sin(

0 ) cos(

) + cos(

0 ) sin(

small

sin(

0)

+ cos(

(2.37)

0)

Since U_ 0 = 0 and
m(Q0 W0

R0 V0 + g sin(

0 ))

(2.38)

= X0

Equation (2.36) is reduced to:

m[u_ + Q0 w + W0 q + wq

R0 v

V0 r

vr + g cos(

0)

(2.39)

]= X

If it is assumed that the 2nd-order terms wq and vr are negligible, the linearized model
becomes:
m[u_ + Q0 w + W0 q R0 v V0 r + g cos( 0 ) ] = X
(2.40)

Linear state-space model for aircraft

If all DOFs are linearized, the following state-space model is obtained:
m[u_ + Q0 w + W0 q R0 v V0 r + g cos( 0 ) ]
m[v_ + U0 r + R0 u W0 p P0 w g cos( 0 ) cos( 0 ) + g sin( 0 ) sin( 0 ) ]
m[w_ + V0 p + P0 v U0 q Q0 u + g cos( 0 ) sin( 0 ) + g sin( 0 ) cos( 0 ) ]
Ix p_ Ixz r_ + (Iz Iy )(Q0 r + R0 q) Ixz (P0 q + Q0 p)
Iy q_ + (Ix Iz )(P0 r + R0 p) 2Ixz (R0 r + P0 p)
Iz r_ Ixz p_ + (Iy Ix )(P0 q + Q0 p) + Ixz (Q0 r + R0 q)

=
=
=
=
=
=

X
Y
Z
L (2.41)
M
N

This can be expressed in matrix form as:

MRB _ + NRB + G =

(2.42)

2.4. PERTURBATION THEORY (LINEAR THEORY)

where

MRB

6
6
6 0
= 6
6
6
4
2

NRB

6
6
6
= 6
6
6
4

6
6
6
G = 6
6
6
4

0
m
0
03

0
mR0
mQ0

03

03

0
0
m
3

03
Ix
0
Ixz

mR0 mQ0
0
P0
mP0
0

0
Iy
0

11

Ixz
0
Iz

7
7
7
7
7
7
5

0
W0
mV0
Ixz Q0
(Iz
(Ix Iz )R0
(Iy Ix )Q0 (Iy

mW0
mV0
0
U0
mU0
0
Iy )R0 Ixz P0
(Iz Iy )Q0
03 3
2Ixz P0
(Ix Iz )P0 2Ixz R0
Ix )P0 + Ixz R0
Ixz Q0
3
0
mg cos( 0 )
0
mg cos( 0 ) cos( 0 ) mg sin( 0 ) sin( 0 ) 0 7
7
mg cos( 0 ) sin( 0 ) mg sin( 0 ) cos( 0 ) 0 7
7
7
7
5
03 3

In addition to this, the kinematic equations must be linearized.

2.4.3

Linear state-space model based using wind and stability axes

An alternative state-space model is obtained by using and as states. If it is assumed

that and are small such that cos( ) 1 and sin( )
; Equation (2.15) can be written
as:
U = VT
U = VT
V = VT

W = VT
Furthermore, the state-space vector:
2
u
6
6
6
x=6
6 p
6
4 q
r

7 6
7 6
7 6
7=6
7 6
7 6
5 4

V
VT

W
VT

surge velocity
sideslip angle
angle of attack
roll rate
pitch rate
yaw rate

(2.43)

3
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

(2.44)

is chosen to describe motions in 6 DOF. The relationship between the body-xed velocity
vector:
= [u; v; w; p; q; r]T
(2.45)
and the new state-space vector x can be written as:
= Tx = diagf1; VT ; VT ; 1; 1; 1; 1gx

(2.46)

3
7
7
7
7
7
7
5

12

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

where VT > 0: If the total speed is VT = U0 = constant (linear theory), it is seen that:
_
_
V_ T

1
w_
VT
1
=
v_
VT
= 0
=

(2.47)
(2.48)
(2.49)

If nonlinear theory is applied, the following dierential equations are obtained:

_
_
V_ T

_
UW
W U_
U2 + W 2
V_ VT V V_ T
=
VT2 cos
_
U U_ + V V_ + W W
=
VT
=

(2.50)
(2.51)
(2.52)

In the linear case it is possible to transform the body-xed state-space model:

_ = F + Gu

(2.53)

x_ = Ax + Bu

(2.54)

to
where
A = T 1 FT;

B = T 1G

(2.55)

For V_ T 6= 0 this transformation is much more complicated. The linear state-space transformation is commonly used by aircraft manufactures. An example is the Boeing B-767 model
(see Chapter 4).

2.5

Decoupling in Longitudinal and Lateral Modes

For an aircraft it is common to assume that the longitudinal modes (DOFs 1, 3 and 5)
are decoupled from the lateral modes (DOFs 2, 4 and 6). The key assumption is that the
fuselage is slenderthat is, the length is much larger than the width and the height of the
aircraft. It is also assumed that the the longitudinal velocity is much larger than the vertical
and transversal velocities.
In order to decouple the rigid-body kinetics (2.41) in longitudinal and lateral modes it
will be assumed that the states v; p; r and are negligible in the longitudinal channel while
u; w; q and are negligible when considering the lateral channel. This gives two sub-systems:

2.5. DECOUPLING IN LONGITUDINAL AND LATERAL MODES

2.5.1

13

Longitudinal equations

Kinetics:

m[w_

m[u_ + Q0 w + W0 q + g cos(
U0 q Q0 u + g sin( 0 ) cos(

32
3 2
m 0 0
u_
4 0 m 0 5 4 w_ 5 + 4
0 0 Iy
q_

0)

] =
0) ] =
Iy q_ =

32
0
mQ0 mW0
mQ0
0
mU0 5 4
0
0
0
2
3
mg cos( 0 )
4 mg sin( 0 ) cos( 0 ) 5
0

X
Z
M
3
u
w 5+
q
2

3
X
=4 Z 5
M

(2.56)

(2.57)

Kinematics:
_ =q

2.5.2

(2.58)

Lateral equations

Kinetics:

m[v_ + U0 r W0 p g cos( 0 ) cos( 0 ) ] =

Ix p_ Ixz r_ + (Iz Iy )Q0 r Ixz Q0 p =
Iz r_ Ixz p_ + (Iy Ix )Q0 p + Ixz Q0 r =
2

m
4 0
0

0
Ix
Ixz

Y
L
N

32 3 2
32 3
0
v_
0
mW0
mU0
v
5
4
5
4
5
4
Ixz
p_ + 0
Ixz Q0
(Iz Iy )Q0
p 5+
Iz
r_
0 (Iy Ix )Q0
Ixz Q0
r
2
3
2
3
mg cos( 0 ) cos( 0 )
Y
4
5 =4 L 5
0
0
N

(2.59)

(2.60)

Kinematics:
_
_

1 tan( 0 )
0 1= cos( 0 )

p
r

(2.61)

14

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

Figure 2.3: Control inputs for conventional aircraft. Notice that the two ailerons can be
controlled by using one control input: A = 1=2( AL + AR ):

2.6

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

In the forthcoming sections, the following abbreviations and notation will be used to describe
the aerodynamic coe cients:
Xindex =

@X
@ index

Lindex =

@L
@ index

Yindex =

@Y
@ index

Mindex =

@M
@ index

Zindex =

@Z
@ index

Nindex =

@N
@ index

In order to illustrate how control surfaces inuence the aircraft, an aircraft equipped with
the following control inputs will be considered (se Figure 2.3):

2.6. AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS

T

Thrust

Elevator

Aileron

Flaps

Rudder

15

Jet/propeller
Control surfaces on the rear of the aircraft used for pitch and
altitude control
Hinged control surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wing used
for roll/bank control
Hinged surfaces on the trailing edge of the wings used for braking
and bank-to-turn
Vertical control surface at the rear of the aircraft used for turning

Linear theory will be assumed in order to reduce the number of aerodynamic coe cients.
Control inputs and aerodynamic forces and moments are written as:
=

MF _

NF

(2.62)

+ Bu

where MF is aerodynamic added mass, NF ia aerodynamic damping and B is a matrix

describing the actuator conguration including the force coe cients. The actuator dynamics
is modeled by a 1st-order system:
u_ = T 1 (uc

(2.63)

u)

where uc is commanded input, u is the actual control input produced by the actuators and
T = diag{T1 ; T2 ; :::; Tr } is a diagonal matrix of positive time constants. Substitution of (2.62)
into the model (2.42) gives:
(MRB + MF ) _ + (NRB + NF ) + G
M_ + N + G

= Bu
m
= Bu

(2.64)

The matrices M and N are dened as M = MRB + MF and N = NRB + NF . The linearized
kinematics takes the following form:
_ =J

(2.65)

+J

The resulting state-space models are:

Linear state-space model with actuator dynamics
2 3 2
32 3 2
3
_
J
J
0
0
4 _ 5 = 4 M 1G
M 1 N M 1 B 5 4 5 + 4 0 5 uc
u_
0
0
T 1
u
T 1

(2.66)

Linear state-space model neglecting the actuator dynamics

_
_

J
M 1G

J
M 1N

0
M 1B

(2.67)

16

2.6.1

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

Longitudinal aerodynamic forces and moments

McLean [7] expresses the longitudinal forces and moments as:

2

3 2
32
3 2
32
3
dX
Xu_ Xw_ Xq_
u_
Xu Xw Xq
u
4 dZ 5 = 4 Zu_ Zw_ Zq_ 5 4 w_ 5 + 4 Zu Zw Zq 5 4 w 5 +
dM
Mu_ Mw_ Mq_
q_
Mq Mw Mq
q
2
32
3
XT XE XF
T
4 Z
Z E Z F 54 E 5
T
MT ME MF
F

(2.68)

which corresponds to the matrices MF ; NF and B in (2.62). If the aircraft cruise speed
U0 = constant, then T = 0: Altitude can be controlled by using the elevators E : Flaps F
can be used to reduce the speed during landing. The aps can also be used to turn harder
for instance by moving one ap while the other is kept at the zero position. This is common
in bank-to-turn maneuvers. For conventional aircraft the following aerodynamic coe cients
can be neglected:
Xu_ ; Xq ; Xw_ ; X E ; Zu_ ; Zw_ ; Mu_
(2.69)
Hence, the model for altitude control reduces to:
3
2
3 2
32
3 2
32
3 2
dX
0 0
Xq_
u_
X u Xw 0
u
XE
4 dZ 5 = 4 0 0
Zq_ 5 4 w_ 5 + 4 Zu Zw Zq 5 4 w 5 + 4 Z E 5
ME
dM
0 Mw_ Mq_
q_
Mq Mw Mq
q

(2.70)

If the actuator dynamics is important, aerodynamic coe cients such as X _ T ; X _ E ; ::: must
be included in the model.

2.6.2

Lateral aerodynamic forces and moments

The lateral model takes the form [7]:

32 3 2
32 3 2
3
3 2
Yv Yp Yr
v
YA YR
v_
dY
Yv_ Yp_ Yr_
4 dL 5 = 4 Lv_ Lp_ Lr_ 5 4 p_ 5 + 4 Lv Lp Lr 5 4 p 5 + 4 L A L R 5
r_
dN
Nv_ Np_ Nr_
Nv Np Nr
r
NA NR
2

A
R

(2.71)
which corresponds to the matrices MF ; NF and B in (2.62). For conventional aircraft
the following aerodynamic coe cients can be neglected:
Yv_ ; Yp ; Yp_ ; Yr ; Yr_ ; Y

A;

(2.72)

Lv_ ; Lr_ ; Nv_ ; Nr_

This gives:
2

3 2
32 3 2
32 3 2
3
0
YR
dY
0 0
0
v_
Yv 0
0
v
4 dL 5 = 4 0 Lp_ 0 5 4 p_ 5 + 4 Lv Lp Lr 5 4 p 5 + 4 L
LR 5
A
dN
0 Np_ 0
r_
Nv Np Nr
r
NA NR

A
R

(2.73)

2.7. STANDARD AIRCRAFT MANEUVERS

2.7

17

Standard Aircraft Maneuvers

The nominal values depends on the aircraft maneuver. For instance:

1. Straight ight:

2. Symmetric ight:

= Q0 = R0 = 0
0

= V0 = 0

3. Flying with wings level:

= P0 = 0

Constant angular rate maneuvers can be classied according to:

1. Steady turn: R0 = constant
2. Steady pitching ight: Q0 = constant
3. Steady rolling/spinning ight: P0 = constant

2.7.1

Dynamic equation for coordinated turn (bank-to-turn)

A frequently used maneuver is coordinated turn where the acceleration in the y-direction is
zero ( _ = 0), sideslip = 0 and zero steady-state pitch and roll anglesthat is,

=
=

_ =0
0 = 0

(2.74)
(2.75)

Furthermore it is assumed that VT = U0 = constant. Since = _ = 0 and = V =U0 it

follows that V = V_ = 0: This implies that the external forces Y = 0: From (2.28) it is seen
that:
m[V_ + U R
m[(U0 + u)(R0 + r)

WP

g cos( ) sin( )] = Y
+
(W0 + w)(P0 + p) g cos( ) sin( )] = Y0

(2.76)
(2.77)

Assume that the longitudinal and lateral motions are decoupledthat is, u = w = q = = 0:
If perturbation theory is applied under the assumption that the 2nd-order terms ur = pw =
0;we get:
m(U0 R0 + U0 r W0 P0 W0 p g sin( )) = Y0
(2.78)
The equilibrium equation (2.35) gives the steady-state condition:
m(U0 R0

W 0 P0 ) = Y 0

(2.79)

Substitution of (2.79) into (2.78) gives:

m(U0 r
or
r=

W0 p

g sin( )) = 0

g
W0
p+
sin( )
U0
U0

(2.80)

(2.81)

18

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

The aircraft is often trimmed such that the angle of attack

that the yaw rate can be expressed as:
r=

g
sin( )
U0

small

= W0 =U0 = 0. This implies

g
U0

(2.82)

which is a very important result since it states that a roll angle angle dierent from zero
will induce a yaw rate r which again turns the aircraft (bank-to-turn). With other words, we
can use a moment in roll, for instance generated by the ailerons, to turn the aircraft. The
yaw angle is given by:
_ =r
(2.83)
An alternative method is of course to turn the aircraft by using the rear rudder to generate
a yaw moment. The bank-to-turn principle is used in many missile control systems since it
improves maneuverability, in particular in combination with a rudder controlled system.
Example 2 (Augmented turning model using rear rudders)
Turning autopilots using the rudder R as control input is based on the lateral state-space
model. The dierential equation for is augmented on the lateral model as shown below:
3 2
2
32
3 2
3
v_
a11 a12 a13 a14 0
v
b11
6 p_ 7 6 a21 a22 a23 0 0 7 6 p 7 6 b21 7
7
7 6
6
76
7 6
6 r_ 7 = 6 a31 a32 a33 0 0 7 6 r 7 + 6 b31 7 R
(2.84)
7 6
6
76
7 6
7
4 _ 5 4 0
5 4 0 5
1
0
0 0 54
_
0
0
1
0 0
0
Example 3 (Augmented bank-to-turn model using ailerons)
Bank-to-turn autopilots are designed using the lateral state-space model with ailerons as
control inputs, for instance A = 1=2( AL + AR ). This is done by augmenting the bank-toturn equation (2.82) to the state-space model according to:
2
3 2
32
3 2
3
v_
a11 a12 a13 a14 0
v
b11
6 p_ 7 6 a21 a22 a23 0 0 7 6 p 7 6 b21 7
76
7 6
7
7 6
6
6 r_ 7 = 6 a31 a32 a33 0 0 7 6 r 7 + 6 b31 7 A
(2.85)
7 6
7
7 6
6
76
5 4 0 5
4 _ 5 4 0
1
0
0 0 54
_
0
0
0 Ug0 0
0

2.7.2

Dynamic equation for altitude control

Aircraft altitude control systems are designed by considering the equation for the the vertical
acceleration in the center of gravity expressed in NED coordinates; see (2.28). This gives:
_ +VP
azCG = W

QU

g cos( ) cos( )

(2.86)

2.7. STANDARD AIRCRAFT MANEUVERS

19

_ 0 = 0,
If the acceleration is perturbed according to azCG = az0 + az and we assume that W
the following equilibrium condition is obtained:
az0 = V0 P0

Q0 U0

g cos(

0 ) cos(

(2.87)

0)

Equation (2.86) can be perturbed as:

az0 + az = w_ + (V0 + v)(P0 + p)

(Q0 + q)(U0 + u)

g cos(

+ ) cos(

+ )

(2.88)

Furthermore, assume that the altitude is changed by symmetric straight-line ight with
horizontal wings such that V0 = 0 = 0 = P0 = Q0 = 0: This gives:
az0 + az = w_ + vp

q(U0 + u)

(2.89)

g cos( ) cos( )

Assume that the 2nd-order terms vp and uq can be neglected and subtract the equilibrium
condition (2.87) from (2.89) such that:
az = w_

(2.90)

U0 q

Dierentiating the altitude twice with respect to time gives the relationship:
=
h

az = U0 q

_
If we integrate this expression under the assumption that h(0)
= U0 (0)
h_ = U0

(2.91)

w_

w(0) = 0, we get:

(2.92)

The ight path is dened as:

:=
where

(2.93)

= w=U0 : This gives the resulting dierential equation for altitude control:
h_ = U0

(2.94)

Example 4 (Augmented model for altitude control using ailerons)

An autopilot model for altitude control based on the longitudinal state-space model with
states u; w(alt. ); q and is obtained by augmenting the dierential equation for h to the
state-space model according to:
2
3 2
32
3 2
3
u_
a11 a12 a13 a14 0
u
b11 b12
6 w_ 7 6 a21 a22 a23 a24 0 7 6 w 7 6 b21 b22 7
6
7 6
76
7 6
7
T
6 q_ 7 + 6 a31 a32 a33 0 0 7 6 q 7 + 6 b31 b32 7
(2.95)
6
7 6
76
7 6
7
E
4 _ 5 4 0
5
4
5
4
5
0
1
0 0
0
0
_h
0
1 0 U0 0
h
0
0

20

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

2.8

Aircraft Stability Properties

The aircraft stability properties can be investigated by computing the eigenvalues of the
system matrix A using:
det( I A) = 0
(2.96)
For a matrix A of dimension n

2.8.1

n there is n solutions of :

Longitudinal stability analysis

For conventional aircraft the characteristic equation is of 4th order. Moreover,

(

+2

ph ! ph

+ ! 2ph )(

+2

sp ! sp

+ ! 2sp ) = 0

(2.97)

where the subscripts ph and sp denote the following modi:

Phugoid mode
Short-period mode
The phugoid mode is observed as a long period oscillation with little damping. In some
cases the Phugoid mode can be unstable such that the oscillations increase with time. The
Phugoid mode is characterized by the natural frequency ! ph and relative damping ratio ph :
The short-period mode is a fast mode given by the natural frequency ! sp and relative
damping factor sp : The short-period mode is usually well damped.
Classication of eigenvalues
Conventional aircraft: Conventional aircraft have usually two complex conjugated
pairs of Phugoid and short-period types. For the B-767 model in Chapter 4, the
eigenvalues can be computed using damp.m in Matlab:
a = [
-0.0168
-0.0164
-0.0417
0

0.1121
-0.7771
-3.6595
0

damp(a)
Eigenvalue
-0.0064 + 0.0593i
-0.0064 - 0.0593i
-0.8678 + 1.9061i
-0.8678 - 1.9061i

0.0003
0.9945
-0.9544
1.0000

-0.5608
0.0015
0
0]

Damping
0.1070
0.1070
0.4143
0.4143

From this is is seen that ! ph = 0:0596,

Freq. (rad/sec)
0.0596
0.0596
2.0943
2.0943
ph

= 0:1070; ! sp = 2:0943 and

sp

= 0:4143:

2.8. AIRCRAFT STABILITY PROPERTIES

21

Figure 2.4: Aircraft longitudinal eigenvalue conguration plotted in the complex plane.
Tuck Mode: Supersonic aircraft may have a very large aerodynamic coe cient Mu :
This implies that the oscillatory Phugoid equation gives two real solutions where one
is positive (unstable) and one is negative (stable). This is referred to as the tuck mode
since the phenomenon is observed as a downwards pointing nose (tucking under) for
increasing speed.
A third oscillatory mode: For ghter aircraft the center of gravity is often located
behind the neutral point or the aerodynamic centerthat is, the point where the the
trim moment Mw w is zero. When this happens, the aerodynamic coe cient Mw takes
a value such that the roots of the characteristic equation has four real solutions. When
the center of gravity is moved backwards one of the roots of the Phugoid and shortperiod modes become imaginary and they form a new complex conjugated pair. This
is usually referred to as the 3rd oscillatory mode. The locations of the eigenvalues are
illustrated in Figure 2.4.

2.8.2

Lateral stability analysis

The lateral characteristic equation is usually of 5th order:

5

( + e)( + f )(

+2

+
D !D

= 0
+
2
+ !D ) = 0
0

(2.98)
(2.99)

where the term in the last equation corresponds to a pure integrator in rollthat is, _ = r.
The term ( + e) is the aircraft spiral/divergence mode. This is usually a very slow mode.
Spiral/divergence corresponds to horizontally leveled wings followed by roll and a diverging
spiral maneuver.

22

CHAPTER 2. AIRCRAFT MODELING

The term ( +f ) describes the subsidiary roll mode while the 2nd-order system is referred
to as Dutch roll. This is an oscillatory system with a small relative damping factor D : The
natural frequency in Dutch roll is denoted ! D :
If the lateral B-767 Matlab model in Chapter 4 is considered, the Matlab command
damp.m gives:
a = [
-0.1245 0.0350 0.0414 -0.9962
-15.2138 -2.0587 0.0032 0.6450
0 1.0000 0
0.0357
1.6447 -0.0447 -0.0022 -0.1416
damp(a)
Eigenvalue
-0.0143
-0.1121 + 1.4996i
-0.1121 - 1.4996i
-2.0863

Damping
1.0000
0.0745
0.0745
1.0000

Freq. (rad/sec)
0.0143
1.5038
1.5038
2.0863

In this example we only get four eigenvalues since the pure integrator in yaw is not
include in the system matrix. It is seen that the spiral mode is given by e = 0:0143 while
the subsidiary roll mode is given by f = 2:0863. Dutch roll is recognized by ! D = 0:0745
and D = 1:5038.

2.9

Design of ight control systems

A detailed introduction to design of ight control systems are given by [7], [11], [8] and [12].
The control system are based on linear design techniques using linearized models similar to
those discussed in the sections above.

Chapter 3
Satellite Modeling
When stabilizing satellites in geostationary orbits only the attitude of the satellite is of
interest since the position is given by the Earths rotation.

3.1
3.1.1

Attitude Model
Eulers 2nd Axiom Applied to Satellites

The rigid-body kinetics (2.21) gives:

ICG !_ + !

(3.1)

(ICG !) =

were ! = [p; q; r]> and ICG = I>

CG > 0 is the inertia tensor about the center of gravity given
by:
3
2
Ix
Ixy
Ixz
Iyz 5
(3.2)
ICG = 4 Ixy Iy
Ixz
Iyz
Iz
If the Euler angles are used to represent attitude, the kinematics become:
_ = J( )!
where

= [ ; ; ]> and
2
3
1 sin( ) tan( ) cos( ) tan( )
5;
cos( )
sin( )
J( ) = 4 0
0 sin( )= cos( ) cos( )= cos( )

The satellite has three controllable moments

dierent actuators.

3.1.2

(3.3)

= [ 1;

2;

3]

>

cos( ) 6= 0

(3.4)

which can be generated using

Skew-symmetric representation of the satellite model

The dynamic model (3.1) can also be written:

ICG !_

(ICG !)
23

!=

(3.5)

24

CHAPTER 3. SATELLITE MODELING

where we have used the fact that a b = b a. Furthermore, it is possible to nd a

matrix S(!) such that S(!) = S> (!) is skew-symmetric. With other words:
(3.6)

ICG !_ + S(!)! =
The matrix S(!) must satisfy the condition:
(ICG !)

S(!)!

A matrix satisfying this condition is:

2
0
Iyz q Ixz p + Iz r
4
Iyz q + Ixz p Iz r
0
S(!) =
Iyz r Ixy p + Iy q Ixz r + Ixy q Ix p

3.2

(3.7)

!
3
Iyz r + Ixy p Iy q
Ixz r Ixy q + Ix p 5
0

(3.8)

Satellite Model Stability Properties

Consider the Lyapunov function candidate:

1
(3.9)
V = ! > ICG ! + h( )
2
where h( ) is a positive denite function depending of the attitude. Dierentiation of V
with respect to time gives:
V_

> @h
= ! T ICG !_ + _
@

(3.10)

= ! > ( S(!)! + ) + ! > J> ( )

Since S(!) =

@h
@

(3.11)

S> (!); it follows that:

! > S(!)! = 0 8!

This suggests that the control input

(3.12)

should be chosen as:

V_ = ! >

+ J> ( )

@h
@

(3.13)

One control law satisfying this is:

=

Kd !

@h
@

(3.14)

(3.15)

J> ( )

where Kd > 0: This nally gives:

V_ =

! > Kd !

and stability and convergence follow from standard Lyapunov techniques.

3.3

Design of Satellite Attitude Control Systems

Design of nonlinear control systems based on the model (3.6) is quite common in the literature. One example is the nonlinear and passive adaptive attitude control system of Slotine
and Di Benedetto [10]. An alternative representation is proposed by Fossen [3].

Chapter 4
Matlab Simulation Models
4.1

Boeing-767

The longitudinal and lateral B-767 state-space models are given

are:
2
3
2
u (ft/s)
(deg)
6 (deg) 7
6 p (deg/s)
7
6
xlang = 6
4 q (deg/s) 5 ; xlat = 4 (deg/s)
(deg)
r (deg)
ulang =

E
T

(deg)
(%)

; ulat =

Equilibrium point:
Speed
Altitude
Mass
Mach-number

4.1.1

VT = 890 ft/s = 980 km/h

h = 35 000 ft
m = 184 000 lbs
M = 0.8

Longitudinal model

a = [ -0.0168
-0.0164
-0.0417
0

0.1121
-0.7771
-3.6595
0

b = [ -0.0243
-0.0634
-3.6942
0

0.0519
-0.0005
0.0243
0
];

0.0003
0.9945
-0.9544
1.0000

-0.5608
0.0015
0
0];

25

(deg)
(deg)

below. The state vectors

3
7
7
5

(4.1)

(4.2)

26

CHAPTER 4. MATLAB SIMULATION MODELS

Eigenvalues:
lam = [
-0.8678
-0.8678
-0.0064
-0.0064

4.1.2

+
+
-

1.9061i
1.9061i
0.0593i
0.0593i];

Lateral model

a = [
-0.1245
-15.2138
0
1.6447

0.0350
-2.0587
1.0000
-0.0447

b = [
-0.0049
-4.0379
0
-0.0568

0.0237
0.9613
0
-1.2168];

0.0414
0.0032
0
-0.0022

-0.9962
0.6458
0.0357
-0.1416];

Eigenvalues:
lam = [
-0.1121 + 1.4996i
-0.1121 - 1.4996i
-2.0863
-0.0143];

4.2

F-16 Fighter

The lateral model of the F-16 ghter aircraft is based on [11], pages 370371. The state
vectors are:
3
2
(ft/s)
6 (ft/s) 7
2
3
6
7
r
(deg)
w
6 p (rad/s) 7
6
7
6 p (deg=s) 7
uA (rad)
7
7
6
xlat = 6
(4.3)
6 r (rad) 7 ; ulat = uR (rad) ; ylat = 4 (deg) 5
6 A (rad) 7
6
7
(deg)
4 R (rad) 5
rw (rad)
Equilibrium point:

Speed
VT = 502 ft/s = 552 km/h
Mach-number M = 0.45

4.2. F-16 FIGHTER

4.2.1

27

Longitudinal model

a = [
-0.3220
0
-30.6492
8.5396
0
0
0

0.0640
0
0
0
0
0
0

0.0364
1
-3.6784
-0.0254
0
0
0

-0.9917
-0.0037
0.6646
-0.4764
0
0
57.2958

0.0003
0
-0.7333
-0.0319
-20.2
0
0

0.0008
0
0.1315
-0.0620
0
-20.2
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
-1 ];

b = [
0
0
0
0
20.2
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
20.2
0 ];

c= [
0
0
57.2958
0

0
0
0
57.2958

0
57.2958
0
0

57.2958
0
0
0

Eigenvalues:
lam = [
-1.0000
-0.4224+ 3.0633i
-0.4224- 3.0633i
-0.0167
-3.6152
-20.2000
-20.2000
];
Notice that the last two eigenvalues correspond to the actuator states.

-1
0
0
0 ];

28

CHAPTER 4. MATLAB SIMULATION MODELS

Figure 4.1: Schematic drawing of the Bristol F.2B Fighter (McRuer et al 1973).

4.3

F2B Bristol Fighter

The lateral model of the F2B Bristol ghter aircraft is given below [8]. This is a British
aircraft from World War I (see Figure 4.1). The aircraft model is for = 0 (coordinated
turn). The state-space vector is:
2
3
p (deg/s)
6 r (deg/s) 7
7
xlat = 6
(4.4)
4 (deg) 5 ; ulat = [ A (deg)]
(deg)

where the dynamics for

satises the bank-to-turn equation:

9:81
_ = g =
= 0: 233
U0
138 0:3048
Equilibrium point:
Speed
VT = 138 ft/s = 151.4 km/h
Altitude
h = 6 000 ft
Mach-number M = 0.126

(4.5)

4.3. F2B BRISTOL FIGHTER

4.3.1

29

Lateral model

a = [
-7.1700
2.0600
-0.4360
-0.3410
1.0000
0
0
0
b = [
26.1000
-1.6600
0
0];
Eigenvalues:
lam = [
0
0
-0.4752
-7.0358];

0
0
0
0.2330

0
0
0
0];

30

CHAPTER 4. MATLAB SIMULATION MODELS

Bibliography
[1] Blakelock, J. H. (1991). Aircraft and Missiles (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
[2] Etkin, B. and L. D. Reid (1996). Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control (John
Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
[3] Fossen, T. I. (1993). Comments on Hamiltonian Adaptive Control of Spacecraft,
IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, TAC-38(5):671672.
[4] Fossen, T. I. (1994). Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles (John Wiley & Sons
Ltd.)
[5] Fossen, T. I. (2011). Handbook of Marine Craft Hydrodynamics and Motion Control.
(John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
[6] Hughes, P. C. (1986). Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
[7] McLean, D. (1990). Automatic Flight Control Systems (Prentice Hall Inc.)
[8] McRuer, D., D. Ashkenas og A. I. Graham (1973). Aircraft Dynamics and
Automatic Control. (Princeton University Press, New Jersey 1973).
[9] Nelson R. C. (1998). Flight Stability and Automatic Control (McGraw-Hill Int.)
[10] Slotine, J. J. E. og M. D. Di Benedetto (1990). Hamiltonian Adaptive Control
of Spacecraft, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, TAC-35(7):848852.
[11] Stevens, B. L. og F. L. Lewis (1992). Aircraft Control and Simulation (John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.)
[12] Roskam, J. (1999). Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Controls (Darcorporation)

31