Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sustainable
Property
Design
Education
Project
Development
Darren J. Doherty
Time
0900 1030
1030 1100
1100 1230
1230 1330
1330 1500
1500 1530
1530 1700
Date
Session
Lecture
Indoor/Outdoor
DAY 1
Registration/Housekeeping
Indoor
Indoor
Indoor
B-D
Indoor
Outdoor
Outdoor
DAY 2
Outdoor
Agricultural Institute
Low-Medium Tech Survey Equipment
Outdoor
Outdoor
Indoor
Indoor
Indoor
& Establishment
D
Outdoor
How to build new topsoil (from Dr. Christine Jones of Amazing Carbon)
The most meaningful indicator for the health of the land, and the long-term wealth of a nation, is whether soil is being formed or lost.
If soil is being lost, so too is the economic and ecological foundation on which production and conservation are based. Healthy
topsoil consists of minerals plus air, water and living things such as plant roots, microorganisms, insects and worms and the organic
materials they produce. It is through the re-instatement of the missing components that new topsoil is formed.
For soil to form, it needs to be living
To be living, soil needs to be covered
To be covered with healthy plants and decomposing plant litter, soil needs to be managed with appropriate disturbance
regimes
There is little information available as to how to increase the levels of air, water and organic materials in soil. For this reason,
components 4 and 5 of the soil building checklist tend to be overlooked. That may explain why many people believe that new topsoil
cannot be formed.
To turn things around, we need to encourage soil building processes every day in our land management.
In practice:
No excuses. If you are a grazier who wants to be a soilbuilder, you will need to plan your grazing. Holistic Management Planned
Grazing currently sets the standard
SeqC
Regional
Carbon/PES
Exchange
Rainwater
for
Every Farm
GOAL:
Healthy,
Regenerativ
e&
Prosperous
Region
National/
Global
Carbon/PES
Exchanges
Holistically
Managed
Carbon
Pastures,
Forests &
Rangelands
SeqC
Regional
Production
Certification
Holistically
Designed &
Developed
Agricultural
Landscapes
Soil life responds dramatically to ideal air, moisture, food and temperature conditions. These conditions are
simple to create with grazing, subsoiling and dependable rainfall or irrigation. Life begets Life. Plants, their roots and
attendant exudates are the solar harvesters and the raw food of soil life. Grazing animals are biological accelerators they
are the most effective tool we can use to speed mineral cycling, and graziers affect enough land to make a large impact.
Graziers can build topsoil more quickly than anyone else on earth!
Keyline Planning is based on permanence, beginning with the two most permanent features of the landscape:
1. Climate, which has moulded and created the topography
Of the dominant climatic factors, temperature, wind, annual distribution of humidity, rainfall. Water is the easiest to work with
(control) and gain benefit from.
2. Existing Land Shape and Form (Topography) including underlying geology
Water Control is Paramount!
Water and rainfall determine land development. We have to get water right to get everything else right - design follows water.
New, artificial water linesdiversions, dam walls, channels - become permanent land features. Other infrastructure
components follow.
Direct rainfall and irrigation water are spread evenly on the land by a unique cultivation pattern, which is an artificial water
lineKeyline Cultivation.
Natural water lines:
Water flowing over land has a pattern of flow and predictable path lines of movement.
The contour linethe edge of a lake is a true contour line. Flow is perpendicular to the contour, forming shallow S-curves
from the ridge to the valley.
Water drainage lines- streams
Water divide lines watersheds, main ridge crests
Artificial water lines:
Human earthworks that influence flow of water and store water.
Diversions, irrigation channels, dams, Keyline Cultivation pattern, swales. (Also, drainage ditches, which are not central to Keyline.)
Artificial water lines in Keyline are designed for the most efficient water resource development.
Proper design of farms and cities must fit with the existing design in the natural landscape.
The Geography of Landscape
Three water lines, three land shapes & one special pattern.
#1 LANDSCAPE DESIGN LINE
The Contour Water Line
The shore of a lake. A level line running across the landscape, a set vertical distance from the next contour line. Water will always
run perpendicular to the contour.
#2 LANDSCAPE DESIGN LINE
The Water Drainage Line
The centre of watercourses: streams, rivers drainage lines of the land. Dendritic (branching) patterns.
#3 THE WATER DIVIDE LINE
The Crests of Main & Primary Ridges
Vegetation slows the movement of water over and through the land. Vegetation, its variety and/or its absence, and soil organisms
stabilize soil and land shapes.
In a stabilized landscape, there are three land shapes we consider in relation to Keyline development:
1. The main ridge
2. The primary valley
3. The primary ridge
The main ridge is the first land shape. It begins at the convergence of two water drainage lines. Look aroundit is the horizon.
The crest of a ridge is synonymous with a water divide line. The crest of a ridge is usually less steep than the sides of the ridge.
Main ridges are a reverse image of the dendritic branching of water drainage lines (streams/rivers). You could follow main ridges
around the world, except where they go in circles around lakes. The interplay of main ridges and water drainage lines are the
anatomy of the landscape.
Primary Valleys form in (erode into) the sides of Main Ridges. Primary Valleys are divided by Primary Ridges.
A primary valley has a primary ridge on either side, so there is always one more primary ridge than primary valleys in a main ridge
system.
10
The Keypoint.
Every primary valley has a KEYPOINT. It is the point at which the primary valley gets suddenly steeper. The steepest slopes in the
landscape usually occur in the centre of the valley above the Keypoint.between the Keypoint and the top of the main ridge.
Identifying the Keypoint, and attendant Keyline, is the starting point for Keyline design.
The Keyline is a contour line carried in both directions from the Keypoint, in the valley shape, but not extending out onto the
ridges. Below the Keyline, the accompanying (next-door) primary ridge centre is steeper than the primary valley centre.
Above the Keyline, the primary valley centre is steeper than the primary ridge centre. Keypoints are also to be found in the saddles
of main ridges. A Keyline extends from this Keypoint and in very humid landscapes where landforms are particularly smooth the
saddle is an excellent position for a catchment dam with feeder drains from the adjacent crests.
Cultivate parallel to the Keyline both above and below the keypoint in the valleys. Cultivate parallel and upward from any
selected contour line on the ridges. When there is no Keyline to work from (lower in the valleys, or on ridges) use contour
guidelines to cultivate parallel to (upward from on ridges, downward from in valleys.) This is Keyline pattern cultivation.
Water will drift from the valley shapes toward the ridges.
11
Source: www.amazingcarbon.com
12
On primary ridges, we cultivate parallel and upwards from any contour guideline. Its good to stake a number of guidelines, i.e., not
plough mindlessly too far from a guideline.
In practice, one would lay out the Keyline across the primary valley, then carry that contour line out onto and around both ridges,
then cultivate upward from that in long plough passes. You would then plough downward from that line, restricting yourself to the
valley shape. (The ridges would be ploughed parallel and upward from a lower contour guideline. In tighter valleys, there are tricks
for simplifying difficult ploughing. However, the basic principles must be stuck by, or water will flow the wrong way, concentrating in
the wrong places.
13
14
Water Channels
When developing the water resources of a farm, there are two primary water channels:
1. First, for diverting run off, stream flow or pumped water into a dam. Called a diversion or catchment drain and generally
slopes at 1:400+
2. Second, for carrying water for irrigation purposes
a. on hilly land, dug into ground, slopes at 1:400+
b. on flat land, generally flat, built above land with two banks, called the Flood-flow irrigation channel
c. The Irrigation Channel is an important artificial water line. Above it is rain pasture, below it is irrigated pasture.
d. related water control lines are steering banks, perpendicular to contour
3. Drainage ditches are also water channels, but they are not central to Keyline
The Keypoints of successive primary valleys will often have a rising/falling relationship.
Keypoint dams can be connected by diversion channels. If the fall of the diversion is less than the fall of the water drainage line
(stream) an increasingly large area of land will be irrigable between the dams and the water drainage line. We design accordingly.
IRRIGATION
Hillside Irrigation: Keyline Pattern Irrigation. Flood irrigation of hilly land made possible by Keyline Cultivation Pattern. Water is
stored in large dams, released through large pipes in the base of the dams, and is moved in irrigation channels dug into the ground.
These channels have to have a fall of at least 1:300. Flags are positioned in the ditches, and spill water onto the land below the
irrigation channel.
Pattern Ploughing optimises the spread of water over the irrigated and Dryland landscape alike
Irrigation can be at rates of up eight acres per hour, with one person control.
Re-ploughing may be necessary where paddocks becomes compacted from inversion plowing or grazing during wet
conditions
Flat Land Keyline Flood-flow irrigation. Water is stored in even larger dams, which tend to be shallower. Water is released
through large (2) pipes in the base of the dam. Water is moved in channels which are located above the surface of the land. The
channel is generally level. Gates in the channels are opened, and water spreads in a wide sheet across the land in irrigation bays.
Irrigation bays are bounded by steering banks, which run perpendicular to contour.
Water can be applied at 20-50 acres/hour.
Cultivation need only happen during the soil-building conversion period of three years.
Traditional Irrigation:
Border Check Irrigationsimilar to flood flow, but slow.
Contour Bay IrrigationRice Paddies.
Furrow Irrigationcommon for vegetables and orchards.
Spray Irrigationcommon, expensive, lots of machinery.
Drip tapevegetables. Not a broad-acre strategy. Lots of plastic.
Slow irrigation drowns soil aerobes. Slow irrigation is not generally sustainable.
No conventionally irrigated civilization has ever survived.
15
ROADS
#4 in the Keyline Scale of Permanence
Roads on contour require less energy to travel. They do not erode easily or concentrate run-off.
Roads are built in relation to water control lines.
Possible locations of roads.
1. Along boundary lines. Generally not on contour, often difficult to maintain, tend to self-destruct. Useful for fence
maintenance. I wouldnt invest much in these roads, if at all. Use a flail mower to maintain.
2. On ridge crests (watershed lines, main ridge centres). High, dry, easy to maintain. Good site for a main road.
3. Located by water channels: diversion channels, irrigation channels, irrigation areas.
a. Below diversionsdry, cross dams that cross valleys.
b. Above irrigation channels in hilly countrybridges are often necessary.
c. Below Flood-flow irrigation channels.
d. At low end of irrigation area.
e. Along streams.
TREES
#5 In the Keyline Scale of Permanence (They usually outlive buildings, for instance.)
Tree locations fall into place when the first four factors have been considered. Clearing of trees and planting of trees should be
considered in light of the four first landscape design considerations.
Contour Strip Forests.generally follow the patterns of water harvesting/distribution channels, as well as the roads. Trees usually
border roads, and are located above irrigation channels. It is good to plant trees along riparian corridors and around lakes and
ponds. Pasture and crop land are separated by contoured tree lines. In the long run, trees do not interfere with productive crop land,
they enhance it.
Trees act as mineral pumps
Trees reduce the effects of wind
Trees give edge effect
Trees can be designed to provide browse
Trees provide wildlife habitat
Shelter
Contoured timber belts in hill country are generally spaced so that the top of the mature trees will be level with the base of the next
higher belt of trees.
Keyline soil development on pastureland prior to tree establishment will accelerate tree growth. Build soil fertility first.
16
FARM BUILDINGS
#6 In the Keyline Scale of Permanence.
Building should be placed to optimise the potential energy flows eg.
a. Not too exposed. The best view is a often a costly one from an energy consumption perspective
b. Good solar access to enable energy efficient house and building design
c. Topographic protection from prevailing wind direction
d. Build your shed higher than the house so as to use the shed water tank for gravity-fed water to the house
e. On a slope to allow good air & water drainage, gain gravity potential & out of danger from floods
FENCES
#7 In the Keyline Scale of Permanence
Follows all of the other infrastructure layout. Many paddocks are good. Temporary fence offers flexibility. Fences are built
according to natural and artificial water lines. My rule of thumb is to build fences:
a. Along creeks, drainage lines and main ridge crests so as to create drainage line protection and to connect allow
flows of wildlife from the bottom to the top of landscapes
b. Lightweight electric internal fencing according to stock type for planned or management intensive grazing
c. All dams and open water bodies to remove stock access
d. Along shelterbelts, strip forests, forest plantations & revegetation forests or areas of natural significance that need
protection
SOIL
#8 in the Keyline Scale of Permanence
Subsoil can be quickly turned into topsoil. Development & Maintenance of Soil fertility is a product of management.
Good grazing gives the greatest return for the least energy input in increasing soil fertility. The subsoiler greatly accelerates normal
topsoil formation under pasture. Conversion of subsoil to topsoil involves creating repeated biological climaxes. Soil life requires air,
moisture, warmth, space & plenty of high energy, high protein food. Create these conditions, & soil life will respond, transforming
some portion (often about 10%) of plant exudates & sloughed grass roots into humus. Create these conditions repeatedly, and
subsoil will be permanently transformed into topsoil.
17
Key Resources:
Information on Keyline
Keyline Designs Ken B. Yeomans www.keyline.com.au
Yeomans Keyline Plows Allan J. Yeomans www.yeomansplows.com.au
Broadacre Permaculture Design & Development Darren J. Doherty www.permaculture.biz
On line Books Soil & Health Library www.soilandhealth.org
Carbon Farming
Carbon Farmers of America Abe Collins www.carbonfarmersofamerica.com
Amazing Carbon Dr. Christine Jones www.amazingcarbon.com.au
Carbon Coalition Michael & Louisa Kiely www.carboncoalition.com.au
Soil Food Web Institute www.soilfoodweb.org
Holistic Management
Publisher of In Practice newsletter, Holistic Management Resources & Certified Educator Program Holistic Management
International www.holisticmanagement.org
Holistic Management Australia www.holisticmanagement.org.au
Interesting!
Publisher of Stipa newsletter Australian Native Grass Association Inc www.stipa.com.au
Peter Andrews work - Natural Sequence Farming - www.nsfarming.com
International Permaculture Courses & Forum - Permaculture Research Institute www.permaculture.org.au
Integrated value-added family farm operation - Polyface Farm Joel Salatin & Family www.polyface.com
Great grass farming newspaper - The Stockman Grass Farmer www.stockmangrassfarmer.com
Farm Development & Education Providers Milkwood Permaculture www.milkwood.net
18
Length
Area
Volume
Discharge
Nomenclature
Dam = Pond
19
If you need to store anything less than around 100 000 litres of water or if potable water is needed then a water storage tank is
possibly a cheaper and better option. Tanks are construction of various materials and are available and they can also be used
around the property as a source of effective gravity storage in conjunction with a lower level dam, stream or ground water source. If
the site design process indicates that a high-level tank or hillside dam construction inefficient and therefore uneconomic then a tank
is also a better option.
LEGAL PLANNING REQUIREMENTS
The first part of the process in the construction of a dam is to address the appropriate government regulations controlling dam
construction and the use of the water stored in the proposed storage (s).
The purpose of any regulations is to protect the community from poorly constructed dams and to ensure that regional water
resources are not unfairly distributed. Contact your local state or local government authority to obtain the necessary legal and permit
advice and they may also be a source of useful regional and general information. Getting in touch with a local civil engineer
experienced with dam construction is very useful and may be a requirement of a planning or building permit being issued.
DAM SITE IDENTIFICATION
Dam site identification should be a result of going through a holistic property planning process using Permaculture Design Principles
with an emphasis on the use of the Keyline Scale of Permanence. For the purposes of this article however we will go through some
of the perimeters in assessing the potential siting of dams in the landscape.
The first issues to address is what are the water resources available to the property, how they flow, how can they be captured, what
is the most cost effective way of storing them and how much is actually needed to be stored?
We always start with a catchment analysis, which identifies just how much water flows through a property. Understanding the land
patterns represented by topographical maps is crucial for the effective calculation of catchments. This is achieved by recognizing the
contours for their definition of ridges, saddles and valleys/gullies. Define the water divide lines (or centre lines) on the ridges of a
particular catchment area as the boundaries of that catchment. Once this is achieved then use a grid paper transparency (grid paper
photocopied onto clear transparency) to generate an area statement. If youre lucky like us then youll have a GIS (Geographic
Information System e.g. MapInfo, ArcView) software that makes the area statement just a click away. Once youve worked out a
figure then use the following tables (Tables 1 & 2) to generate the total average run-off figures for a whole or given catchment. An
engineer would also ascertain this as part of their investigation.
Table 1 - RUNOFF FROM CATCHMENTSi
Runoff as a % of average annual rainfall (Y)
Average
annual
rainfall
(R)
(mm)
> 1100
Total
annual
evaporatio
n
(mm)
901 to
1100
501 to 900
less than
1300
1300 to
1800
401 to 500
1300 to
1800
250 to 400
<1800
>1800
Reliability
(years out
of 10)
Shallow
sand or
loam soils
(%)
Sandy
clays
(%)
Elastic
clays
(%)
8
9
8
10 to 15
6.5 to 10
10 to 12.5
10 to 15
6.5 to 10
10 to 15
15 to 20
10 to 13
12.5 to 20
Clay pans,
inelastic
clays or
shales
(%)
15 to 25
10 to 16.5
15 to 20
9
8
6.5 to 8
7.5 to 10
6.5 to 10
7.5 to 15
8 to 13
7.5 to 15
10 to 13
10 to 15
9
8
5 to 6.5
5 to 7.5
5 to 10
5 to 12.5
5 to 10
5 to 10
6.5 to 10
10 to 15
9
8
3 to 5
2.5 to 5
3 to 8
5 to 10
3 to 6.5
2.5 to 5 7
6.5 to 10
7.5 to 12.5
9
8
9
8
9
1.5 to 3
0 to 2.5
0 to 1.5
0
0
3 to 6.5
0 to 5
0 to 3
0 to 2.5
0 to 1.5
1.5 to 3
0 to 2.5
0 to 1.5
0
0
5 to 8
2.5 to 7.5
1.5 to 5
2.5 to 5
1.5 to 3
Elastic clays when dry develop pronounced surface cracking, which reduces runoff.
Inelastic clays are identified, when dry, by a fine dust cover; this dust prevents seepage into the ground and so increases runoff.
For irrigation schemes a reliability of 8 years out of 10 is acceptable, for domestic and stock schemes the aim is 9 years.
20
21
The most important tests a geotechnical engineer would undertake would include:
Emerson Test
The Emerson test determines the behavior of clays in contact with water and to what extent they break down in that contact. This test
impacts heavily on the suitability of the site material for dam construction.
Soil Dispersivity testing uses the Emerson Soil Dispersivity Method (AS1289, C8.1, 1980) of analysis and classification:
Class 1 exhibits complete slaking in water. Class 2 only some slaking. Class 3 is registered after re-forming the sample, then after
immersion and shaking disperses. Class 4 after shaking for ten minutes and left for 24hrs then disperses; Class 5 does not disperse
after 24 hrs but does with the addition of Calcium sulphate (gypsum). Class 6 does not disperse after the addition of gypsum but
displays some moderate slaking; Class 7 disperses after subsequent shaking. Class 8 completely flocculates after shaking.
Profile Texture
Determines the proportion of Clay, Silt, Sand and Gravel through the soil profile of the test. Once tested you can get an idea of how
much suitable/unsuitable material is in the proposed site.
Atterberg Limits
Two tests - The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a plastic material. A plastic material
can be molded into a shape and the material will retain that shape. If the moisture content is below the plastic limit, it is considered to
behave as a solid, or a nonplastic material. As the moisture content increases past the plastic limit, the liquid limit will be approached.
The liquid limit is defined as the moisture content at which the soil behaves like a liquid.
Sieve Analysis
Soil is put through a #200 sieve to wash away clays and silts attached to sands and gravels to determine accurately the 15 Group
Unified Soil Classification (USC) which describes the proportions of Gravels G, Sands S, Silts M, Clays C, Organic Soils O and
Peats Pt. When formally classified this provides the engineer/designer with the basis for designing the dam wall.
Permeability Test
This tests the moisture holding capacity of the soil. The laboratory test determines the rate of permeability of moisture per centimetre
per minute. This is at once the most useful and the most expensive of the geotechnical tests. Another field/home test called the
bottle test is as follows:
1. Cut the bottom of a 750ml soft drink bottle
2. Invert the bottle and 1/3 fill with the soil to be tested
3. Fill the bottle with water.
4. If no water seeps through the soil within 24 hours then the soil has good water holding properties.
We use the following soil log for our own field analysis in conjunction with other tests taken by others.
Table 3 - SOIL ANALYSIS CHART
AUSTRALIA FELIX
PERMACULTURE
Name
Date
Conditions
Site Ref.
Profile
Description
Horizon
Dimensions mm
Texture
Colour
Pedality
pH
Emerson
Salinity
Depth to Rock
Depth to Pan
Hole
Hole Depth
A1
0-50
Sand
Loam
Brown
/Black
nil
5.0
E1
100400400
750+
Medium
Heavy
Clay
Clay
Light
Mottled
Brown
Orange
med
med
5.0
5.0
E1
E1
Nil
Nil
Nil
250mm
750mm
22
BANK SATURATION
When the dam is full of water, a significant proportion of the dam wall is saturated. It is important to realise that no dam is completely
watertight, as some seepage will always occur. To reduce the potential of failure as a result of this phenomenon the dam must have
flat slopes (or batters) and by ensuring that the soils are adequately compacted.
Dry Soil
Water Level
Seepage
Line
Saturated Soil
A Homogenous Dam is built of a single material and generally is made up of 20-30 % clay, with the balance made up of silt,
sand and some gravel. This is also the simplest dam to construct. The height of the wall of a homogenous dam should not
exceed 5-6m. Where the clays prove to be dispersive then the application of gypsum or bentonite may be required to provide
additional sealing.
Figure 2 Homogenous Dam Cross Section
Selected Clay Material
A Zoned Dam is the most stable of the farm dams, where the required materials are available. A selected high quality clay core
is constructed in the centre of the embankment with the outer and inner slopes constructed of lesser material. As a rule of thumb
the bottom width of the clay core should be no less than the height of the wall and should be joined to an impervious core trench.
Shell of Pervious
Material i.e.
Gravels, Sands,
Silts, Clays
23
A Diaphragm Dam is used where suitable dam construction material is limited. A layer of the most suitable clay found is used on
the internal batter to act as an impervious section in the wall and again must be connected to the core trench. Again the
application of gypsum or bentonite may be required.
Pervious
material
Core Trench
Excavation
24
Valley Dam
Hillside/Contour Dams
These dams are built on the side of hills and usually have a three sided or curved bank. Diversion or overflow drains are the primary
source of water for this style of storage. They have a relatively poor storage ratio and are therefore expensive to build compared with
gully or tank dams. They do have a clear advantage in providing gravity storage. Bulldozers and/or scrapers are the preferred
construction machinery.
Saddle Dam
Contour Dam
25
Ring Dam
Tank Dams
This type of dam is usually a square or rectangular excavation cut below the natural surface. This is the next commonest type of dam
as it has the highest storage ratio of any of the dam types and is well suited to areas with flatter and gently undulating topography.
We have constructed several of these on the plains country in Western and Northern Victoria and achieved significant water volumes
for the relative cost of construction. We built one such dam that will be extended when the clients budget allows it in a few years,
which is displays a valuable feature of tank dams they can be extended without much trouble. Their only downside is in areas
where gravel or sand seams render them leaky or where shallow groundwater tables may create a salinity problem.
One of the best features of a Tank Dam is that you can plant the embankments with valuable shelter trees as they are not structural,
unlike barrier-type dams where under no circumstances should trees or deep-rooted shrubs be allowed to establish on the banks.
26
Crossing Dams
Commonly trafficked, seasonally wet valleys usually call for some kind of crossing: the most common being a 30cm diameter RC
pipe with soil built up to both sides and over the top. In some cases, RC endwalls are secured to both ends of the pipe. This has
proved to be an expensive way to make a crossing. I have developed an alternative that is about a quarter the cost and provides
habitat and hydrological benefits as well. Using a small bulldozer (D4-5) we remove & stockpile the topsoil from the site and then
push up a low wall (only 1m) with gentle & wide spillways on either side.
27
SPILLWAYS/OVERFLOWS/FREEBOARD
The first guiding consideration with overflows is that no more than 2.5 cubic metres per second (2500 litres/second) should flow
through a well grassed spillway or the risk of erosion is likely. Calculation of the 1:100 flood flow volume is the key to designing a
spillway capable of taking overflow water through the spillway with the lowest risk to the embankment. Inlet and outlet widths vary
according to the flow volumes available (see Table 5).
As the spillway determines the ultimate water level in a dam, it is important to match its level so that there is adequate freeboard
(distance from top of the bank to the water level). Freeboard depth is determined by the amount of fetch (longest exposed water
surface on the storage) and should be at least 750mm 1m for dams where the fetch is under 600m. Otherwise erosive wave action
and overtopping (water going over the embankment) may occur causing dam failure and potential damage to life and property. Give
consideration to the amount of settlement on the dam wall after its consolidation by increasing the construction height of the wall
above the design by around 5%. This is particularly important if the wall is to be used as an access.
A trickle pipe is often used to reduce the likely movement of lower level flood flows through the overflow. This is often a requirement
as you should never allow even small flows to go through a spillway beyond several days as this can cause more erosion than short
term higher volume flows. We install High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) trickle pipes of between 150mm and 300mm diameter to just
below the maximum water level. Inlet and outlets consist of either prefabricated cement collars or endwalls, or using 1m diameter
pipe upturned, buried to expose the top with the trickle pipe inserted and sealed through the side. If well sealed the volume of water
flowing though the pipe will be quite substantial. A collar or baffle plate will need to be placed around the pipe in the middle of the
wall to restrict moisture seepage along the pipe which could lead to tunnel erosion and wall failure. A mesh cover should be placed
over the inlet to remove the risk of blockages in the trickle pipe which are sometimes difficult to clear effectively.
Table 5 Spillway Inlet/Outlet Widths
Flood Flow (cumecs)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Nb. Outlet slopes calculated for return slopes of 24%, 14%, and 4% - Seek references or professional advice for further information on
different slopes.
Topsoil coverage and seeding of the spillway immediately after construction with grasses such as kikuyu, couch or para grass or
others similar will provide a smooth flow of flood waters through the spillway. Mechanical finishing or smoothing of the all excavated
surfaces can be completed using a 4WD bike/car, or tractor dragging a section of reinforcing mesh weighed down with old tyres will
provide an excellent smooth finish to the dam and assist in the preparation of a seedbed for sowing and regrowth. Further hand
finishing of the dam using a shovel and rake is used around the tighter areas particularly around the overflow. This extra effort is
always worthwhile and you will thank yourself for doing it in the years to come such is the effect.
28
OUTLET PIPES
Outlet pipes are installed for the following purposes:
Outlet pipes present some difficulties in the construction phase and are expensive to install. The application however makes them
such a useful item that they should be considered where possible.
Collars or baffles are required along the length of the pipe to prevent seepage along the length of the pipe. Generally made of steel
plate, each of around 75cm to 1.2m square, at least 3 are needed for pipe lengths of up to 20m. 25m pipes will need 4 baffles, 40m
needs 7 and 50m will need 8. The HDPE, rubber jointed concrete or galvanised iron pipe are installed by hand placed into a
prepared trench. Soil is compacted around the pipe and then covered carefully with the machinery available (traxcavator, backhoe,
or dozer best) and then carefully built up and track rolled. We place star pickets around the inlet and outlets and put an upturned 44
gallon oil drum over them to protect them from damage for the remainder of the construction process. Again a mesh cover is
recommended to cover the inlet with both the inlet and outlet secured in an anchor block relative in volume to the diameter of the
pipe. The Keyline Designs website (www.keyline.com.au) and books has some excellent picture of pipe baffles, and inlet mesh
guards.
Outlets have gate valves installed to effectively control the amount of flow out of the dam. Valves are place either downstream or
upstream of the wall. Downstream valves are more popular although they are likely to leak more due to constant pressure applied to
them and as a result are more difficult to repair. Upstream valves are more difficult to access, as they are submerged, and a remote
winding spindle will be need to operate it. They however dont have the same pressures on them and make it easier to repair the
pipe where necessary.
Siphons are another way of piping water out of dams are quite common. Prefabricated HDPE siphons are now available and they
remove some of the natural difficulties faced by many who have made siphons themselves. Compared to outlet pipes however the
volume of water able to discharge is very small using equivalent diameter pipes and this often makes their potential uses limited.
Where applicable a small siphon can be a cheap and effective means of discharging small volumes of stored water.
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K = 0.5
K = 0.8
K = 1.0
K = 1.2
K = 1.6
30
H = 4m
K = 0.5
Embankment Volume (V) = 1.05 x 0.5 (K) x 50 (W) x 4 (H) x 5 (H+1) = 525 m3
Figure 9 Water Storage/Reservoir Dimensions
L = 100m
Depth (D) = 3.5m
W=30m
Water Storage Volume (V) = 0.22 x 0.5 (K) x 30 (W) x 3.5 (D) x 100 (L) = 1155 m3 (1.155Ml)
Table 7 Storage Ratio Calculation & Gully Storage Economy
Total Storage
Storage Ratio
1680/525 = 3.2
Storage Ratio
<2
24
46
>6
Rating
Poor
Moderate
High
Very High
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D
L2
B2
Top Area A1
=
Mid Area Am
=
Bottom Area, A2 =
/4 x W1
/8 x (W1 + W2)
/4 x W2
32
Design and Construction of Small Earth Dams, K.D Nelson, Inkata Press, Melbourne, 1991
Farm Water Supplies, Neil Southorn, Inkata Press, Melbourne, 1995
Surveying for Construction, William Irvine, McGraw Hill, UK, 1980
Water for Every Farm Yeomans Keyline Plan, P.A. Yeomans, K.B. Yeomans ed., Keyline Designs, Queensland, 1993
www.keyline.com.au Keyline Designs Website (Ken Yeomans)
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34
35
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