Dutch East Indies History

Dutch East Indies - Wikipedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies
Coordinates: 2.0S 118.0E
Dutch East Indies

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Dutch East Indies (or Netherlands East

Indies; Dutch: Nederlands(ch)-Indi; Indonesian:
Hindia Belanda) was a Dutch colony. It was formed
from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East
India Company, which came under the
administration of the Dutch government in 1800.
Netherlands East-Indies[1]
Nederlandsch-Indi
Nederlands-Indi
Hindia-Belanda
Dutch colony
During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and

hegemony were expanded, reaching their greatest
territorial extent in the early 20th century. This
colony was one of the most valuable European
colonies under the Dutch Empire's rule,[3] and
contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and
cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century.[4]
The colonial social order was based on rigid racial
and social structures with a Dutch elite living
separate from but linked to their native subjects.[5]
The term Indonesia came into use for the
geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th
century, local intellectuals began developing the
concept of Indonesia as a nation state, and set the
stage for an independence movement.[6]
Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of
the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the
Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian
nationalists declared independence which they
fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian
National Revolution. The Netherlands formally
recognised Indonesian sovereignty at the 1949
DutchIndonesian Round Table Conference with the
exception of the Netherlands New Guinea (Western
New Guinea), which was ceded to Indonesia in 1963
under the provisions of the New York Agreement.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Company rule
2.2 Dutch conquests
2.3 World War II and independence
2.4 Economic history
2.5 Social history
3 Government
3.1 Education
18001949[a]
Flag
Coat of arms
Anthem
"Wilhelmus" (Dutch)
"'William"
0:00
MENU
Map of the Dutch East Indies showing its territorial expansion

from 1800 to its fullest extent prior to Japanese occupation in
1942.
Capital
Batavia
Languages
Indonesian / Malay
Dutch
Indigenous languages
Chinese
Dutch-based creole
languages
Religion
Islam
Christianity
Hinduism
Buddhism
Government
Head of state
Chairman of the
Executive Authority of
the Batavian Republic
1800-1800 (first)
Colonial administration
Augustijn Gerhard
Besier
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3.2 Law and administration

3.3 Administrative divisions
3.3.1 Sumatra
3.3.2 Java
3.3.2.1 West Java
3.3.2.2 Midden Java
3.3.2.3 Oost Java
3.3.2.4 Vorstenlanden
3.3.3 Borneo
3.3.4 Groote Oost
3.3.4.1 Lesser Sunda
Islands
3.3.4.2 Sulawesi
3.3.4.3 Maluku and
Papua
3.4 Armed forces
4 Culture
4.1 Language and literature
4.2 Visual art
4.3 Theatre and film
4.4 Science
4.5 Cuisine
4.6 Architecture
5 Colonial heritage in the Netherlands
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Queen
1948-1949 (last)
Governor-General
18001801 (first)
1949 (last)
Juliana
Pieter G. van Overstraten

A. H. J. Lovinka
History
Dutch East India
Company in Indonesia
VOC nationalised
Japanese occupation of
the Dutch East Indies[2]
Independence proclaimed
Dutch recognition
16031800
1 January 1800
Feb 1942 Aug 1945
17 August 1945
27 December 1949
Population
1930 est.
60,727,233
Currency
Dutch East Indies gulden

Preceded by
Dutch East India Company in Indonesia

Today part of
Indonesia
Malaysia
a. ^ Occupied by Japanese forces between 1942 and 1945,

followed by the Indonesian National Revolution until 1949.
Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945.
Netherlands New Guinea was transferred to Indonesia in 1963.
Etymology
The word Indies comes from Latin: Indus. The
original name Dutch Indies (Dutch: NederlandschIndi) was translated by the English as the Dutch
East Indies, to keep it distinct from the Dutch West
Indies. The name Dutch Indies is recorded in the
Dutch East India Company's documents of the early
1620s.[7]
The expansion of the Dutch East Indies in the

Indonesian Archipelago.
Scholars writing in English use the terms Indi,

Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, and colonial Indonesia interchangeably.[8]
History
Company rule
Centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including
commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states.[9] The first Europeans to arrive were
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the Portuguese in the late 15th century. Following

disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe,[10] the
first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595
to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a
400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon
followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies
trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the
competing companies into the United East India
Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or
VOC).[10]
The map of the world showing colonial power

possessions, the Dutch East Indies possessions can
be seen in orange colour in the Southeast Asia
region.
The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build

fortresses, and make treaties across Asia.[10] A capital
was established in Batavia (now Jakarta), which became the centre of the VOC's Asian trading network.[11]
To their original monopolies on nutmeg, peppers, cloves and cinnamon, the company and later colonial
administrations introduced non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and
opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory.[11] Smuggling, the
ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century.
The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago
(including much of Java, parts of Sumatra, much of Maluku, and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar,
Manado, and Kupang) were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies.[12]
Dutch conquests
From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945,
Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous.[13] Although Java was dominated by the
Dutch,[14] many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok
and Borneo.[13] There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous
groups resisted efforts to establish a Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its
military forces.[15] Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century.[13] Finally in the early 20th
century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day
Indonesia.
The submission of Prince Diponegoro

to General De Kock at the end of the
Java War in 1830, painting by
Nicolaas Pieneman
In 1806, with the Netherlands under French domination, Napoleon

appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which
led to the 1808 appointment of Marshall Herman Willem Daendels
as Governor General of the Dutch East Indies.[16] In 1811, British
forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java and
Thomas Stamford Raffles became Lieutenant Governor. Dutch
control was restored in 1816.[17] Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in
Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the
Malay Peninsula and Dutch India. The resulting borders between
British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and
Indonesia.
Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the

expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. Graaf van
den Bosch's Governor-generalship (18301835) confirmed profitability as the foundation of official policy,
restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and Bangka.[18] However, from about 1840, Dutch national
expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer
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islands.[19] Motivations included: the protection of areas already held; the intervention of Dutch officials
ambitious for glory or promotion; and to establish Dutch claims throughout the archipelago to prevent
intervention from other Western powers during the European push for colonial possessions.[18] As
exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch
government control or influence.
The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War
(182138)[20] and the Java War (182530) ended significant
Javanese resistance.[21] The Banjarmasin War (18591863) in
southeast Kalimantan resulted in the defeat of the Sultan.[22] After
failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848, an 1849
intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control. The most
prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a Dutch
invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and
ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912.[21] Disturbances
The Dutch 7th Battalion advancing in
continued to break out on both Java and Sumatra during the
Bali in 1846.
remainder of the 19th century.[13] However, the island of Lombok
came under Dutch control in 1894,[23] and Batak resistance in
northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895.[21] Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military
power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous
Indonesian polities as the technology gap widened.[18] Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they
had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered
oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law.[24]
Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the
archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from the remaining independent local rulers.[25]
Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 190506, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests
in 1906 and 1908, as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Nusa
Tenggara.[21][24] Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan), and
Palembang in Sumatra, requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch
military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule.[24] The Bird's Head
Peninsula (Western New Guinea), was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial
range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia.
World War II and independence

The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on
May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany
and Japan were Axis allies. On September 27, 1940, Germany,
Hungary, Italy, and Japan signed a treaty lining out "spheres of
influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere.
The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the
colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in
search of Dutch oil.[26][27] On 10 January 1942, during the Dutch
East Indies Campaign, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East
Indies as part of the Pacific War.[28] The rubber plantations and oil
fields of the Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the
Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the
Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies Army
surrendered in Java.[29][30]
Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer

and B.C. de Jonge, the last and
second-to-last Governor-General of
the Dutch East Indies before Japanese
invasion.
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Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda[31] and the Indonesian National Awakening, a vast
majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from the
colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more
oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government.[32][33] The Japanese occupation during World
War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia,[34] as the Japanese removed as much of the
Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime.[35] Although the top positions
were held by the Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many
leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the
Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links amongst the masses, and they trained and armed the
younger generations.[36]
According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[37]
Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta
declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to
re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerilla struggle
ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian
independence. In December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the
exception of the Netherlands New Guinea (Western New Guinea). Sukarno's government campaigned for
Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to the
New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963.
Economic history
The economic history of the colony was closely related to the
economic health of the mother country.[38] Despite increasing returns
from the Dutch system of land tax, Dutch finances had been severely
affected by the cost of the Java War and the Padri War, and the Dutch
loss of Belgium in 1830 brought the Netherlands to the brink of
bankruptcy. In 1830, a new Governor-General, Johannes van den
Bosch, was appointed to make the Indies pay their way through
Dutch exploitation of its resources. With the Dutch achieving
political domination throughout Java for the first time in 1830,[39] it
was possible to introduce an agricultural policy of governmentWorkers pose at the site of a railway
controlled forced cultivation. Termed cultuurstelsel (cultivation
tunnel under construction in the
system) in Dutch and tanam paksa (forced plantation) in Indonesian,
mountains, 1910.
farmers were required to deliver, as a form of tax, fixed amounts of
specified crops, such as sugar or coffee.[40] Much of Java became a
Dutch plantation and revenue rose continually through the 19th century which were reinvested into the
Netherlands to save it from bankruptcy.[13][40] Between 1830 and 1870, 1 billion guilders were taken from
Indonesia, on average making 25 per cent of the annual Dutch Government budget.[41] The Cultivation
System, however, brought much economic hardship to Javanese peasants, who suffered famine and
epidemics in the 1840s.[13]
Critical public opinion in the Netherlands led to much of the Cultivation System's excesses being eliminated
under the agrarian reforms of the "Liberal Period". Dutch private capital flowed in after 1850, especially in
tin mining and plantation estate agriculture. The Billiton Company's tin mines off the eastern Sumatra coast
was financed by a syndicate of Dutch entrepreneurs, including the younger brother of King William III.
Mining began in 1860. In 1863 Jacob Nienhuys obtained a concession from the Sultanate of Deli (East
Sumatra) for a large tobacco estate (Deli Company.[42] From 1870, the Indies were opened up to private
enterprise and Dutch businessmen set up large, profitable plantations. Sugar production doubled between
1870 and 1885; new crops such as tea and cinchona flourished, and rubber was introduced, leading to
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dramatic increases in Dutch profits. Changes were not

limited to Java, or agriculture; oil from Sumatra and
Kalimantan became a valuable resource for
industrialising Europe. Dutch commercial interests
expanded off Java to the outer islands with increasingly
more territory coming under direct Dutch control or
dominance in the latter half of the 19th century.[13]
However, the resulting scarcity of land for rice
production, combined with dramatically increasing
populations, especially in Java, led to further
hardships.[13]
The colonial
Map of the Dutch East Indies in 1818
exploitation of
Indonesia's
wealth contributed to the industrialisation of the Netherlands, while
simultaneously laying the foundation for the industrialisation of
Indonesia. The Dutch introduced coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco and
rubber and large expanses of Java became plantations cultivated by
Javanese peasants, collected by Chinese intermediaries, and sold on
overseas markets by European merchants.[13] In the late 19th century
economic growth was based on heavy world demand for tea, coffee,
Different flags in Dutch East India
and cinchona. The government invested heavily in a railroad
network (150 miles long in 1873, 1,200 in 1900), as well as
telegraph lines, and entrepreneurs opened banks, shops and newspapers. The Dutch East Indies produced
most of the world's supply of quinine and pepper, over a third of its rubber, a quarter of its coconut products,
and a fifth of its tea, sugar, coffee, and oil. The profit from the Dutch East Indies made the Netherlands one
of the world's most significant colonial powers.[13] The Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij shipping line
supported the unification of the colonial economy and brought inter-island shipping through to Batavia,
rather than through Singapore, thus focussing more economic activity on Java.[43]
The worldwide recession of the late 1880s and early 1890s saw the commodity prices on which the colony
depended collapse. Journalists and civil servants observed that the majority of the Indies population were no
better off than under the previous regulated Cultivation System economy and tens of thousands starved.[44]
Commodity prices recovered from the recession, leading to increased investment in the colony. The sugar,
tin, copra and coffee trade on which the colony had been built thrived, and rubber, tobacco, tea and oil also
became principal exports.[45] Political reform increased the autonomy of the local colonial administration,
moving away from central control from the Netherlands, whilst power was also diverged from the central
Batavia government to more localised governing units.
The world economy recovered in the late 1890s and prosperity returned. Foreign investment, especially by
the British, were encouraged. By 1900, foreign-held assets in the Netherlands Indies totalled about 750
million guilders ($300 million), mostly in Java.[46]
After 1900 upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads was a high priority for the Dutch, with the goal of
modernising the economy, facilitating commerce, and speeding up military movements. By 1950 Dutch
engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12,000 km of asphalted surface, 41,000 km of
metalled road area and 16,000 km of gravel surfaces.[47] In addition the Dutch built, 7,500 kilometres
(4,700 mi) of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields,
several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems. Wim Ravesteijn has said that, "With these public
works, Dutch engineers constructed the material base of the colonial and postcolonial Indonesian state."[48]
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Social history
In 1898, the population of Java numbered 28 million with another 7 million
on Indonesia's outer islands.[49] The first half of 20th century saw large-scale
immigration of Dutch and other Europeans to the colony, where they worked
in either the government or private sectors. By 1930, there were more than
240,000 people with European legal status in the colony, making up less than
0.5% of the total population.[50] Almost 75% of these Europeans were in fact
native Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans.[51]
1930 census of the Dutch East Indies[52]
Rank
Group
Number
Percentage
Indigenous islanders (Pribumi) 59,138,067 97.4%
Chinese
1,233,214
2.0%
Dutch people and Eurasians
240,417
0.4%
Other foreign orientals
115,535
0.2%
Total
60,727,233 100%
Volksraad members in 1918:

D. Birnie (Dutch), Kan Hok
Hoei (Chinese), R. Sastro
Widjono and M.N. Dwidjo
Sewojo (Javanese).
As the Dutch secured the islands they eliminated slavery, widow

burning, head-hunting, cannibalism, piracy, and internecine wars.[21]
Railways, steamships, postal and telegraph services, and various
government agencies all served to introduce a degree of new
uniformity across the colony. Immigration within the archipelago
particularly by ethnic Chinese, Bataks, Javanese, and Bugis
increased dramatically.[53]
The Dutch colonialists formed a privileged upper social class of
soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers and pioneers. They lived
together with the "natives", but at the top of a rigid social and racial
caste system.[54][55] The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of
citizens; European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners,
was added in 1920.[56]
'Selamatan' feast in Buitenzorg, a

common feast among Javanese
Muslims.
In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, under which the colonial government had a
duty to further the welfare of the Indonesian people in health and education. Other new measures under the
policy included irrigation programs, transmigration, communications, flood mitigation, industrialisation, and
protection of native industry.[13] Industrialisation did not significantly affect the majority of Indonesians,
and Indonesia remained an agricultural colony; by 1930, there were 17 cities with populations over 50,000
and their combined populations numbered 1.87 million of the colony's 60 million.[25]
Government
Education
The Dutch school system was extended to Indonesians with the most prestigious schools admitting Dutch
children and those of the Indonesian upper class. A second tier of schooling was based on ethnicity with
separate schools for Indonesians, Arabs, and Chinese being taught in Dutch and with a Dutch curriculum.
Ordinary Indonesians were educated in Malay in Roman alphabet with "link" schools preparing bright
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Indonesian students for entry into the Dutch-language schools.[57]

Vocational schools and programs were set up by the Indies
government to train indigenous Indonesians for specific roles in the
colonial economy. Chinese and Arabs, officially termed "foreign
orientals", could not enrol in either the vocational schools or primary
schools.[58]
Graduates of Dutch schools opened their own schools modelled on
the Dutch school system, as did Christian missionaries, Theosophical
Societies, and Indonesian cultural associations. This proliferation of
Students of the School Tot Opleiding
schools was further boosted by new Muslim schools in the Western
Van Indische Artsen (STOVIA) aka
mould that also offered secular subjects.[57] According to the 1930
Sekolah Doctor Jawa.
census, 6% of Indonesians were literate, however, this figure
recognised only graduates from Western schools and those who
could read and write in a language in the Roman alphabet. It did not include graduates of non-Western
schools or those who could read but not write Arabic, Malay or Dutch, or those who could write in
non-Roman alphabets such as Batak, Javanese, Chinese, or Arabic.[57]
Some of higher education institutions were also established. In 1898
the Dutch East Indies government established a school to train
medical doctors, named School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen
(STOVIA). Many STOVIA graduates later played important roles in
Indonesia's national movement toward independence as well in
developing medical education in Indonesia, such as Dr. Wahidin
Soedirohoesodo, who established the Budi Utomo political society.
De Technische Hoogeschool te Bandung established in 1920 by the
Dutch colonial administration to meet the needs of technical
resources at its colony. One of Technische Hogeschool graduate is
Dutch, Eurasian and Javanese
Sukarno whom later would lead the Indonesian National Revolution.
professors of law at the opening of
In 1924, the colonial government again decided to open a new
the Rechts Hogeschool in 1924.
tertiary-level educational facility, the Rechts Hogeschool (RHS), to
train civilian officers and servants. In 1927, STOVIA's status was
changed to that of a full tertiary-level institution and its name was changed to Geneeskundige Hogeschool
(GHS). The GHS occupied the same main building and used the same teaching hospital as the current
Faculty of Medicine of University of Indonesia. The old links between the Netherlands and Indonesia are
still clearly visible in such technological areas as irrigation design. To this day, the ideas of Dutch colonial
irrigation engineers continue to exert a strong influence over Indonesian design practices.[59] Moreover, the
two highest internationally ranking universities of Indonesia, the University of Indonesia est.1898 and the
Bandung Institute of Technology est.1920, were both founded during the colonial era.[60][61]
Education reforms, and modest political reform, resulted in a small elite of highly educated indigenous
Indonesians, who promoted the idea of an independent and unified "Indonesia" that would bring together
disparate indigenous groups of the Dutch East Indies. A period termed the Indonesian National Revival, the
first half of the 20th century saw the nationalist movement develop strongly, but also face Dutch
oppression.[13]
Law and administration

Traditional rulers who survived displacement by the Dutch conquests were installed as regents and
indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost real control, their wealth and
splendour under the Dutch grew.[25] They were placed under a hierarchy of Dutch officials; the Residents,
the Assistant Residents, and District Officers called Controlers. This indirect rule did not disturb the
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peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250
European and 1,500 indigenous civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch
officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were required to
rule 35 million colonial subjects.[62] From 1910, the Dutch created
the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia.[21]
Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided
with the 'Office of the Governor-General'. During the Dutch East
Indies era the Governor-General functioned as chief executive
House of Resident (colonial
president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief
administrator) in Surabaya.
of the colonial (KNIL) army. Until 1903 all government officials and
organisations were formal agents of the Governor-General and were
entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'Office of the
[63]
Governor-General' for their budgets.
Until 1815 the Governor-General had the absolute right to ban,
censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called Exorbitant powers of the Governor-General
allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving
any Court of Law.[64]
Until 1848 the Governor-General was directly appointed by the Dutch
monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch
metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (18151835 and 18541925) the
Governor-General ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van
Indie (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility
of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague. From 1815 to 1848 the
Ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch King. In the 20th century
the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole
with treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by the colony
from 1913, and quasi diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to
manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony
came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while
remaining under the Ministry of Colonies.[65]
Opening of the Volksraad by

Governor-General count Van
Limburg-Stirum, Batavia 18 May
1918.
Governor-General's palace in
Batavia (1880-1900).
A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies
commenced in 1918. The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role
and only a small portion of the indigenous population were able to
vote for its members. The Council comprised 30 indigenous
members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations,
and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was
made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by
the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult
the Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad was dissolved in 1942
during the Japanese occupation.[66]
The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony.
The highest court of law, the Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with
appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six
Councils of Justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime
committed by people in the European legal class[67] and only indirectly with the indigenous population. The
Land Councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and
matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous
regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges.[68][69] Following Indonesian
independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on
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Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established.[70]

By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the
colony. The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated the most
unruly inmates. In Sawah Loento prison on Sumatra prisoners had to
perform manual labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built
for juveniles (West Java) and for women. In the female Boeloe
prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession
during their detention, such as sewing, weaving and making batik.
This training was held in high esteem and helped re-socialise women
once they were outside the correctional facility.[68][71] In response to
the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was
established in New Guinea. As of 1927 political prisoners, including
indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were
'exiled' to the outer islands.[72]
Supreme Court Building, Batavia.
Politically, the highly centralised power structure, including the exorbitant powers of exile and
censorship,[73] established by the Dutch administration was carried over into the new Indonesian
republic.[21]
Administrative divisions
The Dutch East Indies was divided into three Gouvernementen, Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra, and three
provincies in Java. Provincies and Gouvernementen were both divided to Residencies but while the
Residencies under Provincies were divided again to regentschapen, Residencies under Gouvermenten were
divided to Afdeelingen first before being divided to regentschapen[74] In 1942, the divisions were
Sumatra
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Name
Dutch name
Local
name
Residentie Atjeh
en
Aceh
Onderhoorigheden
Residentie
Tapanoeli
Residentie
Oostkust van
Sumatra
Residentie
Sumatra's
Westkust
Tapanuli
Sumatra
Timur
Sumatra
Barat
Current
English name
Population
(1930)
Area
(km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
Residency of
Aceh and
Dependencies
Aceh, consisting of
the divisions
(afdeeling) of GrootAtjeh, Nordkust van opium,
1,003,062 55392.23
Atjeh, Oostkust van
gold, coffee
Atjeh, Gajo en
Alaslanden, Pidie and
Westkust van Atjeh
Residency of
Tapanuli
western part of North

Sumatra, consisting of
the divisions
1,042,583 39076.87 (afdeeling) of Sibolga camphor
en Omstreken, Nias,
Bataklanden and
Padang Sidempoean
Residency of
Sumatra's
East Coast
eastern part of North

Sumatra and northern
part of Riau,
consisting of the
divisions (afdeeling)
of Langkat, Deli en
Serdang, Asahan,
Simaloengoen en
1,693,200 94583.25
tobacco
Karolanden, Siak and
Bengkalis; and with
the municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of
Medan, Bindjai,
Tebing Tinggi,
Tandjoeng Balai and
Pematang Siantar
Residency of
Sumatra's
West Coast
West Sumatra
including Mentawai
Islands, consisting of
the divisions
(afdeeling) of Padang,
Padangsche
Bovenlanden, Agam,
coal, black
1,910,298 49778.10 Solok, Limapoeloe
pepper, salt
Koto and Zuid
Benedenlanden; and
with the
municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of
Padang, Bukittinggi
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and Sawahloento
Residentie Riouw
en
Riau
Onderhoorigheden
Residency of
Riau and
Dependencies
southern part of Riau

and Riau Islands,
consisting of the
298,225 31668.44
of Indragiri and
Tandjoengpinang
Residentie Djambi Jambi
Residency of
Jambi
Jambi, consisting of
black
245,272 44923.76 the divisions
pepper
(afdeeling) of Djambi
Residentie
Bengkoelen
Residency of
Bengkulu
Bengkulu, consisting
of the divisions
323,123 26249.39
(afdeeling) of
Bengkoelen
black
pepper
Residency of
Palembang
South Sumatra,
consist of the
of Palembang
Bovenlanden,
Palembang
1,098,725 86355.65
Benedenlanden and
Ogan en Komeringoeloe; and with the
municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of
Palembang
black
pepper
Residentie
Palembang
Bengkulu
Palembang
oil, fish
Residentie Bangka
en
Bangka
Onderhoorigheden
Residency of
Bangka and
Dependencies
Bangka and Belitung

Islands, consisting of
278,792 16774.70 the divisions
tin
(afdeeling) of Bangka
and Billiton
Residentie
Lampongsche
Districten
Residency of
Lampung
District
Lampung, consisting
of the divisions
361,563 28783.74
(afdeeling) of
Teloekbetoeng
Lampung
black
pepper
Java
Java was also divided to three provinces which overlap with Pre-2000 boundary of java without Surakarta
which in 1942 along with Yogyakarta were not included in any provinces of Java, but considered
Vorstenlanden van Java (Princely States of Java)
West Java
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Name
Dutch
name
Residentie
Bantam
Residentie
Batavia
Local
name
Current
English
name
Banten
Residency
of Banten
Betawi
Residentie
Bogor
Buitenzorg
Residentie
Preanger
Residentie
Cheribon
Priangan
Cirebon
Residency
of Batavia
Residency
of
Buitenzorg
Residency
of Preanger
Residency
of Cirebon
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
1,028,628
Banten consisting of the regencies

black pepper,
n/a (regentschap) of Serang, Lebak
gold, poultry
and Pandeglang
2,637,035
Jakarta and surroundings,

consisting of the regencies
(regentschap) of Batavia, Meestern/a
rice, coffee
Cornelis and Krawang; with
municipality (stadsgemeente) of
Batavia
2,212,997
Bogor and surroundings, consist of

the regencies (regentschap) of
Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi and
n/a
coffee
Tjiandjoer; with municipality
(stadsgemeente) of Buitenzorg and
Soekaboemi
3,448,796
Bandung and surroundings,

(regentschap) of Bandoeng,
tea, coffee,
n/a
Soemedang, Tasikmalaja, Tjiamis quinine
and Garoet; with municipality
(stadsgemeente) of Bandoeng
2,069,690
Cirebon and surroundings,

consisting of regencies
(regentschap) of Cheribon,
n/a Koeningan, Indramajoe and
Madjalengka; and with the
municipalities (stadsgemeente) of
Cheribon
black pepper,
fish
Midden Java
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Name
Dutch
name
Local
name
Current
English
name
Residency
Residentie
Pekalongan of
Pekalongan
Pekalongan
Residency
Residentie
Banyumas of
Banjoemas
Banyumas
Residentie
Kedoe
Residentie
Semarang
Residentie
DjeparaRembang
Kedu
Residency
of Kedu
Semarang
Residency
of
Semarang
JeparaRembang
Residency
of JeparaRembang
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
2,640,124
Pekalongan, Tegal and

surroundings, consisting of
regencies (regentschap) of
n/a Pekalongan, Batang, Pemalang,
Tegal and Brebes; and with the
municipalities(stadsgemeente) of
Pekalongan and Tegal
fish,
indigo,
rice, sugar
2,474,447
Banyumas, Purwokerto and

surroundings, consist of the
n/a
Banjoemas, Poerwokerto,
Poerbolinggo, Tjilatjap,
Karanganjar and Bandjarnegara
oil
2,129,894
Magelang and surroundings,

(regentschap) of Magelang,
Wonosobo, Temanggoeng,
n/a
Poerworedjo, Koetoardjo and
Keboemen; and with the
municipality (stadsgemeente) of
Magelang
tobacco
2,020,684
Semarang and surroundings,

(regentschap) of Semarang,
timber,
n/a Kendal, Demak and Grobogan;
indigo,
and with the municipalities
kapok
(stadsgemeente) of Semarang and
Salatiga
1,876,480
Jepara, Rembang and

n/a regencies (regentschap) of Pati,
Djepara, Rembang, Blora and
Koedoes
timber,
rice, cotton
Oost Java
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Name
Dutch name
Residentie
Madioen
Local
name
Madiun
Current
English
name
Residency of
Madiun
Residentie
Residency of
Bojonegoro
Bodjonegoro
Bojonegoro
Residentie
Kediri
Residentie
Soerabaja
Residentie
Malang
Residentie
Probolinggo
Kediri
Surabaya
Malang
Probolinggo
Residency of
Kediri
Residency of
Surabaya
Residency of
Malang
Residency of
Probolinggo
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
1,909,801
Madiun and surroundings,

(regentschap) of Madioen,
n/a Magetan, Ngawi, Ponorogo
sugar
and Patjitan; and with the
municipality (stadsgemeente)
of Madioen
1,986,129
Bojonegoro and surroundings,

n/a
fish, timber
(regentschap) of Bodjonegoro,
Toeban, Grisse and Lamongan
2,469,955
Kediri and surroundings,

(regentschap) of Kediri,
Ngandjoek, Blitar,
n/a Toeloengagoeng and
tobacco
Trenggalek; and with the
municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of Kediri and
Blitar
1,902,953
Surabaya and surroundings,

(regentschap) of Soerabaja,
Sidoardjo, Modjokerto and
n/a
fish
Djombang; and with the
municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of Soerabaja
and Modjokerto
1,713,536
Malang and surroundings,

(regentschap) of Malang,
n/a
fruit
Pasoeroean and Bangil; with
municipality (stadsgemeente)
of Malang and Pasoeroean
1,027,569
Probolinggo and
the regencies (regentschap) of
Probolinggo, Kraksaan and
n/a
sulphur
Loemadjang; and with the
municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of
Probolinggo
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Residentie
Besoeki
Residentie
Madoera
Besuki
Madura
Residency of
Besuki
Residency of
Madura
2,083,309
Banyuwangi and
n/a the regencies (regentschap) of tobacco
Bondowoso, Panaroekan,
Djember and Banjoewangi
1,962,462
Madura, consisting of the

n/a
Bangkalan, Sampang,
Pamekasan and Soemenep
salt
Vorstenlanden
Name
Dutch
name
Residentie
Jogjakarta
Residentie
Soerakarta
Local
name
Yogyakarta
Surakarta
Current
English
name
Residency of
Yogyakarta
Residency of
Surakarta
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
1,559,027
Yogyakarta, consisting of the

n/a Adikarto, Pakoealaman, Koelon- tobacco
Progo, Jogjakarta, Bantoel and
Goenoeng-Kidul
2,564,848
Surakarta, consisting of the

n/a Sragen, Soerakarta, Kota
Mangkoenagaran, Klaten,
Bojolali and Wonogiri
tobacco,
sugar
Borneo
In 1938 both of these Residenties were united were again united in a Gouvernement of Borneo with its
capital at Banjarmasin.
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Name
Dutch name
Residentie
Westerafdeeling
van Borneo
Residentie
Zuider en
Oosterafdeeling
van Borneo
Local name
Current
English
name
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Residency
Kalimantan
of Western
Barat
Kalimantan
Residency
Kalimantan
of South and
Selatan dan
East
Timur
Kalimantan
802,447
1,366,214
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
West Kalimantan,
consisting of the
n/a Afdeelingen of
Singkawang, Pontianak,
Ketapang and Sintang
gold
Central Kalimantan, South

Kalimantan, East
Kalimantan and North
Kalimantan, consisting of
the afdeelingen of Koeala
Kapoeas, Bandjermasin,
n/a
Hoeloe Soengei,
Samarinda and
Boeloengan en Berau;
with the municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of
Bandjermasin
diamond,
oil, black
pepper,
timber
Groote Oost
The Gouvernement van Groote Oost was a gouvernement of the Dutch East Indies created in 1938. It
comprised all the islands to the east of Borneo and Java.
Lesser Sunda Islands
Name
Dutch name
Residentie Bali en
Lombok
Local
name
Current
English name
Residency of
Bali dan
Bali and
Lombok
Lombok
Residentie Timor en
Timor
Onderhoorigheden
Residency of
Timor and
Dependencies
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
1,802,683
Bali and Lombok,

consisting of the
n/a
rice
afdeelinen) of Bali and
Lombok
1,657,376
West Nusa Tenggara

East of Lombok and
East Nusa Tenggara,
consisting of the
n/a
sandalwood
divisions (afdeeling) of
Soembawa, Soemba,
Flores and Timor en
eilanden
Sulawesi
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Name
Dutch name
Local
name
Current
English name
Residentie Celebes
Residency of
en
Sulawesi Celebes and
Onderhoorigheden
Dependencies
Residentie Manado Manado
Residency of
Manado
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
3,093,251
South Sulawesi, West

Sulawesi and Southeast
Sulawesi, consisting of
the afdeelingen of
Bonthain, Makassar,
fish, cotton,
n/a Bone, Pare-pare, Mandar,
gold
and Loewoe, Boetoeng en
Laiwoei and with the
municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of
Makassar
1,138,665
Central Sulawesi,
Gorontalo and North
Sulawesi, consisting of
the afdeelingen of Poso,
n/a Donggala, Gorontalo, and fish
Manado with the
municipalities
(stadsgemeente) of
Manado
Maluku and Papua
In 1922 with the dissolution of Residentie Ternate to Residentie Amboina, Residentie Amboina was
renamed to Residentie Molukken. In 1935 the Residentie was renamed to Gouvernement Molukken until the
creation of Gouvernement Groot Oost in 1938, in which Gouvernement Molukken became residencie again.
Name
Dutch name
Local
name
Current English
name
Population Area
(1930) (km2)
Modern area
Primary
resource(s)
Afdeeling Ternate Maluku
Afdeeling of
Ternate
560,013
n/a North Maluku
clove, nutmeg,
mace
Afdeeling
Amboina
Afdeeling of
Amboina
560,013
n/a Maluku
clove, nutmeg,
mace
Afdeeling of New
Guinea
333,387
n/a
Maluku
Afdeeling NieuwPapua
Guinea
West Papua and

timber
Papua
Armed forces
The Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) and the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force
(ML-KNIL) were established in 1830 and 1915 respectively. Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy
were based in Surabaya, but were never part of the KNIL. The KNIL was a separate branch of the Royal
Netherlands Army, commanded by the Governor-General and funded by the colonial budget. The KNIL was
not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a 'Foreign Legion' recruiting not only Dutch
volunteers, but many other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries).[75]
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While most officers were Europeans, the majority of soldiers were

indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were
Javanese and Sundanese.[76]
Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic
points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they
would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in Aceh,
in northern Sumatra, where the sultan tolerated pirates who raided
commerce in the Strait of Malacca. Britain was a protector of Aceh
and it gave the Netherlands permission to eradicate the pirates. The
campaign quickly drove out the sultan but across Aceh numerous
local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades
of very expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on both
sides.[77]
Decorated indigenous KNIL soldiers,

1927.
Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against the

population by means of a strategy of awe. When a guerrilla war did
take place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a
campaign of destruction.[78] By 1900 the archipelago was considered
"pacified" and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police
tasks. The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial
government introduced obligatory military service for all male
conscripts in the European legal class[79] and in 1922 a supplemental
legal enactment introduced the creation of a Home guard (Dutch:
Aceh War (18731914) between the
[80]
Netherlands and the Aceh Sultanate.
Landstorm) for European conscripts older than 32.
Petitions by
Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous
people were rejected. In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia of 18,000 by a majority
of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After the declaration of war with Japan,
over 100,000 natives volunteered.[81] The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform into a
modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of
the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000
officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During the Dutch East Indies campaign of
194142 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated.[82] All European soldiers, which in practice
included all able bodied Indo-European males were interned by the Japanese as POW's. 25% of the POW's
did not survive their internment.
Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law
and order". Despite two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948, Dutch efforts to re-establish their
colony failed and the Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949.[83] The KNIL was
disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining
the Indonesian military.[84] At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were
incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the
Netherlands Army.[85] Key officers in the Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL
soldiers include: Suharto second president of Indonesia, Nasution supreme commander of the Indonesian
army and Alexander Evert Kawilarang founder of the elite special forces Kopassus.
Culture
Language and literature
Across the archipelago, hundreds of native languages are used, and Malay or Portuguese Creole, the existing
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languages of trade were adopted. Prior to 1870, when Dutch colonial

influence was largely restricted to Java, Malay was used in
government schools and training programs such that graduates could
communicate with groups from other regions who immigrated to
Java.[86] The colonial government sought to standardise Malay based
on the version from Riau and Malacca, and dictionaries were
commissioned for governmental communication and schools for
indigenous peoples.[87] In the early 20th century, Indonesia's
independence leaders adopted a form of Malay from Riau, and called
it Indonesian. In the latter half of the 19th century, the rest of the
archipelago, in which hundreds of language groups were used, was
brought under Dutch control. In extending the native education
program to these areas, the government stipulated this "standard
Malay" as the language of the colony.[88]
Perhimpunan Pelajar-Pelajar
Indonesia (Indonesian Students
Union) delegates in Youth Pledge, an
important event where Indonesian
language was decided to be the
national language. 1928
Dutch was not made the official language of the colony and was not
widely used by the indigenous Indonesian population.[89] The majority of legally acknowledged Dutchmen
were bi-lingual Indo Eurasians.[90] Dutch was only used by a limited educated elite, and in 1942, around two
percent of the total population in the Dutch East Indies spoke Dutch including over 1 million indigenous
Indonesians.[91] A number of Dutch loan words are used in present-day Indonesian, particularly technical
terms (see List of Dutch loan words in Indonesian). These words generally had no alternative in Malay and
were adopted into the Indonesian vocabulary giving a linguistic insight into which concepts are part of the
Dutch colonial heritage. Hendrik Maier of the University of California says that about a fifth of
contemporary Indonesian language can be traced to Dutch.[92]
Dutch language literature has been inspired by both colonial and post-colonial Indies from the Dutch Golden
Age to the present day. It includes Dutch, Indo-European and Indonesian authors. Its subject matter
thematically revolves around the Dutch colonial era, but also includes postcolonial discourse. Masterpieces
of this genre include Multatuli's Max Havelaar: Or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company,
Louis Couperus's Hidden Force, E. du Perron's Country of Origin, and Maria Dermot's The Ten Thousand
Things.[93][94]
Most Dutch literature was written by Dutch and Indo-European authors, however, in the first half of the 20th
century under the Ethical Policy, indigenous Indonesian authors and intellectuals came to the Netherlands to
study and work. They wrote Dutch language literary works and published literature in literary reviews such
as Het Getij, De Gemeenschap, Links Richten and Forum. By exploring new literary themes and focusing on
indigenous protagonists, they drew attention to indigenous culture and the indigenous plight. Examples
include the Javanese prince and poet Noto Soeroto, a writer and journalist, and the Dutch language writings
of Soewarsih Djojopoespito, Chairil Anwar, Kartini, Sutan Sjahrir and Sukarno.[95] Much of the
postcolonial discourse in Dutch Indies literature has been written by Indo-European authors led by the
"avant garde visionary" Tjalie Robinson, who is the best read Dutch author in contemporary Indonesia[96]
and second generation Indo-European immigrants like Marion Bloem.
Visual art
The natural beauty of East Indies has inspired the works of artists and painters, that mostly capture the
romantic scenes of colonial Indies. The term Mooi Indie (Dutch for "Beautiful Indies") was originally
coined as the title of 11 reproductions of Du Chattel's watercolor paintings which depicted the scene of East
Indies published in Amsterdam in 1930. The term became famous in 1939 after S. Sudjojono used it to
mock the painters that merely depict all pretty things about Indies.[97] Mooi Indie later would identified as
the genre of painting that occurred during the colonial East Indies that capture the romantic depictions of the
Indies as the main themes; mostly natural scenes of mountains, volcanos, rice paddies, river valleys,
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villages, with scenes of native servants, nobles, and sometimes

bare-chested native women. Some of the notable Mooi Indie painters
are European artists: F.J. du Chattel, Manus Bauer, Nieuwkamp,
Isaac Israel, PAJ Moojen, Carel Dake and Romualdo Locatelli; East
Indies-born Dutch painters: Henry van Velthuijzen, Charles Sayers,
Ernest Dezentje, Leonard Eland and Jan Frank; Native painters:
Raden Saleh, Mas Pirngadi, Abdullah Surisubroto, Wakidi, Basuki
Abdullah, Mas Soeryo Soebanto and Henk Ngantunk; and also
Chinese painters: Lee Man Fong, Oei Tiang Oen and Biau Tik Kwie.
These painters usually exhibit their works in art galleries such as
Bataviasche Kuntkringgebouw, Theosofie Vereeniging, Kunstzaal
Kolff & Co and Hotel Des Indes.
The romantic depiction of De Grote

Postweg near Buitenzorg.
Theatre and film

A total of 112 fictional films are known to have been produced in the
Dutch East Indies between 1926 and the colony's dissolution in
1949. The earliest motion pictures, imported from abroad, were
shown in late 1900,[98] and by the early 1920s imported serials and
fictional films were being shown, often with localised names.[99]
Dutch companies were also producing documentary films about the
Indies to be shown in the Netherlands.[100] The first locally produced
film, Loetoeng Kasaroeng, was directed by L. Heuveldorp and
released on 31 December 1926.[101] Between 1926 and 1933
Cinema Bioscoop Mimosa in Batu,
numerous other local productions were released. During the
Java dated 1941.
mid-1930s, production dropped as a result of the Great
Depression.[102] The rate of production declined again after the
Japanese occupation beginning in early 1942, closing all but one film studio.[103] The majority of films
produced during the occupation were Japanese propaganda shorts.[104] Following the Proclamation of
Indonesian Independence in 1945 and during the ensuing revolution several films were made, by both
pro-Dutch and pro-Indonesian backers.[105][106]
Generally films produced in the Indies dealt with traditional stories or were adapted from existing
works.[107] The early films were silent, with Karnadi Anemer Bangkong (Karnadi the Frog Contractor;
1930) generally considered the first talkie;[108] later films would be in Dutch, Malay, or an indigenous
language. All were black-and-white. The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all films
from before 1950 are lost.[109] However, JB Kristanto's Katalog Film Indonesia (Indonesian Film
Catalogue) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia's archives, and Biran writes that
several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service.[110]
Theatre plays by playwrights such as Victor Ido (18691948) were performed at the Schouwburg
Weltevreden, now known as Gedung Kesenian Jakarta. A less elite form of theatre, popular with both
European and indigenous people, were the travelling Indo theatre shows known as Komedie Stamboel, made
popular by Auguste Mahieu (18651903).
Science
The rich nature and culture of the Dutch East Indies attracted European intellectuals, scientists and
researchers. Some notable scientists that conducted most of their important research in the East Indies
archipelago are Teijsmann, Junghuhn, Eijkman, Dubois and Wallace. Many important art, culture and
science institutions were established in Dutch East Indies. For example, the Bataviaasch Genootschap van
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Kunsten en Wetenschappen, (Royal Batavian Society of Arts and

Sciences), the predecessor of the National Museum of Indonesia,
was established in 1778 with the aim to promote research and
publish findings in the field of arts and sciences, especially history,
archaeology, ethnography and physics. The Bogor Botanical Gardens
with Herbarium Bogoriense and Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense
was a major centre for botanical research established in 1817, with
the aim to study the flora and fauna of the archipelago.
Java Man was discovered by Eugne Dubois in 1891. Komodo
dragon was first described by Peter Ouwens in 1912, after an
aeroplane crash accident in 1911 and rumours about living dinosaurs
in Komodo Island in 1910. Vitamin B1 and its relation to beriberi
disease was discovered by Eijkman during his work in the Indies.
Museum and lab of the Buitenzorg

Plantentuin.
Cuisine
The Dutch colonial families through their domestic servants and
cooks were exposed to Indonesian cuisine, as the result they
developed a taste for native tropical spices and dishes. A notable
Dutch East Indies colonial dish is rijsttafel, the rice table that
consists of 7 to 40 popular dishes from across the colony. More an
extravagant banquet than a dish, the Dutch colonials introduced the
rice table not only so they could enjoy a wide array of dishes at a
single setting but also to impress visitors with the exotic abundance
of their colony.[111]
Dutch family enjoying a large
Through colonialism the Dutch introduced European dishes such as

Rijsttafel dinner, 1936.
bread, cheese, barbecued steak and pancake. As the producer of cash
crops; coffee and tea were also popular in the colonial East Indies.
Bread, butter and margarine, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam, poffertjes, pannekoek and
Dutch cheeses were commonly consumed by colonial Dutch and Indos during the colonial era. Some of the
native upperclass ningrat (nobles) and a few educated native were exposed to European cuisine, and it was
held with high esteem as the cuisine of upperclass elite of Dutch East Indies society. This led to the adoption
and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine. Some dishes which were created during the colonial
era are Dutch influenced: they include selat solo (solo salad), bistik jawa (Javanese beef steak), semur (from
Dutch smoor), sayur kacang merah (brenebon) and sop buntut. Cakes and cookies also can trace their origin
to Dutch influences; such as kue bolu (tart), pandan cake, lapis legit (spekkoek), spiku (lapis Surabaya),
klappertaart (coconut tart), and kaasstengels (cheese cookies). Kue cubit commonly found in front of
schools and marketplaces are believed to be derived from poffertjes.[112]
Architecture
The 16th and 17th century arrival of European powers in Indonesia introduced masonry construction to
Indonesia where previously timber and its by-products had been almost exclusively used. In the 17th and
18th centuries, Batavia was a fortified brick and masonry city.[113] For almost two centuries, the colonialists
did little to adapt their European architectural habits to the tropical climate.[114] They built row houses
which were poorly ventilated with small windows, which was thought as protection against tropical diseases
coming from tropical air.[114] Years later the Dutch learnt to adapt their architectural styles with local
building features (long eaves, verandahs, porticos, large windows and ventilation openings),[115] and the
18th century Dutch Indies country houses was one of the first colonial buildings to incorporate Indonesian
architectural elements and adapt to the climate, the known as Indies Style.[116]
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From the end of the 19th century, significant improvements to

technology, communications and transportation brought new wealth
to Java. Modernistic buildings, including train stations, business
hotels, factories and office blocks, hospitals and education
institutions, were influenced by international styles. The early 20th
century trend was for modernist influencessuch as art-deco
being expressed in essentially European buildings with Indonesian
trim. Practical responses to the environment carried over from the
earlier Indies Style, included overhanging eaves, larger windows and
Ceremonial Hall, Bandung Institute
ventilation in the walls, which gave birth to the New Indies
of Technology, Bandung, by architect
[117]
Style.
The largest stock of colonial era buildings are in the large
Henri Maclaine-Pont
cities of Java, such as Bandung, Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya.
Notable architects and planners include Albert Aalbers, Thomas
Karsten, Henri Maclaine Pont, J. Gerber and C.P.W. Schoemaker.[118] In the first three decades of the 20th
century, the Department of Public Works funded major public buildings and introduced a town planning
program under which the main towns and cities in Java and Sumatra were rebuilt and extended.[119]
A lack of development in the Great Depression, the turmoil of the Second World War and the Indonesia's
independence struggle of the 1940s, and economic stagnation during the politically turbulent 1950s and
1960s, meant that much colonial architecture has been preserved through to recent decades.[120] Colonial
homes were almost always the preserve of the wealthy Dutch, Indonesian and Chinese elites, however the
styles were often rich and creative combinations of two cultures, so much so that the homes remain sought
after into the 21st century.[116] Native architecture was arguably more influenced by the new European ideas
than colonial architecture was influenced by Indonesian styles; and these Western elements continue to be a
dominant influence on Indonesia's built environment today.
Colonial heritage in the Netherlands

In The Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by
corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which
reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society.
When the Dutch Royal Family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.[121]
Universities such as the Royal Leiden University founded in the 16th century have developed into leading
knowledge centres about Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies.[122] Leiden University has produced
academics such as Colonial adviser Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje who specialised in native oriental
(Indonesian) affairs, and it still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden
University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an
intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands
include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian
art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.[59]
The traditions of the KNIL are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands
Army and the dedicated Bronbeek Museum, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to
this day.
Many surviving colonial families and their descendants who moved back to the Netherlands after
Independence tended to look back on the colonial era with a sense of the power and prestige they had in the
colony, with such items as the 1970s book Tempo Doeloe (Old times) by author Rob Nieuwenhuys, and
other books and materials that became quite common in the 1970s and 1980s.[124] Moreover, since the 18th
century Dutch literature has a large number of established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of
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"The Hidden Force", taking the colonial

era as an important source of
inspiration.[125] In fact one of the great
masterpieces of Dutch literature is the
book "Max Havelaar" written by
Multatuli in 1860.[126]
The majority of Dutchmen that
repatriated to the Netherlands after and
during the Indonesian revolution are
Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of
the Dutch East Indies. This relatively
large Eurasian population had developed
over a period of 400 years and were
classified by colonial law as belonging
to the European legal community.[127]
In Dutch they are referred to as 'Indische
Nederlanders' (Indies Dutchmen) or
Indo (short for Indo-European). Of the
296,200 so called Dutch 'repatriants' only 92,200 were expatriate
Dutchmen born in the Netherlands.[128]
Dutch newsreel dated
1927 showing a Dutch
East Indian fair in the
Netherlands featuring
Indo and Indigenous
people from the Dutch
East Indies performing
traditional dance and
music in traditional
attire.[123]
Dutch imperial imagery representing

the Dutch East Indies (1916). The
text reads "Our most precious jewel".
Including their 2nd generation descendants, they are currently the

largest foreign born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch
Census Bureau for Statistics (CBS)[129] registered 387,000 first and
second generation Indos living in the Netherlands.[130] Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch
society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'Repatriants' have played a pivotal role in
introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture. Practically each town in the
Netherlands will have a 'Toko' (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or Indonesian restaurant[131] and many 'Pasar
Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year.
Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial
culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and sateh are still very popular in the Netherlands.[112]
See also
Freemasonry in the Dutch East Indies
Postage stamps and postal history of the Dutch East Indies
Notes
1. [1] (http://www.delcampe.net/page/item/id,203658033,var,INDES-NEERLANDAISES-Passeport-1931-DUTCHEAST-INDIES-Passport--Revenues,language,E.html)
2. Friend (1942), Vickers (2003), Ricklefs (1991), Reid (1974), Taylor (2003).
3. Empires and Colonies.
4. Booth, Anne, et al. Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era (1990), Ch 8
5. R.B. Cribb and A. Kahin, p. 118
6. Robert Elson, The idea of Indonesia: A history (2008) pp 1-12
7. Dagh-register gehouden int Casteel Batavia vant passerende daer ter plaetse als over geheel Nederlandts-India
anno 16241629."English: "The official register at Castle Batavia, of the census of the Dutch East Indies. VOC.
1624.
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8. Gouda, Frances. Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900-1942 (1996) online
(http://www.questia.com/read/37803874/dutch-culture-overseas-colonial-practice-in-the-netherlands)
9. Taylor (2003)
10. Ricklefs (1991), p. 27
11. Vickers (2005), p. 10
12. Ricklefs (1991), p. 110; Vickers (2005), p. 10
13. *Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. pp. 2325. ISBN 1-74059-154-2.
14. Luc Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java,
16801743 (1996)
15. Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. pp. 34. ISBN 1-86373-635-2.
16. Kumar, Ann (1997). Java. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. p. 44. ISBN 962-593-244-5.
17. Ricklefs (1991), pp. 111114
18. Ricklefs (1991), p. 131
19. Vickers (2005), p. 10; Ricklefs (1991), p. 131
20. Ricklefs (1991), p. 142
21. Friend (2003), p. 21
22. Ricklefs (1991), pp. 138-139
23. Vickers (2005), p. 13
24. Vickers (2005), p. 14
25. Reid (1974), p. 1.
26. Jack Ford, "The Forlorn AllyThe Netherlands East Indies in 1942," War & Society (1993) 11#1 pp: 105-127.
27. Herman Theodore Bussemaker, "Paradise in Peril: The Netherlands, Great Britain and the Defence of the
Netherlands East Indies, 194041," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (2000) 31#1 pp: 115-136.
28. Morison (1948), p. 191
29. Ricklefs (1991), p. 195
30. L., Klemen, 19992000, The Netherlands East Indies 194142, "Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies
Campaign 19411942 (http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/index.html)".
31. Shigeru Sat: War, nationalism, and peasants: Java under the Japanese occupation, 19421945 (1997), p. 43
32. Japanese occupation of Indonesia
33. Encyclopdia Britannica Online (2007). "Indonesia :: Japanese occupation". Retrieved 21 January 2007.
"Though initially welcomed as liberators, the Japanese gradually established themselves as harsh overlords. Their
policies fluctuated according to the exigencies of the war, but in general their primary object was to make the
Indies serve Japanese war needs."
34. Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman (1998). "Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and
Slaves". Eighteenth-Century Studies. 31 (3): 349355. doi:10.1353/ecs.1998.0021.; Ricklefs, M.C. (1993).
History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
35. Vickers (2005), page 85
36. Ricklefs (1991), p. 199
37. Cited in: Dower, John W. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (1986; Pantheon; ISBN
0-394-75172-8)
38. Dick, et al. (2002)
39. Ricklefs (1991), p 119
40. Taylor (2003), p. 240
41. "Indonesia's Infrastructure Problems: A Legacy From Dutch Colonialism". The Jakarta Globe.
42. Dick, et al. (2002), p. 95
43. Vickers (2005), p. 20
44. Vickers (2005), p. 16
45. Vickers (2005), p. 18
46. Dick, et al. (2002), p. 97
47. ten Horn-van Nispen, Marie-Louise; Ravesteijn, Wim (2009). "The road to an empire: Organisation and
technology of road construction in the Dutch East Indies, 18001940". Journal of Transport History. 10 (1):
4057. doi:10.7227/TJTH.30.1.5.
48. Ravesteijn, Wim (2007). "Between Globalization and Localization: The Case of Dutch Civil Engineering in
Indonesia, 18001950". Comparative Technology Transfer and Society. 5 (1): 3264 [quote p. 32].
doi:10.1353/ctt.2007.0017.
49. Furnivall, J.S. (1967) [1939]. Netherlands India: a Study of Plural Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. Cited in Vicker, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge
University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-521-54262-6.
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50. Beck, Sanderson, (2008) South Asia, 1800-1950 - World Peace Communications ISBN 0-9792532-3-3, ISBN
978-0-9792532-3-2 - By 1930 more European women had arrived in the colony, and they made up 113,000 out of
the 240,000 Europeans.
51. Van Nimwegen, Nico De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders, Report no.64 (Publisher: NIDI,
The Hague, 2002) P.36 ISBN 9789070990923
52. Van Nimwegen, Nico (2002). "64". De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders [The demography
of the Dutch in the East Indies] (PDF). The Hague: NIDI. p. 35. ISBN 9789070990923.
53. Taylor (2003), p. 238
54. Vickers (2005), p. 9
55. Reid (1974), p. 170, 171
56. Cornelis, Willem, Jan (2008). [[[:id:Vreemde Oosterlingen]] and [2] (http://www.tongtong.nl/indische-school
/contentdownloads/tjiook_09web.pdf) De Privaatrechterlijke Toestand: Der Vreemde Oosterlingen Op Java En
Madoera ( Don't know how to translate this, the secret? private? hinterland. Java nd Madoera)] Check |url=
value (help) (PDF). Bibiliobazaar. ISBN 978-0-559-23498-9.
57. Taylor (2003), p. 286
58. Taylor (2003), p. 287
59. TU Delft Colonial influence remains strong in Indonesia (http://www.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=890cbbcfa9ce-4ea6-9b38-4fdbecbee3ce&lang=en)
60. Note: In 2010, according to University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP), Universitas Indonesia was
the best university in Indonesia.
61. "URAP - University Ranking by Academic Performance".
62. Vickers (2005), p. 15
65. R.B. Cribb and A. Kahin, pp. 87, 295
66. Harry J. Benda, S.L. van der Wal, "De Volksraad en de staatkundige ontwikkeling van Nederlandsch-Indi: The
Peoples Council and the political development of the Netherlands-Indies." (With an introduction and survey of
the documents in English). (Publisher: J.B. Wolters, Leiden, 1965.)
67. Note: The European legal class was not solely based on race restrictions and included Dutch people, other
Europeans, but also native Indo-Europeans, Indo-Chinese and indigenous people.
68. "Virtueel Indi".
69. Note: Adat law communities were formally established throughout the archipelago e.g. Minangkabau. See: Cribb,
R.B., Kahin, p. 140
70. http://alterisk.ru/lj/IndonesiaLegalOverview.pdf
71. Note: The female 'Boeloe' prison in Semarang, which housed both European and indigenous women, had separate
sleeping rooms with cots and mosquito nets for elite indigenous women and women in the European legal class.
Sleeping on the floor like the female peasantry was considered an intolerable aggravation of the legal sanction.
See: Baudet, H., Brugmans I.J. Balans van beleid. Terugblik op de laatste halve eeuw van Nederlands-Indi.
(Publisher: Van Gorcum, Assen, 1984)
72. Baudet, H., Brugmans I.J. Balans van beleid. Terugblik op de laatste halve eeuw van Nederlands-Indi.
(Publisher: Van Gorcum, Assen, 1984) P.76, 121, 130
73. Cribb, R.B., Kahin, pp. 140 & 405
74. http://www.indonesianhistory.info/pages/chapter-4.html, sourced from Cribb, R. B (2010), Digital atlas of
indonesian history, Nias, ISBN 978-87-91114-66-3 from the earlier volume Cribb, R. B; Nordic Institute of Asian
Studies (2000), Historical atlas of Indonesia, Curzon ; Singapore : New Asian Library, ISBN 978-0-7007-0985-4
75. Blakely, Allison (2001). Blacks in the Dutch World: The Evolution of Racial Imagery in a Modern Society.
Indiana University Press. p. 15 ISBN 0-253-31191-8
76. Cribb, R.B. (2004) Historical dictionary of Indonesia. Scarecrow Press, Lanham, USA.ISBN 0 8108 4935 6, p.
221 [3] (https://books.google.com/books?id=SawyrExg75cC&dq=number+of+javanese+in+KNIL&
source=gbs_navlinks_s); [Note: The KNIL statistics of 1939 show at least 13,500 Javanese and Sundanese under
arms compared to 4,000 Ambonese soldiers]. Source: Netherlands Ministry of Defense (http://www.defensie.nl
/nimh/geschiedenis/tijdbalk/1814-1914_nederlands-indi/).
77. Nicholas Tarling, ed. (1992). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2, the Nineteenth and Twentieth
Centuries. Cambridge U.P. p. 104. ISBN 9780521355063.
78. Groen, Petra (2012). "Colonial warfare and military ethics in the Netherlands East Indies, 18161941". Journal of
Genocide Research. 14 (3): 277296. doi:10.1080/14623528.2012.719365.
79. Willems, Wim Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600-1942). (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.32-33 ISBN
90-71042-44-8
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80. Willems, Wim Sporen van een Indisch verleden (1600-1942). (COMT, Leiden, 1994). Chapter I, P.32-36 ISBN
90-71042-44-8
81. John Sydenham Furnivall, Colonial Policy and Practice: A Comparative Study of Burma and Netherlands India
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948), 236.
82. Klemen, L (19992000). "Dutch East Indies 1941-1942". Dutch East Indies Campaign website.
83. "Last Post the End of Empire in the Far East", John Keay ISBN 0-7195-5589-2
84. plechtigheden in Djakarta bij de opheffing van het KNIL Polygoon 1950 3 min. 20;embed=1 Video footage
showing the official ceremony disbanding the KNIL (http://cgi.omroep.nl/cgi-bin/streams?/tv/vpro
/GE/sb.Plechtighedendjakartapolygoon.asf?title=De)
85. John Keegan, page 314 "World Armies", ISBN 0-333-17236-1
86. Taylor (2003), p. 288
87. Sneddon, james (2003)The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society.(UNSW Press, Sydney,
2003) P.87-89 [4] (https://books.google.com/books?id=A9UjLYD9jVEC&printsec=frontcover&
dq=The+Indonesian+language:+its+history+and+role+in+modern+society&hl=nl&
ei=trWZTN_OK8eQjAfW5a0i&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false)
88. Taylor (2003), p. 289
89. Groeneboer, Kees. Weg tot het Westen (Road to the West).; Corn, Charles; Glasserman, Debbie (1999). The Scents
of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade. Kodansha America. p. 203. ISBN 1-56836-249-8.
90. Meijer, Hans (2004) In Indie geworteld. Publisher: Bert bakker. ISBN 90-351-2617-3. P.33, 35, 36, 76, 77, 371,
389 [5] (http://www.nrcboeken.nl/boek/in-indie-geworteld-druk-1-meijer-h)
91. Groeneboer, K (1993) Weg tot het westen. Het Nederlands voor Indie 16001950. Publisher: KITLEV, Leiden.[6]
(http://www.nrcboeken.nl/boek/in-indie-geworteld-druk-1-meijer-h)
92. Maier, H.M.J. "A Hidden Language Dutch in Indonesia". Institute of European Studies, University of
California. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
93. Nieuwenhuys (1999) pp. 126, 191, 225.
94. Note: In December 1958 American Time magazine praised the translation of Maria Dermot's The Ten Thousand
Things, and named it one of the best books of the year, among several (other) iconic literary works of 1958:
'Breakfast at Tiffanys' by Truman Capote, 'Doctor Zhivago' by Pasternak and 'Lolita' by Nabokov. See: Official
Maria Dermout Website. (http://mariadermout.wordpress.com/wetenswaardigheden/)
95. 'International Conference on Colonial and Post-Colonial Connections in Dutch Literature.' University of
California, Berkeley, Website, 2011. (http://dutch.berkeley.edu/?p=1056) Retrieved: 24 September 2011
96. Nieuwenhuys, Rob. Oost-Indische spiegel. Wat Nederlandse schrijvers en dichters over Indonesi hebben
geschreven vanaf de eerste jaren der Compagnie tot op heden., (Publisher: Querido, Amsterdam, 1978) p.555 [7]
(http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/nieu018oost02_01/nieu018oost02_01_0077.php)
97. "Error".
98. Biran 2009, p. 27.
99. Biran 2009, p. 35.
100. Biran 2009, p. 54.
101. Biran 2009, pp. 61, 68.
102. Biran 2009, p. 145.
103. Biran 2009, pp. 319, 332.
104. Biran 2009, pp. 334, 340.
105. Biran 2009, pp. 367370.
106. Kahin 1952, p. 445.
107. Heider (1991), p. 15
108. Prayogo 2009, p. 14.
109. Heider (1991), p. 14
110. Biran 2009, p. 351.
111. Geotravel Research Center. "The rise and fall of Indonesia's rice table".
112. Karin Engelbrecht. "Dutch Food Influences - History of Dutch Food - Culinary Influences on the Dutch Kitchen".
About.
113. Schoppert (1997), pp. 3839
114. Dawson, B., Gillow, J., The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia, p. 8, 1994 Thames and Hudson Ltd, London,
ISBN 0-500-34132-X
115. W. Wangsadinata and T.K. Djajasudarma (1995). "Architectural Design Consideration for Modern Buildings in
Indonesia" (PDF). INDOBEX Conf. on Building Construction Technology for the Future: Construction Technology
for Highrises & Intelligence Buildings. Jakarta. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
116. Schoppert (1997), pp. 7277
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117. Schoppert (1997), pp. 104105

118. Schoppert (1997), pp. 102105
119. VIckers (2005), p. 24
120. Schoppert (1997), p. 105
121. To this day the Dutch Royal family is in fact the wealthiest family of the Netherlands, one of the foundations of
its wealth was the colonial trade."In Pictures: The World's Richest Royals". Forbes.com. 30 August 2007.
Retrieved 5 March 2010.
122. Some of the university faculties still include: Indonesian Languages and Cultures; Southeast Asia and Oceania
Languages and Cultures; Cultural Anthropology
123. Note: 1927 garden party, at the country estate Arendsdorp on the Wassenaarse weg near The Hague, for the
benefit of the victims of the storm disaster of 2 June 1927 in the Netherlands. The market is opened by the
minister of Colonies dr. J.C. Koningsberger.
124. Nieuwenhuys, Robert, (1973) Tempo doeloe : fotografische documenten uit het oude Indie, 18701914 [door] E.
Breton de Nijs (pseud. of Robert Nieuwenhuys) Amsterdam : Querido, ISBN 90-214-1103-2 noting that the era
wasn't fixed by any dates noting the use of Tio, Tek Hong,(2006) Keadaan Jakarta tempo doeloe : sebuah
kenangan 18821959 Depok : Masup Jakarta ISBN 979-25-7291-0
125. Nieuwenhuys (1999)
126. Etty, Elsbeth literary editor for the NRC handelsblad "Novels: Coming to terms with Calvinism, colonies and the
war." (NRC Handelsblad. July 1998) [8] (http://retro.nrc.nl/W2/Lab/Profiel/Nederland/novels.html)
127. Bosma U., Raben R. Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 15001920 (University of
Michigan, NUS Press, 2008), ISBN 9971-69-373-9 [9] (https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C&
dq=Carel+Pieter+Brest+van+Kempen&source=gbs_navlinks_s)
128. Willems, Wim, De uittocht uit Indie 19451995 (Publisher: Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2001) pp.1213 ISBN
90-351-2361-1
129. Official CBS website containing all Dutch demographic statistics. (http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas
/bevolking/cijfers/default.htm)
130. De Vries, Marlene. Indisch is een gevoel, de tweede en derde generatie Indische Nederlanders. (Amsterdam
University Press, 2009) ISBN 978-90-8964-125-0 [10] (http://www.imes.uva.nl/research
/IMESsecondthirdgenerationsDutchEurasians.html) [11] (https://books.google.com
/books?id=PNo0ZYamYsUC&printsec=frontcover&dq='Indisch+is+een+gevoel'&source=bl&
ots=2PpWDDOQo4&sig=SBvaqropvzfBt9UcH8wKGMXqIXw&hl=nl&ei=H8zGS4KzFYyTOJq69MgM&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CB0Q6AEwBg#v=twopage&q&f=false) P.369
131. Startpagina B.V. "Indisch-eten Startpagina, verzameling van interessante links".
References
Biran, Misbach Yusa (2009). Sejarah Film 19001950: Bikin Film di Jawa [History of Film
19001950: Making Films in Java] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Komunitas Bamboo working with the
Jakarta Art Council. ISBN 978-979-3731-58-2.
Cribb, R.B., Kahin, A. Historical dictionary of Indonesia (Scarecrow Press, 2004)
Dick, Howard, et al. The Emergence of a National Economy: An Economic History of Indonesia,
1800-2000 (U. of Hawaii Press, 2002) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/101433400
/the-emergence-of-a-national-economy-an-economic-history)
Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6.
Heider, Karl G (1991). Indonesian Cinema: National Culture on Screen. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1367-3.
Reid, Anthony (1974). The Indonesian National Revolution 19451950. Melbourne: Longman Pty
Ltd. ISBN 0-582-71046-4.
Nieuwenhuys, Rob Mirror of the Indies: A History of Dutch Colonial Literature - translated from
Dutch by E. M. Beekman (Publisher: Periplus, 1999) Google Books (https://books.google.com
/books?id=I4I7D3U19OsC&printsec=frontcover&
dq=Mirror+of+the+Indies:+a+history+of+Dutch+colonial+literature&hl=en&
ei=L5SkTOS_MpWQ4Qa6sJTuDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false)
Prayogo, Wisnu Agung (2009). "Sekilas Perkembangan Perfilman di Indonesia" [An Overview of the
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Development of Film in Indonesia]. Kebijakan Pemerintahan Orde Baru Terhadap Perfilman

Indonesia Tahun 19661980 [New Order Policy Towards Indonesian Films (19661980)]
(Bachelour's of History Thesis) (in Indonesian). University of Indonesia.
Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A Modern History of Indonesia, 2nd edition. MacMillan. chapters 1015.
ISBN 0-333-57690-X.
Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-54262-6.
Further reading
Booth, Anne, et al. Indonesian Economic History in the Dutch Colonial Era (1990)
Bosma U., Raben R. Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 15001920
(University of Michigan, NUS Press, 2008), ISBN 9971-69-373-9 [12] (https://books.google.com
/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C&dq=Carel+Pieter+Brest+van+Kempen&source=gbs_navlinks_s)
Bosma, Ulbe. Emigration: Colonial circuits between Europe and Asia in the 19th and early 20th
century (http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20110201137), European History Online, Mainz:
Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 23 May 2011.
Colombijn, Freek, and Thomas Lindblad, eds. Roots of violence in Indonesia: Contemporary violence
in historical perspective (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2002)
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1800-2000 (U. of Hawaii Press, 2002) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/101433400
/the-emergence-of-a-national-economy-an-economic-history)
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Braudel, Fernand, The perspective of the World, vol III in Civilization and Capitalism, 1984
Furnivall, J. S. (1944). Netherlands India: A Study of Plural Economy. Cambridge U.P. p. viii.
ISBN 9781108011273., comprehensive coverage
Gouda, Frances. Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900-1942
(1996) online (http://www.questia.com/read/37803874/dutch-culture-overseas-colonial-practicein-the-netherlands)
Nagtegaal, Luc. Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of
Java, 16801743 (1996) 250pp
Robins, Nick. The Corporation that Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the
Modern Multinational (2006) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/The-Corporationthat-Changed-World/dp/0745325238/)
Taylor, Jean Gelman. The Social World of Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia
(1983)
Lindblad, J. Thomas (1989). "The Petroleum Industry in Indonesia before the Second World War".
Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies. 25 (2): 5377.
External links
11 Dutch Indies objects in 'The European Library Harvest'
Wikimedia Commons has
(http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal/?lang=en&
media related to Dutch East
coll=collections:a0077&q=(%22dutch+indies%22))
Indies.
Cribb, Robert, Digital Atlas of Indonesian History [13]
(http://www.indonesianhistory.info/pages/chapter-4.html)
Historical Documents of the Dutch Parliament 18141995 (http://search.theeuropeanlibrary.org/portal
/en/search/publisher/KB/%28%22netherlands+indies%22%29.query)
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Parallel and Divergent Aspects of British Rule in the Raj, French Rule in Indochina, Dutch Rule in the
Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), and American Rule in the Philippines
(http://www.houseofdavid.ca/frnlus.htm)
Yasuo Uemura, "The Sugar Estates in Besuki and the Depression" Hiroshima Interdisciplinary Studies
in the Humanities, Vol.4 page.30-78 (http://ir.lib.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/metadb/up/kiyo/AA11747932
/KJ00004184403.pdf)
Yasuo Uemura, "The Depression and the Sugar Industry in Surabaya" Hiroshima Interdisciplinary
Studies in the Humanities, Vol.3 page.1-54 (http://ir.lib.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/metadb/up/kiyo
/AA11747932/KJ00004184387.pdf)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_East_Indies&oldid=744902270"
Categories: Former countries in Asia Former Dutch colonies States and territories established in 1800
States and territories disestablished in 1949 Dutch East Indies Former colonies in Asia
Former countries in Indonesian history Former countries in Southeast Asia Maritime Southeast Asia
New Imperialism 1800 establishments in the Dutch East Indies
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1949 disestablishments in the Dutch East Indies 1800 establishments in the Dutch Empire
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