Dutch Empire

The Dutch colonial empire (Dutch: Nederlandse koloniale rijk)

comprised the overseas territories and trading posts controlled Dutch colonial empire
and administered by Dutch chartered companies—mainly the
Dutch West India Company and the Dutch East India Company
—and subsequently by the Dutch Republic (1581–1795), and by
the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands after 1815.[1] It was
initially a trade-based system which derived most of its
influence from merchant enterprise and from Dutch control of Flag
international maritime shipping routes through strategically
placed outposts, rather than from expansive territorial
ventures.[2][1]

With a few notable exceptions, the majority of the Dutch

colonial empire's overseas holdings consisted of coastal forts,
factories, and port settlements with varying degrees of
incorporation of their hinterlands and surrounding regions.[2] Anachronous[a] map of the Dutch
Dutch chartered companies often dictated that their possessions colonial Empire
be kept as confined as possible in order to avoid unnecessary
expense,[3] and while some such as the Dutch Cape Colony and Light green: territories
Dutch East Indies expanded anyway (due to the pressure of administered by or originating from
independent-minded Dutch colonists), others remained territories administered by the
undeveloped, isolated trading centres dependent on an Dutch East India Company
indigenous host-nation.[2] This reflected the primary purpose of Dark green: territories
the Dutch colonial empire: commercial exchange as opposed to administered by or originating from
territories administered by the
sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses.[2]
Dutch West India Company
The imperial ambitions of the Dutch were bolstered by the
Tiny orange squares indicate smaller
strength of their existing shipping industry, as well as the key trading posts, the so-called
role they played in the expansion of maritime trade between handelsposten.
Europe and the Orient.[4] Because small European trading-
companies often lacked the capital or the manpower for large- a. At no point did the Dutch Empire
scale operations, the States General chartered larger simultaneously rule over all of the
organisations—the Dutch West India Company and the Dutch territory highlighted in this map.
[4]
East India Company—in the early seventeenth century. These Rather, the map denotes all of the
were considered the largest and most extensive maritime trading places that were at any point ruled
companies at the time, and once held a virtual monopoly on by the Dutch.
strategic European shipping-routes westward through the
Southern Hemisphere around South America through the Strait of Magellan, and eastward around Africa,
past the Cape of Good Hope.[4] The companies' domination of global commerce contributed greatly to a
commercial revolution and a cultural flowering in the Netherlands of the 17th century, known as the Dutch
Golden Age.[5] In their search for new trade passages between Asia and Europe, Dutch navigators explored
and charted distant regions such as New Zealand, Tasmania, and parts of the eastern coast of North
America.[6] During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of
silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal
Subah.[7][8][9][10]
In the 18th century, the Dutch colonial empire began to decline as a result of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of
1780–1784, in which the Netherlands lost a number of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the
British Empire and the conquest of the wealthy Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey.[11][12] Nevertheless,
major portions of the empire survived until the advent of global decolonisation following World War II,
namely the East Indies and Dutch Guiana.[13] Three former colonial territories in the West Indies islands
around the Caribbean Sea—Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten—remain as constituent countries represented
within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.[13]

Contents
History
Origins (1543–1602)
Rise of Dutch economic hegemony (1602–1652)
Iberian-Dutch conflicts
Asia
Americas
Southern Africa
Rivalry with Great Britain and France (1652–1795)
Napoleonic era (1795–1815)
Post-Napoleonic era (1815–1945)
Decolonization (1942–1975)
Indonesia
Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles
Legacy
Dutch diaspora
Dutch language
Dutch in South East Asia
Dutch in South Asia
Dutch in the Caribbean
Dutch in America
Dutch in Africa
Placenames
Architecture
Infrastructure
Agriculture
Scientific discoveries
Sport
Suriname
South Africa
Indonesia
Territorial evolution
See also
Notes
References
 Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links

History

Origins (1543–1602)

The territories that would later form the Dutch Republic began as a loose
federation known as the Seventeen Provinces, which Charles V, Holy
Roman Emperor and (as "Carlos I") King of Spain, inherited and brought
under his direct rule in 1543. In 1566, a Protestant Dutch revolt[note 1] broke
out against rule by Roman Catholic Spain, sparking the Eighty Years' War.
Led by William of Orange, independence was declared in the 1581 Act of
Abjuration. The revolt resulted in the establishment of an de facto
independent Protestant republic in the north by Treaty of Antwerp (1609),
although Spain did not officially recognize Dutch independence until 1648.
The eight decades of war came at a massive human cost, with an estimated
600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians
killed by disease and what would later be considered war crimes.[14]

The coastal provinces of Holland and Zeeland had been important hubs of
The formal declaration of
the European maritime trade network for centuries prior to Spanish rule.
independence of the Dutch
Their geographical location provided convenient access to the markets of provinces from the Spanish
France, Scotland, Germany, England and the Baltic.[15] The war with Spain king, Philip II
led many financiers and traders to emigrate from Antwerp, a major city in
Flanders and then one of Europe's most important commercial centres, to
Dutch cities, particularly Amsterdam,[16] which became Europe's foremost centre for shipping, banking, and
insurance.[17] Efficient access to capital enabled the Dutch in the 1580s to extend their trade routes beyond
northern Europe to new markets in the Mediterranean and the Levant. In the 1590s, Dutch ships began to
trade with Brazil and the Dutch Gold Coast of Africa, towards the Indian Ocean, and the source of the
lucrative spice trade.[18] This brought the Dutch into direct competition with Portugal, which had dominated
these trade routes for several decades, and had established colonial outposts on the coasts of Brazil, Africa
and the Indian Ocean to facilitate them. The rivalry with Portugal, however, was not entirely economic:
from 1580, after the death of the King of Portugal, Sebastian I, and much of the Portuguese nobility in the
Battle of Alcácer Quibir, the Portuguese crown had been joined to that of Spain in an "Iberian Union" under
the heir of Emperor Charles V, Philip II of Spain. By attacking Portuguese overseas possessions, the Dutch
forced Spain to divert financial and military resources away from its attempt to quell Dutch
independence.[19] Thus began the several decade-long Dutch-Portuguese War.

In 1594, the Compagnie van Verre ("Company of Far Lands") was founded in Amsterdam, with the aim of
sending two fleets to the spice islands of Maluku.[20] The first fleet sailed in 1596 and returned in 1597 with
a cargo of pepper, which more than covered the costs of the voyage. The second voyage (1598–1599),
returned its investors a 400% profit.[21] The success of these voyages led to the founding of a number of
companies competing for the trade. The competition was counterproductive to the companies' interests as it
threatened to drive up the price of spices at their source in Indonesia whilst driving them down in
Europe.[21]
Rise of Dutch economic hegemony (1602–1652)

As a result of the problems caused by inter-company rivalry, the Dutch East India Company (Dutch:
Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC) was founded in 1602. The charter awarded to the Company by
the States-General granted it sole rights, for an initial period of 21 years, to Dutch trade and navigation east
of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. The directors of the company, the "Heeren
XVII", were given the legal authority to establish "fortresses and strongholds", to sign treaties, to enlist both
an army and a navy, and to wage defensive war.[22] The company itself was founded as a joint stock
company, similarly to its English rival that had been founded two years earlier, the English East India
Company. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company (WIC) was set up and given a 25-year monopoly to
those parts of the world not controlled by its East India counterpart: the Atlantic, the Americas and the west
coast of Africa.[23] The Dutch also established a trading post in Ayutthaya, modern day Thailand during the
reign of King Naresuan, in 1604.

Iberian-Dutch conflicts

The Spanish-Dutch War was for the Dutch part of their struggle for
independence and religious freedom, during the Eighty Years' War. It
was largely fought on the European continent, but war was also
conducted against Phillip II's overseas territories, including Spanish
colonies and the Portuguese metropoles, colonies, trading posts and
forts belonging at that time to the King of Spain and Portugal.

The Netherlands became part of the domains of the 'Spanish branch'

of the Habsburg dynasty when Emperor Charles V divided the São Luís, Maranhão, Dutch Brazil
holdings of the Habsburg Empire following his abdication in 1555.
In 1566, the Dutch revolt erupted and in 1568 the Dutch Republic
embarked on the long, torturous path of the Eighty Years' War (also known as the Dutch War of
Independence) and began the invasion and looting of Spanish (and, later, Portuguese) colonies in the
Americas and of Asia, including an attempted invasion of the Philippines (then part of the Spanish East
Indies).

Olinda, Pernambuco, Dutch Brazil
From 1517, the port of Lisbon in Portugal was the main European
market for products from India that was attended by other nations to
purchase their needs. But as a result of Portugal's incorporation in
the Iberian Union with Spain by Philip II in 1580, all Portuguese
territories were thereafter Spanish Habsburg branch territory, and
thus all Portuguese markets were closed to the United Provinces.
Thus, in 1595, the Dutch decided to set sail on their own to acquire
products for themselves, making use of the "secret" knowledge of
the Portuguese trade routes, which Cornelis de Houtman had
managed to acquire in Lisbon.[24]

Pursuing their quest for alternative routes to Asia for trade, the Dutch were disrupting the Spanish-
Portuguese trade, and they eventually ranged as far afield as the Philippines. The Dutch sought to dominate
the commercial sea trade in Southeast Asia, going so far in pursuit of this goal as to engage in what other
nations and powers considered to be little more than piratical activities.

The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, with King Phillip II's enemies
becoming Portugal's enemies as well. War with the Dutch led to attacks on most of Portugal's far-flung
trading network in and around Asia, including Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), and Goa, as well as attacks upon
her commercial interests in Japan, Africa (especially Mina), and South America. Even though the
Portuguese had never been able to capture the entire island of
Ceylon, they had been able to keep the coastal regions under their
control for a considerable time before the coming of the Dutch in
war. Portugal's South American colony, Brazil, was partially
conquered by both France and the United Provinces.

In the 17th century, the "Grand Design" of the West India Company
involved attempting to corner the international trade in sugar by
The Portuguese victory at the Battle
attacking Portuguese colonies in Brazil and Africa, seizing both the
of Guararapes, ended Dutch
sugarcane plantations and the slave ports needed to resupply their
presence in Brazil.
labour. Although weakened by the Iberian Union with Spain, whose
attention was focused elsewhere, the Portuguese were able to fight
off the initial assault before the Battle of Matanzas Bay provided the
WIC with the funds needed for a successful operation. Johan Maurits was appointed governor of "New
Holland" and landed at Recife in January 1637. In a series of successful expeditions, he gradually extended
the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to Maranhão in the north. The WIC also succeeded in
conquering Goree, Elmina Castle, Saint Thomas, and Luanda on the west coast of Africa. Both regions were
also used as bases for Dutch privateers plundering Portuguese and Spanish trade routes. The dissolution of
the Iberian Union in 1640 and Maurits's recall in 1643 led to increased resistance from the Portuguese
colonists who still made up a majority of the Brazilian settlers. The Dutch were finally overcome during the
1650s but managed to receive 4 million reis (63 metric tons of gold) in exchange for extinguishing their
claims over Brazil in the 1661 Treaty of the Hague.

Asia

The war between Phillip II's possessions and other countries led
to a deterioration of Portugal's Empire, as with the loss of
Hormuz to England, but the Dutch colonial empire was the
main beneficiary.

The VOC began immediately to prise away the string of coastal

fortresses that, at the time, comprised the Portuguese Empire.
The settlements were isolated, difficult to reinforce if attacked,
and prone to being picked off one by one, but nevertheless, the
Dutch only enjoyed mixed success in its attempts to do so.[26]
Amboina was captured from the Portuguese in 1605, but an Primary Dutch and Portuguese
attack on Malacca the following year narrowly failed in its settlements in Asia, c. 1665. With the
objective to provide a more strategically located base in the East exception of Jakarta and Deshima, all had
Indies with favourable monsoon winds. [27] The Dutch found been captured by the Dutch East India
what they were looking for in Jakarta, conquered by Jan Coen Company from Portugal.[25]
in 1619, later renamed Batavia after the putative Dutch
ancestors the Batavians, and which would become the capital of
the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile, the Dutch continued to drive out the Portuguese from their bases in Asia.
Malacca finally succumbed in 1641 (after a second attempt to capture it), Colombo in 1656, Ceylon in 1658,
Nagappattinam in 1662 and Cranganore and Cochin in 1662.[25]

Goa, the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East, was unsuccessfully attacked by the Dutch in 1603 and
1610. Whilst the Dutch were unable in four attempts to capture Macau[28] from where Portugal
monopolized the lucrative China-Japan trade, the Japanese shogunate's increasing suspicion of the intentions
of the Catholic Portuguese led to their expulsion in 1639. Under the subsequent sakoku policy, from 1639
till 1854 (215 years) the Dutch were the only European power allowed to operate in Japan, confined in 1639
to Hirado and then from 1641 at Deshima. In the mid 17th century the Dutch also explored the western
Australian coasts, naming many places.

The Dutch colonised Mauritius in 1638, several decades after three

ships out of the Dutch Second Fleet sent to the Spice Islands were
blown off course in a storm and landed in 1598. They named it in
honour of Prince Maurice of Nassau, the Stadtholder of the
Netherlands. The Dutch found the climate hostile and abandoned the
island after several further decades.
Overview of Fort Zeelandia on the
island of Formosa, 17th century
The Dutch established a
colony at Tayouan (present-
day Anping), in the south of
Taiwan, an island then largely dominated by Portuguese traders and
known as Formosa; and, in 1642 the Dutch took northern Formosa
from the Spanish by force.

In 1646, the Dutch tried to take the Spanish colony in the

Philippines. The Dutch had a large force at their disposal but when
they tried to take Manila, they were defeated at the Battles of La
Naval de Manila. After this defeat, the Dutch abandoned their efforts Batavia, built in what is now Jakarta,
to take Manila and the Philippines. 1682

Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans
to work in the Asia trade.[29] The majority died of disease or made their way back to Europe, but some of
them made the Indies their new home.[30] Interaction between the Dutch and native population mainly took
place in Sri Lanka and the modern Indonesian Islands. Through the centuries there developed a relatively
large Dutch-speaking population of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, known as Indos or Dutch-
Indonesians.

Americas

In the Atlantic, the West India Company concentrated on wresting from

Portugal its grip on the sugar and slave trade, and on opportunistic
attacks on the Spanish treasure fleets on their homeward bound
voyage.[32] Bahia on the north east coast of Brazil was captured in 1624
but only held for a year before it was recaptured by a joint Spanish-
Portuguese expedition. In 1628, Piet Heyn captured the entire Spanish
treasure fleet, and made off with a vast fortune in precious metals and
goods that enabled the Company two years later to pay its shareholders
a cash dividend of 70%,[33] though the Company was to have relatively
Dutch conquests in the West few other successes against the Spanish.[34] In 1630, the Dutch
Indies and Brazil[31] occupied the Portuguese sugar-settlement of Pernambuco and over the
next few years pushed inland, annexing the sugar plantations that
surrounded it. In order to supply the plantations with the manpower
they required, a successful expedition was launched in 1637 from Brazil to capture the Portuguese slaving
post of Elmina,[23] and in 1641 successfully captured the Portuguese settlements in Angola.[35] In 1642, the
Dutch captured the Portuguese possession of Axim in Africa. By 1650, the West India Company was firmly
in control of both the sugar and slave trades, and had occupied the Caribbean islands of Sint Maarten,
Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire in order to guarantee access to the islands' salt-pans.[36]
 Unlike in Asia, Dutch successes against the Portuguese in Brazil and Africa were short-
lived. Years of settlement had left large Portuguese communities under the rule of the
Dutch, who were by nature traders rather than colonisers.[37] In 1645, the Portuguese
community at Pernambuco rebelled against their Dutch masters,[38] and by 1654, the
Flag of Dutch Dutch had been ousted from Brazil.[39] In the intervening years, a Portuguese
Brazil expedition had been sent from Brazil to recapture Luanda in Angola, by 1648 the
Dutch were expelled from there also.

On the north-east coast of North

America, the West India
Company took over a settlement
that had been established by the
Company of New Netherland
(1614–18) at Fort Orange at
Albany on the Hudson River,[40]
relocated from Fort Nassau
which had been founded in
1614. The Dutch had been
sending ships annually to the
Hudson River to trade fur since
Henry Hudson's voyage of
1609.[41] To protect its
precarious position at Albany
from the nearby English and
French, the Company founded
the fortified town of New
Amsterdam in 1625, at the
mouth of the Hudson,
encouraging settlement of the
Reprint of a 1650 map of New Netherland
surrounding areas of Long Island
and New Jersey.[42] The fur
trade ultimately proved
impossible for the Company to monopolize due to the massive illegal private trade in furs, and the
settlement of New Netherland was unprofitable.[43] In 1655, the nearby colony of New Sweden on the
Delaware River was forcibly absorbed into New Netherland after ships and soldiers were sent to capture it
by the Dutch governor, Pieter Stuyvesant.[44]

Since its inception, the Dutch East India Company had been in competition with its counterpart, the English
East India Company, founded two years earlier but with a capital base eight times smaller,[45] for the same
goods and markets in the East. In 1619, the rivalry resulted in the Amboyna massacre, when several English
Company men were executed by agents of the Dutch. The event remained a source of English resentment
for several decades, and indeed was used as a cause célèbre as late as the Second Anglo-Dutch War in the
1660s; nevertheless, in the late 1620s the English Company shifted its focus from Indonesia to India.[45]

In 1643, the Dutch West India Company established a settlement in the ruins of the Spanish settlement of
Valdivia, in southern Chile. The purpose of the expedition was to gain a foothold on the west coast of the
Americas, an area that was almost entirely under the control of Spain (the Pacific Ocean, at least most of it
to the east of the Philippines, being at the time almost a 'Spanish lake'), and to extract gold from nearby
mines. Uncooperative indigenous peoples, who had forced the Spanish to leave Valdivia in 1604 contributed
to get the expedition to leave after some months of occupation. This occupation triggered the return of the
Spanish to Valdivia and the building of one of the largest defensive complexes of colonial America.
Southern Africa

By the middle of the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company
had overtaken Portugal as the dominant player in the spice and silk
trade, and in 1652 founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope on
the southern African coast, as a victualing station for its ships on the
route between Europe and Asia.[46] Dutch immigration in the Cape
rapidly swelled as prospective colonists were offered generous
grants of land and tax exempt status in exchange for producing the
food needed to resupply passing ships.[47][48] The Cape authorities
also imported a number of Europeans of other nationalities, namely View of Table Bay with ships of the
Germans and French Huguenots, as well as thousands of slaves from Dutch East India Company, c. 1683
the East Indies, to bolster the local Dutch workforce. [47][49]
Nevertheless, there was a degree of cultural assimilation between the
various ethnic groups due to intermarriage and the universal adoption of the Dutch language, and cleavages
were likelier to occur along social and racial lines.[50]

The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope expanded beyond the initial settlement and its borders were
formally consolidated as the composite Dutch Cape Colony in 1778.[51] At the time, the Dutch had subdued
the indigenous Khoisan and San peoples in the Cape and seized their traditional territories.[51] Dutch
military expeditions further east were halted when they encountered the westward expansion of the Xhosa
people.[51] Hoping to avoid being drawn into a protracted dispute, the Dutch government and the Xhosa
chieftains agreed to formally demarcate their respective areas of control and refrain from trespassing on each
other's borders.[51] However, the Dutch proved unable to control their own settlers, who disregarded the
agreement and crossed into Xhosa territory, sparking one of Southern Africa's longest colonial conflicts: the
Xhosa Wars.[51]

Rivalry with Great Britain and France (1652–1795)

In 1651, the English parliament passed the first of the Navigation Acts which excluded Dutch shipping from
the lucrative trade between England and its Caribbean colonies, and led directly to the outbreak of hostilities
between the two countries the following year, the first of three Anglo-Dutch Wars that would last on and off
for two decades and slowly erode Dutch naval power to England's benefit.[52][53]

In 1661, amidst the Qing conquest of China, Ming general Koxinga led a fleet to invade Formosa. The
Dutch defense, led by governor Frederick Coyett, held out for nine months. However, after Koxinga
defeated Dutch reinforcements from Java, Coyett surrendered Formosa.[54] The Dutch would never rule
Formosa again.

The Second Anglo-Dutch War was precipitated in 1664, when English forces moved to capture New
Netherland. Under the Treaty of Breda (1667), New Netherland was ceded to England in exchange for the
English settlements in Suriname, which had been conquered by Dutch forces earlier that year. Though the
Dutch would again take New Netherland in 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, it was returned to
England the following year, thereby ending Dutch rule in continental North America, but leaving behind a
large Dutch community under English rule that persisted with its language, church and customs until the
mid-18th century.[55] In South America, the Dutch seized Cayenne from the French in 1658 and drove off a
French attempt to retake it a year later. However, it was returned to France in 1664, since the colony proved
to be unprofitable. It was recaptured by the Dutch in 1676, but was returned again a year later, this time
permanently. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the Dutch William of Orange ascend to the throne, and
win the English, Scottish, and Irish crowns, ending eighty years of rivalry between the Netherlands and
England, while the rivalry with France remained strong.
During the American Revolutionary War, Britain declared war on the Netherlands, the Fourth Anglo-Dutch
War, in which Britain seized the Dutch colony of Ceylon. Under the Peace of Paris (1783), Ceylon was
returned to the Netherlands and Negapatnam ceded to Britain.

Napoleonic era (1795–1815)

In 1795, the French revolutionary army invaded the Dutch Republic

and turned the nation into a satellite of France, named the Batavian
Republic. Britain, which was at war with France, soon moved to
occupy Dutch colonies in Asia, South Africa and the Caribbean.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens signed by Britain and

France in 1802, the Cape Colony and the islands of the Dutch West
Indies that the British had seized were returned to the Republic.
Ceylon was not returned to the Dutch and was made a British Crown
Colony. After the outbreak of hostilities between Britain and France Dejima trading post in Japan, c. 1805
again in 1803, the British retook the Cape Colony. The British also
invaded and captured the island of Java in 1811.

In 1806, Napoleon dissolved the Batavian Republic and established a monarchy with his brother, Louis
Bonaparte, on the throne as King of the Netherlands. Louis was removed from power by Napoleon in 1810,
and the country was ruled directly from France until its liberation in 1813. The following year, the
independent Netherlands signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 with Britain. All the colonies Britain had
seized were returned to the Netherlands, with the exception of the Dutch Cape Colony, Dutch Ceylon, and
part of Dutch Guyana.

Post-Napoleonic era (1815–1945)

After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, Europe's borders

were redrawn at the Congress of Vienna. For the first
time since the declaration of independence from
Spain in 1581, the Dutch were reunited with the
Southern Netherlands in a constitutional monarchy,
the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The union
lasted just 15 years. In 1830, a revolution in the
southern half of the country led to the de facto
independence of the new state of Belgium.
Expansion of the Dutch East Indies in the Indonesian
The bankrupt Dutch East India Company was Archipelago
liquidated on 1 January 1800,[56] and its territorial
possessions were nationalized as the Dutch East
Indies. Anglo-Dutch rivalry in Southeast Asia continued to fester over the port of Singapore, which had been
ceded to the British East India Company in 1819 by the sultan of Johore. The Dutch claimed that a treaty
signed with the sultan's predecessor the year earlier had granted them control of the region. However, the
impossibility of removing the British from Singapore, which was becoming an increasingly important centre
of trade, became apparent to the Dutch, and the disagreement was resolved with the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of
1824. Under its terms, the Netherlands ceded Malacca and their bases in India to the British, and recognized
the British claim to Singapore. In return, the British handed over Bencoolen and agreed not to sign treaties
with rulers in the "islands south of the Straits of Singapore". Thus the archipelago was divided into two
spheres of influence: a British one, on the Malay Peninsula, and a Dutch one in the East Indies.[57]
 For most of the Dutch East Indies
history, and that of the VOC before
it, Dutch control over their
territories was often tenuous, but
was expanded over the course of
the 19th century. Only in the early
Logo of the
20th century did Dutch dominance
VOC
extend to what was to become the
boundaries of modern-day
Indonesia. Although highly
populated and agriculturally productive, Java was under
Dutch domination for most of the 350 years of the
combined VOC and Dutch East Indies era, many areas
remained independent for much of this time including
Map of the Dutch colonial possessions around
Aceh, Lombok, Bali and Borneo.[58]
1840. Included are the Dutch East Indies, Curaçao
In 1871, all of the Dutch possessions on the Dutch Gold and Dependencies, Suriname, and the Dutch Gold
Coast.
Coast were sold to Britain.

The Dutch West India company was abolished in 1791,

and its colonies in Suriname and the Caribbean brought under the direct rule of the state.[59] The economies
of the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean had been based on the smuggling of goods and slaves into Spanish
America, but with the end of the slave trade in 1814 and the independence of the new nations of South and
Central America from Spain, profitability rapidly declined. Dutch traders moved en masse from the islands
to the United States or Latin America, leaving behind small populations with little income and which
required subsidies from the Dutch government. The Antilles were combined under one administration with
Suriname from 1828 to 1845. Slavery was not abolished in the Dutch Caribbean colonies until 1863, long
after those of Britain and France, though by this time only 6,500 slaves remained. In Suriname, slave
holders demanded compensation from the Dutch government for freeing slaves, whilst in Sint Maarten,
abolition of slavery in the French half in 1848 led slaves in the Dutch half to take their own freedom.[60] In
Suriname, after the abolition of slavery, Chinese workers were encouraged to immigrate as indentured
labourers,[61] as were Javanese, between 1890 and 1939.[62]

Decolonization (1942–1975)

Indonesia

In January 1942, Japan invaded the Netherlands East Indies.[63] The Dutch
surrendered two months later in Java, with Indonesians initially welcoming the
Japanese as liberators.[64] The subsequent Japanese occupation of Indonesia during
the remainder of World War II saw the fundamental dismantling of the Dutch
colonial state's economic, political and social structures, replacing it with a Japanese
regime.[65] In the decades before the war, the Dutch had been overwhelmingly
successful in suppressing the small nationalist movement in Indonesia such that the
Japanese occupation proved fundamental for Indonesian independence.[65]
However, the Indonesian Communist Party founded by Dutch socialist Henk
Sneevliet in 1914, popular also with Dutch workers and sailors at the time, was in Sukarno, leader of
strategic alliance with Sarekat Islam (q.v.) as early as 1917 until the Proclamation of the Indonesian
independence
Indonesian Independence and was particularly important in the fight against
movement
Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies in the Second World War. The
Japanese encouraged and backed Indonesian nationalism in which new indigenous
institutions were created and nationalist leaders such as Sukarno were promoted. The internment of all
Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions, although the top
positions were still held by the Japanese.[65]

Two days after the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and fellow nationalist leader Hatta
unilaterally declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried
to re-establish their colony. Dutch forces eventually re-occupied most of the colonial territory and a guerrilla
struggle ensued. The majority of Indonesians, and – ultimately – international opinion, favored
independence, and in December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognized Indonesian sovereignty. Under
the terms of the 1949 agreement, Western New Guinea remained under the auspices of Netherlands New
Guinea. The new Indonesian government under President Sukarno pressured for the territory to come under
Indonesian control as Indonesian nationalists initially intended. Following United States pressure, the
Netherlands transferred it to Indonesia under the 1962 New York Agreement.

Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles

In 1954, under the "Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands",

the Netherlands, Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles (at the time
including Aruba) became a composite state, known as the "Tripartite
Kingdom of the Netherlands". The former colonies were granted
autonomy, save for certain matters including defense, foreign affairs
and citizenship, which were the responsibility of the Realm. In 1969,
unrest in Curaçao led to Dutch marines being sent to quell rioting. In
1973, negotiations started in Suriname for independence, and full Dutch colonists in Suriname, 1920.
independence was granted in 1975, with 60,000 emigrants taking the Most Europeans left after
opportunity of moving to the Netherlands. In 1986, Aruba was independence in 1975.
allowed to secede from the Netherlands Antilles federation, and was
pressured by the Netherlands to move to independence within ten
years. However, in 1994, it was agreed that its status as a Realm in its own right could continue.[66]

On October 10, 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were dissolved. Effective on that date, Curaçao and Sint
Maarten acceded to the same country status within the Kingdom that Aruba already enjoyed. The islands of
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba were granted a status similar to Dutch municipalities, and are now
sometimes referred to as the Caribbean Netherlands.

Legacy
Generally, the Dutch do not celebrate their imperial past, and anti-
colonial sentiments have prevailed since Jacob Haafner's 1807
treatise.[67] Subsequently, colonial history is not featured
prominently in Dutch schoolbooks. This perspective on their
imperial past only recently shifted with prime minister Jan Peter
Balkenende's contentious call for the return of the VOC Contemporary countries and
mentality.[68][69] federated states which were
significantly colonised by the Dutch.
In the Netherlands, these countries
Dutch diaspora are sometimes known as
verwantschapslanden (kindred
In some Dutch colonies there are major ethnic groups of Dutch countries).
ancestry descending from emigrated Dutch settlers. In South Africa
the Boers and Cape Dutch are collectively known as the Afrikaners.
The Burgher people of Sri Lanka and the Indo people of Indonesia as well as the Creoles of Suriname are
mixed race people of Dutch descent.

In the USA there have been three American presidents of Dutch descent: Martin Van Buren, the first
president who was not of British descent, and whose first language was Dutch, the 26th president Theodore
Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd president, elected to four terms in office (1933 to 1945) and
the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.

Dutch language

Dutch in South East Asia

Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350 years, the
Dutch language has no official status[70] and the small minority that
Boer Voortrekkers in South Africa
can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the
oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession,[71] as some
legal codes are still only available in Dutch.[72] The Indonesian
language inherited many words from Dutch, both in words for
everyday life, and as well in scientific or technological
terminology.[73] One scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words
can be traced back to Dutch words.[74]

Dutch in South Asia

The century and half of Dutch rule in Ceylon and southern India left
Dutch family in Java, 1902 few to no traces of the Dutch language.

Dutch in the Caribbean

Today, in Suriname, Dutch is the official language[75] and 58 percent of the population speak it as their
mother tongue. Twenty-four percent of the population speaks Dutch as a second language, and in total
82 percent of the population can speak Dutch.[76] In Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, Dutch is the official
language but spoken as a first language by only seven to eight percent of the population,[77][78] although
most people on the islands can speak the language and the education system on these islands is in Dutch at
some or all levels.[79] The population of the three northern Antilles, Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius,
is predominantly English-speaking.

Dutch in America

In New Jersey in the United States, an extinct dialect of Dutch, Jersey Dutch, spoken by descendants of 17th
century Dutch settlers in Bergen and Passaic counties, was noted to still be spoken as late as 1921.[80]

Dutch in Africa
The greatest linguistic legacy of the Netherlands was in its colony in South Africa, which attracted large
numbers of Dutch farmer (in Dutch, Boer) settlers, who spoke a simplified form of Dutch called Afrikaans,
which is largely mutually intelligible with Dutch. After the colony passed into British hands, the settlers
spread into the hinterland, taking their language with them. As of 2005, there were 10 million people for
whom Afrikaans is either a primary and secondary language, compared with over 22 million speakers of
Dutch.[81][82]

Other Creole languages with Dutch linguistic roots are Papiamento still spoken in Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao,
and Sint Eustatius; Saramaccan and Sranan Tongo still spoken in Suriname; Berbice an extinct language in
Guyana; Pecok spoken but in danger of extinction in Indonesia and the Netherlands; Albany Dutch spoken
but in danger of extinction in the USA.

Extinct Dutch-based creole languages include: Skepi (Guyana); Negerhollands (aka "Negro Dutch"), Jersey
Dutch and Mohawk Dutch (USA) and Javindo (Java).

Placenames

Some towns of New York and areas of New York City, once part of
the colony of New Netherland have names of Dutch origin, such as
Brooklyn (after Breukelen), Flushing (after Vlissingen), the Bowery
(after Bouwerij, construction site), Harlem (after Haarlem), Coney
Island (from Conyne Eylandt, modern Dutch spelling
Konijneneiland: Rabbit island) and Staten Island (meaning "Island
of the States"). The last Director-General of the colony of New
Netherland, Pieter Stuyvesant, has bequeathed his name to a street, a
neighborhood and a few schools in New York City, and the town of New Amsterdam as it appeared in
Stuyvesant. Many of the towns and cities along the Hudson in 1664. Under British rule it became
upstate New York have placenames with Dutch origins (for example known as New York.
Yonkers, Hoboken, Haverstraw, Claverack, Staatsburg, Catskill,
Kinderhook, Coeymans, Rensselaer, Watervliet). Nassau County,
one of the four that make up Long Island, is also of Dutch origin. The Schuylkill river that flows into the
Delaware at Philadelphia is also a Dutch name meaning hidden or skulking river.

Many towns and cities in Suriname share names with cities in the Netherlands, such as Alkmaar and
Groningen. The capital of Curaçao is named Willemstad and the capitals of both Saint Eustatius and Aruba
are named Oranjestad. The first is named after the Dutch Prince Willem II van Oranje-Nassau (William of
Orange-Nassau) and the two others after the first part of the current Dutch royal dynasty.

Many of South Africa's major cities have Dutch names i.e. Johannesburg, Kaapstad, Vereeniging,
Bloemfontein and Vanderbijlpark.

The country name New Zealand originated with Dutch cartographers, who called the islands Nova
Zeelandia, after the Dutch province of Zeeland.[83] British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicized the
name to New Zealand.[note 2]

The Australian island state Tasmania is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first
reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. He first named the island Anthony van
Diemen's Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies. The name
was later shortened to Van Diemen's Land by the British. It was officially renamed in honor of its first
European discoverer on 1 January 1856.[85] Arnhem Land is named after the Dutch ship named Arnhem.
The captain of the Arnhem (Willem van Coolsteerdt) also named the large island, east of Arnhem Groote
Eylandt, in modern Dutch spelling Groot Eiland: Large Island. There are many more Dutch geographical
names in Australia.

Architecture

In the Surinamese Capital of Paramaribo, the Dutch Fort Zeelandia

still stands today. The city itself also have retained most of its old
street layout and architecture, which is part of the world's UNESCO
heritage. In the centre of Malacca, Malaysia, the Stadthuys Building
and Christ Church still stand as a reminder of Dutch occupation.
There are still archaeological remains of Fort Goede Hoop (modern
Hartford, Connecticut) and Fort Orange (modern Albany, New
The Stadthuys in Malacca, Malaysia,
York).[87] believed to be the oldest Dutch
building in Asia[86]
Dutch architecture is easy to see in Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire and
Saint Eustatius. The Dutch style buildings are especially visible in
Willemstad, with its steeply pitched gables, large windows and
soaring finials.[88]

Dutch architecture can also be found in Sri Lanka, especially in

Galle where the Dutch fortification and canal have been retained
intact, even to an extent the former tropical Villas of the VOC
officials. Some of the most prominent example of these architecture
is the former governor's mansion in Galle, currently known as
Amangalla Hotel and the Old Dutch Reformed Church. In the capital
Colombo, many of the Dutch and Portuguese architecture around The Stadhuis of Batavia, said to be
modelled after the Dam Palace itself
The Fort have been demolished during the British period, few of the
remaining include Old Colombo Dutch Hospital and Wolvendaal
Church.

During the period of Dutch colonisation in South Africa, a distinctive type of architecture, known as Cape
Dutch architecture, was developed. These style of architecture can be found in historical towns such as
Stellenbosch, Swellendam, Tulbagh and Graaff-Reinet. In the former Dutch capital of Cape Town, nearly
nothing from the VOC era have survived except the Castle of Good Hope.

Although the Dutch already started erecting buildings shortly after they arrived on the shores of Batavia,
most Dutch-built constructions still standing today in Indonesia stem from the 19th and 20th centuries. Forts
from the colonial era, used for defense purposes, still line a number of major coastal cities across the
archipelago. The largest number of surviving Dutch buildings can be found on Java and Sumatra,
particularly in cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, Cirebon, Pasuruan,
Bukittinggi, Sawahlunto, Medan, Padang and Malang. There are also significant examples of 17–19th
century Dutch architecture around Banda Neira, Nusa Laut and Saparua, the former main spices islands,
which due to limited economic development have retained many of its colonial elements. Another
prominent example of Dutch colonial architecture is Fort Rotterdam in Makassar. The earlier Dutch
construction mostly replicate the architecture style in the Homeland (such as Toko Merah). However these
buildings were unsuitable to tropical climate and expensive to maintain. And as a result the Dutch officials
begun to adapt to the tropical condition by applying native elements such as wide-open veranda, ventilation
and indigenous high pitch roofing into their villas. "In the beginning (of the Dutch presence), Dutch
construction on Java was based on colonial architecture which was modified according to the tropical and
local cultural conditions," Indonesian art and design professor Pamudji Suptandar wrote.[89] This was
dubbed arsitektur Indis (Indies architecture), which combines the existing traditional Hindu-Javanese style
with European forms.[90]

Many public buildings still standing and in use in Jakarta, such as

the presidential palace, the finance ministry and the performing arts
theater, were built in the 19th century in the classicist style. At the
turn of the 20th century and partially due to the Dutch Ethical
Policy, the number of Dutch people migrating to the colony grew
with economic expansion. The increasing number of middle class
population led to the development of Garden Suburbs in major city
Gedung Sate, an early 20th century
across the Indies, many of the houses were built in various style
colonial building which incorporates
ranging from the Indies style, Neo-Renaissance to modern Art Deco.
modern Western neo-classical style
Some examples of these residential district include Menteng in with indigenous elements
Jakarta, Darmo in Surabaya, Polonia in Medan, Kotabaru in
Yogyakarta, New Candi in Semarang and as well as most of North
Bandung.[91] Indonesia also became an experimental ground for Dutch Art Deco architectural movement
such as Nieuwe Zakelijkheid, De Stijl, Nieuw Indische and Amsterdam School. Several famous architect
such as Wolff Schoemaker and Henri Maclaine Pont also made an attempt to modernize indigenous
architecture, resulting several unique design such as Pohsarang Church and Bandung Institute of
Technology. The largest stock of these Art Deco building can be found in the city of Bandung, which
"architecturally" can considered the most European city in Indonesia.

Since Indonesia's independence, few governments have shown interest in the conservation of historical
buildings. Many architecturally grand buildings have been torn down in the past decades to erect shopping
centres or office buildings e.g. Hotel des Indes (Batavia), Harmony Society, Batavia. Presently, however,
more Indonesians have become aware of the value of preserving their old buildings.

"A decade ago, most people thought I was crazy when they learned of my efforts to save the old
part of Jakarta. A few years later, the negative voices started to disappear, and now many
people are starting to think with me: how are we going to save our city. In the past using the
negative sentiment towards the colonial era was often used as an excuse to disregard protests
against the demolition of historical buildings. An increasing number of people now see the old
colonial buildings as part of their city’s overall heritage rather than focusing on its colonial
aspect.", leading Indonesian architect and conservationist Budi Lim said.[92]

Infrastructure

Beyond Indonesia's art deco architecture also much of

the country's rail and road infrastructure as well as its
major cities were built during the colonial period.[93][94]
Many of Indonesia's main cities were mere rural
townships before colonial industrialization and urban
The Great Post Road (Grote Postweg), spanning development.[95] Examples on Java include the capital
West to East Java Jakarta and Bandung, outside Java examples include
Ambon and Menado city. Most main railroads and rail
stations on Java as well as the main road, called
Daendels Great Post Road (Dutch: Grote Postweg)[96] after the Governor General commissioning the work,
connecting west to east Java were also built during the Dutch East Indies era.
Between 1800 and 1950 Dutch engineers created an infrastructure including 67,000 kilometers (42,000 mi)
of roads, 7,500 kilometers (4,700 mi) of railways, many large bridges, modern irrigation systems covering
1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several international harbors, and 140 public drinking water
systems. These Dutch constructed public works became the material base of the colonial and postcolonial
Indonesian state.[97]

Agriculture

Crops such like coffee, tea, cocoa, tobacco and rubber were all
introduced by the Dutch. The Dutch were the first to start the spread
of the coffee plant in Central and South America, and by the early
19th century Java was the third largest producer in the world.[98] In
1778 the Dutch brought cacao from the Philippines to Indonesia and
commenced mass production.[99] Currently Indonesia is the world's
second largest producer of natural rubber, a crop that was introduced
by the Dutch in the early 20th century.[100] Tobacco was introduced Dutch plantation in Mughal Bengal,
from the Americas and in 1863 the first plantation was established 1665
by the Dutch. Today Indonesia is not only the oldest industrial
producer of tobacco, but also the second largest consumer of
tobacco.[101]

Scientific discoveries

Java Man was discovered by Eugène Dubois in Indonesia in 1891. The Komodo dragon was firstly
described by Peter Ouwens in Indonesia in 1912 after an airplane crash in 1911 and rumors about living
dinosaurs on Komodo Island in 1910.

Sport

Suriname

Many Suriname-born football players and Dutch-born football players of Surinamese descent, like Gerald
Vanenburg, Ruud Gullit, Frank Rijkaard, Edgar Davids, Clarence Seedorf, Patrick Kluivert, Aron Winter,
Georginio Wijnaldum, Virgil van Dijk and Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink have turned out to play for the Dutch
national team. In 1999, Humphrey Mijnals, who played for both Suriname and the Netherlands, was elected
Surinamese footballer of the century.[102] Another famous player is André Kamperveen, who captained
Suriname in the 1940s and was the first Surinamese to play professionally in the Netherlands.

Suriname discourages dual citizenship and Surinamese-Dutch players who have picked up a Netherlands
passport – which, crucially, offers legal work status in almost any European league – are barred from
selection to the national team.[103] In 2014, inspired by the success of teams with dual nationals, especially
Algeria, SVB president John Krishnadath submitted a proposal to the national assembly to allow dual
citizenship for athletes with the then-goal of reaching the 2018 FIFA World Cup finals.[104] In order to
support this project, a team with professional players of Surinamese origin was assembled and played an
exhibition match on 26 December 2014 at the Andre Kamperveen Stadion. The project is managed by
Nordin Wooter and David Endt, who have set up a presentation and sent invitations to 100 players of
Surinamese origin, receiving 85 positive answers. Dean Gorré was named to coach this special selection.
FIFA supported the project and granted insurance for the players and clubs despite the match being
unofficial.[105] In November 2019, it was announced that a so-called sports passport would allow Dutch
professional footballers from the Surinamese diaspora to represent Suriname.[106]

Suriname also has a national korfball team, with korfball being a Dutch sport. Vinkensport is also practised
in Suriname, as are popular among the Dutch sports of volleyball and troefcall.

South Africa

Ajax Cape Town is a professional football team named and owned by Ajax Amsterdam, replicating their
crest and colours.

The Dutch sport of korfball is administered by the South African Korfball Federation, who manage the
South Africa national korfball team. The 2019 IKF World Korfball Championship was held in August 2019
in Durban, South Africa.

Indonesia

The Indonesian football league started around 1930 in the Dutch colonial era. The Indonesian men's team
was the first Asian team to qualify for the FIFA World Cup; in 1938 FIFA World Cup they played as the
Dutch East Indies.[107] Association football is now the most popular sport in Indonesia, in terms of annual
attendance, participation and revenue and it is played on all levels, from children to middle-aged men.[108]

The Indonesian Tennis Association was also founded during Dutch rule in 1935, and has a long history of
fielding its national Fed Cup team and Davis Cup team, although the first participation's in the 60s were not
till after independence.

As in the Netherlands, volleyball remains a popular sport, with the Indonesian Volleyball Federation
organising both the Men's Pro Liga and women's Pro Liga and administrates the men's and women's national
teams.[109][110]

The Dutch sport of korfball is also practised, and there is a national korfball team.

Territorial evolution
The Dutch Empire in The Dutch Empire in The Dutch Empire in The Dutch Empire in
1630 1650 1674 1700

The Dutch Empire in The Dutch Empire in The Dutch Empire in The Dutch Empire
1750 1795 1830 prior to World War II

The Dutch Empire in The Dutch Empire in

1960 1975

See also
Dutch colonization of the Americas
Dutch East India Company
Dutch West India Company
Dutch Language Union
List of Dutch East India Company trading posts
Verwantschapslanden
Ministry of the Colonies (Netherlands)

Notes
 1. Controversy exists as to the actual starting date of the revolt, and even with that of the Eighty
Years' War; many historians maintain 1568 as the starting date of the war, as this was the year
of the first battles between armies. However, since there is a long period of Protestant vs.
Catholic (establishment) unrest leading up to this war, it is not easy to give an exact date when
the war, or the 'Dutch Revolt', actually started. The first open violence that would lead to the
war was the 1566 iconoclasm known as the Iconoclastic Fury (Beeldenstorm), and
sometimes the first Spanish repressions of the riots (i.e. battle of Oosterweel, 1567) are
considered the starting point. Most accounts cite the 1568 invasions of armies of mercenaries
paid by William of Orange as the official start of the war; this article adopts that point of view.
Alternatively, the start of the war is sometimes set at the capture of Brielle by the Gueux in
1572.
2. The first European name for New Zealand was Staten Landt, the name given to it by the Dutch
explorer Abel Tasman, who in 1642 became the first European to see the islands. Tasman
assumed it was part of a southern continent connected with land discovered in 1615 off the
southern tip of South America by Jacob Le Maire, which had been named Staten Landt,
meaning "Land of the (Dutch) States-General".[84]

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Further reading
Andeweg, Rudy B.; Galen A. Irwin (2005). Governance and Politics of the Netherlands (2nd
ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-3529-7.
Boxer, C. R. (1957). The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654. Oxford: Clarendon. OCLC 752668765 (ht
tps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/752668765).
Bromley, J.S.; E.H. Kossmann (1968). Britain and the Netherlands in Europe and Asia: Papers
delivered to the Third Anglo-Dutch Historical Conference. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-
1-349-00046-3.
Corn, Charles (1999) [First published 1998]. The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade.
Kodansha. ISBN 1-56836-249-8.
Elphick, Richard; Hermann Giliomee (1989). The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840
(2nd ed.). Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman. ISBN 0-8195-6211-4.
Gaastra, Femme S. (2003). The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline. Zutphen,
Netherlands: Walburg. ISBN 978-90-5730-241-1.
Klooster, Wim. The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth-Century
Atlantic World (2016)
Klooster, Wim, and Gert Oostindie. Realm between Empires: The Second Dutch Atlantic,
1680-1815 (Cornell UP, 2018) 348 pp. pnline review (http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.ph
p?id=52928)
Postma, Johannes M. (1990). The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815. Cambridge,
U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36585-6.
Wesseling, H.L. (1997). Imperialism and Colonialism: Essays on the History of Colonialism.
London: Greewood. ISBN 978-0-313-30431-6.
Dewulf, J. (Spring 2011). "The Many Meanings of Freedom: The Debate on the Legitimacy of
Colonialism in the Dutch Resistance, 1940–1949". Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History.
12 (1). doi:10.1353/cch.2011.0002 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcch.2011.0002).
Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London:
G. Allen and Unwin.

External links
(in Dutch) De VOCsite (http://www.vocsite.nl/)
Dutch and Portuguese Colonial History (http://www.colonialvoyage.com/)
(in Dutch) VOC Kenniscentrum (http://www.voc-kenniscentrum.nl/)
Dutch East Indies Documentary (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p7Z6rZhPcCY) on
YouTube
The Atlas of Mutual Heritage database (http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl/en/), showing the
Dutch empire 1600–1800.

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