Professional Documents
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Coming of Europeans
Portuguese Explorer and Navigator
Vasco da Gama was the first European to reach Calicut, by the sea route on May
20, 1498. He had to face the hostility of Muslim merchants at Calicut. He returned
with the message that sword was a must for the Eastern trade. In 1500, Portuguese
under Cabral attacked Zamorin. When news of his failure reached Portugal, Vasco da
Gama was sent in 1502, to avenge the act. After arriving in Calicut, Vasco da Gama
subdued the inhabitants and forced the ruler to make peace. In 1509, Alfonso d'
Albuquerque came to India as the Portuguese Governor. He captured Goa from Yusuf
Adil Khan of Bijapur in 1510 and developed it as Portuguese capital in India and used
it for expanding their trading interests. For about the first two centuries after
Europeans arrived in India, their activities were restricted to trade and evangelism,
their presence protected by naval forces. During the early Mughal period, European
traders were confined to trading posts along the coast. In the 16th century the
Portuguese navy controlled the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean, protecting the traders
settled in Goa, Daman, and Diu on the Western Coast.
Battle of Plassey
Background
The weak central authority and rivalry between the regional kingdoms during
18th century provided the Europeans the opportunity to play important role in Indian
politics. The political condition in Bengal, presented to the East India Company an
opportunity for political interference.
Death of Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal in 1756 led to a power struggle between
three contenders. The succession of Siraj-ud-Daulah was opposed by his aunt Ghasiti
Begum and his cousin Shaukat Jang who was the governor of Purnea. There was a
dominant group in the Nawab's court comprising Jagat Seth, Umichand, Raj Ballabh,
Mir Jafar and other who were also opposed to Siraj.
Besides internal dissension within the Nawab's court, another serious threat to
Nawab's position was the growing commercial activities of the English Company. The
conflict between the Nawab and the English Company over trade privileges was
nothing new. But during Siraj-ud-Daulah's reign certain other factors further strained
the relations between the two. This included fortification around Calcutta by the
English Company without the permission of the Nawab, the misuse of the Company's
trade privilege by its officials for their private trade.
The English Company at Calcutta had given shelter to Krishna Das son of Raj
Ballabh who had fled with immense treasures, against the Nawab's will.
The Company officials suspected that the Nawab would cut down the privilege of
the Company in alliance with the French in Bengal.
The issue of fortification of the Fort William at Calcutta without the Nawab's
permission worsened the relationship between the Nawab and the Company. The
Nawab saw this as sheer disobedience and moved in person against the English.
On 20th June 1756, Siraj attacked and took over Fort William. He destroyed the
fortification and left Calcutta in the hands of his officers. Many of the English
prisoners, who were imprisoned during this attack died in a small room often referred
to as the Black Hole tragedy.
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Meanwhile the English waited for the reinforcement from Madras.
The troops from Madras led by Robert Clive and Admiral Watson retook Calcutta
on 2nd January, 1757. The treaty of Alinagar was signed between the Nawab and the
Company.
Clive's troops captured the French settlement of Chandernagore.
Clive tempted Siraj's general Mir Jafar to ally with him in exchange for the
Nawab's position.
Outcome
On 23rd June, 1757, the Company troops marched against Siraj. Betrayed by his
own men Siraj was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, which is said to have lasted only a
few hours, causing limited causalities on both the sides.
The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated, captured and executed at
his capital Murshidabad.
It provided the British with immense political power in India and established the
indirect British rule in India.
Victory of the English in the Battle of Plassey was significant not only for the
Company but was important for the whole of British Empire. The conquest of Bengal
instilled in them a kind of greed for the unfathomed wealth of Bengal and its
subsequent plunder.
Siraj-ud-Daulah was replaced by Mir Jafar as Nawab of Bengal. The new Nawab
was a stooge of the Company and had no independent power or existence.
The English also registered territorial and commercial gains in post Plassey
period. They got the territory of twenty-four Paraganas in Bengal from the new
Nawab. This made the settlement of Calcutta more prosperous. Their trade also
received impetus. The trade and privilege so far enjoyed by them not only increased
but also became more secure.
The English Company utilized this opportunity and dispatched their agents to
re-establish subordinate trading factories in the interior parts of Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa.
Moreover, the Battle of Plassey enhanced the overall prestige of the Company. It
placed them at a very advantageous position. They had now at their disposal
resources that could be used in struggle against the French both within (in the
Carnatic Wars) and without India (in Europe).They were no more dependent on the
supply of resources from Britain which in turn helped the home country in
channelising its resources against the French power in Europe and America.
The Battle of Plassey, therefore, was a turning point in the history not only of
Bengal but in the history of the whole of India. It paved the way for the establishment
of the British supremacy in India. It has been rightly remarked that ‘‘the Battle of
Plassey marked the end of one epoch and the beginning of a new one’’. It in fact
heralded the modern period of Indian history.
Battle of Buxar
Background
Strong and commanding position of English East India Company in Bengal was
the most significant outcome of the Battle of Plassey.
The English were not satisfied with Mir Jafar and replaced him by his son-in-law
Mir Kasim. The latter rewarded British with land as well as money.
Kasim was comparatively more able, efficient and strong ruler. He tried to remove
corruption from revenue administration and to raise a modern and disciplined army
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along European lines. In order to weaken the influence and interference of the
Company on day-to-day affairs of his court and to assert his power and position he
shifted his capital to Munger in Bihar. This further displeased the British.
There was rise of differences between the Nawab and the English over various
issues. The new Nawab was determined to free himself from foreign control and in
fact soon emerged as a threat to their positions in Bengal. Nawab's attempts to check
the misuse of the dastaks which deprived the Nawab of an important source of
revenue added fuel to the fire.
Conflict broke out when Mir Kasim abolished all the duties on internal trade so as
to provide a level playing ground to all the traders in his province. Since abolition of
duties automatically checked the use of dastak ,which otherwise allowed the British
to trade without paying taxes/duties in the province of Bengal, the increase in the level
of tension between the Nawab and the British was nothing unusual. This led to use of
force by both the parties. The Nawab was defeated in a series of battles in 1763 and
fled to Awadh.
Outcome
Mir Kasim formed a confederacy with Shuja-ud-Dualah, the Nawab of Awadh
and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam in a final bid to oust the English from Bengal.
The combined armies of the three powers numbering between 40,000 to 60,000
met an English army of 7,072 troops under Major Hector Munro at the battlefield of
Buxar on 22 October, 1764. The English won the day.
The Battle of Buxar was a battle in strictest terms and is therefore, rightly
considered as the most decisive battles of Indian history. The Battle of Buxar was a
closely contested battle in which the losses of the English numbered 847 killed and
wounded, while on the side of the Indian powers more than 2,000 officers and
soldiers were killed.
The battle demonstrated the superiority of English arms over the combined army
of two of the major Indian powers.
Buxar confirmed the decisions of Plassey. As a result of this triumph, in 1765,
Robert Clive signed two treaties at Allahabad popularly known as Treaty of Allahabad
with the Mughal emperor and Nawab of Awadh respectively.
The treaty effectively legalized the British East India Company's control over the
whole of Bengal since Shah Alam II gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the
British. They also managed to get the right of Nizamat from Mir Jaffar, the
re-nominated Nawab of Bengal. In fact the Battle of Buxar firmly established the
British as masters of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and placed Awadh at their mercy. Now
English power in Northern India became unchallengeable.
Outcome
The Marathas faced a very serious defeat at Panipat. They lost their best leaders.
Bhau and Vishwas Rao alongwith many others who lost their lives in the battle.
Peshwa Balaji Rao could not tolerate the shock of the defeat of Panipat and died on
June 23, 1761.
The debacle at Panipat reduced the power and prestige of the Peshwa. This
ultimately, resulted in the disruption of the unity of the Marathas and led to the
creation of the confederacy of the rival Maratha chiefs.
The Marathas lost their hold on the politics of the North and took time to recover
from the reverses of this battle which made way for the capture of Bengal and Mysore
by the English and Haidar Ali respectively.
Apart from the Marathas the battle exercised tremendous influence on the
fortunes the Mughal Empire which further weakened both politically as well as
economically. Moreover, the prestige of the Mughal ruler further dwindled. Abdali
annexed Punjab and Sindh to his dominions. Before his departure he recognised Shah
Alam as the Emperor, Imad as the Wazir and Najib-ud-Daulah as the Mir Bakshi. After
Abdali's departure, Najib-ud-Daulah held authority at Delhi and denied Shah Alam
the right of admission into the capital.
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Rajputs and Jats became completely independent and the provincial governors
became more defiant and disrespectful.
Therefore, it is generally accepted that third Battle of Panipat was a turning point
in the history of India in general and that of the Marathas in particular. Though the
Maratha power was not destroyed by this battle, it was weakened permanently.
Anglo-Mysore Wars
The second half of the 18th century was a period of great confusion in Indian
history, which witnessed the rise of a colonial power. The only state that offered stiff
resistance to their expansion was Mysore, which fought not one but four wars. The
military confrontations between the British and the rulers of Mysore are popularly
known as Anglo-Mysore wars. Apart from the struggle on the battlefield which of
course required military skills and strategies, the outcome of these wars were also
influenced by the political permutations and combinations during the period.
Moreover, the period witnessed new groups and allies who came together for short
term gain without realizing the far reaching ill effects and impact on the overall
political condition of India.
The first two wars involved Haider Ali who was not just an efficient military
commander but a man known for diplomatic and tactful skills. It was the growing
power of Haider Ali in the south that made British suspicious about the intentions of
ruler of Mysore. The primary objective of the English was to check the rising influence
of Mysore in South India and consolidate its position in the region.
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767- 69)
In 1766 the British, the Marathas, and the Nizam of Hyderabad entered into a
triple alliance against Haider. The British attacked Mysore simultaneously from
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Bombay and Madras in 1767 and thus started the First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69).
British acquired South-Eastern Mysore. However, Haider soon bought off the
Marathas. The Nizam abandoned the war in 1768, leaving the British to face Haider
Ali alone. The latter attacked Arcot and reached the outskirts of Madras. He dictated
peace on the basis of the status quo. The English also agreed to help Haider Ali against
any third party invasion in future.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)
The British did not honour their promise when the Marathas invaded territories
under the control of Haider Ali, in 1771. Offended by this, Haider Ali decided to
strengthen his army with the help of French and European soldiers and joined in a
confederacy with the Nizam and the Marathas against the British, who had further
provoked him by capturing the French settlement of Mahé, which was within Hyder's
territories. In 1780, he warred on the Carnatic, and destroyed a British detachment of
2,800 men, and seized Arcot. The British then succeeded in detaching the Nizam and
the Marathas from Haider and defeated him three times successively in 1781 at the
battles of Porto Novo, Pollilur, and Sholinghur.
In 1782, Haider Ali inflicted a severe defeat on the English compelling them to
flee Madras. But he died shortly afterwards and the war was carried on by his son,
Tipu Sultan. Since neither side was capable of overpowering the other, the war came
to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore. Under this treaty both sides
restored all conquests and promised to release each other's prisoners of war.
Important Terminology