Advent of the Europeans in India ✫ 55

Other European nations like France witnessed violent

revolution in 1789 and afterwards the Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleon’s defeat in 1815 significantly weakened France’s
position, and from then on it was forced to side with Britain.
The Italians got united as a nation as late in 1861. The Dutch
and Spain were also involved in the 80-years war in the 17th
century, which weakened Portuguese imperialism. The Dutch
East India Company, affected by bankruptcy in 1800 coupled
with the revolution in 1830, was forced to sell its possessions
to Britain and quit Asia.
Lesser Zeal for Religion
Britain was less zealous about religion and less interested
in spreading Christianity, as compared to Spain, Portugal, or
the Dutch. Thus, its rule was far more acceptable to the
subjects than that of other colonial powers.
Use of Debt Market
One of the major and innovative reasons why Britain succeeded
between the mid-18th century and the mid-19th century,
while other European nations fell, was that it used the debt
markets to fund its wars. The world’s first central bank—
the Bank of England—was established to sell
government debt to the money markets on the promise of
a decent return on Britain’s defeating rival countries like
France and Spain. Britain was thus enabled to spend much
more on its military than its rivals. Britain’s rival France
could not match the expenditure of the English; between
1694 and 1812, first under the monarchs, then under the
revolutionary governments, and finally under Napoleon
Bonaparte, France simply went bankrupt with its outdated
ways of raising money.

Summary
Why a Sea Route to India
(i) Spirit of renaissance in the 15th-century Europe
(ii) European economy growing rapidly, leading to prosperity and
demand for luxury goods; increase in the supply of meat
requiring spices for preservation
 56 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India

(iii) Capture of Constantinople in 1453, and Syria and Egypt later

by the Ottoman Turks calling for a new route to reach India
without dealing with Arabs and Turks
(iv) Venice and Genoa too small to stand up to the Turks
(v) Spain and Portugal aided with money and men by the North
Europeans and by ships and technical knowledge by the
Genoese
(vi) The Portuguese the pioneers, followed by the Dutch,
English, Danes, and the French respectively to reach India
The Portuguese
Vasco Da Gama discovered sea route to India in 1498.
Vasco’s second visit in 1502 led to the establishment of trading
stations at Calicut, Cochin, and Cannanore.
Francisco de Almeida (1505–09) First governor, initiated the blue
water policy (cartaze system).
Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515) Considered to be the
founder of the Portuguese power in India: captured Goa from
Bijapur; persecuted Muslims; captured Bhatkal from Sri
Krishna Deva Rai (1510) of Vijayanagara; and initiated the
policy of marrying with the natives of India and banned the
practice of sati in his area of influence.
Nino da Cunha (1529–38) shifted the capital from Cochin to
Goa in 1530. In his rule, Diu and Bassein came under the
Portuguese occupation from Gujarat King Bahadur Shah.
Bahadur Shah got killed in 1537 at Diu while negotiating
with the Portuguese.
Factors for Decline of the Portuguese in India (a) Emergence
of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia, and north India and
the appearance of the Marathas as neighbours; (b) political
fears aroused by the activities of Jesuit missionaries, and
hatred of persecution (such as inquisition) that caused
reaction against Portuguese spiritual pressure; (c) rise of
the English and Dutch commercial ambitions challenging the
Portuguese supremacy; (d) rampant corruption, greed, and
selfishness along with piracy and clandestine trade practices
of the Portuguese administration in India; (e) diversion of
Portuguese colonising ambitions towards the West due to
the discovery of Brazil.
The Dutch
(i) The United East India Company of the Netherlands
(Verehgidge Oost Indische Compagnie), formed in March
 Advent of the Europeans in India ✫ 57

1602 by the Charter of Dutch Parliament, had the powers

to wage wars, make treaty, and build forts.
(ii) Dutch Factories in India Masulipatnam (1605), Pulicat
(1610), Surat (1616), Bimlipatam (1641), Karikal (1645),
Chinsurah (1653), Cassimbazar (Kasimbazar), Baranagore,
Patna, Balasore, Nagapatam (1658), and Cochin (1663)
(iii) Decline in India The defeat of the Dutch in the Anglo-Dutch
rivalry and the shifting of Dutch attention towards the Malay
Archipelago
(iv) Battle of Bidara (1759) The English defeated the Dutch.
The English
Factors for Foundation Drake’s voyage round the world, and
English victory over the mighty Spanish Armada leading to
great ambitions
Formation English East India Company was formed on
December 31, 1600 by the charter issued by Queen Elizabeth
I, which gave the company monopoly to trade in the East
Indies for 15 years.
Settlements in India (i) With Captain Thomas Best’s victory over
the Portuguese (1612), the English established their first
factory at Surat (1613). Subsequently, Sir Thomas Roe
secured permission from Jehangir to establish factories at
Agra, Ahmedabad, and Broach.
(ii) Bombay came under the control of the Company, with Charles
II (who received it as a part of the Portuguese dowry) leasing
it out to the English Company for an annual rent of 10 pounds.
(iii) Madras with the Fort St. George replaced Masulipatnam as
the English headquarters on the east coast, when the former
was given by the Chandragiri chief to the English in 1639.
(iv) The city of Calcutta grew from the development of three
villages Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata secured from the
Mughal governor of Bengal. The fortified settlement was
named Fort William (1700), and it became the seat of British
power in India till 1911.
Farrukhsiyar’s Farmans In 1717, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar’s
farmans, called Magna Carta of the East India Company, gave
significant privileges to the Company in Bengal, Gujarat, and
Hyderabad.
Merger of Companies In 1635, a rival company named Courteen
 58 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India

Association later called the Assada company, formed by Sir

William Courteen, was given license to trade by Charles I.
In 1657, both the companies merged.
In 1698, another rival company emerged. In 1702, the rivalry
between the old and the new company came to an end, but
their final amalgamation took place in 1708 under the title
‘The United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the
East Indies’, after the arbitration of the Earl of Godolphin.
This Company ruled in India till 1858.
The French
Foundation In 1664, Colbert, a minister of Louis XIV, laid the
foundations of Compagnie des Indes Orientales.
Settlements in India Pondicherry, developed as headquarters, was
granted to Francois Martin, the director of Masulipatnam
factory, by Valikondapuram governor Sher Khan Lodi in 1673.
Finally incorporated into the Indian Union in 1954.
Anglo-French Rivalry in India The Anglo-French rivalry in India
coincided with the wars between the English and French in
Europe.
Causes ● For protection and expansion of commercial interests.
● Political developments in southern India and Europe
provided pretexts to contest their claims which culminated
in three Carnatic wars.
First Carnatic War (1740–48) It was an extension of the
Anglo-French rivalry in Europe and ended in 1748 with the
Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle.
Second Carnatic War (1749–54) Although inconclusive, it
undermined the French power in South India vis-à-vis the
English.
Third Carnatic War (1758–63) ● A decisive war, known for
the Battle of Wandiwash (1760–61)
● An echo of the Anglo-French struggle in Europe
● By the Treaty of Paris (1763), the French were allowed
to use Indian settlements for commercial purposes only
and fortification of settlements were banned.
Causes of the French Failure ● Inadequate Military and Financial
Support
● France’s Involvement in Europe
● Ill-managed Policy of Imperial France
● Lack of Commercial Incentive to the French Company
● Sound Commercial Base of the English Company
 India on the Eve of British Conquest ✫ 79

Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Murshidabad, Patna, Kashmir,

etc.
At Lucknow, Asaf-ud-Daula built the Bara Imambara
in 1784. In the first half of the 18th century, Sawai Jai Singh
built the pink city of Jaipur and five astronomical observatives
at Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura, and Ujjain. He also
prepared a set of timetables called Jij Muhammad-shahi, to
help the people in the study of astronomy. In the south, in
Kerala, the Padmanabhapuram Palace, famous for its
architecture and mural paintings, was constructed.
New schools of painting were born and achieved
distinction. The paintings of the Rajputana and Kangra
schools became prominent and revealed new vitality and taste.
A distinct feature of the literary life of the 18th century
was the growth of Urdu language and poetry. It was the period
of Urdu poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir, and Mirza Ghalib (19th
century). In South India, Malayalam literature flourished
under the patronage of the Travancore rulers. Kalakkathu
Kunchan Nambiar was a noted Malayalam poet. The Tamil
language was enriched by sittar poetry. Tayumanavar (1706–
44), one of the best exponents of sittar poetry, protested
against the abuses of temple rule and the caste system. Heer
Ranjha, the romantic epic in Punjabi literature, was composed
by Warris Shah. In Sindhi literature, Shah Abdul Latif
composed Risalo, a collection of poems. These are just some
examples of literary works in regional languages.

Summary
Why the Mughal Empire Decined
● Weak Successors The Mughal empire was a personal despotism,
and its success depended upon a strong and capable monarch.
● Absence of Definite Law of Succession Continuous wars of
succession (absence of law of primogeniture) fostered
partisanship at the cost of patriotism.
● Aurangzeb’s Religious and Deccan Policies The religious
policy antagonised the Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, and Marathas;
Deccan policy kept the emperor away from the capital for a
long duration.
● Degeneration of Rulers and Nobles
● Deterioration of Army
 80 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India

● Too Vast an Empire The vast empire became a difficult task

for weak rulers to administer efficiently.
● External Invasions Invasions of Irani and Durrani kingdoms
(Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali) gave a death blow.
● Economic Decline Endless wars, stagnation in agriculture, and
decline in trade and industry emptied the royal treasury.
● Advent of Europeans European companies interfered in native
politics, hastening the disintegration of empire.
● Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars
● Jagirdari Crisis
● Rise of Regional Aspirations Rise and establishment of
Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad, Mysore, Kerala, Rajput states, and
Jat states accelerated the process of disintegration.
Rise of Regional States
● Three categories
● Successor States Hyderabad (1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk), Bengal
(1717, Murshid Quli Khan), and Awadh (1722, Saadat Khan
Burhan-ul-Mulk).
● Independent States Mysore (under Haidar Ali), Kerala (King
Martanda Varma), and Rajput States (Raja Sawai Singh of
Amber).
● New States Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Afghans
Socio-Economic Conditions
Agriculture ● Stagnant and technologically backward agriculture,
compensated by very hard labour of peasants
● Peasants paid revenues to state, zamindars, jagirdars, and
revenue farmers.
● Major produce/crops: rice, wheat, sugar, pepper, spices,
cotton, etc.
Trade and Industry Trade flourished. Cotton textiles, raw silk,
silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre, opium, rice, wheat,
sugar, pepper, spices, precious stones, and drugs were
exported.
Gold, musk, woollen cloth, copper, iron, lead, paper,
porcelain, pearls, dates, dried fruits, coffee, tea, ivory, rose
water, etc., were imported.
The textile industry was famous for its produce. The ship-
building industry flourished. The metal industry was also well-
developed.
Education ● Elementary education imparted through pathshalas
and maktabs
● Chatuspathis or Tols among Hindus, and Madrasahs among
Muslims were the institutes of higher learning.
● Absence of the study of science and technology and
geography was a general feature.
Society ● Apart from the four varnas, Hindus were divided into
many sub-castes which differed in their nature from place
to place.
 India on the Eve of British Conquest ✫ 81

● Muslims were also divided by considerations of caste, race,

tribe, and status, even though their religion propagated
equality.
Art, Architecture, and Culture ● Asaf-ud-Daula, in 1784, built
Bara Imambara at Lucknow.
● Sawai Jai Singh built pink city of Jaipur and five astronomical
observatories (Delhi, Jaipur, Mathura, Benares, and Ujjain).
● Painting schools of Kangra and Rajputana came into
prominence.
● In northern India, growth of Urdu language and poetry took
place. Prominent Urdu poets were Mir, Sauda, Nazir, and
Mirza Ghalib.
● Regional languages developed. Tamil language was enriched
by Sittar poetry.
 102 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India

Anglo-Maratha Struggle for

Supremacy
Rise of the Marathas
As the Mughal Empire declined, one of the staunchest and
hardiest of the empire’s adversaries, the Marathas, got a
chance to rise in power. They controlled a large portion of
the country; besides, they also received tributes from areas
not directly under their control. By the middle of the 18th
century, they were in Lahore thinking of becoming rulers of
the North Indian empire and in the court of the Mughals
playing the role of kingmakers.
Though the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), in which
they were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali, changed the
situation, they regrouped, regained their strength, and, within
a decade, achieved a position of power in India.
Bajirao I (1720–40), considered greatest of all the
Peshwas, had started a confederacy of prominent Maratha
chiefs to manage the rapidly expanding Maratha power, and
to some extent appease the kshatriya section of the Marathas
(Peshwas were brahmins) led by the senapati Dabodi. Under
the arrangement of the Maratha confederacy, each prominent
family under a chief was assigned a sphere of influence which
he was supposed to conquer and rule, but in the name of
the then Maratha king, Shahu. The Maratha families which
emerged prominent were: (i) the Gaekwad of Baroda;
(ii) the Bhonsle of Nagpur; (iii) the Holkars of Indore;
(iv) the Sindhias of Gwalior; and (v) the Peshwa of Poona.
The confederacy, under Bajirao I to Madhavrao I, worked
cordially but the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) changed
everything. The defeat at Panipat and later the death of the
young Peshwa, Madhavrao I, in 1772, weakened the control
of the Peshwas over the confederacy. Though the chiefs of
the confederacy united on occasion, as against the British
(1775–82), more often they quarrelled among themselves.
Entry of the English into Maratha Politics
The years between the last quarter of the 18th century and
the first quarter of the 19th century witnessed the Marathas
 Expansion and Consolidation of British Power ✫ 103

and the English clashing thrice for political supremacy, with

the English emerging victorious in the end. The cause of
these conflicts was the inordinate ambition of the English,
and the divided house of the Marathas that encouraged the
English to hope for success in their venture. The English in
Bombay wanted to establish a government on the lines of
the arrangement made by Clive in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
So, it was a longed-for opportunity for the English when
dissensions over a succession divided the Marathas.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)
Background
After the death of Madhavrao in 1772, his brother Narayanrao
succeeded him as the fifth peshwa. However, Narayanrao’s
uncle, Raghunathrao, had his nephew assassinated and named
himself as the next peshwa, although he was not a legal heir.
Narayanrao’s widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a son after her
husband’s death. The newborn infant was named ‘Sawai’ (One
and a Quarter) Madhavrao and he was legally the next peshwa.
Twelve Maratha chiefs (Barabhai), led by Nana Phadnavis,
made an effort to name the infant as the new peshwa and
rule for him as regents.
Treaties of Surat and Purandhar Raghunathrao,
unwilling to give up his position in power, sought help from
the English at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in
1775. Under the treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the territories
of Salsette and Bassein to the English along with a portion
of the revenues from Surat and Bharuch districts. In return,
the English were to provide Raghunathrao with 2,500 soldiers.
The British Calcutta Council, on the other side of India,
condemned the Treaty of Surat (1775) and sent Colonel
Upton to Pune to annul it and make a new treaty (Treaty
of Purandhar, 1776) with the regency renouncing Raghunath
and promising him a pension. The Bombay government
rejected this and gave refuge to Raghunath. In 1777, Nana
Phadnavis violated his treaty with the Calcutta Council by
granting the French a port on the west coast. The English
retaliated by sending a force towards Pune.
 104 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India

Course of War
The English and the Maratha armies met on the outskirts of
Pune. Though the Maratha army had a larger number of
soldiers than the English, the latter had highly superior
ammunition and cannons. However, the Maratha army was
commanded by a brilliant general named Mahadji Scindia
(also known as Mahadji Shinde). Mahadji lured the English
army into the ghats (mountain passes) near Talegaon and
trapped the English from all sides and attacked the English
supply base at Khopali. The Marathas also utilised a scorched
earth policy, burning farmland and poisoning wells. As the
English began to withdraw to Talegaon, the Marathas attacked,
forcing them to retreat to the village of Wadgaon. Here, the
English army was surrounded on all sides by the Marathas
and cut off from food and water supplies. The English
surrendered by mid-January 1779 and signed the Treaty of
Wadgaon that forced the Bombay government to relinquish
all territories acquired by the English since 1775.
Treaty of Salbai (1782): End of the First Phase of
the Struggle Warren Hastings, the Governor General in
Bengal, rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon and sent a large force
of soldiers under Colonel Goddard, who captured Ahmedabad
in February 1779, and Bassein in December 1780. Another
Bengal detachment led by Captain Popham captured Gwalior
in August 1780. In February 1781, the English, under General
Camac, finally defeated Sindhia at Sipri.
Sindhia proposed a new treaty between the Peshwa and
the English, and the Treaty of Salbai was signed in May 1782;
it was ratified by Hastings in June 1782 and by Phadnavis
in February 1783. The treaty guaranteed peace between the
two sides for twenty years. The main provisions of the Treaty
of Salbai were:
(i) Salsette should continue in the possession of the
English.
(ii) The whole of the territory conquered since the
Treaty of Purandhar (1776), including Bassein, should be
restored to the Marathas.
(iii) In Gujarat, Fateh Singh Gaekwad should remain in
possession of the territory which he had before the war and
should serve the Peshwa as before.