INDORE INSTITUTE OF LAW

(Affiliated to DAVV & BCI)

BA LLB Semester II A & B
HISTORY
Crash course

QI:- Discuss the contact of India with European companies and their trade activities.
Ans:- Introduction:-
From time immemorial India had commercial relations with countries of the west. The commercial
route then was not direct by sea.The merchants sailed over the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea and reached
Europe through Arabia. But in the seventh century when Arabia became very strong as a power it
dominated the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
It was the Portuguese who first discovered a direct sea route to India. Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama
arrived at Calicut an important sea port located on the South-West India on May 20, 1498 AD.
 Arrival of Portuguese in India
 It was the Portuguese who first discovered a direct sea route to India.
 Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut an important sea port located on the South-West
India on May 20, 1498 AD.
 He was received by the local ruler Zamorin (Term was used by Hindu Eradi rulers Kozhikode in
Medieval India) and given him special order to establish trade links.
 Vasco da Gama came back to India for the second time in 1501 AD. He set up a trading factory at
Cannanore.
 With establishment of trade links, Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin emerged the significant
Portuguese centers in India.
 the local king Zamorin. The hostilities grew and led to full- fledged military face- off between them.
King Zamorin was defeated by the Portuguese.

 With the victory over Zamorin, the military superiority of the Portuguese was established.
 Rise of Portuguese power In India
 In 1505 AD, Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the first Portuguese governor in India.
 His policy being centric to controlling the Indian Ocean was known as the Blue Water Policy.
 Alfonso de Albuquerque who replaced Almeida as the governor in 1509 AD, and captured Goa from
the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 AD is considered the real founder of the Portuguese power in India.
 Goa subsequently became the headquarters of the Portuguese settlements in India.
 By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese captured not only Goa, Daman, Diu, and Salsette but
also a vast stretches along the Indian coast.
 Timeline of the History of Portugal as a Trader
 1498 AD: Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut.
 1503 AD: The Portuguese had established their first fort in Cochin in India.
 1505 AD: Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of India, on the condition that he would set
up four forts on the south western Indian coast: at Anjediva Island, Cannanore, Cochin and Quilon.
 1509 AD: Almeida becomes the first Portuguese to set sail in Bombay. He also brought down a
decisive defeat on a joint fleet of the Mamluk Burji (Sultanate of Egypt), the Ottoman Empire, the
Zamorin of Calicut and the Sultan of Gujarat, with the naval support from the Republic of Venice
and the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik).
 1510 AD: Afonso de Albuquerque was appointed as the Viceroy of India.
 1511 AD: Portuguese conquered the City of Malacca Island.
 1515 AD: Portuguese conquered the Harmuz located at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. The death of
Viceroy Albuquerque.
 1526 AD: Portuguese took possession of Mangalore under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio.
 1530 AD: Portuguese made Goa as the capital city of its Indian state.
 1535 AD: The Portuguese took control over Diu.
 1559 AD: The Portuguese took control over Daman.
 1566 AD: Treaty between the Portuguese and the Turks
 1596 AD: Dutch defeated Portuguese and carried out them from Southeast Asia.
 1612 AD: After defeating the Portuguese in Surat, the British established their factory.
 1641 AD: The Dutch took the Malacca fort from the Portuguese.
 1659 AD: Sri Lanka went out of the hands of Portuguese.
 1663 AD: Dutch devoured the Portuguese decisively after capturing all the fort of Malabar.
 The Portuguese couldn’t conquer India because during the period between of 1500–1650 the
Portugal was very powerful globally, Indian powers and their allies were powerful too, and would
not let Portugal gain more that a foothold on the coast.
 Arrival of the British
Arrival of the British and the establishment of British East India Company was the outcome of the
Portuguese traders who earn enormous profit by selling their merchandise in India. Being
motivated by the successful business stories of the Portuguese a group of English merchants
-‘Merchant Adventurers’ formed a company- the East India Company in 1599 AD.
 The Company received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600 AD
authorizing it to trade in the East. (Queen was herself a share holder in the East India Company.)
 Expansion in West and the South
 Subsequently in 1608 AD, the East India Company sent Captain William Hawkins to the court of
the Mughal emperor Jahangir to secure royal patronage.
 He succeeded in getting royal permit for the Company to establish its factories at various places
on the Western coast of India.
 In 1615 AD, Sir Thomas Roe was sent by Emperor James I of England to Jahangir’s court, with a
plea for more concession for the Company.
 Roe was very diplomatic and thus successfully secured a royal charter giving the Company
freedom to trade in the whole of the Mughal territory.

 Expansion in the East

  After establishing its factories in south and west India, the company started to focus on east India
particularly Bengal a significant province Mughal empire.
 The governor of Bengal Sujauddaula in 1651 AD, allowed the English Company to carry out its
trade activities in Bengal
 A factory in Hugli was established and three villages -Sutanati, Govindapur and Kolkata- were
purchased in 1698 AD by the Company to build a factory over there.
 Subsequently Fort William was raised in order to provide protection around the factory.
 Timeline of the History of East India Company as a Trader
 1600-East India Company was formed
 1614-Factories are setup in Masulipatnam and Surat
 1739-Delhi is sacked by Nadar Shah from Persia
 1746-Siege of Madras by French.First time a fort besieged by an European nation
 1751-Robert Clive captures Arcot. Turning point in Indian history where British got upper
hand on French
 1757-Battle of Plassey. Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula lost to British East India Company
 1765-Mughal emperor gives rights to EIC for revenue collection in Bengal
 1767-First Anglo Mysore War between Hyder Ali and EIC
 1773-British EIC gets monopoly to sell opium in Bengal
 1799-Tipu Sultan killed at Battle of Srirangapatnam
 1803-Second Anglo Maratha war and fall of Delhi
 1806-Vellore Sepoy Mutiny
 1825-Massive migration of Indians to Reunion and Mauritius
 1835-English made official court language
 1843-Doctrine of lapse came into force to capture Sindh province
 1853-First Railway line between Thane and Bombay
 1857-Indian Sepoy Mutiny
 1858-India comes under the crown ending East India Company rule

Arrival of the Dutch

Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) popularly known as Duch United East India Company was
formed in AD 1602.
The people of Holland (present Netherlands) are called the Dutch.
Historically the Dutch have been experts in sea trade.
Rise of the Dutch
The Dutch founded their first factory in Masaulipatam in Andhra Pradesh in 1605.
They also established trading centres in various parts of India.
Dutch Suratte and Dutch Bengal were established in 1616 AD and 1627 AD respectively.
The Dutch conquered Ceylon from the Portuguese in 1656 AD.
They also took the Portuguese forts on the Malabar coast in 1671 AD.
The Dutch gradually became a potent force capturing Nagapatam near Madras (Chennai) from the
Portuguese thereby establishing their foothold in South India.
In economic terms, they earned huge profit through business monopolizing in black pepper and spices.
The major Indian commodities traded by the Dutch were cotton, indigo, silk, rice and opium.
Dutch Coinage
 The Dutch, during their stay in India, tried their hands on the minting of coinages. As their trade
flourished they established mints at Cochin, Masulipattam, Nagapatam Pondicherry and Pulicat.
Even more, Gold pagoda with an image of Lord Venkateswara, (god Vishnu) was issued at Pulicat mint.
The coins issued by the Dutch were all modelled on the local coinages.
Decline of Dutch Power
Dutch presence on the Indian subcontinent lasted from 1605 AD to 1825 AD. The rise of the British
power in the Eastern trade posed serious challenge to the commercial interest of the Dutch leading to
bloody warfare between them in which Britishers were the clear winners owing to huge resources at their
disposal. The brutal killing of some English traders by the Dutch in Amboyna in 1623 further aggravated
the situation. The Britishers one after another captured Dutch strongholds.
Arrival of Danes
The Danes arrived in India in 1616.
They established their settlement at Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) in 1620and Serampore (Bengal) in 1676
that was their headquater.
They were forced to sell their settlement to British in 1854.
Arrival of the French
The last European people to arrive in India were the French. The French East India Company was formed
in 1664 AD during the reign of King Louis XIV to trade with India. In 1668 AD the French established
their first factory at Surat and in 1669 AD established another French factory at Masaulipatam. In 1673
AD the Mughal Subedar of Bengal allowed the French to set up a township at Chandernagore.
Pondicherry and French Commercial Growth
In 1674 AD, the French obtained a village called Pondicherry from the Sultan of Bijapur and founded a
thriving city on it which later became the main stronghold of the French in India. The French East India
Company with the passage of time developed its trade bastians at Mahe, Karaikal, Balasor, and Qasim
Bazar. The French came to India mainly with a purpose of trade and commerce. From their arrival until
1741 AD, the objectives of the French, like those of the British, were purely commercial. The French East
India Company took hold of Yanam in 1723 AD, Mahe on Malabar Coast in 1725 AD and Karaikal in
1739 AD.
Decline of Portuguese Power
But the Portuguese rise in Indian had a short life as the new rival trading communities from Europe posed
a big challenge to them. Struggle among various rival trading blocs ensued in which Portuguese had to
give way to the more powerful and enterprising competitors gradually rendering them an atrophied entity.
Arrival of the French
The last European people to arrive in India were the French. The French East India Company was formed
in 1664 AD during the reign of King Louis XIV to trade with India. In 1668 AD the French established
their first factory at Surat and in 1669 AD established another French factory at Masaulipatam. In 1673
AD the Mughal Subedar of Bengal allowed the French to set up a township at Chandernagore.
Pondicherry and French Commercial Growth
In 1674 AD, the French obtained a village called Pondicherry from the Sultan of Bijapur and founded a
thriving city on it which later became the main stronghold of the French in India. The French East India
Company with the passage of time developed its trade bastians at Mahe, Karaikal, Balasor, and Qasim
Bazar. The French came to India mainly with a purpose of trade and commerce. From their arrival until
1741 AD, the objectives of the French, like those of the British, were purely commercial. The French East
India Company took hold of Yanam in 1723 AD, Mahe on Malabar Coast in 1725 AD and Karaikal in
1739 AD.
Decline of Portuguese Power
But the Portuguese rise in Indian had a short life as the new rival trading communities from Europe posed
a big challenge to them. Struggle among various rival trading blocs ensued in which Portuguese had to
give way to the more powerful and enterprising competitors gradually rendering them an atrophied entity.
Q2. Arrival of the British and establishment of East India Company.
It was the enormous profit earned by the Portuguese traders from the sale of their merchandise in India
that drew attention of British traders. Being motivated by the successful business stories of the Portuguese
a group of English merchants -‘Merchant Adventurers’ formed a company- the East India Company in
1599 AD. The Company received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600 AD
authorizing it to trade in the East. Queen was herself a share holder in the East India Company.
Expansion in West and the South: Subsequently in 1608 AD, the East India Company sent Captain
William Hawkins to the court of the Mughal emperor Jahangir to secure royal patronage. He succeeded in
getting royal permit for the Company to establish its factories at various places on the Western coast of
India. Then in 1615 AD, Sir Thomas Roe was sent by Emperor James I of England to Jahangir’s court,
with a plea for more concession for the Company. Roe was very diplomatic and thus successfully secured
a royal charter giving the Company freedom to trade in the whole of the Mughal territory. In the ensuing
years the East India Company further expanded its base and flourished though it also faced challenges
from the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French. The decisive moment came in 1662 AD, when Charles II
of England married a Portuguese princess Katherine, and received the island of Bombay as dowry which
he immediately gave to the East India Company in 1668 AD for 10 pounds per year. The Company on the
West coast shifted its business headquarters from Surat to Bombay (Mumbai). In 1639 AD, the East India
Company obtained the lease of the city of Madras from the local king where it built Fort St. George to
protect its factory. Later Madras was made the South Indian headquarters of the Company.
Expansion in the East: After establishing its factories in south and west India, the company started to
focus on east India particularly Bengal a significant province Mughal empire. The governor of Bengal
Sujauddaula in 1651 AD, allowed the English Company to carry out its trade activities in Bengal. A
factory in Hugli was established and three villages -Sutanati, Govindapur and Kolkata- were purchased in
1698 AD by the Company to build a factory over there. Subsequently Fort William was raised in order to
provide protection around the factory. The present day Kolkata grew and developed on this very site.
Royal Farman by Emperor Farrukhsiyar: It was Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar which in 1717 AD,
issued royal Farman (charter) granting the company important trading facilities in Bengal which included
the permission of export and import British goods in Bengal without paying taxes. Under the farman the
company was authorized the to issue Dastaks (passes) for the transportation of goods.
The Company after establishing firmly on the front of commerce and trade started dreaming of becoming
a ruling power in gradual manner.
Factors Responsible for The British to Emerge as Ruling Power In India The major reasons that
helped the British to be established as ruling power during next two hundred years in India can be- inter
alia -described as-
 the loss of central authority in India after the decline of the Mughal empire with the death of
Aurangzeb in 1707 AD and
 the prevailing political disunity among the Indian rulers, for instance, they often sought
assistance from the British for their own security, which gave a golden opportunity to the foreigners
to increasingly meddle in their internal affairs and take advantage of their weaknesses

Conflicts among the European Powers

Major European Powers in India: The Portuguese, the Dutch, the British and the French were the four
major European powers who arrived in India to establish their trade links and subsequently held colonial
possessions. Major well as minor conflicts among them often took place from time to time for
commercial and political supremacy but in the end it were the British who proved themselves most
powerful after thrashing the other three and remained in India for more than 200 years as ruling power.
The Portuguese who were the first to come to India, set up their factories and colonial posts here and
faced stiff competition from the Dutch but the Dutch proved weak before them as they could not
withstand the stiff competition of the Portuguese and the British and thus retired from India.
Main Rivals: Ever since the British came to India they faced challenges from the Europeans powers like
the Dutch, the Portuguese and the French. The Portuguese and the Dutch were not serious and potent
rivals to the British. The only strong rival of the British were the French who were also the last Europeans
to come to India. The British efforts to establish a complete monopoly over trade and commerce in India
again and again brought them into conflict with the French. Consequently three long battles were fought
between these two European powers during a period of 20 years (1744 AD-1763 AD) with the aim of
capturing commercial as well as territorial control. The final decisive battle was fought on 22 January,
1763 AD at Wandiwash.
Carnatic Wars: It was the succession disputes in both the Carnatic and Hyderabad that opened the gates
for Europeans- the British and the French- to play the roles of middlemen and thus in order to grind their
axe both European powers had a golden opportunity for intervention in support of various rival Indian
claimants. At first the French, under Dupleix who was a governor of Pondicherry emerged victorious both
in the Carnatic and in Hyderabad. The French were rewarded with Northern Sarkars by their claimant to
throne which the French officer Bussy controlled for seven years. However the French success turned out
to be short lived. They were checked by British forces under Robert Clive in 1751 AD. Robert Clive
changed the course of the war. The French claimant was defeated the next year. The French had to sign
the treaty of Tirucirapally with the British. In the next Seven Years’ War (1756 AD– 1763 AD)-third
Carnatic War-both the French and British Armies renewed their rivalry. The war began when French
General Count De Lally invaded Madras but was defeated by the British General Sir Eyre Coote. The
British captured Pondicherry (1761 AD) and Count De Lally was forced to surrender Karaikal and Jinji to
them. Hence, the French lost third Carnatic War at Wandiwash (1760 AD) and subsequently signed
treaty of Paris with the British in Europe.
Establishment of British Supremacy: The victory in Carnatic war prepared the ground for the British to
establish their supremacy in India and the French dream of an Indian empire disappeared for ever. With
the victory of Wandiwash the British East India Company had no European rival left in India.The British
became the master of this great country. Besides having skilled leaders like Sir Eyre Coote, Major
Stringer Lawrence, Robert Clive on their side the British were also a strong naval power which was a
decisive factor with them to become credible rulers of India.

British Expansion in India –Bengal and Awadh

The battle of Plassey (1757 AD) and the battle of Buxar (1764 AD) were decisive in establishing the
British control over Bengal and Awadh respectively
1. Bengal
Misuse of Royal Farman for Trade in Bengal by the British: The English East India Company secured
a royal farman in 1717 AD by the Mughal Emperor granting the Company the freedom to export and
import goods from and to Bengal without paying taxes and right to issue dastaks (passes) for the
movement of such goods. The Company servants were also permitted to trade but were required to pay
the same taxes as Indian merchants. This farman was a major cause of tension between the Company and
the Nawabs because it fetched less revenue for Bengal. All the Nawabs of Bengal, from Murshid Quli
Khan to Alivardi Khan, had been annoyed with the British misuse of the farman. Moreover, the
Company’s servants misused the power to issue dastaks for the Company’s goods which caused loss to
the royal treasury.
Siraj-ud-Daulah’s Ascendancy to Throne: The hot-tempered Siraj-ud-Daulah who succeeded his
grandfather, Alivardi Khan in 1756 AD, asked the Company to trade as per the same rules and regulations
as in the times of Murshid Quli Khan. The British refused to comply and levied heavy duty on Indian
goods entering Calcutta, which was under their control. This move greatly annoyed the Nawab. The
Company was also fortifying Calcutta as part of its preparation for war with the French. The Nawab
ordered to demolish their fortifications. The British refused to obey the order of Nawab causing more
tension between the Nawab and the British. Consequently, Siraj ud- Daulah invaded Kasimbazar and
captured Fort William in Calcutta (present Kolkata) in 1756 AD.
Battle of Plassey: British hatched a conspiracy by which they planned to place Mir Jafar on the throne of
Bengal. They first presented a near impossible set of demands which Siraj-ud-Daulah refused to comply
with thereby worsening the already tense situation. A battle ensued at Plassey, (20 miles from present
Murshidabad) in June 1757 AD. Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh betrayed the Nawab and sided with the
British. Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah was put to death by Mir Jafar’s son Miran. The British emerged winner in
the battle of Plassey.
After their victory, the British proclaimed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal and got the right to free trade
in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (now Odisha). besides a huge sum of money as compensation. Mir Jafar
could not meet the demands of the Company. Subsequently in 1760 AD, the British made Mir Qasim,
son-in-law of Mir Jafar, the Nawab of Bengal. But he also did not completely bow down to the
unreasonable and illegitimate demands of the British and the obvious happened. The British defeated Mir
Qasim following a series of battles in 1763 AD.
Furthermore, in order to legitimize its reign in Bengal, the company signed a treaty with the Nawab of
Bengal Nizam ud-Daula in 1765 AD and secured the Nizamat of Bengal and from Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II they got the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
2. Awadh
Emergence of Awadh as an Independent State:
 As the Mughal empire declined and lost its control, Awadh grew stronger and more independent.
 Awadh was important because it controlled the doab, the fertile plain between the Ganges and the
Yamuna rivers and had enough wealth to safeguard its independence from the threats of the
increasing influence of the English East India Company.
 The Nawabs of Awadh were a Persian Shia Muslim dynasty from Nishapur.
 Saadat Khan Burhanul Mulk was appointed the first Nawab of Awadh in 1722 AD who set up his
court in Faizabad near Lucknow.
 His successor was Safdarjung (1737 AD–1754 AD), an influential noble at the Mughal court in
Delhi.
British Enmity with Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula:
The third Nawab, Shuja-ud-Daula (1754 AD–1775 AD) broke ranks with the British after forming
alliance with Mir Qasim, the deposed Nawab of Bengal.
He, along with Mir Qasim and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II was decisively defeated at the Battle of
Buxar on 22-23 October 1764 AD by the British and was forced to cede parts of his territory.
As part of their accession design, the British appointed a resident in 1773 AD, thereby gaining control of
more territory and authority in the state.
The fourth Nawab was Asaf-ud-Daula (1775 AD-1797 AD) who shifted the capital from Faizabad to
Lucknow in 1775 AD.
Nawab Sadat Ali Khan II and Treaty of 1801 AD:
In 1798 AD, the fifth Nawab Wazir Ali Khan (1797AD–1798 AD) was accused by the British to be
unfaithful and uncaring towards his own people.
Subsequently he was forced to abdicate and replaced by his uncle Saadat Ali Khan II with the help from
the British. The assassination of a British Resident in 1798 AD in Benares by the deposed Wazir Ali gave
the British further excuse for interference in internal affairs of Awadh.
Lord Wellesley exploited it to the best possible extent by virtue of treaty of 1801 AD. Saadat Ali Khan II
was reduced to a mere puppet king under the provisions of the treaty. He was forced to disband his own
troops and agreed to bear the huge expense of the British army.
Annexation of Awadh with British India:
 The final moment came and Awadh was annexed to the English East India Company under the
terms of the Doctrine of Lapse on the grounds of internal misrule on 7 February 1856 AD by the
order of the Governor General of the British East India Company, Lord Dalhousie.
 When actually the English were losing ground and the French were gaining success. Both at
Hyderabad and the Carnatic the candidate of Dupleix ruled as monarchs.
 In the whole of the Deccan the British prestige was at the lowest point. It was at that critical point
of time Clive stepped into show the talent both in ideas and action.
 Under his leadership the capital of Carnatic Arcot was attacked and captured that suddenly turned
the course of the Second Carnatic War.
 The French army was defeated and the British influence was restored in the south.
 Grave situations developed in Bengal when the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-daula humiliated the
English. Clive’s reputation rose into height in the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

Q3:-- Social and Administrative reforms of the following:-

Warren Hansting
 Warren Hastings succeeded Clive in 1772 and became the first Governor of Bengal for two years
and in 1774, after enactment of Regulating Act of 1773, he became first Governor-General of
Bengal.
 He passed regulating act of 1773 and made end to the dual system of administration in 1772 set
up by Clive.
 Appointment of collectors to manage revenue and justice related to revenue affairs.
 Transfer of the treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta.
 The Supreme Court was set up at Calcutta in 1774 and Calcutta Madarasa in 1781.
 The Rohilla war between the Rohillas and the Nawab of Awadh (1774).
 The first Anglo-Maratha war (1775-82) and the treaty of salbai in 1782.
 Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
 Foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784. It was established due to the
risings interest of Englishmen into Indian Culture.
 trained relationships with Chiat Singh, the Maharaja of Banaras, which led to Hastings
subsequent impeachement in England under the charge of taking bribes, but later he was the only
Governor General against him impeachement proceeding were done.
 First English translation of Bhagawadagita was done by Charles Willkins and the introduction
was written by Warren Hastings. Warren Hastings was first Governor of the Presidency of Fort
William (Bengal), who remained in office during 1732 to 1818. He was the real builder of the
modern Indian administrative system. His reforms can be outlined as following.
 Administrative Reforms
 Judicial Reforms Financial Reforms
 Revenue Reforms
 Commercial Reforms
 Other Reforms
Administrative Reforms
 Removal of Deputy Subedars.
 Appointment of English Collectors.
 Establishment of a Board of Revenue at Calcutta.
 Shifting of treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta.
 Re-organisation of Nawab’affairs by the Company.
 Stoppage of tribute to Shah Alam.
 Reduction of Pension of Nawab of Bengal

Judicial Reforms
 Abolishing the judicial functions of the Zamindars.
 Establishment of the Civil and Criminal Courts
 Stablishment of Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat.
 Bringing of the judicial prcceedings in writing.
 Appointment of Indian Judges in Criminal Courts.
 Administration just according to Quran for Muslims and Shastras for Hindus .
Financial Reforms
 Pension of the Nawab of Bengal reduced from Rs. 32 lakhs to Rs. 16 lakhs.
 Tribute of the 25 lakhs of Shah Alam was stopped.
 Districts of Kara and Allahabad were taken from Shah Alam and sold to Shuja-ud-daula for Rs.
30 lakhs.
 Treaty was made with Nawab of Oudh to help him in return of the district of Banaras and Rs. 40
lakhs.
 Amount of Pensions to the servants of the Company was also reduced.
 Currency was improved.
o Revenue Reforms

 Appointment of British land Revenue Officers.

 Appointment of Board of Revenue.
 Five year Land Revenue Settlement.
 Appointment of Rai Rayan.
 One year settlement in place of 5 years settlement on the basis of highest bidding.
o Commercial Reforms
 Abolition of the dustak
 Abolition of large number of customs posts.
  Despatch of Commercial Missions to other countries.

o Other Reforms:
 Hastings curbed Thieves, Dacoits and suppressed Sanyasi revolt
 Police of Calcutta was improved.
 He abolished Tax on marriages.

Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

 Lord Cornwallis established lower grade courts and Appellate courts.
 District Judge post started.
 The Third Anglo-Mysore war (1789-92) and the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792.
 To suppress the bribery, he increased the salaries of the employees of the Company and police
officers.
 In 1791/92, Sanskrit college established in Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan.
 Introduction of the Permanent Settlement in Bengal and Bihar in 1793
 Introduction of civil services in India. The next important change
 Cornwallis did was to set up courts in the states, districts and provinces.
 The Supreme Court of Calcutta was the final court of appeal.
 Lowest Court was the Amin Court or Munsif Court. The Munsifs could decide the case where the
value was less than Rs. 50.
 The higher court was the District court or “Diwani Adalat“. The Judge was called “Session
Judge“. This session Judge was essentially an Englishman, who used to deliver justice to “only
Indians” and not the Europeans. He was assisted by assessors.
 The higher than Diwani Adalat was the Provincial Court of Appeal. Four provincial Courts of
appeal were set up at Dhaka, Calcutta, Murshidabad and Patna. These courts heard appeals from the
districts except the English.
 After provincial court, the Highest Court of Appeal was set up which was called “Sadar Diwani
Adalat”. The headquarters of Sadar Diwani Adalat was at Calcutta and it was the Highest Court of
Appeal. Its judge was supported by a Head Qazi, two Muftis and Two Pandits.
 The appeals from the “Sadar Diwani Adalat” were submitted to the King in England. The King of
England only entertained those cases whose value was more than 5000 rupees. The above system
was in the Civil Judiciary. In Criminal Judiciary, Cornwallis introduced the following structure:
 At Taluka / Tahsil level there was a Darogh-i-Adalat. Its Judge was “Darogha” who was “An
Indian“. This was the lowest level.
 The appeals from a Darogha could be taken to “District Criminal Courts“. The judge of this court
was a Session Judge, an English.
 To hear the criminal appeals from District courts, 4 Circuit Courts at Murshidabad, Dhaka,
Calcutta and Patna were established.
 The Highest court of Criminal appeal was in “Sadar Diwani Adalat” at Calcutta which used to sit
once in a week. It was supervised by Governor General
Other reforms of Cornwallis
 Court fees were abolished by Cornwallis.
 Lawyers were to prescribe their fees.
 Ordinary people could sue the Government servants (Indians) if they committed mistakes.
 Inhuman punishments such as cutting limbs, cutting nose and ears were abolished.

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

 Introduction of Subsidary Alliance System in 1798, to bring Indian States under the control of
British political power. He converted British Empire in India into British Empire because he
covered largest area.
 The fourth Anglo- Mysore war (1799).
 Treaty of Bassein between Baji Rao II and the English (1802).
 The second Anglo – Maratha war (1803 – 1805).
 The first subsidiary treaty was signed with the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1798 and 1800 followed
by Tanjore (1799), Awadh (1801), Bhonsle (1803), Gwalior (1804), Indore (1817) and Udaipur,
Jaipur & Jodhapur (1818).
 Formation of madras Presidency in 1801.
 He described himself as Bengal Tiger.
 He founded the Fort William College at Calcutta.
Lord Hastings (1813-1823)
 Ended policy of non-intervention.
 Military operations against Pindaris (1817 – 1818).
 The third Anglo-Maratha war (1816-1818).
 Abolition of Peshwaship and annexation of all his territories in 1818.
 By 1818, all the Indian territories excepting the Punjab and Sindh had been brought under British
control.
 Gurukha war or the Anglo-Nepal war (1814-1816) and the Treaty of Sugauli.
 He abolished the censorship of press.
 Establishment of the Ryotwari System in Madras by the Governor Thomas Munro.
 The Ryotwari and Mahalwari system introduced in Bombay by the Governor Elphinstone.
 In the north-western Provinces the Mahalwari system was introduced.

Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)

 He was appointed as the Governor General of Bengal from 1828 to 1833 but after enactment of
the Charter Act of 1833, he became the First Governor General of India. He was also known as the
liberal Governor-General.
 He was famous for the social reforms he introduced, such as abolition of Sati (1829) with the help
of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Suppression of Thugi (1830) and suppression of infanticide and child
sacrifices.
 Randhakant Deb opposed abolition of Sati Pratha.
 Macaulay report on English education was passed and English language accepted as the official
language of India, after recommendations of Macaulay. This report was based on downwards
filtration (it means teach some people and they will teach further many more).
 Opium trade was regularised, licensed and duty paid.
 Salaries of civil servants were reduced along with the bhatta of military offices.
 In higher courts, Persian was replaced by English as the court language.
 He established the first medical college in Calcutta.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)
 Lord Dalhousie introduced ‘Doctorine of Lapse‘ for annexing the dependant States whose ruler
died without a natural heir to succeed him.
 Some important Indian States viz. Satara (1848), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Jaitpur &
Sambhalpur (1854) and Nagpur (1854) were annexed by the enforcement of the Doctorine of
Lapse.
 Lord Dalhousie also introduced Doctrine of Good of Governed under which Awadh (1856) and
Punjab (1849) were annexed.
 Charles Wood’s Dispatch on Indian education was accepted, which is called Magnacarta of
British Education.
 Railway minutes of 1853 and laying down of first connecting Bombay and Thane in 1853.
  Post Office Act, 1854 was passed and first time postage stamps were issued, Postal and Telegraph
systems were established.
 First telegraph line was laid between Calcutta to Agra.
 He established Public Works Department for the construction and maintenance of canals, roads,
bridges, etc.
 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849) and annexation of Punjab in 1849.
 Abolition of titles and pensions.
 Shimla became the summer capital of India and permanent headquarters of army.
 Competitive examination for Indian Civil Services were started.
 Headquarters of the Bengal Artillery were shifted from Calcutta to Meerut.
 An Engineering college was established at Roorkee.
 The Charter Act of 1853 passed.
 Widow Remariage Act (1856): the main contributor to pass this act was Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar.
Lord Ripon Viceroy of India from 1880-84.
This liberal politician is known for many reforms in the internal administration of India.
The Vernacular Press Act was repealed in 1882
A Resolution in 1882 set off the institution of local self-government in India.
Hunter Commission came in 1882 for the purpose of education reforms.
The age for entry in the Civil Services was once again raised to 21 years.
The First factory Act was enacted in 1881
Introduction of Ilbert Bill in severely compromised state.
The years 1882 and 1883 are memorable for these great measures.
One important one was the repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, which was passed by his predecessor Lord
Lytton in 1878.
he sat free the native journals from the last restrains on the free discussion of public questions. In 1882, he
granted freedom to the Press.
He was the founder of local self government in modern India and was fondly called “Ripon, the Good”.
Q4:- 1857 revolt what were the causes and nature?
Causes of 1857 Revolt
The issue of greased cartridges and military grievances has been over-emphasized, as the factor for the
Revolt of 1857. However, the recent research has proved that the cartridge was neither the only cause nor
even the most important. In fact, the multiple causes i.e.,
social-religious-political- economic causes worked together to produce the rebellion
1. Social and Religious Causes
a. Abolition of Sati (1829),
b. Hindu Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
c. Christian missionaries were allowed to enter India and carry on with their mission of
proselytizing.
d. The Religious Disabilities Act of 1850 modified the traditional Hindu law. (According to
it, the change in religion would not debar a son from inheriting the property of his
heathen father.)
2. 2. Economic Causes:
a. British rule led to breakdown of the village self-sufficiency
b. Commercialisation of agriculture which burdened the peasantry
c. Adoption of free trade imperialism from 1800
d. De-industrialization and drain of wealth all of which led to overall decline of economy.
3. 3. Military Grievances:
a. The extension of British dominion in India had adversely affected the service condition
of the Sepoys.
 b. They were required to serve in area away from their homes without the payment of extra
bhatta.
c. An important cause of Military discontent was the General Service Enlistment Act, 1856,
which made it compulsory for the sepoys to cross the seas, whenever required.
d. The Post Office Act of 1854 withdrew the free postage facility for them.
4. Political Causes:
a. The major extension of the British Indian territory took place during the time of
Dalhousie announced in 1849, that the successor of Bahadur Shah II would have to leave
the Red Fort.
b. The annexation of Baghat and Udaipur were however, cancelled and they were restored
to their ruling houses.
c. When Dalhousie wanted to apply the Doctrine of Lapse to Karauli (Rajputana), he was
overruled by the court of Directors.
Causes of Failure
1. Some of the local rulers like Scidia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad,
the Raja of Jodhpur, the Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh and Kashmir and the Rana
of Nepal provided active support to the British.
2. The military equipment of the rebels was inferior. Comparative lack of efficient leadership.
3. The modern intelligent Indians also didn't support the cause.
Impact of the Revolt
1. The revolt was mainly feudal in character carrying with it some nationalist elements.
2. The control of Indian administration was passed on to the British Crown by the Government of
India Act, 1858.
3. The army was carefully reorganised to prevent the recurrence of such an event.
4.The Revolt of 1857 was an extremely important event in Indian history.
5. It was mere a product of Sepoy but was accumulated grievances of the people against the
Company’s administration and of their dislike for the foreign regime.
Q5:- 19th century Indian Renaissances Social and religious reforms and reformers and its
impact on Indian society:-
Introduction
The dawn of the 19th century witnessed the birth of new vision- a modern vision among some
enlightened sections of the Indian society. This enlightened vision was to shape the course of
events for decades to come and even beyond. This process of reawakening, sometimes, but not
always follow the intended as the ‘Renaissance’, did not always follow the intended line and gave
rise to some undesirable by-products as well, which have become as much a part daily existence
in the whole of the Indian subcontinent as have the fruits of these reform movements.

 Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833)

He was the founder of Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta in 1815 to propagate monotheismand

reform in the Hindu society.
In 1828, Atmiya Sabha was named Brahmo Samaj.
It believed in one universal God and prayer, meditation, reading from Upanishads was
used as a medium to worship God. There was no place for temple, rituals, sacrifices,
priest, etc. in the Samaj. It believed in progressive social practices. He launched a
movement for the abolition of sitting through his journal Sambad Koumudi (1819).
Debendranath Tagore
He founded Tattavabodhini Sabha (1839) and also published Tattvabodhini Patrika. Tattvabodhini Sabha
amalgamated with the Brahmo Samaj in 1859. He also compiled selected passage from the
Upanishads, which known as Brahma Dharma.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

He introduced the study of Western thought in the Sanskrit College and opened its gates to non-Brahmin
students. His greatest contribution lay in the field of female emancipation. Widow re-marriage was
the specific social issue he devoted his entire life to.

Dadoba Pandurang

He founded Paramhansa Sabha in 1840, was the first reform organisation of the 19th century in
Maharashtra. Its main objective was to demolish all caste distinctions.

Mahadev Gobind Ranade

He founded Prarthana Samaj along with Dr. Atmaram Pandurang. Two other social reformers who
work with Ranade were Vishnu Shastri and DK Karue. Karue launched the Widow Remarriage
Movement. Prarthana Samaj did not reject the Vedas or Upanishads. However, it paid more
emphasis on Bhakti (devotion).

K Sridharalu Naidu

He founded Veda Samaj in Madras, under the guidance of Keshab Chandra Sen in 1864. It changed into
Brahmo Samaj of Southern India in 1871. It also abstains from patronising dancing girls, child marriage
and polygamy.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

He started the Suddhi Movement to bring back the Hindu converted to other religions and played some
role in the growth of communalism in the 20 th century. It played a progressive role in the field of
national awakening by attacking religious superstitions, polytheism and the supremacy of
Brahmins.

He condemns idolatry, polytheism, Brahmin sponsored religious rites and superstitious practices. He

advocated social equality improvement in the status of women and denounced untouchability, caste
rigidities and encouraged rationality. He disregarded authority of later Hindu scriptures like Puranas.

He published his views in his famous work Satyartha Prakash (the true expositions in Hindi). He also
wrote Veda-Bhasya Bhumika (partly in Hindi and partly in Sanskrit) and Veda-Bhashya (in Sanskrit). He
accepted the doctrine of karma, but rejected the theory of Niyati (fatalism). He was the first man to
advocate the concept of Swaraj.

Swami Vivekananda
He was a one of the greatest thinkers of India founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1896. The headquarter
was established at Bellur near Calcutta to carry out humanitarian and social work to all without any
distinction, especially to help poor and destitute. The basic motto of the mission was to provide social
service people, spread the meaning of Vedantic spiritualism and strive for harmony among various faiths
and cults.

HP Blavatsky

She started Theosophical movement (Literally means all inclusive) in New York with Col HS Olcott
(American) in 1875. They arrived in India in 1879 and established the headquarters of the society at
Adyar near Madras in 1882. Theosophist popularised the study of oriental classics, especially Upanishads
and Bhagwat Gita.

Annie Besant

She joined the Theosophical Society in England in 1889 and came to India in 1893. She became
President of the society after death of Olcolt in 1907. She translated the Bhagwad Gita in English.
She laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College at Banaras in 1898 that later became nucleus
for the formation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916.

Swami Sahajanad (1781-1830)

He founded Swami Narain Sect in Gujarat. The main focus of the sect was social unity and harmony. It
encouraged widow remarriage and discouraged institution of Sati, female infanticide etc.

Behramii M Malabari

He founded Seva Sadon in 1885. He opposed to child marriage and compulsory widowhood. This
humanitarian organisation focused on the welfare of the socially deprived people especially women.

Radhakant Deb

He founded Dharma Sabha in 1830, in order to counter the ideas of Brahamo Samaj and advocated status
quo and opposed abolition of Sati.

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-1831)

He started Young Bengal Movement in Calcutta. The movement attacked old traditional and decadent
customs. It advocated women's rights and educated the public on socio-economic and political issues.

Rahanumai Mazdayasanan SabhaDadabhai Naoroji along with his Western educated, progressive
Parsis like Sorabjee Bengali, JB Wacha, KR Cama, Naoroji Furdonji etc, founded Rahanumai
Mazdayasanan Sabha or religious reform association in 1851 with the objective of social
regeneration of Parsis, removal of the purdah system, raising the age of marriage, education of
women.

Social Legislation under British Rule

Shah Walliullah

He started Wahabi Movement. It was a revivalist movement with slogan to return to pure Islam. Jihad
was declared with the prime objective of converting Dar-UL-Harb (land of infidels) into Dar-UL-
Islam (land of Islam).

Haji Shariat Ullah

He founded an orthodox Islamic Movement, i.e. Farazi Movement. He called for a return to Faraid (the
obligatory duties of Islam) like names, Zakat, Haj, fasting in Ramzan etc. In 1804, Haji Shariat Ullah
began to preach his doctrine by attacking the superstitions and corruptions of the Islamic society.
Gradually, the movement gained political shape, when he declared the country under British occupation to
be far-UL-job.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898)

He started the Aligarh Movement to modernise Indian Muslims. He founded the Aligarh School in 1875,
which was upgraded as Mohammodan-Anglo Oriental College, which became nucleus for the
formation of Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. He stressed the need for Hindu-Muslim unity. Sir
Syed Ahmad started a journal named tahzib-al-Akhlaq in 1870.

Mirza Ghulam Ahmed

He founded the Ahmadiya Movement in 1889 to liberalise the tenets of Islam in the context of modern
enlightenment. He believed in rationalism and stood for Western system of education. He claimed himself
as Messiah and the incarnation of Jesus and Krishna.

Mohammad Qasim Nanantavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi

They started the Deoband Movement at Deoband, Saharanpur in 1866 with two main objectives- (i)
popularizing the teaching of the Kuran and Hadith and (ii) To initiate Jihad against foreign rule. They did
not support Western education and culture. They advocated the unity of all religions.

Balak Singh
He started the Namdhari Movement in 1857 who advocated the forbidden of learning English and taking
up a Government job.

Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani Gian Singh

They founded Singh Sabha in 1875 in Amritsar with two main objectives (a) to bring to Sikh community
the benefits of Western enlightenment through Western education; (b) To counter Hindu and Christian
Missionaries that were influencing the Sikh community.
Jyotirao Phule
He established Satyashodhak Samaj on 24 September 1873 to liberate the Shundra and Untouchable
castes from exploitation and oppression. He also challenges the superiority and domination complex of
Brahmans
EV Ramaswami Naicker
He started the Self-respect Movement, which was popularly known as Periyar. He vehemently supported
the Harijans and became a hero of Satyagraha at Vaikom, Kerala, started his paper, Kudi Arasu in
1925 and turned into a radical social reformer. Self respect league was merged with Justice Party in
1944 to from Dravida Kazhagam.

TK Madhavan, K Kellapan and Keshava Menon

Vaikom Satyagraha (Kerala, 1924-25) was led by TK Madhavan, K Kellapan and Keshava Menon. It was
the first organised temple entry movement of the depressed classes. They asserted along Gandhian lines
the right of Ezhavas and other untouchables to use the road near Travancore temple.

Q6:-Judiciary system of east India company

Judiciary:
Earlier, the administration of justice used to be under the Zamindars and the process of dispensing justice
was often arbitrary.
Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772-1785):
i. District Diwani Adalats were established in districts to try civil disputes. These adalats were placed
under the collector and had Hindu law applicable for Hindus and the Muslim law for Muslims. The appeal
from District Diwani Adalats lay to the Sadar Diwani Adalat which functioned under a president and two
members of the Supreme Council.
ii. District Fauzdari Adalats were set up to try criminal disputes and were placed under an Indian officer
assisted by qazis and muftis. These adalats also were under the general supervision of the collector.
Muslim law was administered in Fauzdari Adalats.
The approval for capital punishment and for acquisition of property lay to the Sadar Nizamat Adalat at
Murshidabad which was headed by a deputy nizam (an Indian Muslim) assisted by chief qazi and chief
mufti.
iii. Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was established at Calcutta which was competent
to try all British subjects within Calcutta and the subordinate factories, including Indians and Europeans.
It had original and appellate jurisdictions. Often, the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court clashed with that
of other courts.
Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-1793):
i. The District Fauzdari Courts were abolished and, instead, circuit courts were established at Calcutta,
Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna. These circuit courts had European judges and were to act as courts of
appeal for both civil and criminal cases.
ii. The Sadar Nizamat Adalat was shifted to Calcutta and was put under the governor-general and
members of the Supreme Council assisted by the chief qazi and the chief mufti.
iii. The District Diwani Adalat was now designated as the District, City or the Zilla Court and placed
under a district judge. The collector was now responsible only for the revenue administration with no
magisterial functions.
iv. A gradation of civil courts was established (for both Hindu and Muslim laws):
(i) Munsiffs Court under Indian officers,
(ii) Registrar’s Court under a European judge,
(iii) District Court under the district judge,
(iv) Four Circuit Courts as provincial courts of appeal,
(v) Sadar Diwani Adalat at Calcutta, and
(vi) King-in-Council for appeals of 5000 pounds and above.
The Cornwallis Code was laid out:
a. There was a separation of revenue and justice administration.
b. European subjects were also brought under jurisdiction.
c. Government subjects were answerable to the civil courts for actions done in their official capacity.
d. The principle of sovereignty of law was established.
Reforms under William Bentinck (1828-1833):
i. The four Circuit Courts were abolished and their functions transferred to collectors under the
supervision of the commissioner of revenue and circuit.
ii. Sadar Diwani Adalat and a Sadar Nizamat Adalat were set up at Allahabad for the convenience of the
people of Upper Provinces.
iii. Till now, Persian was the official language in courts. Now, the suitor had the option to use Persian or a
vernacular language, while in the Supreme Court English language replaced Persian.
1833:
A law Commission was set up under Macaulay for codification of Indian laws. As a result, a Civil
Procedure Code (1859), an Indian Penal Code (1860) and a Criminal Procedure Code (1861) were
prepared.
1860:
It was provided that the Europeans can claim no special privileges except in criminal cases, and no judge
of an Indian origin could try them.
1865:
The Supreme Court and the Sadar Adalats were merged into three High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras.
1935:
The Government of India Act provided for a Federal Court (set up in 1937) which could settle disputes
between governments and could hear limited appeals from the High Courts.
Positive Aspects on Judiciary under the British:
i. The rule of law was established.
ii. The codified laws replaced the religious and personal laws of the rulers.
iii. Even European subjects were brought under the jurisdiction, although in criminal cases, they could be
tried by European judges only.
iv. Government servants were made answerable to the civil courts.
The Negative Aspects:
i. The judicial system became more and more complicated and expensive. The rich could manipulate the
system.
ii. There was ample scope for false evidence, deceit and chicanery.
iii. Dragged out litigation meant delayed justice.
iv. Courts became overburdened as litigation increased.
v. Often, the European judges were not familiar with the Indian usage and traditions.

Q8: What were the factors leading to national awakening:

Factors leading to the birth of Indian Nationalism:-
Introduction

The British exploitation of Indian masses for a century created hatred and animosity against them. The
introduction of western education was an eye-opener for the Indians towards the colonial rule of the
British raj. Besides, several other factors contributed for the growth of nationalism in India.

 Political and Administrative unity:

India became politically unified under British rule. British rule also brought administrative unity inside
the country. Less than one rule, one administrative framework, one set of law, judicial court,
administrative officers, etc.became same everywhere inside the country. It created awareness among
Indians that this vast united India belongs to them and by the way, created nationalism within them.
  Development in the means of communication and transport:
Lord Dalhousie made a lasting contribution for Indians by introducing railways, telegraph and new mode
of postal system. Roads were connected with India from one end to the other. Though, all these were
meant to serve imperial interest, the people of India capitalised it. The railway compartment reflected a
united India. It narrowed down gap among them and gave them the feeling that they all belonged to this
vast India which was under the grip the British raj.
 Impact of Western Education:
The introduction of English education in 1835 was a milestone in the British administration. It was
primarily meant to create an educated Indian mass who would be faithful servants to the British raj.
However, with the gradual march of time, the English educated Indians became the pioneers in the socio-
politico-economical and religious reforms in India. Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Feroz
Shah Mehta, Dadabhai Nairobi, Surrender Nat Banerjee championed the cause of liberty, equality
humanitarianism etc. Gradually, the English educated Indians became the torch-bearers of Indian
nationalism and aroused national consciousness in the minds of millions of Indians.
 Rediscovery of India's glorious past:
The nineteenth century Indian Renaissance created several avenues in the field of oriental studies.
Western scholars like Max Muller, Sir William Jones, Alexander Cunningham, etc. translated several
ancient Sanskrit texts of this land and established before the people the glorious cultural heritage of India.
Inspired by them, the Indian scholars like R.D - Banerjee, R.G. Bhandarkar. Mahan Mahopadhyaya Hara
Prasad Astir, Ball Gangadhar Tikal etc. rediscovered India's past glory from the history of this land. This
encouraged the people of India who felt that they were the ancestors of grand monarchs of this country
and ruled by foreigners. This flared up the fire of nationalism.
 Socio-religious reform movements:
The national awakening in the nineteenth century was largely due to the socio-religious movements
launched by Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Vivekananda, Slayed Ahmad Khan,
Annie Besant etc. These reformers championed the causes of human equality, individual liberty, abolition
of social disparity and so on. This reformed the minds of Indians and awoke them from centuries of
thralldom.
 Growth of vernacular literature:
The influence of western education prompted the educated Indians to reflect the idea of liberty, freedom
and nationalism through the vernacular literature.
They aimed at arousing the mass to oppose British rule being surcharged by the spirit of nationalism.
Bunkum Chandra Chatterer’s Anand Math (which contained the song Vanda Mata ram) and Dinabandhu
Metra's play Nil Darlan extorted tremendous influence upon the people and created anti-British feelings
among them.
Bharatendu Harish Chandra's play Baraga Purdahs reflected the miserable condition of Indian mass under
British rule.
Besides several eminent poets and writers in different languages, e.g. Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali,
Vishnu Shari Chipulunkar in Marathi, Laminate Bazbarua in Assamese, Mohammad Husain Azad and
Altar Husain Ali in Urdu etc. contributed a lot to rouse nationalism among the local people through their
writings.
 Press and newspapers:
Press and magazines played a dominant role in injecting national feelings in the minds of Indians.
Raja Rammohan Roy was the pioneer of Indian press and journalism. He edited Sambaed Kumauni in
Bengali and MiratuI Akbar in Persian. Gradually,
several newspapers were edited in different parts of the country in several languages.
The Amritbazar Patria, Hindu Patriot, Indian Mirror, Bengalese, Sanjivani, Saharan, in Bengali, the
Maratha Kesari, Native Opinion, Indus Prakash in Maharashtra; The Hindu, Kerala Patria, Andhra
Prakashiks in Madras; The Tribune, Akbar-i-Am, Koh-i-Noor in Punjab etc. were the important
publications that reflected the colonial rule of the Bruisers and aroused nationalism in the minds of Indian
people.
  Economic exploitation of the Britishers:
A nation of shop-keepers, the Britishers, paralyzed Indian economy by draining wealth from this country.
The industrial revolution in England helped in the productive process and she needed markets all over the
world for selling its products and also needed raw-materials for its factories.
India was robbed away in both the ways i.e. by providing market for the British goods and supplying raw
materials for the factories of England.
The creation of absentee landlords by the Britishers and in association with them the local money-lenders
exploited the Indian mass and made them poorer and poorer.
The adverse effects of British exploitation were reflected in Indian economy.
Dadabhai Naoroji with his theory of agricultural decay;
G. V. josh and Ranade with their charges against the ruin of Indian handicrafts brought before the people
the exploitative policy of the Britishers which ruined the Indian economy, factory, handicrafts etc. and
brought untold miseries to the people and made them poor.
The hungry bellies became angry against the Britishers.
 Racial antagonism:
The Englishmen considered themselves as superior in all respects than the Indians. They never wanted to
offer the Indians higher jobs even though they were qualified and intelligent. The age limit for Indian
Civil Service examination was kept at twenty-one and the examination was held at England. Aurobindo
Ghosh was declared disqualified in horse-riding and could not get through that examination, even he had
qualified the written examination. Thus, the colonial rule was well apparent before the educated Indians
who became the vanguard in spreading discontent against the British rule among the Indian mass.
 The atrocities of Lord Lytton:
The administration of Lord Lytton discharged venom in the minds of Indian people. He celebrated a
ceremony at Delhi Durbar when Queen Victoria assumed the title Kaiser-e Hind (the Empress of India.
when the country was famine-stricken. He imposed heavy tax on the people of India and spent a large
chunk of money in the Afghan war.
During his time, the Arms Act was passed which prohibited the Indians from keeping arms without
licence.
His Vernacular Press Act infuriated Indians.
 The Albert Bill controversy:
During the period of Lord Ripon as Viceroy, the Albert Bill was passed.
It empowered the Indian judges to try the Europeans. It created hue and cry among the Europeans and
their pressure led to reform the bill inserting a clause that an Indian would try a European in the presence
of a European witness. This clearly exposed the malafide intention of the British authority and clearly
projected their racial antagonism.
 The memory of the Revolt of 1857:
When nationalism was flaring up in the minds of Indian people, the memory of the Great Revolt of 1857
flashed back before them.
The heroic action of Nana Sahib, Tata Tope, Rani Laxmi Bai and other leaders of the Revolt became
fresh in their mind. It inspired the people to cherish with their memory and to give a fight to the
Britishers.
 The birth of Indian National Congress:
The birth of Indian National Congress in 1885 gave a final spark to the growth of national consciousness
among the Indians.
Soon, the National Congress gained momentum in the nook and corner of India.
It expressed the desires of the people before the British authorities.
Through many mass movements and their important leaders the courses became able to give an
ideological fight to the British raj and bring freedom to India.
 The social composition of early Congress leadership
Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. Its founding members belonged to educated middle class.
They had got English education and had firm faith in British providence. They wanted to improve the
condition of Indian people under the guidance of British benevolence. They had no mass support. They
wanted to keep their movement restricted to upper middle class as they were of opinion that people in
general were not educated enough to understand the basic need of the hour. Its founding members
proposed economic reforms and wanted a larger role in the making of British policy for India.
Early Congressmen who dominated the affairs of the Indian National Congress from 1885 to 1905 were
known as the Moderates. They belonged to a class which was Indian in blood and color but British in
tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. They were supporters of British institutions. They believed
that what India needed was a balanced and lucid presentation of her needs before the Englishmen and
their Parliament. They had faith in the British sense of justice. The Moderates believed in orderly progress
and constitutional agitation. They believed in patience, steadiness, conciliation and union.
The Moderates believed in constitutional agitation within the four corners of law. They believed that their
main task was to educate the people, to arouse national political consciousness and to create a united
public opinion on political questions. For this purpose they held meetings. They criticized the
Government through the press. They drafted and submitted memorials and petitions to the Government, to
the officials of the Government of India and also to the British Parliament. They also worked to influence
the British Parliament and British public opinion. The object of the memorials and petitions was to
enlighten the British public and political leaders about the conditions prevailing in India. Delegations of
leading Indian leaders were sent to Britain in 1889. The basic weakness of the Moderates lay in their
narrow social base. Their movement did not have a wide appeal. The area of their influence was limited to
the urban community. As they did not have the Support of the masses, they declared that the time was not
ripe for throwing out a challenge to the foreign rulers.
By 1907, however, the Congress had split into a moderate group led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who
sought dominion status for India, and a militant faction under Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who demanded self-
rule
 The Moderates and Extremists
Moderates:-The social base of moderates was zamindars and upper middle classes people in towns.
They had ideological inspiration western liberal thought and European history.
They believed in England's providential mission in India.
They believed political connections with Britain to be in India’s social, political and cultural interests.
They professed loyalty to the British Crown.
They believed that the movement should be limited to middle class intelligentsia; masses not yet ready for
participation in political work.
They demanded constitutional reforms and share for Indians in services.
They insisted on the use of constitutional methods only. They were patriots and did not play the role of a
comprador class.
Extremists: The social base of extremist was educated middle and lower middle classes in towns.
Their ideological inspiration came from Indian history, cultural heritage and Hindu traditional symbols.
They rejected ‘providential mission theory' as an illusion.
They believed that political connections with Britain would perpetuate British exploitation of India.
They believed that the British Crown was unworthy of claiming Indian loyalty.
They had immense faith in the capacity of masses to participate and to make sacrifices.
They demanded Swaraj as the panacea for Indian ills.
They did not hesitate to use extra- constitutional methods like boycott and passive resistance to achieve
their objectives.
They were patriots who made sacrifices for the sake of the country.
 Partition of Bengal (1905)
Partition of Bengal in 1905 was carried out by the British viceroy, Lord Curzon. Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa
had formed a single province of British India since 1765. By 1900 the province had grown too large to
handle under a single administration. East Bengal, because of isolation and poor communications, had
been neglected in favor of west Bengal and Bihar.
The Hindus of west Bengal, who controlled most of Bengal’s commerce and professional and rural life
opposed Partition.
They regarded the partition as an attempt to strangle nationalism in Bengal, where it was more developed
than elsewhere.
This began a transformation of the Indian National Congress from a middle-class pressure group into a
nationwide mass movement.
In 1911, the year that the capital was shifted from Calcutta (now Kolkata) to Delhi, east and west Bengal
were reunited.
The aim was to combine appeasement of Bengali sentiment with administrative convenience.
 The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal
The Swadeshi Movement had its genesis in the anti-partition movement of Bengal.
The decision escalated the protest meeting, leading to the passage of Boycott resolution in a massive
meeting held in Calcutta town hall, and the formal proclamation of Swadeshi Movement was made.
The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal was dominated by the extremist.
They put forward new forms of struggle. The movement mainly introduced boycott of foreign goods, and
used public meetings and procession for mass mobilization.
Self reliance or ‘Atma Shakti’, Swadeshi educations and enterprises, were emphasized on.
Several samities remained active to ensure mass participation and in the cultural sphere songs written by
Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikanta Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Mukunda Das and others inspired the masses.
Soon the movement spread to other parts of the country; in Pune and Bombay under Tilak, in Punjab
under Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh, in Delhi under Syed Haider Raza and in Madras under
Chaidamabaram Pillai.
 The economic and political aspects of Swadeshi Movement
The Swadeshi movement was a turning point in modern Indian history.
It proved to be a “leap forward” in more ways than one. Hitherto untouched sections; students, women,
some sections of urban and rural population participated in the movement.
All major trends of the national movement, from conservative moderation to political extremism, from
revolutionary terrorism to incipient socialism, from petitions and prayers to passive resistance and non-
cooperation, emerged during the Swadeshi Movement.
The richness of the movement was not confined to the political sphere alone, but encompassed
economics, art, literature, science and industry also.
The Swadeshi campaign undermined the hegemony of colonial ideas and institutions.
The future struggle was to draw heavily from the experience gained.
Thus, with the coming of Swadeshi and boycott Movement, it became clear that the Moderates had
outlived their utility and their politics of petitions and speeches had become obsolete.
They had not succeeded in keeping pace with time, and this was highlighted by their failure to get the
support of the younger generation for their style of politics.
Their failure to work among the masses had meant that their ideas did not take root among the masses.
 The beginning of revolutionary extremism in India
The Extremists acquired a dominant influence over the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
This was because the Moderate-led movement had failed to yield results.
The divisive tactics of the Governments of both the Bengals had embittered the nationalists.
The Government had resorted to suppressive measures.
The Extremists gave a call for passive resistance in addition to swadeshi and boycott which would include
a boycott of government schools and colleges, government service, courts, legislative councils,
municipalities, government titles, etc.
The militant nationalists put forward several fresh ideas at the theoretical, propaganda and program
levels. Among the several forms of struggle thrown up by the movement were: boycott of foreign goods,
public meetings and processions, Corps of volunteers or ‘samitis’, imaginative use of traditional popular
festivals and melas, emphasis given to self-reliance or ‘Atma Shakti’, program of Swadeshi or national
education, swadeshi or indigenous enterprises etc.
The militant nationalists tried to transform the anti- partition and Swadeshi Movement into a mass
struggle and gave the slogan of India’s independence from foreign rule.
The Extremists gave the idea of India’s independence the central place in India’s politics.
The goal of independence was to be achieved through self-sacrifice
Q9:- Circumstances which led to the birth of the Indian National Congress in 1885:-
Introduction:-
Retired British Indian Civil Service (ICS) officer Allan Octavian Hume founded the Indian National
Congress (A political party of India (British India to Free India)) in order to form a platform for civil and
political dialogue among educated Indians. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, control of India was
transferred from the East India Company to the British Empire. British-controlled India, known as
the British Raj, or just the Raj, worked to try to support and justify its governance of India with the aid of
English-educated Indians, who tended to more familiar with and friendly to British culture and political
thinking. Ironically, a few of the reasons that the Congress grew and survived, particularly in the 19th
century era of undisputed British dominance or hegemony, was through the patronage of British
authorities and the rising class of Indians and Anglo-Indians educated in the English language-based
British tradition. On 28 December 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded at Gokuldas Tejpal
Sanskrit College in Bombay, with 72 delegates in attendance. Hume assumed office as the General
Secretary, and Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee of Calcutta was elected President.
Policies of Indian National Congress during 1885–1905
Between 1885 and 1905, the Indian National Congress passed several resolutions in its annual sessions.
Through the resolutions, the humble demands made by Congress included civil rights, administrative,
constitutional and economic policies. A look at the resolution passed on these methods would be given an
idea the directions of Congress programs were taking.
a) Civil Rights: The Congress leaders realized the value of freedom of speech and press, the right to
organize processions, meetings and similar other rights.
b) Administrative: The Congress leaders urged the government to remove certain administrative abuses
and run public welfare measures. They put emphasis on the appointment of Indians in the government
services. Specific proposals are made to open agricultural banks for the relief of peasantry. The Congress
leaders also raised the voice of protest against the discriminatory laws enacted by the government.
c) Constitutional: The humble demand made by the early Congress leaders in respect to constitutional
matters were: to increase the power of legislative councils; to include elected Indian representatives. It
must be mentioned here that the British government of India paid scant regard to the above demands
made by Congress.
d) Economic: In the economic sphere, Congress blamed the wrong policies of the British that resulted in
rising property and economic repression of the Indian people. The Congress also put forward certain
specific suggestions for the economic improvement of the country and her people. These included the
introduction of modern industry, Indianization of public services, etc. The Congress also demanded the
evolution of salt tax for the benefit particularly of the poor section of the people
Indian National Congress right from its inception and first session had started voicing against the foreign
policy of British imposed on Indians. The stance of congress was based on four basic principles as
follows:
Opposition to imperialism and colonial rule.
Active sympathy and support to the people fighting for independence.
Opposition to militarism, war and de votion to peace, and
Avoiding foreign entanglements for India.
These four principles were recognized as integral part of Foreign Policy of Congress aimed at prosperity
of entire human race. This is evident from the following activities of INC:
In its very first session in 1885, the Congress strongly disapproved the annexation of upper Burma by the
British
In 1892, it objected the military activity around the natural defence lines of India. The use of India, by
Britain as a base for political manoeuvring for military moves against India’s neighbours like Tibet,
Burma, Afghanistan and Persia was opposed by the Congress.
In 1904, it opposed the British involvement in Tibet. It was after the First World War that Indians led by
Congress started taking more active and articulated interest in foreign affairs.
In 1920, the Congress sent a message of sympathy to the Irish people who were struggling for their
independence.
It was in 1921 that Indian National Congress in its Delhi meeting adopted a complete resolution on
foreign policy and affined India’s desire to establish good neighbourly and friendly relations with
neighbouring and other states.
It criticised the Government of India for adopting a policy governed by the imperial interests of Britain
over and above the interests of India. This was the first significant declaration made by Indian leadership.
In the 1927 Madras session, the Congress passed a resolution against the use of Indian troops in China,
Mesopotamia and Persia.
The Calcutta Congress of 1928 directed the Indian National Congress to open a Foreign Department for
developing contacts and organising the anti-imperialist movement of the dependent people.
Jawaharlal Nehru came to head this department and became the director of the foreign policy of
Congress.
It was this experience that made him retain and act with precision and efficiency the role of the architect
of Independent India’s foreign policy.
In 1930, the Congress came out with a thorough condemnation of the aggressive acts of Nazis and
Fascists. It warned against the outbreak of an imperialist war and declared that India would not be a party
to this war.
In 1939, at the Tripuri session, the Congress asserted the right of India to have and direct its own foreign
policy. It again strongly condemned the forces of Imperialism and Fascism in international politics.
When Second World War broke out and Britain made India a party to war on its side, the Congress
strongly attacked the British policy.
It demanded the recognition of right of India to be a full state on the basis of the letter and spirit of the
Atlantic Charter. During 1945-47, the Congress, through a number of declarations spoke out strongly “for
the freedom of all countries and for the elimination of all traces of imperialist control by whatever name it
may be called.” It welcomed the formulation of United Nations but expressed its dissatisfaction with the
big power domination of its organisation.
In 1946, the Congress voiced concern and apprehensions regarding the consequences of the Atomic
Bomb and of the continued power struggle among the imperialist powers. It further demanded an end to
the foreign domination of Asian and African countries.
Most of the resolutions of the Indian National Congress on foreign policy were drafted by Jawaharlal
Nehru. In those resolutions, the cause of democracy was advocated and imperialism and colonialism were
denounced.
Q10:- Examine the main features of the Khilafat movement.
Ans10:- The Khilafat Movement (1919-20 ) was essentially a movement to express Muslim support for
the Caliph of Turkey against the allied powers particularly Britain.
Background
Khilafat Movement in India
Role of Gandhi in Khilafat Movement
Khilafat Movement and Hindu Muslim Unity
How Government seeded hate?
Background From 1876 to 1909, Abdul Hamid II was the Ottoman emperor. Being a Caliph, the Ottoman
emperor was the supreme religious and political leader of all Sunni Muslims across the world. In the
World War I, the Ottoman Empire had sided the Central Powers and the result of this war was the defeat
of the Central Powers.
Khilafat Movement in India
Muslims were especially upset about the future of the Islamic places of worship after the allied powers
had partitioned the Turkish Empire. In India Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar and his brother Maulana
Shaukat Ali along with some other Muslim leaders
It had two main demands, which were never accepted: Caliph Sultan must retain sufficient territories so
that he is able to defend the Islamic Faith.
The places which are called Jazirat-ul-arab, including the Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine must remain
under Muslim suzerainty.

October 17, 1919 was observed as Khilafat Day. The Hindus also joined hands with the Muslims and a
strike was called for.

On November 23 1919, the All India Khilafat Conference was organized at New Delhi and later
a Khilafat Manifesto was published which called upon the British to protect the Caliphate.

The leaders of the Khilafat Movement joined hands with Indian National Congress for the upcoming
Non-cooperation Movement.
Again March 19 1920 was observed as Khilafat Day and following that there was an all party conference
in June 1920 at Allahabad. The agenda of the Non -cooperation Movement was finalized. The agenda
was:-
Boycott of the Titles conferred by the Government
Boycott of civil services, army and police and all other Government offices.
Non-payment of taxes to the government
The Khilafat movement came and went very quickly.
It had lost its relevance when Mustafa Kemal Atatlurk had abolished the Caliphate.
The last Caliphate was Abdülmecid II,
who was expelled with his family and took asylum in Istanbul (Constantinople),
where he spent rest of his life catching butter flies. He died in 1948.
Q11:- Write a short note on Non Cooperation.
Ans:-The non-cooperation movement was launched on 1 st August 1920 by the Indian National Congress
(INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It signified a new chapter in the history of Indian
freedom struggle.
Features of the non-cooperation movement
  The movement was essentially a peaceful and non-violent protest against the British government
in India.
 Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign from nominated seats in the local bodies as
a mark of protest.

 People were asked to resign from their government jobs.

 People were asked to withdraw their children from government-controlled or aided schools and
colleges.

 People were asked to boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-made goods.

 People were asked to boycott the elections to the legislative councils.

 People were asked not to serve in the British army.

 It was also planned that if the above steps did not bring results, people would refuse to pay their
taxes.

 The INC also demanded Swarajya or self-government.

 Only completely non-violent means would be employed to get the demands fulfilled.

 The non-cooperation movement was a decisive step in the independence movement because for
the first time, the INC was ready to forego constitutional means to achieve self-rule.

 Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this movement was continued to
completion.

Causes of the non-cooperation movement

 Resentment at the British after the war: Indians thought that in return for the extensive support
of manpower and resources they had provided to Britain during the First World War, they would
be rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But the Government of India Act passed in 1919
was dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also passed repressive acts like the Rowlatt Act which
further angered many Indians who felt betrayed by the rulers despite their wartime support.
 Home Rule Movement: The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar
Tilak set the stage for the non-cooperation movement. The extremists and the moderates of the
INC were united and the Lucknow Pact also saw solidarity between the Muslim League and the
Congress Party. The return of the extremists gave the INC a militant character.

 Economic hardships due to World War I: India’s indirect participation in the war caused a lot of
economic hardships to the people. Prices of goods began to soar which affected the common man.
Peasants also suffered because the prices of agricultural products did not increase. All this led to
resentment against the government.

 The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre: The repressive Rowlatt Act and the brutal
massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound effect on the Indian leaders and the
people. Their faith in the British system of justice was broken and the whole country rallied
behind its leaders who were pitching for a more aggressive and firm stance against the
government.
  The Khilafat Movement: During the First World War, Turkey, which was a German ally, had
fought against the British. After Turkey’s defeat, the Ottoman caliphate was proposed to be
dissolved. The Khilafat movement was launched by Muslims in India to persuade the British
government not to abolish the caliphate. The leaders of this movement accepted the non-
cooperation movement of Gandhiji and led a joint protest against the British.

Suspension of the non-cooperation movement

 Gandhiji called off the movement in February, 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident.
 In Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station killing 22 policemen
during a clash between the police and protesters of the movement.

 Gandhiji called off the movement saying people were not ready for revolt against the government
through ahimsa. A lot of leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of
the movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.

Results and significance of the non-cooperation movement

 Swaraj was not achieved in one year as Gandhiji had told.

 However, it was a truly mass movement where lakhs of Indians participated in the open protest
against the government through peaceful means.

 It shook the British government who were stumped by the extent of the movement.

 It saw participation from both Hindus and Muslims thereby showcasing communal harmony in
the country.

 This movement established the popularity of the Congress Party among the people.

 As a result of this movement, people became conscious of their political rights. They were not
afraid of the government.

 Hordes of people thronged to jails willingly.

 The Indian merchants and mill owners enjoyed good profits during this period as a result of the
boycott of British goods. Khadi was promoted.

 The import of sugar from Britain reduced considerably during this period.

 This movement also established Gandhiji as a leader of the masses.

Q12:- Discuss the provision of the government of India act.

Ans:The Government of India Act 1919 was an act of the British Parliament that sought to increase the
participation of Indians in the administration of their country. The act was based on the recommendations
of a report by Edwin Montagu, the then Secretary of State for India, and Lord Chelmsford, India’s
Viceroy between 1916 and 1921. Hence the constitutional reforms set forth by this act are known as
Montagu-Chelmsford reforms or Montford reforms.
Main provisions of the Government of India Act 1919
Provincial government

 Executive:

 Dyarchy was introduced, i.e., there were two classes of administrators – Executive
councillors and ministers.

 The Governor was the executive head of the province.

 The subjects were divided into two lists – reserved and transferred.

 The governor was in charge of the reserved list along with his executive councillors. The
subjects under this list were law and order, irrigation, finance, land revenue, etc.

 The ministers were in charge of subjects under the transferred list. The subjects included
were education, local government, health, excise, industry, public works, religious
endowments, etc.

 The ministers were responsible to the people who elected them through the legislature.

 These ministers were nominated from among the elected members of the legislative
council.

 The executive councillors were not responsible to the legislature unlike the ministers.

 The Secretary of State and the Governor-General could interfere in matters under the
reserved list but this interference was restricted for the transferred list.

 Legislature:

 The size of the provincial legislative assemblies was increased. Now about 70% of the
members were elected.

 There were communal and class electorates.

 Some women could also vote.

 The governor’s assent was required to pass any bill. He also had veto power and could
issue ordinances also.

Central government

 Executive:

 The chief executive authority was the Governor-General.

 There were two lists for administration – central and provincial.

 Provincial list was under the provinces while the centre took care of the central list.

 Out of the 6 members of the Viceroy’s executive council, 3 were to be Indian members.
  The governor-general could issue ordinances.

 He could also certify bills that were rejected by the central legislature.

 Legislature:

 A bicameral legislature was set up with two houses – Legislative Assembly (forerunner of
the Lok Sabha) and the Council of State (forerunner of the Rajya Sabha).

 Legislative Assembly (Lower House)

 Members of the Legislative Assembly:

 The nominated members were nominated by the governor-general from Anglo-Indians

and Indian Christians.

 The members had a tenure of 3 years.

 Council of State (Upper House)

 Only male members with a tenure of 5 years.

 Members of the Council of State:


  The legislators could ask questions and also vote a part of the budget.

 Only 25% of the budget was subject to vote.

 Rest was non-votable.

 A bill had to passed in both houses before it became a law.

 There were three measures to resolve any deadlock between both the houses – joint committees,
joint conferences and join sittings.

 Governor-General

 The governor-general’s assent was required for any bill to become a law even if both
houses have passed it.

 He could also enact a bill without the legislature’s consent.

 He could prevent a bill from becoming law if he deems it as detrimental to the peace of
the country.

 He could disallow any question, adjournment motion or debate in the house.

Who could vote?

 Franchise was restricted and there was no universal adult suffrage.

 Voters should have paid land revenue of Rs.3000 or have property with rental value or have
taxable income.

 They should possess previous experience in the legislative council.

 They should be members of a university senate.

 They should hold certain offices in the local bodies.

 They should hold some specific titles.

 All this narrowed the number of people who could vote to an abysmal number.

Indian Council

 There were to be at least 8 and a maximum of 12 members in the council.

 Half of the members should have ten years of experience in public service in India.

 Their tenure was to be 5 years.

 Their salaries were increased from £1000 to £1200.

 There were to be 3 Indian members in the Council.

Other salient features

 This act provided for the first time, the establishment of a public service commission in India.
 The act also provided that after 10 years, a statutory commission would be set up to study the
working of the government. This resulted in the Simon Commission of 1927.

 It also created an office of the High Commissioner for India in London.

Merits of the Government of India Act 1919

 Dyarchy introduced the concept of responsible government.

 It introduced the concept of federal structure with a unitary bias.

 There was increased participation of Indians in the administration. They held some portfolios like
labour, health, etc.

 For the first time, elections were known to the people and it created a political consciousness
among the people.

 Some Indian women also had the right to vote for the first time.

Limitations of the Government of India Act 1919

 This act extended consolidated and communal representation.

 Franchise was very limited. It did not extend to the common man.

 The governor-general and the governors had a lot of power to undermine the legislatures at the
centre and the provinces respectively.

 Allocation of the seats for the central legislature was not based on population but the ‘importance’
of the province in the eyes of the British.

 The Rowlatt Acts were passed in 1919 which severely restricted press and movement. Despite the
unanimous opposition of Indian members of the legislative council, those bills were passed.
Several Indian members resigned in protest.

Q13:Rowlatt act 1919 Discuss.

Ans:- Regulating Act 1773 Notes

The Regulating Act was passed in the British Parliament in June 1773. It was the first parliamentary
ratification and authorization defining the powers and authority of the East India Company with respect to
its Indian possessions.
Background/Reasons for passing the Act
  The East India Company was in severe financial crisis and had asked a loan of 1 million pounds
from the British government in 1772.
 Allegations of corruption and nepotism were rampant against company officials.

 There was a terrible famine in Bengal where a huge population perished.

 The Dual form of administration instituted by Robert Clive was complex and drawing a lot of
complaints. According to this system, the company had Diwani rights (obtained after the Battle of
Buxar) in Bengal and the Nawab had Nizamat rights (judicial and policing rights) as secured from
the Mughal Emperor. In reality, both powers were vested with the company. The farmers and the
general population suffered as their improvement was neglected and the company was only
concerned with maximising revenue.

 Lawlessness increased in Bengal.

 The defeat of the company against Mysore’s Hyder Ali in 1769.

Provisions of The Regulating Act

 This act permitted the company to retain its territorial possessions in India but sought to regulate
the activities and functioning of the company. It did not take over power completely, hence called
‘regulating’.
 The act provided for appointment of a Governor-General along with four Councillors in the
Presidency of Fort William (Calcutta), jointly called the Governor-General in Council.

 As per this, Warren Hastings was appointed as the Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort
William.

 The Governors in Councils at Madras and Bombay were brought under the control of Bengal,
especially in matters of foreign policy. Now, they could not wage war against Indian states
without Bengal’s approval.

 The company directors were elected for a period of five years and one-fourth of them were to
retire every year. Also, they could not be re-elected.

 The company directors were directed to make public all correspondence on revenue, civil and
military matters with Indian authorities before the British authorities.

 A Supreme Court of Judicature was established at Calcutta with Sir Elijah Impey as the first
Chief Justice. Judges were to come from England. It had civil and criminal jurisdiction over the
British subjects and not Indian natives.

Defects of Regulating Act 1773

Drawbacks of The Regulating Act

 The Governor-General had no veto power.

 It did not address the concerns of the Indian population who were paying revenue to the company.

 It did not stop corruption among the company officials.

  The Supreme Court’s powers were not well-defined.

 The parliamentary control that was sought in the activities of the company proved to be
ineffective as there was no mechanism to study the reports sent by the Governor-General in
Council.

Q14:- Pitts India act

Ans: The Pitt’s India Act, 1784 also called the East India Company Act, 1784 was passed by the British
Parliament to correct the defects of the Regulating Act of 1773. This act resulted in dual control of British
possessions in India by the British government and the Company with the final authority resting with the
government. This act continued in effect until 1858. This topic is very important for Civil Services Exam
The act is named after William Pitt the Younger, Britain’s Prime Minister when the act was passed.
Provisions of the Act
For political matters, Board of Control was created and for commercial affairs, the Court of Directors was
appointed.

 The Board of Control took care of civil and military affairs. It comprised of 6 people:

 Secretary of State (Board President)

 Chancellor of the Exchequer

 Four Privy Councillors

 In this dual system of control, the company was represented by the Court of Directors and the
British government by the Board of Control.

 The act mandated that all civil and military officers disclose their property in India and Britain
within two months of their joining.

 The Governor-General’s council’s strength was reduced to three members. One of the three would
be the Commander-in-Chief of the British Crown’s army in India.

 The Governor-General was given the right of veto.

 The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay became subordinate to the Bengal Presidency. In effect,
Calcutta became the capital of the British possessions in India.

Features of the Act

 This act made a distinction between the commercial and political activities of the East India
Company.
 For the first time, the term ‘British possessions in India’ was used.

 This act gave the British government direct control over Indian administration.
  The Company became subordinate to the British government unlike as in the previous Regulating
Act of 1773, where the government only sought to ‘regulate’ matters and not take over.

 This act established the British Crown’s authority in civil and military administration of its Indian
territories. Commercial activities were still a monopoly of the Company.

Drawbacks of the Act

The act was deemed a failure because there was no clarity on the boundaries between the company’s
powers and the government’s authority.

Q15:- Charter Act of 1813

Ans:- Charter Act of 1813.

The Charter Act of 1813 passed by the British Parliament renewed the East India Company’s charter for
another 20 years. This is also called the East India Company Act, 1813. This act is important in that it
defined for the first time the constitutional position of British Indian territories.
Background

 Due to Napoleon Bonaparte’s Continental System in Europe (which prohibited the import of
British goods into French allies in Europe), British traders and merchants suffered.
 So they demanded they be given a share in the British trade in Asia and dissolve the monopoly of
the East India Company.

 The company objected to this.

 Finally, British merchants were allowed to trade in India under a strict licensing system under the
Charter Act of 1813.

 But in trade with China and the tea trade, the company still retained its monopoly.

Provisions of the Charter Act of 1813

 This Act asserted the Crown’s sovereignty over British possessions in India.
 Company’s rule and trade monopoly in India was extended to another 20 years. Monopoly was
ended except for the trade in tea and with China.

 It empowered the local governments to tax people subject to the jurisdiction of the Supreme
Court.

 The company’s dividend was fixed at 10.5%.

 The Act gave more powers for the courts in India over European British subjects.

 Another important feature of this act was to grant permission to the missionaries to come to India
and engage in religious proselytization. The missionaries were successful in getting the
appointment of a Bishop for British India with his headquarters at Calcutta in the provisions of
the Act.

 The act provided for a financial grant towards the revival of Indian literature and the promotion of
science.
  The company was also to take up a greater role in the education of the Indians under them. It was
to set aside Rs.1 Lakh for this purpose.

Q16:- Charter act of 1793

Ans:- Charter Act of 1793.

The Charter Act of 1793, also known as the East India Company Act 1793 was passed in the British
Parliament in which the company charter was renewed.
Provisions of the Charter Act 1793

 This Act continued the company’s rule over the British territories in India.
 It continued the company’s trade monopoly in India for another 20 years.

 The Act established that “acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of
the Crown and not in its own right,” which clearly stated that the company’s political functions
were on behalf of the British government.

 The company’s dividends were allowed to be raised to 10%.

 The Governor-General was given more powers. He could override his council’s decision under
certain circumstances.

 He was also given authority over the governors of Madras and Bombay.

 When the Governor-General was present in Madras or Bombay, he would supersede in authority
over the governors of Madras and Bombay.

 In the Governor-General’s absence from Bengal, he could appoint a Vice President from among
the civilian members of his Council.

 The composition of the Board of Control changed. It was to have a President and two junior
members, who were not necessarily members of the Privy Council.

 The salaries of the staff and the Board of Control were also now charged to the company.

 After all expenses, the company had to pay the British government Rs.5 Lakhs from the Indian
revenue annually.

 Senior company officials were barred from leaving India without permission. If they did so, it
would be considered as a resignation.

 The company was granted the authority to grant licenses to individuals and company employees
to carry on trade in India. This was known as ‘privilege’ or ‘country trade’. This led to shipments
of opium to China.

 This Act separated the revenue administration and the judiciary functions of the company leading
to the disappearance of Maal Adalats (revenue courts).
Q16:- Role of Mahatma Gandhi in national movement

Ans:- The Rise of Gandhi in Indian Freedom Struggle

M K Gandhi returned from South Africa (where he had lived for more than 20 years) to India in 1915.
There he had led a peaceful agitation against the discrimination meted out to Indians and had emerged as
a respected leader. It was in South Africa that he developed his brand of Satyagraha. In India, he first used
this tool against the British government at Champaran in Bihar.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

 The first civil disobedience movement by Gandhi in the freedom struggle.

 Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo cultivator, Gandhi went to Champaran in Bihar to
investigate the conditions of the farmers there.

 The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes and an exploitative system. They were forced to
grow indigo by the British planters under the tinkathia system.

 Gandhi arrived in Champaran to investigate the matter but was not permitted by the British
authorities to do so.

 He was asked to leave the place but he refused.

 He was able to gather support from the farmers and masses.

 When he appeared in court in response to a summons, almost 2000 locals accompanied him.

 The case against him was dropped and he was allowed to conduct the inquiry.

 After peaceful protests against the planters and landlords led by Gandhi, the government agreed
to abolish the exploitative tinkathia system.

 The peasants also received a part of the money extracted from them as compensation.

 Champaran struggle is called the first experiment on Satyagraha by Gandhi.

 It was during this time that Gandhi was given the names ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatma’ by the people.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

 1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda district of Gujarat due to droughts.
 As per law, the farmers were entitled to remission if the produce was less than a quarter of the
normal output.

 But the government refused any remission from paying land revenue.

 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, under Gandhi’s guidance, led the farmers in protest against the
collection of taxes in the wake of the famine.

 People from all castes and ethnicities of the district lend their support to the movement.
  The protest was peaceful and people showed remarkable courage even in the face of adversities
like confiscation of personal property and arrest.

 Finally, the authorities gave in and gave some concessions to the farmers.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

 Gandhi used Satyagraha and hunger strike for the first time during an industrial dispute between
the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.
 The owners wanted to withdraw the plague bonus to the workers while the workers were
demanding a hike of 35% in their wages.

 During the peaceful strike led by Gandhi, he underwent a hunger strike.

 The strike was successful and the workers were granted the wage hike they wanted.

In all these movements, Gandhi was able to involve the masses including farmers, artisans and even the
so-called lower castes. This was a change from the previous movements when the participation was
limited to the upper and the middle classes.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact is a very important part of the History syllabus for the IAS exam General Studies.
History is a very interesting subject and even as an optional, is taken by many IAS aspirants. It can be
made an interesting subject by following a few tips to make history interesting.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact is the name given to a political agreement concluded by Mahatma Gandhi and Lord
Irwin, the then Viceroy of India, on 5th March 1931.
Background

 The Second Round Table Conference was to be held in 1931 at London.

 In 1930, the Salt Satyagraha was conducted and India and Gandhi received worldwide attention.
The British government in India was criticised for its unjust treatment of Indians.

 Gandhi and many other leaders were imprisoned along with thousands of Indians.

 Lord Irwin wanted the issue to come to an end.

 So, Gandhi was released from prison in January 1931.

 The then Congress President Sardar Vallabhai Patel authorised Gandhi to hold talks with Lord
Irwin.

 Accordingly, Gandhi met Irwin and held negotiations. It was for the first time that the two were
meeting as ‘equals’.

Terms/features of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact

 The Indian National Congress (INC) agreed to take part in the Round Table Conference.
 The INC would stop the civil disobedience movement.

 Withdrawal of all ordinances that curbed the activities of the Congress.

  Withdrawal of all prosecutions except those involving violent crimes.

 Release of those who were arrested for taking part in the civil disobedience movement.

 Removal of the salt tax.

Outcomes of Gandhi Irwin Pact

Effects of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact

 The INC participated in the Second Round Table Conference which was held in 1931 during
September – December.
 The government agreed to withdraw all ordinances.

 It agreed to release all political prisoners save those involved in violence.

 It agreed to allow peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.

 It agreed to revoke the ban on the INC.

 It agreed to restore the confiscated properties of the Satyagrahis.

 It agreed to permit the collection of salt by people near the sea coasts.

 It agreed to forego fines not yet collected.

 It agreed to the lenient treatment of all government servants who had resigned from service in the
wake of the civil disobedience movement.

Demands of Gandhi not agreed to by Irwin

 A public inquiry into police excesses during its suppression of the movement.
 Commuting the death sentences of Bhagat Singh and his associates to life sentences.

The Poona Pact is an agreement between M K Gandhi and B R Ambedkar signed in the Yerwada Central
Jail, Poona on September 24th, 1932. This Pact ended the fast that Gandhi had undertaken in the jail to
protest against British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald’s award of a separate electorate to the
Depressed Classes.
Background

 Dr Ambedkar was in favour of a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes and this was laid
down by him in the First Round Table Conference. He was representing the Depressed Classes in
the conference.
 Gandhi was against this idea and when PM Macdonald decided to grant communal awards to
minorities and the Depressed Classes, he undertook a fast whilst in jail in Poona.

 Due to public pressure to end the fast unto death, Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi made the Poona Pact
which laid down reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in the provincial legislatures for which
elections would be through joint electorates.
  Gandhi was against this idea because he did not want to view the untouchables as being outside
the folds of Hinduism.

Provisions of the Poona Pact

 Certain seats for the provincial legislatures would be reserved for the Depressed Classes. The
number of seats was based on the total strength of the Provincial Councils. The number of seats
reserved for the provinces were 30 for Madras, 8 for Punjab, 15 for Bombay with Sindh, 20 for
the Central Provinces, 18 for Bihar and Orissa, 30 for Bengal, 7 for Assam and 20 for the United
Provinces. So, in total there were 148 reserved seats.
 For each of these seats, the members of the Depressed Classes who could vote would form an
electoral college. This Electoral College would elect a panel of four candidates who belong to the
Depressed Classes. These candidates would be elected on the basis of single vote. Four
candidates getting the highest number of votes would be elected.

 Then these four candidates would stand in the election for the assembly along with the general
candidates where the general electorate would vote. The members of the Depressed Classes hence
got a ‘double vote’ since they could vote under the general electorate also.

 Even in the Central Legislature, the same principle of joint electorate and reserved seats was to be
followed.

 In the Central Legislature, 19% of the seats would be reserved for the Depressed Classes.

 This system would continue for ten years unless a mutual agreement consents to terminate it
earlier.

 Fair representation of the Depressed Classes would be ensured by all means.

 Nobody would be discriminated against on the basis of caste on matters regarding election to the
local bodies or in public services appointments.

 A certain sum of money from the educational grant would be allotted for the education of the
Depressed Classes in all provinces.

The Simon Commission was a group of 7 MPs from Britain who was sent to India in 1928 to study
constitutional reforms and make recommendations to the government. The Commission was originally
named the Indian Statutory Commission. It came to be known as the Simon Commission after its
chairman Sir John Simon.
Background

 Diarchy was introduced in India by the Government of India Act 1919. The Act also promised
that a commission would be appointed after 10 years to review the working and progress made on
the measures taken through the Act.
 The Indian public and leaders wanted a reform of the diarchy form of government.

 The Conservative Party-led government in the UK feared a defeat at the hands of the Labour
Party in the elections due, and so hastened the appointment of a commission in 1928 even though
it was due only in 1929 as per the 1919 Act.
  The Commission was composed entirely of British members with not a single Indian member
being included in it. This was seen as an insult to Indians who were right in saying that their
destiny could not be determined by a bunch of British people alone.

 The Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead had berated Indians on account of their
perceived inability to formulate a concrete scheme of reforms through consensus among all
sections of the Indian political scene.

 Lord Birkenhead was responsible for setting up the Commission.

 Clement Atlee was a member of the Commission. He would later become Britain’s Prime
Minister during Indian independence and partition in 1947.

Why was Simon Commission boycotted?

Indian response

 Indians were outraged at their exclusion from the Commission.

 The Congress Party decided to boycott the Commission at their session at Madras in 1927.

 The Muslim League led by M A Jinnah also boycotted it. A certain section of members led by
Muhammad Shafi supported the government.

 The Justice Party in the South decided to side with the government on this issue.

 When the Commission landed in February 1928, there were mass protests, hartals and black flag
demonstrations all over the country.

 People were chanting the slogan, ‘Simon Go Back.’

 The police resorted to lathi charges to suppress the movement. Even senior leaders like Pandit
Nehru were not spared.

 In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai, who was leading the demonstration against the Simon Commission,
was brutally lathi-charged. He died later that year due to injuries sustained then.

 Dr B R Ambedkar had submitted a report on behalf of the Bahishkrita Hitakarini Sabha on the
education of the depressed classes in the Bombay Presidency.

Impact

 The Commission’s report was published in 1930. Before the publication, the government assured
that henceforth, Indian opinion would be considered and that the natural outcome of
constitutional reforms would be dominion status for India.
 It recommended the abolition of diarchy and the setting-up of representative governments in the
provinces.

 It also recommended the retention of separate communal electorates until the communal tensions
had died down.
  The Simon Commission led to the Government of India Act 1935 which acted as the basis for
many parts of the current Indian Constitution.

 The first provincial elections were held in 1937 and it saw Congress governments being set up in
almost all the provinces.

 The arrival of the Commission gave an impetus to the Indian independence movement by
galvanizing leaders and masses.

Charter Act.
The Charter Act 1853 was passed in the British Parliament to renew the East India Company’s charter.
Unlike the previous charter acts of 1793, 1813 and 1833 which renewed the charter for 20 years; this act
did not mention the time period for which the company charter was being renewed. This Act was passed
when Lord Dalhousie was the Governor-General of India.
Provisions of the Charter Act 1853

 Governor-General’s office
1. The Law member (fourth member) became a full member with the right to vote.

2. The Legislative Council which had six members now had 12 members.

3. The 12 members were: 1 Governor-General, 1 Commander-in-Chief, 4 members of the

Governor-General’s Council, 1 Chief Justice of the Supreme Court at Calcutta, 1 regular
judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta, and 4 representative members drawn from
among the company’s servants with at least 10 years tenure, appointed by the local
governments of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and North Western Provinces.

4. The Governor-General could nominate a vice president to the council.

5. The Governor-General’s assent was required for all legislative proposals.

 The Court of Directors could create a new presidency or province. This was because of the
difficulties that were faced in administering the increasingly large Indian territories of Britain.

1. Since 1833 and 1853, two new provinces of Sind and Punjab were added.

2. It could also appoint a Lieutenant Governor for these provinces. In 1859, a Lt. Governor
was appointed for Punjab.

3. This Act also led to the creation of Assam, Burma and the Central Provinces.

 The Act provided for the appointment of a separate governor for the Bengal Presidency. It
maintained that the governor of Bengal should be different from the Governor-General who was
to head administration of the whole of India.

 The number of Board of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 out of which 6 people were to be
nominated by the British Crown.

 Indian Civil Services

1. Macaulay Committee of 1854 gave India her first civil services.

 2. This act removed the right of patronage to appointments in civil service held by the Court
of Directors.

3. Appointment was to be done only by open competition based on merit and was open to
all.

4. The report recommended that only the ‘fittest’ be selected to the ICS.

Features of the Charter Act 1853

 For the first time, the legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General’s council were
separated.
 This act served as the foundation of the modern parliamentary form of government. The
legislative wing of the Governor-General’s Council acted as a parliament on the model of the
British Parliament.

 It extended the company’s rule for an indefinite period unlike the previous charter acts. Thus, it
could be taken over by the British government any time.

 Company’s influence was further reduced by this act. The Board of Directors now had 6 members
who were Crown-nominated.

 It gave birth to the Indian civil services and was open to all including Indians. This ended the
system of appointments by recommendation and started a system of open and fair competition.

 For the first time, local representation was introduced into the legislative council in the form of
four members from the local governments of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and North Western
Provinces.

Ram Mohan Roy – Indian Social Reformer.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772 – 1833)
Facts

 Born in Radhanagar, Hooghly District, Bengal Presidency in May 1772 into a Bengali Hindu
family.
 He is known as the ‘Father of Modern India’ or ‘Father of the Bengal Renaissance’.

 He was a religious and social reformer.

 Widely known for his role in the abolition of the practice of Sati.

 He was a scholar and knew Sanskrit, Persian, Hindi, Bengali, English and Arabic.

 He fought against the perceived ills of Hindu society at that time.

 Propagated Western education among Indians.

 Formed the Brahmo Samaj in 1828.

  Worked for the East India Company as a clerk.

 He died in September 1833 in Bristol, England.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy Contribution

Work and ideology

 He was opposed to Sati, polygamy, child marriage, idolatry, the caste system, and propagated
widow remarriage.
 He stressed on rationalism and modern scientific approach.

 He believed in social equality of all human beings.

 He started many schools to educate Indians in Western scientific education in English.

 He was against the perceived polytheism of Hinduism. He advocated monotheism as given in the
scriptures.

 He studied Christianity and Islam as well.

 He translated the Vedas and five of the Upanishads into Bengali.

 He started the Sambad Kaumudi, a Bengali weekly newspaper which regularly denounced Sati as
barbaric and against the tenets of Hinduism.

 In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Sabha which was later renamed Brahmo Samaj. He had also
founded the Atmiya Sabha.

 Brahmo Samaj’s chief aim was worship of the eternal god. It was against priesthood, rituals and
sacrifices. It focused on prayers, meditation and reading of the scriptures.

 It was the first intellectual reform movement in modern India where social evils then practiced
where condemned and efforts made to remove them from society.

 It led to the emergence of rationalism and enlightenment in India which indirectly contributed to
the nationalist movement.

 The Brahmo Samaj believed in the unity of all religions.

 He worked for the improvement in the position of women. He advocated widow remarriage and
education of women.

 His efforts led to the abolition of Sati in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck, the then Governor-
General of India.

 He was a true humanist and democrat.

 He also spoke against the unjust policies of the British government especially the restrictions on
press freedom.

 Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj played a vital role in awakening Indian society to
the pressing issues plaguing society at that time and also was the forerunner of all social, religious
and political movements that happened in the country since.
  He visited England as an ambassador of the Mughal king Akbar Shah II (father of Bahadur Shah)
where he died of a disease. He was awarded the title ‘Raja’ by Akbar II.

The Salt Satyagraha was a mass civil disobedience movement initiated by Mahatma Gandhi against the
salt tax imposed by the British government in India. He led a large group of people from Sabarmati
Ashram on 12thMarch 1930 till Dandi, a coastal village in Gujarat, to break the salt law by producing salt
from seawater.
.

Background to Salt Satyagraha

 By 1930, the Congress Party had declared that Poorna Swarajya or complete independence was to
be the sole aim of the freedom struggle.
 It started observing 26 January as Poorna Swarajya Day; and it was decided that civil
disobedience was to be the means employed to achieve it.

 Mahatma Gandhi was asked to plan and organise the first such act. Gandhiji chose to break the
salt tax in defiance of the government.

 Some members of the Congress were sceptical of the choice and other Indians and British
dismissed this choice of salt with disdain.

 The then Viceroy, Lord Irwin was hardly perturbed by the threat of a salt protest and the
government did nothing to prevent the salt march from taking place.

 But Gandhiji’s choice of using salt was nothing short of brilliant because it touched a chord with
every Indian.

 It was a commodity required by all and the poor people were hurt because of the salt tax.

 Indians had been making salt from seawater free of cost until the passing of the 1882 Salt Act that
gave the British monopoly over the production of salt and authority to impose a salt tax. It was a
criminal offence to violate the salt act.

 Gandhiji also hoped to unite Hindus and Muslims as the cause was common to both groups.

 The salt tax accounted for 8.2% of the British Raj revenue from tax and Gandhiji knew that the
government could not ignore this.

The course of the Dandi March

 Gandhiji informed Lord Irwin of his plan on 2nd March 1930.

 He would lead a group of people from his Ashram at Sabarmati on 12th March 1930 and walk
through the villages of Gujarat.
  On reaching the coastal village of Dandi, he would make salt from seawater thereby breaking the
salt act. Gandhiji started the march as planned with 80 of his followers. They were given strict
instructions not to resort to any kind of violence.

 Thousands of people thronged the path from Sabarmati Ashram to Ahmedabad to witness the
historic event.

 At the end of every day, Gandhiji would address thousands of people and attack the government
in his speeches.

 Gandhiji talked to foreign journalists and wrote articles for newspapers on the way. This pushed
the Indian independence movement into the forefront of world media. Gandhiji became a
household name in the West.

 Sarojini Naidu joined him on the way. Every day more and more people joined him and on
5th April, 1930, they reached Dandi.

 At this time, there were about 50,000 people participating in the march.

 On the morning of 6th April 1930, Gandhiji broke the salt law by making salt. Thousands of
people followed suit.

Effects

Effects of Salt Sathyagraha

 Around 60,000 people including Gandhiji himself were arrested by the government.
 There was widespread civil disobedience carried on by the people. Apart from the salt tax, other
unpopular tax laws were being defied like the forest laws, chowkidar tax, land tax, etc.

 The government tried to suppress the movement with more laws and censorships.

 The Congress Party was declared illegal. But this did not deter the satyagrahis who continued the
movement.

 There were some incidents of violence in Calcutta and Karachi but Gandhiji did not call off the
movement unlike the previous time with the non-cooperation movement.

 C Rajagopalachari led a similar march on the southeast coast from Trichy to Vedaranyam in Tamil
Nadu. He too was arrested for making salt.

 K Kelappan led a march in the Malabar region from Calicut to Payyanur.

 There were similar marches and salt was produced illegally in Assam and Andhra Pradesh.

 In Peshawar, the Satygraha was organised and led by Gandhiji’s disciple, Ghaffar Khan. In April
1930 he was arrested. Khan’s followers (called Khudai Khidmatgars) whom he had trained in
Satyagraha had gathered in a marketplace called the Qissa Khwani Bazaar. There they were fired
at by the British Indian Army despite being unarmed.

 Thousands of women also took part in the Satyagraha.

  Foreign clothes were boycotted. Liqueur shops were picketed. There were strikes all over.

 On May 21, 1930, there was a protest against the Dharasana Salt Works by peaceful non-violent
protestors led by Sarojini Naidu. The police lathi-charged the protestors brutally and it resulted in
the deaths of 2 people with several others being injured. This event was reported in the
international media and there was a condemnation of British policies followed in India.

 The British government was shaken by the movement. Also, its non-violent nature made it
difficult for them to suppress it violently.

 This movement had three main effects:

 It pushed Indian freedom struggle into the limelight in western media.

 It brought a lot of people including women and the depressed classes directly in touch with the
freedom movement.

 It showed the power of the non-violent Satyagraha as a tool in fighting imperialism.

 Gandhiji was released from prison in 1931 and he met with Lord Irwin who was keen to put an
end to the civil disobedience movement and the media attention it had caught.

 As per the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the civil disobedience movement would be ended and Indians, in
return, would be allowed to make salt for domestic use. Lord Irwin also agreed to release the
arrested Indians. Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table Conference in London as an ‘equal’.

Drawbacks of Salt Sathyagraha

 The movement did not procure any major concessions from the government.
 Muslim support was limited.

Between the years 1916 and 1918, the Indian independence movement witnessed the growth and spread
of the home rule movement spearheaded by leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant. The aim
of the home rule movement was the attainment of home rule or a dominion status for India under the
British Empire along the lines of countries like Canada and Australia. This movement was carried out
through the two home rule leagues.
Background

 The Government of India Act 1909 was dissatisfactory to the aspirations of Indians.
 The Congress Party’s split in 1907 and fiery leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s imprisonment from
1908 to 1914 meant that there was a lull in the national movement.

 But Tilak’s release and the advent of Annie Besant brought about a revival of the national
movement.

 Annie Besant was an Irish socialist, writer and orator who supported the Irish and Indian home
rule movements. She arrived in India in 1893.
  The leaders in India were divided on whether to support Britain in the war or not. Annie Besant
however, declared, “England’s need is India’s opportunity”.

 Having returned from exile in Mandalay, Tilak understood the need for a revival of nationalist
movement in the country.

 He also understood the growing importance of the Congress Party in India’s political scene. So,
his first task was to get readmitted into the party. (The extremists led by Tilak had separated from
the Congress).

 In the Congress session of December 1915, it was decided to let the extremists re-join the party
largely due to Annie Besant’s persuasion. Besant had also recognised the need for Congress
approval and the active participation of the extremists in the national struggle.

 However, Besant and Tilak were not able to convince the Congress to support their decision to set
up home rule leagues.

 Besant managed to convince the Congress to pledge to an educative propaganda and the
establishing of local-level committees. It was also agreed upon that if these conditions were not
satisfied by September 1916, she would be free to set up a home rule league.

 Accordingly, she set up her Home Rule League in September 1916.

 Tilak, however, was not bound by any such condition and so had set up his league in April 1916.

Foundation

 There were two home rule leagues launched.

 Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.

 Annie Besant launched the Home Rule League in September 1916 at Madras.

 They had the common objective of achieving self-government in India.

 There was an informal understanding between both the leagues wherein Tilak’s league worked in
Maharashtra (except Bombay), Karnataka, Berar and the Central Provinces. Besant’s league
worked in the rest of the country.

 Tilak’s league had its headquarters in Delhi. It had 6 branches. Besant’s league had 200 branches
and was a looser organisation compared to Tilak’s.

 The two leagues worked closely with one another. However, they did not merge to avoid friction
between both the leaders.

Objectives

 To achieve self-government in India.

 To promote political education and discussion to set up an agitation for self-government.

 To build confidence among Indians to speak against the government’s suppression.

 To demand for a larger political representation for Indians from the British government.
  To revive political activity in India while maintaining the principles of the Congress Party.

Activities

 The leagues organised demonstrations and agitations.

 There were public meetings in which the leaders gave fiery speeches.

 They were able to create a stir within the country and alarm the British to such an extent that
Annie Besant was arrested in June 1917.

 This move by the British created a nation-wide protest and now even moderate leaders joined the
league. Besant was released in September 1917.

Significance

 The Home Rule League functioned throughout the year as opposed to the Congress Party whose
activities were confined to once a year.
 The movement was able to garner a huge support from a lot of educated Indians. In 1917, the two
leagues combined had around 40,000 members.

 Many members of the Congress and the Muslim League joined the league. Many prominent
leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Joseph Baptista, G S Kharpade and Sir S Subramanya Iyer
were among its members.

 The moderates, extremists and the Muslim League were briefly united through this movement.

 The movement was able to spread political consciousness to more regions in the country.

 This movement led to the Montague Declaration of 1917 in which it was declared that there
would be more Indians in the government leading to the development of self-governing
institutions ultimately realising responsible governments in India. This Declaration (also known
as August Declaration) implied that the demand for home rule would no longer be considered
seditious. This was the biggest significance of the movement.

Failure and Decline

 The movement was not a mass movement. It was restricted to educated people and college
students.
 The leagues did not find a lot of support among Muslims, Anglo-Indians and non-Brahmins from
Southern India as they thought home rule would mean a rule of the upper caste Hindu majority.

 Many of the moderates were satisfied with the government’s assurance of reforms (as preluded in
the Montague Declaration). They did not take the movement further.

 Annie Besant kept oscillating between being satisfied with the government talk of reforms and
pushing the home rule movement forward. She was not able to provide a firm leadership to her
followers. (Although ultimately she did call the reforms ‘unworthy of Indian acceptance’).

 In September 1918, Tilak went to England to pursue a libel case against Sir Ignatius Valentine
Chirol, British journalist and author of the book ‘Indian Unrest’. The book contained deprecatory
comments and had called Tilak the ‘Father of Indian Unrest.’ (Tilak lost the case).
 Tilak’s absence and Besant’s inability to lead the people led to the movement’s fizzing out.

 After the war, Mahatma Gandhi gained prominence as a leader of the masses and the Home Rule
Leagues merged with the Congress Party in 1920.