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Introduction
Curriculum represents the primary vehicle that is designed to advance knowledge
and skills through careful planning of goals and objectives. Yet the effective curriculum
must actively engage students, address relevant issues and skills, and enable them to
assume responsibility for their learning (NMSA, 1995). As a guide rather than a direct
instructor, the teacher must move beyond the notion of simply covering material in favor
of assisting students in bringing alive ideas, principles, and values by involving students
in ventures that give personal meaning and understanding. Students must be challenged
to expand their horizons through a relevant curriculum to which they can relate.
An integrative/interdisciplinary unit, such as the one offered here, can make such
a connection by encouraging them to reflect on their own experiences, interests, and
beliefs (NMSA, 1995). Moreover, the skills and content are not by nature taught in
isolation but rather in a more naturally integrated manner. Skills are learned and utilized
in context, and critical thinking skills are honed as students examine a given situation and
collaboratively deduce a solution. Thus, they go from being mere consumers of
knowledge to producing knowledge. This examination/exploration further enables them
to discover and enhance their own abilities, interests, talents, and values.
In the fall of the school year, the typical American history course usually begins
with the period of exploration followed by the era of colonization. This important phase
of our history is not only the table-setter for other phases to build upon, but also
promises a period of unparalleled adventure, danger, and uncertainty, the resulting
triumph of which helped mold the rugged Americanism of future generations.

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But despite the promise of excitement, it too often collapses into a dreary exercise
of memorizing the Thirteen Colonies with a sporadic mention of Pilgrims, Thanksgiving,
Pocahontas, Squanto, Roger Williams, and, probably to begin with, John Smith. Omitted
are the planning, cost, hardship, and human intrigue and involvement that form the real
story of colonization. In a time when undersea and space exploration still hold such
adventure, it is especially pertinent to help students experience the historical connection
between the establishment of a new world and the efforts it requires.
Such an experience can be brought to life within the confines of the classroom
through simulation. As an effective interdisciplinary social studies teaching tool, the
simulation has become very popular as evidenced by the growing number of
commercially prepared, teacher prepared, and classroom games readily available to
educators (Martorella, Beal, and Bolick, 2005; Kellough and Kellough, 2003; Parker and
Jarolimek, 1997; Muir, 1996). The strategy has proven to be successful in recreating as
closely as possible the essential features of an actual event, be it an archaeological dig, a
session in Congress, a westward trek by pioneers, a trial, or the survival of an economic
enterprise, all within the safe parameters of the classroom. The key is finding one that is
level-appropriate and utilizes concepts and processes that cut across disciplines. The
effective simulation will engage students in discussion, decision-making, and large/small
group interaction in a setting that promotes controversy and consequence that can be
analyzed through an interdisciplinary perspective. While this may sound like a tall order,
such simulations abound (Muir, 1996)). Many varieties of simulations exist, especially
on-line. While this technological requirement is generally not a problem for the ever-

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increasing technological classroom, the paper and pencil variety can be equally
beneficial and in many instances more preferable. Such is the offering of Jamestown II.
The Jamestown II simulation is designed to be part of the social studies
curriculum targeting the early development of America but with an integrated base. Its
primary goal is to promote a better understanding of past colonial efforts through the
creation and evaluation of a present scenario which poses theoretically similar problems
as those faced in our early history. Students will be challenged and guided to compare
and contrast similarities and differences between past and present eras. The proposed
touch of science fiction- which might not be as far-fetched as one might believe- would
likely capture a students interest and moreover promote a better understanding and
appreciation of past historical efforts. At the base of these comparisons lie two questions:
Did early colonial inhabitants face similar problems in their dealings with the unknown
rigors of a new environment? And would these rigors be similar to such an undertaking
today?
The historical Jamestown colony- and indeed virtually all that followed- was the
result of trials and tribulations relevant to the times. Some of the principles behind them,
however, transcend time. Unlike the simulations pre-built and fully functional site, the
historical Jamestown site had to be decided upon virtually on the spot. One hundred
Englishmen using picks, shovel, axes, and other hand tools had to hurriedly clear a site
and build shelter, all based upon insufficient or inadequate data and limited skills.
Similarly, the climate and environment had a direct effect on the colonys initial survival.
Food and water became obvious indispensibles, and procuring them was a matter of life
and death. Leadership, or lack thereof, was decidedly missing and the effect of internal

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squabbles could not be ascertained. Finally, there is little doubt that the Jamestown
colonists were almost totally dependent upon the local Indians for their very survival
during the crucial first years.
The simulations colonists in principle must deal with similar problems. Though
the site is pre-established according to their own specifications, they must take into
account cost and practicality. They too must deal with environmental matters based upon
existing but nevertheless insufficient data. Leadership decisions become a genuine
concern. Then there is the similar confrontation with those who are deemed different
from themselves. Values and character become a major issue, just as it must have for the
Jamestown colonists.
The main themes of the unit are exploration and survival. These concepts
transcend time in regard to rigor and rationale of the human adventure. During the preunit phase, the teacher may set the stage with a focus upon perspectives brought forth by
several selected works of leading science fiction writers, such as Jules Verne, Ray
Bradbury, Arthur C. Clarke, and Issac Asimov. Comparing their ideas to the current
realities of technology may present some definitive teaching moments, especially for
students who enjoy that genre. A discussion of Einsteins theory of space travel is an
additional consideration from a pure science perspective while still paralleling the
concept of discovery and colonization.
This secondary-based, field-tested simulation has a social studies foundation and
utilizes aspects of several disciplines within it. It is integrated in that it employs science,
history, language arts, math, art, and industrial arts. Using whole language skills,
students will read, write, discuss, listen, draw, research, and think. The teacher may opt

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to use the simulation solely within his/her social studies class or invite the collaboration
of peers in the various disciplines. Among the objectives accomplished during the field
testing are the following:
1. Students will demonstrate basic drawing skills (industrial arts/art) by designing an
area blueprint within mathematical parameters in a specified environment
(geography).
2. Students will utilize basic scientific information (science/astronomy) and
economic principles in determining solutions/suggestions for selected colonial
situations.
3. Students will compare, appraise, and deduce the merits of a governmental system
(government/civics).
4. Students will generate and evaluate personal value judgments
(anthropology/sociology/psychology).
5. Students will demonstrate oral, written, thinking, and listening skills in
articulating selected responses.
6. Students will engage in individual and collaborative/cooperative activities.
The basis of Jamestown II is the establishment of a space colony. It is comprised
of a basic premise and eight corresponding situations, each with guideline
questions/suggestions. Each situation may be optionally handled as whole-group,
small-group, or individual activities of varying lengths. Student achievement may be
assessed through teacher observation of oral participation/contributions to discussions
and written work.

Assessment
Assessment is always a continuous issue. For this unit it can and should be as
multifaceted as the disciplines it integrates. But conventional testing per se is not a viable
alternative and will merely serve to undermine the objectives of the unit. Rather,
assessment must be authentic, continuous, and appropriate (NMSA, 1995). Written and
oral assessments are the logical options and can be perceived in varying ways. One focus
is on the cooperative efforts of groups in finding a solution to a given situation, and
certainly a whole-class effort can be evaluated similarly. But certainly assessment should
center upon written as well as oral presentation or commentary. The inclusion of visuals
should be encouraged and may take the form of drawings, photos, or models. Journaling
for selected options is an interesting and popular addition to a groups solution or as an
enrichment activity before, during, or after the actual execution of the unit. Topics in this
regard may include what to expect in an unknown environment, a commentary on
suggested readings, or a comparison of actual colonial perspectives to modern
perspectives present possibilities of more authentic assessment.
Procedure
The teacher begins by first assigning students into groups and then presenting the
premise as stated in Table 1. It is intended to invoke the seriousness of making a
colonization venture a success due to a series of problems on the brink of becoming
global crises. The teachers presentation sets the stage for a discussion of its validity and
the efforts to follow. The major aspects of the premise warrant such discussion and
should be examined in the light of the world as it is. For example, is there really an

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energy crisis? Where on earth is pollution a serious issue? What are the major
implications of an ever-increasing world population in which it is alleged that half of our
people are starving? Have we neglected the problems of disease?
INSERT TABLE 1 HERE
The premise initiates the Introduction: the decision to colonize, leadership
designation, and four facts to ponder. The teacher may opt to allow each situation to have
a leader or rely on group consensus (field test participants have indicated that each
situation should allow for a group consensus).
Table 2 relates some basic facts about the colonization site: Mars. The teacher
should first promote an examination of that environment via the plethora of current
knowledge of the planet from NASA missions, noting especially the condition of a
virtually unknown and hostile environment. Similarly, a geographic perspective for
historical colonists can parallel this examination.
INSERT TABLE 2 HERE
It is recommended that Situation 1 be handled in a whole-class format with
suggestions on the respective outcomes while allowing an assigned group to take these
suggestions into consideration as it makes a final decision. Situations 2-8 are to be
handled in small pre-assigned groups. The teacher must decide on an adequate time
allowance for each situation. It is recommended that at least one class period be allocated
for information gathering and group consultation. Then there is the additional question of
whether each group should be kept in the dark of other groups situations, as this may
have a decided effect on solutions. Recent field testing of the simulation experimented
with both revealing the basis of Situations 2-8 to the entire class prior to the activities and

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allowing groups to choose which situation each would want, and the original procedure
of maintaining secrecy of each situation and assigning situations by blind-draw using
sealed envelopes. The latter procedure appeared to be the more popular one but not
necessarily the more effective. Regardless, each group should present its respective
solution sequentially and allow for feedback before the final write-up in Situation 8. It
should be noted at this point that Situations 1-4 occur BEFORE the actual colonization
and Situations 5-8 occur AFTER the colony has been established.
The Introduction implies that the colony has a blank check for aesthetic,
practical, and necessary choices. The teacher should add the element of economic
consideration of a possible budget, i.e., cutting a proposal for monetary purposes,
modifying a structure size, mathematically calculating square footage, etc.
INTRODUCTION
To cope with the crisis situation and other considerations, the United States has
decided to experiment with the building of a space colony, to be named Jamestown II. If
this 6-year project proves to be successful, other colonies will be financed, built, and
populated. With congressional approval and appropriations, the President has authorized
[the class] to take charge of the project. A Project Leader may be designated and will be
responsible for reaching all final decisions.
Before facing the problems of colonizing, you must be aware of the following
facts:
1. The site of the colony will be on Mars, the exact location to be decided by the
Project Leaders team. The designated area of one mile in diameter will be

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cleared and prepared for construction according to plans. All preparations will be
completed by the time of your arrival.
2. Jamestown II will accommodate approximately 500 colonists. All have
contractually agreed to live and work in the colony for six years. They may then
decide to stay or return.
3. There will be enough basic supplies of food, water, medicine, and clothing to last
approximately two years. A supply transport from Earth will arrive every two
years (the length of time required for a round-trip) with another load of basic
supplies for two years.
4. Radio/visual contact with Earth will be kept on a regular basis.
SITUATION 1
Situation 1 deals with the building blueprint. The designated area size must first
be examined. Students must have a clear conception of an area of approximately one
mile in diameter, which will require specific examples. Three building options are the
next consideration. Each options advantages and disadvantages should be discussed in
terms of practicality, appeal, utilization, etc. After an option has been decided upon, the
size and proportion of selected structures and facilities must be considered, for the
building option must then be drawn as a blueprint. Field tests indicate that Option 2 is
the most popular choice because it theoretically allows the fullest utilization of the
available area and does not necessitate the use of life-support systems unless one leaves
the dome. Figure 1 provides an example of this option. Note that the sample blueprint
contains a list of specified facilities, their respective sizes, and locations within the dome,
plus a proposed side view of the domed colony. The respective size of specific structures

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is usually the biggest problem for students and will require examples. Be sure to allow
for creativity, but remind students that if they forget a necessary facility or service, the
success of the venture may be in jeopardy. In addition, they must also be made aware
that they dont have a blank check for the project. The teacher may want to force the
issue of sacrificing less important facilities for financial purposes. NOTE: It is
recommended that the entire class participate in selecting a building option and
suggesting necessary facilities. To keep the class on-task, it is further recommended that
each group be responsible for specific aspects of possible facilities, i.e., a given group
will propose housing types and specifications, another will handle the power source, etc.
But there should be an assigned group that will make the final decisions for Situation 1
after taking into consideration the suggestions offered by the entire class. Field test
participants have also indicated that all groups be allowed to see the final blueprint
BEFORE proceeding to the next situations.
Submit a blueprint drawing of the colony within the given limits of a 1-mile in
diameter circular area. There are 3 building options from which to choose: physical
1. An excavated, subterranean cave/cavern that is sealed and decompressed so as to
allow intra-colony movement without the necessity of life-support systems being
worn and requiring selected structures of varying sizes within the cave.
2. An open area covered by a transparent, plexiglass-like protective dome which is
sealed and decompressed so as to allow intra-colony movement without the
necessity of life-support systems being worn and requiring selected structures of
varying sizes within the dome.

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3. An open area composed of self-contained selected structures of varying sizes
connected by sealed thoroughfares/tunnels, similar in appearance to a hamster
habitat.
Suggested facilities to consider:
Computer Command Center

Hospital

Power Source

Housing

Laboratories

Purification Plant

Warehouses/Storehouses

Security/Safety

Greenhouse

Education/Training

Recreation
Guideline Questions:
1. How large should each structure be? How will each appear on the blueprint?
2. Should the power source (be it nuclear, coal, gas, solar, etc.) be isolated outside
for safety considerations?
3. What facilities are absolutely necessary for this venture, keeping in mind that
forgetting a vital component at the outset will probably doom us? What may be
desirable may not be necessary.
4. What type of living quarters should be built, i.e., conventional houses, apartments,
dormitories, etc.?
INSERT FIGURE 1 HERE

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Situation 2
The colony is designed for 500 working colonists whose jobs will maintain and
advance the purpose of the venture. It must be decided what categories of jobs and
skills these people must have. NOTE: Jobs are not to be itemized separately, which
would be tedious and unproductive. Instead, designate occupational categories, i.e.,
engineers, laboratory scientists, maintenance, medical, farmers, etc. Also, do not
specify how many workers will comprise a given category.
Guideline Questions:
1. Is it important and realistic for some to be multi-skilled? Consider the potential
danger of manpower shortages, even temporarily, as the colony is a working
venture requiring 500 contributions.
2. Will there be an age minimum and maximum, physical qualifications, etc., in the
selection of colonists?
3. Are there provisions for the likelihood that children may be born during the
colonists tenure?
4. Think ahead in terms of absolutely necessary skills. Do not assume that
everything in an unknown and possibly hostile environment will run smoothly for
six years and more.
Situation 3
The colonys basic supplies of food, water, medicine, and clothing will be
transported to Jamestown II every two years via a supply spaceship. Make a
categorized list of other items to be brought with you on the initial trip. This may be
the most crucial of decisions as it is the only opportunity to bring additional stuff

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for the maintenance of the colony. If something of absolute importance is forgotten,
the entire venture may be endangered before it has a chance to succeed. A long list of
specifics is not necessary. List categories, such as spare parts (NOTE: you cannot
have spare parts for everything; be specific in this case), specialized equipment, tools,
livestock, etc. Familiarize yourself with the blueprints designated facilities as an
initial guide. Also, there are certain givens, such as housing units containing
complete furnishings, fully-stocked hospital facilities, power source equipment
provided, etc. These basic operations will be there, up, and running when you
initially arrive.
Guideline Questions:
1. What are the additional categories of items you will absolutely need? Anticipate
problems and dont assume everything will be included simply because of
designated facilities. Dont forget something that will turn out to be crucial for
survival. The circumstances are such that you can authorize these other items this
one and only time on a large scale.
2. Will there be some approval criteria for these items are approved, such as
necessity, cost, etc.? Will there be adequate cargo space to realistically bring
these items?
3. Is there a possibility of eventual self-sufficiency based upon what is chosen?
Situation 4
It must be decided what laws/ rules/regulations will govern the colony. The
colony is an extension of the United States and is initially protected and governed by

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the U.S. Constitution (the basics of which may have to be introduced), but other or
additional laws or rules may be decide upon.
Guideline Questions:
1. Will the Constitution be appropriate under these extraordinary circumstances?
Will it be enough? If it is deemed inappropriate for such a small entity, other
laws/rules/regulations will have to be determined.
2. Whatever the rules end up being, who will enforce them?
3. What is the Project Leaders role in relation to the laws? Is he/she a designated
dictator or are there limitations to his/her power?
Situation 5
You have been on Mars for about 20 months. The daily operation of the colony
seems to be satisfactory so far, at least from the perspective of the Project Leader.
But it appears that about 100 of the colonists are now expressing dissatisfaction with
the way the Project Leader is running things. This group is very unhappy with life in
the colony in general, probably because they could not fully anticipate the rigors of
such a different and difficult environment. In any case, they are seriously threatening
to return to Earth when the supply spaceship arrives in approximately four months.
Their departure would create an impossible manpower shortage and doom the colony.
A general meeting is called by the Project Leader to discuss the situation. As the
Leader, you must address their possible complaints and settle this issue in a speech.

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Guideline Questions:
1. What are the possible complaints? As the Project Leader, you probably have
some complaints yourself, so you might be able to anticipate what theirs might be.
Can they be realistically settled or negotiated?
2. Should the colonists be reminded that they signed contracts? What difference
might that make?
3. If leadership is the issue, should you step down even though you were appointed
as the most qualified to lead the venture? Would new leadership alone solve the
problems?
Situation 6
It is the third year of colonization. Two people in among the more crucially vital
jobs are caught attempting to sabotage the computer command center. This action
would have literally destroyed the colony, killing everyone.
The two confess that they wanted to destroy the colony so that no others would be
built, as they believe that people should stay on Earth and try to solve the problems
there. They defiantly state that if the opportunity arises, they will again attempt the
deed. One of the individuals is someone you have always greatly disliked, but the
other, much to your dismay, is your best friend and trusted colleague. What is to be
done?
Guideline Questions:
1. What exactly is their crime, and are there predetermined provisions to deal with
it?
2. Do your diverse feelings toward the two create a moral dilemma?

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3. Consider their motive: are they right? What difference does it make even if they
are?
Situation 7
Perhaps the last thing students will expect, even in the preplanning stages, is the
alien confrontation posed by this situation. Just as certain, their responses will be
affected by the physical appearance of the beings with which they must contend.
Figure 2 offers three samples as examples. Of obvious note is the range of
appearances; that is, from seemingly non-threatening to hostile. As it is with human
nature, we would respond somewhat differently to each variety. The teacher may opt
to use one or all of the samples for this situation but it is recommended that each
sample be sealed in an envelope and be randomly chosen by the group IF the group
inquires about the aliens appearance.
It is nearing the end of the fourth year of colonization. To your astonishment, you
have discovered intelligent life on Mars; or rather, it has discovered and confronted
you. The inhabitants of Mars are capable of communicating with you and a very
large number of them have approached, demanding to know why you have invaded
their world. You must convince them that you mean no harmor do you?
Guideline Questions:
1. How might you determine how intelligent or advanced they are? How might that
matter?
2. Do they appear hostile, or open to a possible association or kinship with you?
3. Will their large number influence your approach and decision?
4. Why did they wait so long to confront you?

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INSERT FIGURE 2 HERE
Situation 8
Upon completion of the sixth year, a transport ship has arrived with relief
colonists to replace the original colonists. On the return trip to Earth, an evaluative
report must be composed and submitted for review. The reports evaluation is to be
largely based upon the resolutions to the previous situations in addition to
recommendations will determine whether or not future colonies will be built.
Guideline Questions:
1. What were the strengths and weaknesses of the venture?
2. What must be changed if future colonies are to be built?
3. Were there any resolutions to specific situations that were perhaps ineffective and
threatened the success of the colony?
4. Was the venture an overall success or failure? Why?

Jamestown II was field-tested with over 600 middle school and high school
students spanning a period of four years. On-site observations and post-simulation
discussions with teachers provided qualitative data indicating that middle school and
high school students demonstrate a better grasp of and increased interest in the
colonial concept within the scope of American history. The adventurous rigors do
indeed transcend time in terms of present challenges to colonize. Students can better
identify with the reasons for 17th century colonization with their own 21st century
reasons: necessity, albeit for varying reasons.

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The situations assist students in more clearly understanding the physical, mental,
and monetary cost of such a venture and the fact that it is no vacation to settle and
survive in a new, unknown environment with little more than the skills of their fellow
colonists as a lifeline. The adventure requires structure, thus the need for rules,
leadership, and planning. Personal issues are as pertinent now as they were then.
Confrontation holds the same tribulations for Martians as they did for Indians.
Finally, students can analyze and deduce how the variables of colonial efforts can be
deemed successful or not utilizing a science perspective.

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References
Kellough, R., and Kellough, N. (2003). Secondary school teaching (2nd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Martorella, P., Beal, C. & Bolick, C. (2005). Teaching social studies in middle and
secondary schools (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice-Hall.
Muir, S. (1996). Simulation games for elementary and primary school social studies:
An annotated bibliography. Simulation and Gaming: An International Journal of
Theory, Practice, and Research, 7 (March).
National Middle School Association (1995). This we believe (8th printing).
Westerville, OH: NMSA.
Parker, W., and Jarolimek, J. (1997). Social studies in elementary education
(10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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TABLE 1: The Premise
By proclamation of the United Nations, the industrial countries of the world are
being encouraged to seriously consider the Earths problems and their effects on the
present and near-future. The Earths mounting population is beginning to clearly see
the dangers of widespread food shortages. A number of deadly viruses and diseases
of unknown origin and cure are or could easily become rampant scourges, such as
AIDS and tuberculosis. Our once-plentiful natural resources, especially oil, are
depleting at an alarming rate. Many are in such short supply that they are being
rationed. Gasoline- when it can be obtained- costs more than ten dollars per gallon.
Environmental pollution of the air and fresh water continue to be a serious situation in
many parts of the world. Major cities all over the globe seem to be besieged by
frequent public disorder as people attempt to obtain the food, water, and necessities
they need. The industrial countries of the world, led by the United States, must now
take action.

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TABLE 2: The Facts of Mars
Basic Data
Average distance from the Sun: 142 million miles (Earth: 93 million miles)
Distance from Earth: Approximately 50 million miles
Length of day: 24 hours, 37 minutes
Mass: Approximately 1/10th that of Earth
Atmosphere: 95% carbon dioxide with traces of nitrogen and argon (1% as
dense as Earth)
Gravity: Approximately 38% that of Earth
Satellites: Two (Phobos and Deimos)
Most of what we know concerning the fourth planet from the Sun is from
information gathered from unmanned, roving landers. While Mars possesses many
Earth-like features, such as seasons, deserts, mountains, canyons, and polar ice caps,
its environment is decidedly inhospitable. Surface temperatures can reach 50 degrees
Fahrenheit but more frequently fluctuate between -25 degrees Fahrenheit and -200
degrees Fahrenheit. The thin atmosphere simply cannot retain heat. Thus, breathing
and surviving in the open will require a life-support system.
The Martian surface features enormous gorges, canyons, and volcanic mountain
peaks. Its largest canyon is 2500 miles long and up to 6 miles deep. Earths Grand
Canyon, by comparison, is 200 miles long and less than 2 miles deep.
Martian weather, other than the frigid temperatures, features dust storms of such
intensity and mass as to engulf virtually the entire planet for weeks at a time. This
dominance accounts for the bright and dark areas as viewed through a telescope and

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the dusty air that creates a salmon-colored sky. The soil, as analyzed by our roving
probes, is a soft orange-red similar to our own iron-rich clay. What appear to be dry
river beds and the expanding/contracting polar caps of ice and dry ice raise the
possibility that Mars distant past may have featured an abundance of water. Some
scientists believe that water and permafrost may still be locked under the surface as
ice. Although there is no solid evidence of this, our roving landers have uncovered
initial evidence that water was once present on Mars but those findings have not been
confirmed. Nor has any evidence been found that any form of life existed there.

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ABSTRACT
Jamestown II is an interdisciplinary/integrated simulation designed to be part of
the social studies curriculum targeting the early development of America. The
primary goal of the simulation is to utilize transferable concepts to promote a better
understanding of colonial efforts through the creation and evaluation of a space
colony scenario which is comprised of a premise and eight corresponding situations,
each with guideline questions and suggestions. Designed for middle/high school
students, this field-tested simulation utilizes the social sciences and aspects of other
disciplines. The educator may opt to use the simulation solely within a social studies
class or in collaboration with peers.
Key Indexing Terms: science; social studies; simulation; integrated; interdisciplinary;
middle school; high school

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Jamestown II: An Interdisciplinary Simulation

Tony R. Sanchez, Ph.D.

University of Toledo
Judith Herb College of Education
GH 2000 HH
Toledo, OH 43606-3390
419-530-4347
tony.sanchez@utoledo.edu