Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DAVID STEPHENSON
Department of Civil Engineering
University of the Witwatersrand
Johannesburg, South Africa
ELSEVlER
Amsterdam - Oxford - N e w York - Tokyo 1989
ISBN 0-444-87373-2
Pipelines
lengths
are
and
being
working
are
essential
for
years
has
recently
to
constructed
pressures.
achieve economic
resorted
to
been
in
and
in
an
and
safe
semi-empirical
done
ever-increasing
Accurate
rational
designs.
design
bases
Engineers
formulae.
to r a t i o n a l i z e
effort
diameters,
design
have
Much
the
work
design
of
pipelines.
This
as
book
well
as
retaining
presenting
oook
or
hydraulic
subject
is
to
but
field.
a l so
of
be
bring
useful
infancy
and
of
the
graphs
in
planning
of
features
manufacture,
practice
design
of
which
large
at
the water
in
the
It
are
should
stressed
of
may
suitable
the
as
and
were
of
In
are
and
the
is
techniques
to
the
Pipelines
covered
as
and
many
half,
book
t h i s book
other
be
noted
that
covered
pipes,
and v a r i o u s coatings.
opposed
by
will
fluids
some
of
not
desk.
to
of
The
the
the
computers.
design
deal
in
and
and
detail
i t replace design
Emphasis
industrial
pub1 ications.
on
is
the
and
domestic
Although
directed
be of use to engineers i n v o l v e d
as
of
patents.
methods
structural
nor should
mind
hydraulics
with
does
Many
research.
the assistance of
in
will
in t h e i r
calculators
The
other
students.
are s t i l l
in
engineer's
in
the book
further
concerned
the
to
techniques
background
of
the c i v i l
introduction
advanced
for
aim
bear
l a y i n g a n d operation,
from
Although
the
problems
second
discussed.
many
concrete
leads
many
book
data.
post-graduate
prepared with
this
of
be
for
design methods
instances,
an
most
and
provide
computers
engineer,
piping
described
may
pipelines.
piping
is
proposed
book
half
ancillary
of
many
book
acceptance
with
techniques
in
d a t a on
under-graduate
modern
the
rational
solution
first
It
contains
to
new
on
i3ecause of
methods
codes
some
material
approaches
engineer.
also
the s u b j e c t s ,
The
pub1 ished
conventional
the
the
col lates
well
the
as
solids
designs
These
stiffening
and
include
pipes
and
techniques
types
and
gases.
of
pre-
branches
VI
The S . I .
system of
metric u n i t s i s preferred i n
imperial u n i t s a re g i ve n
a n d equations
examples
work
in
text.
summarized
general
chapter.
at
these
The
the
for
as
many
they
The
end
appendix
data.
problems a n d
instances.
of
the reader
often elaborate on
algebraic
references a r r a n g e d
other useful
in many
Most g r a p h s
are given
through
the
i n brackets
symbols
that
in
gives
used
chapter
together
the order of
further
i s advised
ideas not
in
the
references
Worked
to
highlighted
each
chapter
are
with
specific
and
standards
and
The
gratifying
in small
ations
response
amendments to
to
the f i r s t
the second
e d i t i o n of
impression,
t h i s book
resulted
a n d some major a l t e r -
i n t h i s new edition.
The
chapters
replaced
by
on
data
transport
more
of
relevant
solids
to
and
water
sewers
Thus
on
pumping
systems
for
water
have
engineers.
new
as well as a
The
pipelines.
been
latter
was
are
additions and
u p d a t i n g throughout.
There
is additional
comparison
Chapter
and
2.
The
sewer
drainage
of
currently
sections
flow
are
engineer
used
on non-circular
omitted.
and
Stormwater
Hydrology
introduction
to
water
friction
as
These
such
are
and
Drainage
hammer
theory
sections
together.
An
on
structural
largely
covered
enlarged
design
section
on
is
now
pipe and p a r t l y
are
of
in
preceeds
the
the
made
full
in
pipes
interest
to
authors
the
book
1981).
basic
design
of
water
(Elsevier,
l i n e s i n Chapter 4 .
The
formulae
of
flexible
soil-pipe
pipes
are
interaction
brought
and
limit
some
that
of
this
refreshing
the
new
edition
is
now
fairly
basic,
it
is
and
the
student
who
comes
across
the
problem
of
VIII
PREFACE
TO THIRD E D I T I O N
this.
There
secondary
this
a r e also new
stress.
edition.
Some
sections on
Additional
sections
supports
references
appearing
and
in
to
exposed
new
layout
p r e v i o u s editions,
as
p a r a l l e l book
they
were
considered
Pipeflow A n a l y s i s
more
appropriate
in
b y the same p u b l i s h e r .
the
alJthOrS
IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The b a s i s for
course of
Engineers
although
I
the
my
01 i v e r ,
and
in
duties
these
Engineers.
organizations
Board a n d Stewart, S v i r i d o v
The
may
extensive
therefore
be
knowledge
reflected
of
herein
am g r a t e f u l
twins
with
Consulting
during
to my wife Lesley,
many
lost
who,
weekend,
i n a d d i t i o n to looking a f t e r
assiduously
typed
the
first
d r a f t of t h i s book.
David Stephenson
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
ECONOMIC PLANNING
lntroduct ion
P i p e l i n e Economics
B a s i c s of E c o n o m i c s
M e t h o d s of Ana I y s i s
Uncertainty in Forecasts
Balancing Storage
CHA?TER 2
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HYDRAULICS
The F u n d a m e n t a l E q u a t i o n s of F l u i d F l o w
F l o w H e a d Loss R e l a t i o n s h i p s
. .
Empirical Flow Formulae
2 a t i o n a l Flow Formulae
C o m p a r i s o n of F r i c t i o n F o r m u l a e
M i n o r Losses
. .
P r e s s u r e and F l o w C o n t r o l i n P i p e s
lntroduct ion
T y p e s of V a l v e s
I so l a t i n g V a Iv e s
Control Valves
C a v i t a t i o n in C o n t r o l V a l v e s
. .
I n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n C a v i t a t i o n a n d W a t e r Hammer P r e s s u r e s
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CHAPTER 3
1
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9
10
11
14
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16
18
18
19
24
26
28
28
28
29
29
32
34
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Network A n a l y s i s
E q u i v a l e n t P i p e s for P i p e s in S e r i e s o r P a r a l l e l
Loop Flow Correction Method
The Node H e a d C o r r e c t i o n M e t h o d
A l t e r n a t i v e M e t h o d s of A n a l y s i s
iqetwork A n a l y s i s b y L i n e a r T h e o r y
O p t i m i z a t i o n of P i p e l i n e Systems
D y n a m i c P r o g r a m m i n g f o r O p t i m i z i n g Compound P i p e s
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n P r o g r a m m i n g for L e a s t - c o s t
A1 l o c a t i o n o f Resources
L i n e a r P r o g r a m m i n g f o r D e s i g n of l e a s t - c o s t
Open N e t w o r k s
. . . . . . . .
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37
37
38
40
41
43
44
45
48
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52
XI
CHAPTER 4
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CHAPTER 5
AI3
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IN P I P E L I N E S
Introduction
Problems of A i r Entrainment
A i r I n t a k e a t Pump Sumps
A i r Absorption a t Free Surfaces
H y d r a u l i c Removal of A i r
H y d r a u l i c Jumps
Free F a l l s
A i r Valves
Head Losses in P i p e l i n e s
W a t e r Hammer
. . . . .
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CHAPTER 6
58
60
64
64
68
69
73
76
77
79
85
89
91
93
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97
97
99
101
102
102
104
105
108
109
EXTERNAL LOADS
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Soil Loads
Trench conditions
Embankment Conditions
Superimposed Loads
T r a f f i c Loads
Stress Caused b y Point Loads
Uniformly Loaded Areas .
Effect o f R i g i d Pavements
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113
113
116
120
121
121
122
123
XI1
CHAPTER 7
CONCRETE PIPES
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The Effect of B e d d i n g
Prestressed Concrete Pipes
Circumferential Prestressing
C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l P r e s t r e s s a f t e r Losses
Circumferential Stress u n d e r F i e l d Pressure
L o n g i t u d i n a l Prestressing
L o n g i t u d i n a l Stresses A f t e r L o s s e s
P r o p e r t i e s o f Steel and C o n c r e t e
CHAPTER 8
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160
162
165
172
173
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174
175
176
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179
179
179
180
180
180
STEEL AND F L E X I B L E P I P E
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I n t e r n a l Pressures
Tension R i n g s to Resist I n t e r n a l Pressures
D e f o r m a t i o n of C i r c u l a r P i p e s u n d e r E x t e r n a l L o a d
Effect of L a t e r a l Support
S t r e s s d u e to C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l B e n d i n g
More General Deflection Equations
S t i f f e n i n g R i n g s to R e s i s t B u c k l i n g
w i t h no
side support
Tension R i n g s
Stiffening Rings
CHAPTER 9
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10
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142
143
146
149
151
152
156
156
156
SECONDARY STRESSES
Stresses a t Branches
Crotch Plates
Internal Bracing
Stresses a t Bends
T h e P i p e a s a Beam
Longitudinal Bending
Pipe Stress a t Saddles
. .
Ring Girders
Temperature Stresses
CHA?TER
127
129
131
131
133
134
136
136
P I PES.
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?ipe M a t e r i a l s
Steel P i p e
Cast I r o n P i p e
Asbestos Cement P i p e
Concrete P i p e
Plastic Pipe
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L i n e Val ves
Sluice Valves
B u t t e r f l y Valves
Globe Valves
Needle a n d Control Valves
Spherical Valves
Reflux Valves
A i r Valves
A i r Vent Valves
A i r Release Valves
Thrust Blocks
Forces Induced by Supports
.
L o n g i t u d i n a l Stress
Temperature Stresses
Forces at Bends
L a t e r a l Movement
Forces on Supports
Unbalanced Forces
Flow Measurement
Venturi Meters
Nozz I es
Orifices
Bend Meters
Mechanical Meters
Electromagnetic I n d u c t i o n
Mass a n d Volume Measurement
Te I erne t ry
CHAPTER 1 1
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182
182
183
184
184
185
186
186
186
188
190
194
195
195
196
196
197
197
198
198
199
1 99
200
200
201
201
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205
206
208
208
210
212
21 6
21 7
218
21a
222
223
L A Y I NG AND PROTECTION
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Selecting a Route
L a y i n g a n d Trenching
Thrust Sores
Pipe Bridges
Underwater Pipelines
Joints a n d Flanges
Coatings
Linings
Cat hod i c Prot ec t ion
Galvanic Corrosion
Stray Current E l e c t r o l y s i s
Thermal I n s u l a t i o n
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XIV
CHAPTER 12
I n f l u e n c e of Pumps in P i p e l i n e Design
T y p e s of P u m p s
P o s i t i v e Displacement Types
C e n t r i f u g a l Pumps
T e r m s and D e f i n i t i o n s
Head
Total Head
Net P o s i t i v e S u c t i o n Head
S p e c i f i c Speed
Impeller Dynamics
Pump C h a r a c t e r i s t i c C u r v e s
ivto t o r s
Pumpstat ions
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228
228
228
229
231
23 1
231
232
233
234
236
239
240
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242
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250
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252
253
254
255
256
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258
260
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APPEND I X
.
.
. . .
. . .
Symbols for p i p e f i t t i n g s
Properties of p i p e shapes
P r o p e r t i e s of w a t e r
P r o p e r t i e s of p i p e m a t e r i a l s
Conv ers i o n f a c t o r s
AUTHdR
SUBJECT
INDEX
INDEX
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CHAPTER 1
ECONOMIC PLANNING
I NTRODUCT ION
Pipes
have
been
used
for
many c e n t u r i e s
for
transporting fluids.
unearthed a t
were
in
England.
that
pressure
used
however,
used
extensively
were f i r s t
grade
diameters
square
spiral
small
and
to
welded
became
available
is
still
and
working
The
Welding
and
for
the
Cast
design
of
pipelines
with
10 Newtons
have
Reliable
per
been
welded
or
a l s o made
asbestos cement,
this
was
pipes
facilitating
techniques
pipelines
iron,
i n c r e a s i n g use o f
P i p e l i n e s a r e now
conditions.
pipes
iron
Steel
circumferentially
p r e - s t r e s s e d concrete,
varying
cast
used.
pressure over
manufactured.
suit
of
t h e e n d of t h e l a s t c e n t u r y ,
longitudinally
to
advent
manufactured.
and
p i p e s to b e m a n u f a c t u r e d .
claywares,
the
be
enabling
were
Century
c e n t u r i e s wood-stave
with
metres
in r e i n f o r c e d concrete,
and
19th
later
only
pipelines
steels a n d
over
millimetre
perfected
was
introduced towards
c o n s t r u c t i o n of
high
It
the
in
In
Pompeii.
and lead
flow
plastics
formulae
century,
thereby
a l s o p r o m o t i n g t h e use of p i p e s .
Prior
fluids
to
this
century
transported
common
means
for
Liquid chemicals
being
pumped
now o v e r
world.
by
water
a n d sewage
pipeline.
transporting
and
solids
gases
in slurry
The g l o b a l
kilometres
of
e x p e n d i t u r e on
pipelines
and
oils
form or
t h r o u g h p i p e l i n e s on ever
two m i l l i o n
were p r a c t i c a l l y
Nowadays
over
the o n l y
are
long
the
distances.
in containers
i n c r e a s i n g scales.
most
are
also
There a r e
the
p i p e l i n e s i n 1974 was p r o b a b l y o v e r
5 5 000 m i l l i o n .
There
are
many
advantages
of
pipeline
o t h e r methods s u c h a s r o a d ,
rail,
waterway
(1)
the
most
Pipelines
are
often
( c o n s i d e r i n g e i t h e r c a p i t a l costs,
(2)
Pipelining
costs
are
not
very
transport
compared
with
and air:-
economic
form
of
transport
r u n n i n g costs o r o v e r a l l c o s t s ) .
susceptible
to
fluctuations
in
2
prices,
since
are
not
to
susceptible
attendance i s r e q u i r e d .
labour
disputes
as
little
lY.
Being
hidden
beneath
the
ground
pipeline
will
not
mar
the
n a t u r a l environment.
pipeline
is
independent of
external
influences
such
as
traffic
is
normally
no
problem of
r e t u r n i n g empty
containers
to
the source.
It
is
relatively
easy
to
increase the c a p a c i t y of
a pipeline by
i n s t a l l i n g a booster pump.
for
pipelines
are
usually
easier
to
obtain
than
for
than
for
roads and r a i l w a y s .
(11)
The
accident
rate
per
- km
ton
is
considerably
lower
other forms of t r a n s p o r t .
(12) A
pipeline
can
cross
rugged
terrain
difficult
for
vehicles
to
cross.
There are of course disadvantages associated w i t h p i p e l i n e systems:The
initial
capital
uncertainty
in
expenditure
the
demand
i s often
some
large,
degree
of
involved
in
so i f there i s any
speculation
may
be
necessary.
There
is
often
high
cost
( e s p e c i a l l y long fuel
lines).
Pipelines
used
(although
cannot
be
there
are
for
more
multi-product
than
filling
one m a t e r i a l
pipelines
operating
pipeline
at
on
time
batch
bases).
There
solids,
are
operating
problems
associated
with
the
pumping
of
I t i s often d i f f i c u l t
P I PEL I NE ECONOM I CS
of
3
itself.
The
gravity
pipeline
systems b u t
cost
is
fact
in
practically
cost
for
the
only
and
1.1
Table
indicates
some
relative
costs
for
typical
installed
p i p e l i nes.
With
the
the
time
year,
economic
of
writing
and
particular
increase
instability
pipeline
relative
the
faster
costs
cost
of
than
those
and rates of
costs
for
may
different
petro-chemical
of
inflation prevailing at
increase
by
materials
materials
concrete
for
will
such
instance,
vary.
as
PVC
In
may
so these f i g u r e s
Relative P i p e l i n e Costs
Bore mm
Pipe M a t e r i a l
150
6
7
PVC
Asbestos cement
Reinforced concrete
Prestressed concrete
M i l d steel
High tensile steel
Cast i r o n
<:,,-s,
1 500
450
23
23
23
33
28
25
10
11
25
80
90
150
- 180
- 120
-
100
90
75
indicates not r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e .
1 u n i t = d;/metre
to
situation
but
for
water
pipelines
in
Supply of p i p e
- 55%
(may
Excavation
- 20%
open
country
and
as
new
m a t e r i a l s a r e developed)
may
(depends
reduce
excavation
as
on
terrain,
mechanical
techniques
im-
prove)
- 5% (may increase w i t h
L a y i n g and j o i n t i n g
bour costs)
- 5%
F i t t i n g s a n d specials
Coating and w r a p p i n g
Structures ( v a l v e chambers,
anchors)
- 2%
- 2%
la-
10
a
L
0
m
._
U
5
Water
- 1%
hammer protection
Land acquisition,
protection,
security
structures,
- 1%
fences
- 5%
Admi n i s t r a t i ve costs
- 1%
Interest d u r i n g construction
- 3%
0.7
to
m/s
about
1 m/s
for
velocity
depending
m/s,
low pressure
at
on
and
working
of 100 C/s
for
of water,
factor
and
cost
power
v e l o c i t y o r conversely
000 C / S
of
and
structures
for
influence
any
from
It
is
increasing
about 400 m
pressure heads at
also
the diameter
varies
pressure.
to 2 m/s
a flow
For water
The c a p a c i t y
the
optimum
p a r t i c u l a r flow.
flow
1.1
Fig.
of
operation
By
of
doubling
pipeline
the
the
cost
delivered
which
to
install
to
1/3
large
considerable
the
doubles
of
multi-product
of
pipe,
on
effect
other
factors
approximately
decreases
justifies
has
diameter
the
that
original.
lines.
diameter
so
Whether
main
at
It
it
the
the
is
is
unit
such
as
On the other
cost
this
per
scale
i n fact
outset
the
the
unit
effect
economical
depends
on
the
capacity
factors
during
initial
years).
to operate a t
(Capacity
factor
is
factor
maximum
depend
on
(the ratio
throughput
the
rate
i n s t a l l i n g storage a t
Reduced
power
costs
of
during
of
average
the
draw-off
throughput
same
and
at
period),
can
be
any
time
which
will
improved
by
to
low
friction
losses
p i p e l i n e i s -not o p e r a t i n g a t f u l l c a p a c i t y .
C e r t a i n t y of f u t u r e demands.
V a r y i n g costs w i t h time ( b o t h c a p i t a l
and o p e r a t i n g ) .
while
the
(6)
Rates of
(7)
Physical d i ffi cu l ti e s
interest and c a p i t a l
in
availability.
the construction of
second
pipeline i f
required.
The
optimum
factors,
not
rate
cost
of
design
p e r i o d of a p i p e l i n e depends
least b e i n g the r a t e of
inflation,
c e r t a i n t y of f u t u r e demands
In
waterworks
pipelines
for
throughput
size
10
of
demands
it
up
has
10
to
the p i p e l i n e ,
years.
Longer
to
the r a t e of
that
planning
been
30
to
are
economic
to
scale and
economic
years
hence.
to
For
c a p a b i l i t i e s may
supplementation may
stages
of
growth,
found
technical
number
1973).
(Osborne a n d James,
practice
interest on c a p i t a l
addition
in
on
normally
size
large
l i m i t the
be r e q u i r e d w i t h i n
justified
for
small
may
Where
not
always
pressures
are
be
high
it
is
lay
economic
to
uniform
bore
pipeline.
and
planning
may
be
Alternative
economic.
trunk
main
number
layouts
with
of
should
progressive
possible
be
decrease
combinations
compared
before
i n diameter
of
deciding
diameters.
on
the
most
the
stations
along
pumps a t
input
may
the
entire
the design
installed
end,
though
line.
stage
along
lines
instead
of
additional
By
providing
for
intermediate
be
pressure
booster
at
pump
to
and consequently
the p i p e w a l l
pumping
stations
are
The
required.
booster
is
increase
pumps
not
of
at
later
always
stage
economic.
approximately
with
although
The
the
selected
pipeline
cost
by
of
an
square
increases
with
of
should
losses
the
be
r e a l i s e d that
along
flow,
pipeline
consequently
f o r h i g h e r flows.
pumping main
economic
it
friction
increased b y i n s t a l l i n g
comparison
increasing
of
alternative
diameter,
whereas
sizes.
The
power cost
TOTAL
COST
DIAMETER
1.2
Fig.
O p t i m i z a t i o n of d i a m e t e r of a p u m p i n g p i p e l i n e .
COST I N
CENTS
P E R m3
Cl
c2
4 =
01
Fig.
7 -3
Optirriization of
02
Q3
throughput
0,
0;
Discharge
8
overcoming
in
power
Thus
costs
by
costs,
friction
increase
adding
one
least-cost
chapter.
steeply
together
obtains
system
There
reduces
can
will
as
the p i p e l i n e
pipeline and
curve
be
On
correspondingly.
such
selected.
Figure
An
b e a h i g h e r cost
v a l u e of
1.2,
example
other
hand
in d i a m e t e r .
i s reduced
the present
as
the
operating
from
is given
which
later
the
in the
rate.
If
at
some
capacity
of
diagram
such
stage
later
pumping
as
different
possible
kilolitre
or
it
is
system,
Figure
it
in
1.2
is plotted
to
increase
i s convenient
the
throughputs,
similar,
desired
form
the cost,
to
of
the
throughput
replot d a t a from a
Figure
1.3.
Thus
for
now e x p r e s s e d i n c e n t s p e r
a s the ordinate w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e
(real)
can
be
demonstrated
pipeline
annual
is
basis)
minimum
is
twice
the
that
the
when
cost
the
annual
per
unit
of
p i p e l i n e cost
cost
the
of
throughput
for
(expressed on
power
an
in o v e r c o m i n g
friction.
in cents p e r c u b i c metre of water
T h u s t h e cost
+ C2(d)
C,(P)
c =
is
61
wHQ + C 2 ( d )
C,
-
(1.1)
= c,w
2gdA
Hs)
CZ(d)/Q
- C2(d)/Q2
2C1 wHf/Q
minimum C
i.e.
P
of
C Z ( d ) = 2 C,(P)
i s power
water,
friction,
diameter
d,
(1.2)
requirement,
is
is
the
total
pumping
C,(P)
is
proportional
to wHQ.
head,
subscript
rate,
C2(d)
t h e cost
of
is
power
refers
the
cost
i s the u n i t weight
to
of
static
a
and f
to
pipeline
of
( a l l costs converted
to a u n i t
time b a s e ) .
(In a
given
similar
diameter
maximum
if
a v a i table).
the
manner
penstock
friction
it
c a n b e shown
supplying
head
loss
a
is
that
the
power o u t p u t of a
hydroelectric
one
third
of
station
the
total
is
head
9
R e t u r n i n g to F i g u r e 1.3,
(1)
At
(2)
At
any
particular
the f o l l o w i n g w i l l
throughput
Q,
there
t h i s d i a m e t e r t h e c o s t p e r ton of
at
if
not
throughput
was
t h r o u g h p u t Q2.
some
the
same
as
is a
c e r t a i n diameter
b e a m i n i m u m ( i n t h i s case D
w h i c h o v e r a l l costs w i l l
further
be observed:
1.
increased.
Costs
would
be a minimum
the
throughput
at
for
which
it
is
the
is
optimum
diameter.
If Q
(3)
Q4
were
increased
Q1
pipeline
Q3
(with
so t h a t
total
throughput
not
to
install
D3 )
but
to
increase
optimum
the p i p e w i t h
through
a m o u n t Q3
an
by
i t m a y b e economic
diameter
D2,
diameter
Q4C4
i.e.
second
the
flow
i s l e s s t h a n QIC1
+ Q3C3.
(4)
At
later
pipeline
stage
the
when
justified
is
it
throughput
through
the
to
construct
overloaded
second
line
could
be
reduced.
The
power
increasing
most
cost
pipe
per
unit
diameter
economic
to
of
the
so
increase
additional
throughput
corresponding
throughput
decreases
likelihood
through
an
of
it
with
being
existing
line
1969).
B A S I C S OF ECONOMICS
Economics
designs.
some
is
used a s a b a s t s f o r c o m p a r i n g a l t e r n a t i v e schemes o r
Different
rational
comparison
interest
schemes m a y
form of
is
the
rate
discount
on
loans
r e q u i r e a discount
reflect
b e more
time
The cash
compared
basis.
For
( i t s present
rate
which
redemption
from
preference,
may
be
funds.
the
in
National
form
of
projects
the
may
the p r e v a i l i n g interest r a t e ,
whereas
private
in the a c t u a l c a s h flows,
organizations
a n d consequently
to
will
use the
interest rate.
i.e.
those
Thus a l l
instance
of
flows,
with
or
r a t e different
rate
interested
real borrowing
have different
comparison.
one
of
cash
flows
pound
value)
payments
another
this
may
received
year
if
and
by
returns,
bringing
be discounted
next
it
year
of
them
is
could earn
common
to t h e i r p r e s e n t
the
same
5% i n t e r e s t
as
if
time
value.
fl/l.05
invested
10
this
a
year.
It
definite
annual
to a71
r i s the
t o meet
paying
into a
from a
expenditure
interest
repayments
rate.
Provision
loan over
i s made f o r
s i n k i n g fund w h i c h a l s o c o l l e c t s
at
the
e n d of
each
year
required
in n y e a r s i s
i n t e r e s t r a t e on t h e p a y m e n t s i n t o t h e s i n k i n g f u n d .
i s R,
t h e i n t e r e s t r a t e o n t h e toan
R(l+r)"+
capital
a certain
load by
The
to amount
where
usual
period at
r e p a y i n g the
interest.
is
If
r-R
(1.4)
( 1 + r )n-t
Normally
the
interest
rate
on
the
loan
i s equal
to
the
interest rate
e a r n e d b y t h e s i n k i n g fund so t h e a n n u a l p a y m e n t on a l o a n of
El
is
(1.5)
Conversely
the
present
v a l u e of
p a y m e n t of
S1 a t
t h e e n d o f each
IS
The p r e s e n t v a l u e of a s i n g l e amount of f l i n n y e a r s i s
Interest
on
loans,
various
tables
and
are
available
the present
interest
rates and
for
determining
v a l u e s of
annual
redemption
the a n n u a l
payments o r
periods
(lnstn.
of
payments
returns,
Civil
for
Engs.,
1962)
Methods of A n a l y s i s
Different engineering
may
b e compared
and
incomes
value
for
schemes r e q u i r e d
economically
associated
comparison,
with
the
in a
to meet
n u m b e r of
t h e same o b j e c t i v e s
If a l l
ways.
scheme a r e d i s c o u n t e d
analysis
is
termed
to
payments
t h e i r present
present
value
or
11
discounted
cash
flow
incomes of d i f f e r e n t
return
method.
o r g a n i s a t ions
analysis.
On
The
where
latter
tax
is
Present
most
returns
the
other
schemes a r e compared,
value
and
hand
this
frequently
profits
if
annual
i s termed
used
feature
net
the r a t e of
by
private
priminently.
In
comparisons
are
most
common
for
public
u t i I i t ies.
form
benefit/cost
of
water
of
economic
analysis.
scheme,
for
supplies,
instance
popular
certain
although t h i s
domestic supplies.
a r e attached
analysis
An economic benefit
economic
is difficult
Those schemes w i t h
highest
priority.
the
in
States
to a l l
value
is
attached
in
the
schemes
mutually
to
case of
benefit/cost
are
is
products
to e v a l u a t e
the highest
Where
United
i s attached
values
exclusive
present
requirements of
value
a
of
net
town f o r
benefit
is
adopted.
instance were f i x e d ,
It
the
the
total
least-cost
the
water
supply
Uncertainty i n Forecasts
Forecasts of
demands,
i n v a r i a b l y clouded w i t h
whether
they
uncertainty
be f o r water,
and
risk.
their
probability
for
be the sum of
a
number
uncertain
forecasts,
but
his
analysis
are
probability
the net
the net
b y 5 to
i.e.
possible
of
o i l o r gas,
Strictly
benefit of
benefits mul t i pl i ed
demands.
Berthouex
10% f o r p i p e l i n e s to a l l o w
does
not
account
for
cost
inflation.
An a l t e r n a t i v e method of a l l o w i n g f o r
or
interest
c a p i t a l cost
discount
scheme,
rate:
increasing
uncertainty
the
rate
i s to a d j u s t
will
which would be p r e f e r a b l e i f
the
favour
future
the
low
demand
were uncertain.
Example
his
economic
l i f e of h i s f a c t o r y ) .
consumption
to
600
water
P/s
for
for
years
further
then
25
plans
years
to
(the
12
He
draws
75% of
for
the
time
every
day.
Determine
the
Power
0.5
for
p/kWhr,
which
includes
an
allowance
on a s i n k i n g f u n d i s 10% p e r annum,
of
The water
costs
flat
operating
and
maintenance.
cost
most
pipelines,
pumps
and
a n d the
power
6%
is
to 5300 p e r
rate of
inflation in
p.a.
incremental
Pump
kW,
and
(including
1.10/1.06
The s u p p l y
O/s,
one
be made t h r o u g h one
P/s,
installed
Similarly
d e l i v e r i n g 300 P / s .
for
two
or
five
a l t e r n a t i v e diameters
pipeline.
since E l
interest
rate
less
f l
t h i s year i s worth
could
h a n d l i n g 600
4% p.a.,
i.e.
as the
years
i s made
large
pipeline
pipelines
after
the
each
was
capable
comparison
table for
made f o r
of
300
delivering
other.
i n the f o l l o w i n g
an a n a l y s i s
two
of
single
pipelines
each
This
each p i p e l i n e a n d a
5 7 500 p e r 100 m.
smaller
total
present
Thus one p i p e l i n e ,
value for
both p i p e l i n e s of
800 mm diameter,
w i l l be the
Note
that
pipeline,
the
although
analysis
it
was
is
independent
assumed
that
of
the
pressure
length
was
costs a r e assumed
a n a l y s i s i s also
incorporated
independent o f
the p i p e
in
the c a p i t a l
such
Water
cost
loan period,
the
of
that
hammer
here.
The
a l t h o u g h the
5,
25
factors
and
30
were obtained
years
periods.
from
present
v a l u e tables
Uncertainty
was
not
4% over
for
allowed
for
but
i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t emerged from
p i p e l i n e was
demand
increase,
installed
increasing
it
would
from
initially,
300
to
due
600
be more economic
to
P/s,
to
the a n a l y s i s :
high
then
boost
the
I f a 600 mm
uncertainty
if
the
of
the
demand
did
pumping
head
and
13
Sol u t i o n :
1.
I n s i d e D i a .mm
2.
FIOW
3.
e/s
5.
7.
e.
loss
kw/100 m
= (3.)xQ/70
0.14
0.55
0.06
0.24
0.03
0.12
0.02
0.07
0.60
4.,72
0.26
2.06
0.13
1.03
0.09
0.60
3900
31000
1700
13500
Annual
cost
850
6600
590
3900
pumping
silo0 m
20
155
Equiv.Capita1
c o s t of p u m p i n g
over 5 years
= (6Jx4.452
90
--
Equiv .capital
c o s t of p u m p i n g
o v e r 25 y e a r s .
( 6 . )x15.622
24-30
67
40
1060
33
20
520
20
10
310
P r e s e n t v a l u e of
p u m p i n g cost
2 070
= (8.)/1.170
10.
600
600
Energy requirem e n t s kW h r / y r /
100 m
9.
900
300
300
Power
= (4.1~8760
x 0.75
6.
800
300
600
600
H e a d loss
m/100 m
4.
700
600_ _ ~
_ _
N O
900
260
440
Cost of p u m p s
etc.
f/100
11.
12.
13.
m : = ( 4 . ) x300
Present v a l u e of
pump cost =
(10.,)/1.170
for
second s t a g e
P i p e l i n e cost
f/100 m
TOTAL
180
1410
80
620
40
310
30
180
180
1200
80
530
40
260
30
150
3600
4200
7140
5750
4800
5400
5560 ::
5850
COST
f / 1 0 0 m f o r 300
G 600 e / s
7. '9. + 1 1 . t i 2
(least cost)
14
_ - -
Rate
mls
Reservoir empty
Reservoir f u l l = c a p a c i t y required
24h I
1.4
Fig.
pump
Graphical c a l c u l a t i o n of r e s e r v o i r capacity
total
flow
rather
than
the
pipeline
indicated
by
600 mm
one
through
provide
comparison
the
a
of
the
(57 140/100 m )
line
one
second
present
with
600
existing
600
mm
value
the
diameter
mm
pipeline.
of
present
This
is
pumping through
value
of
pumping
m).
BALANCING STORAGE
An
aspect
system
is
reservoir
industrial
time
mean
may
of
water
day.
annual
be
provide
which
six
deserves
close a t t e n t i o n
storage.
fluctuate
Peak-day
the season,
the day
demands a r e sometimes
demand whereas
peak draw-off
times
for
pipeline
the
mean
capacity
b a l a n c i n g r e s e r v o i r s are
the head of
with
in p l a n n i n g the p i p e l i n e
to
day.
meet
the
of
domestic
the
i n excess of
week
and
and
twice
the
from r e t i c u l a t i o n systems
It
would
peak
be
uneconomic
draw-off
rates,
to
and
the r e t i c u l a t i o n
system)
to meet
these peaks.
The storage
c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e d v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y w i t h the p i p e l i n e c a p a c i t y .
The b a l a n c i n g storage
and
pipeline
capacity
requirement
may
for
be determined
any
known draw-off
w i t h a mass flow
pattern
diagram:
15
Plot
cumulative
curve
plot
pipeline.
period.
line
Move
Then
draw-off
with
this
the
over
slope
line
period
equal
down
till
maximum o r d i n a t e
just
touches
between
the
economic
storage
comparison
capacity
for
is
time,
and a b o v e t h i s
to
it
versus
of
the
two
lines represents
1.4).
necessary
to
determine
a n y p a r t i c u l a r system (Abramov,
the
optimum
1969) b y adding
is
c o m b i n a t i o n s and c o m p a r i n g them,
selected.
It
is found
that
the system w i t h
t h e most economic
least total
storage capacity
to
Slightly
than
more
450
reserve
mm
two
supply
day's
storage
may
diameter).
storage
should
be
long
for
b e economic
In a d d i t i o n
provided;
up
for
pipelines
(over
60
km).
small-bore
pipelines
(less
certain
to
amount
of
emergency
12 h o u r s d e p e n d i n g u p o n
the a v a i l a b i l i t y of maintenance f a c i l i t i e s .
REFERENCES
A b r a m o v , N.,
1969. M e t h o d s o f r e d u c i n g p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n in p u m p i n g
w a t e r . I n t . W a t e r S u p p l y Assn. C o n g r e s s , V i e n n a .
Berthouex,
P.M.,
1971.
Accommodating u n c e r t a i n forecasts.
J.
Am.
W a t e r Works Assn., 66 ( 1 ) 14.
I n s t n . o f C i v i l Engs., 1962. A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o E n g i n e e r i n g Economics,
London.
and James, L.D.,
1973. M a r g i n a l economics a p p l i e d t o
Osborne, J.M.
p i p e l i n e d e s i g n . P r o c . Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g s . , 99 ( T E 3 ) 637.
W h i t e , J.E.,
1969. Economics o f l a r g e d i a m e t e r l i q u i d p i p e l i n e s . P i p e l i n e News, N.J.
L I S T OF SYMBOLS
cost p e r u n i t o f t h r o u g h p u t
diameter
number of y e a r s
throughput
i n t e r e s t r a t e o n s i n k i n g fund
i n t e r e s t r a t e on
loan
CHAPTER 2
HYDRAULICS
The
three
continuity
For
most
steady,
is
simply
the
flow
rate
is
with
meant
time.
stream
tube
The
that
there
there
states
that
one-dimensional
on
the
is
variation
no
lateral
stems
in
forces
on
from
rate at
the
across
the
any
is
an
element
in
energy
of
energy.
the equation.
tion
and
for
this.
to
'steady
point
along
boundaries
of
Newton's
fluid
basic
law
between
causing
of
two
the
motion
sections
change.
For
flow t h i s i s
p i s the f l u i d
i s velocity
basic
equa-
section
By
at
flow
the
i s irrotational.
momentum f l u x
the
any
tube.
velocity
that
flow
the flow
the c o n t i n u i t y
stream
in
implies
are
equation.
(2.1
i s the force,
The
from
no
flow
the
mechanics
t h e energy
pQAVx
flow r a t e , V
change
of
fluid
the flow
along
flow
change
steady,
sum
the
the
where
is
equation
equals
equating
section
momentum
AFx
by
another
and
in
one-dimensional
'One-dimensional'
stream tubes.
and
obtained
at
equations
incompressible,
tion
flow'
important
equation,
mass density,
a n d s u b s c r i p t x r e f e r s to the
equation
fluid
by
is
i s the volumetric
'x'
direction.
d e r i v e d b y e q u a t i n g the work
gravitational
Mechanical
and
a n d heat energy
pressure
transfer
forces
to
done
the
a r e excluded
loss due to f r i c -
resulting
equation
for
steady
flow
of
incompressible
where V
mean velocity
V2/2g
velocity
at a section
pressure
head ( u n i t s of
length)
17
p/y
= u n i t weight of f l u i d
pressure head ( u n i t s of
= e l e v a t i o n above an a r b i t r a r y datum
he
head
loss
due
to
length)
friction
or
turbulence
between
pressure
head p l u s e l e v a t i o n
sections 1 G 2
The
sum
the
of
velocity
head
plus
is
flow
uniform
or
variation
it
2.0.
is
non-uniform
in
the
Flow
through
depending
on
cross-sectional
conduit
whether
velocity
i s 1.06 and f o r
termed
is
or
not
either
there
distribution
is
along
the
conduit.
For
i.e.
the
there
The flow
should
Bernoulli
should
be
equation
to
no change
apply
in
i s assumed to be one-dimensional
be
incompressible,
although
the
the
velocity
respective
heads
are
illustrated
flow
at
should
any
be
and i r r o t a t i o n a l .
equation
steady,
p o i n t w i t h time.
may
be
The f l u i d
applied
1960).
i n Fig.
2.1.
For most p r a c -
ENERGY LINE
ENTRANCE LOSS
FRICTION L O S S
COtiTRACTION L O S S
FRICTION LOSS
PRESSURE H E A D
P/ x
E L E \ A T ION
Fig.
to
2.1
18
F L O W HEAD LOSS RELAT I ONSH I PS
o r c a p a c i t y of
a p i p e of
f i x e d dimensions depends
T h i s head
i s consumed
first
friction
f i e l d observations.
waterworks
developed.
head
These e m p i r i c a l
practice
The
conventional
loss/flow
although
head
relationships
rational
formulae
,+-
formulae a n d a r e u s u a l l y
derived
stil I
relationships are
more
loss/flow
were
formulae
established
thus
i n an exponential
from
popular
have
are
form
in
been
termed
of
the
type
= K
where V
the
sY
R~
radius
perimeter,
q u a r t e r of
per
= K*Q"/D~
hydraulic
wetted
or
and
of
K' a r e coefficients, R i s
area
for
pipe flowing
circular
the diameter) a n d S
length
K and
(cross-sectional
pipe).
Some of
of
flow
divided
full,
i s the head g r a d i e n t
by
the
equals
one
( i n m head loss
a r e l i s t e d below:
SI units
Basic Equation
Hazen -Wi I I iams
Manning
Chezy
Darcy
S=K1 ( V / C w )
1.85
/D
1.33
units
K =3.03
(2.3)
K2=2.86
(2.4)
K =4.00
(2.5)
S=K2(nV)2/D
K2= 6.32
s=K~(v/c~)~/D
K 3=13.13
S= X V /~2 g ~
f.p.s.
= 6.84
1.167
DimensionI ess
(2.6)
I t should be borne
of
variations
They a r e f o r t u r b u l e n t flow
coefficients
vary
in gravity,
temperature o r type of
w i t h p i p e diameter,
type of
The
f i n i s h a n d age
19
The conventional
do
not
involve
formulae a r e comparatively
fluid
viscosity.
They
factor
diameter
rule,
or
for
friction
calculator,
paper.
pipe
(see next
directly
The
The
Solution
head g r a d i e n t
computer,
equations
networks
section).
flow.
of
the
the
equations
formulae
i s simple w i t h
nomograph
are
where
rational
of
or
particular
flow/head
graphs
use
for
loss
cannot
for
be
velocity,
the a i d of
a slide
p l o t t e d on
log-log
analysing
equations
flows
in
have
to
be
practice
is
the
most
popular
Hazen-Williams
flow
formula.
are tabulated
i n Table 2.1.
the
waterworks
aid
in
of
organizations
for
I f the formula
chart
a
use
is
graphs
of
C decreases w i t h age,
type of
use in t h i s equation
i s to be used f r e q u e n t l y ,
the
a g a i n s t flow f o r v a r i o u s p i p e diameters,
v a l u e of
waterworks
F r i c t i o n coefficients
solution
with
formula
most
efficient
loss
head
way.
gradient
a n d v a r i o u s C values.
Many
plotted
As the
p i p e a n d p r o p e r t i e s of water,
TABLE 2.1
Hazen-Williams f r i c t i o n coefficients
New
Cond i t ion
25 years 50 years
old
old
150
150
140
130
140
120
130
100
150
130
130
110
100
60
90
50
120
100
80
Type of Pipe
PVC:
Smooth concrete, AC:
Steel, bitumen I ined,
ga I vanized :
Cast i r o n :
Riveted steel, v i t r i f i e d woodstave:
subtract 0.1
Badly
corroded
45
( 1 - Dmm
) C
1 000
Rational F l o w Formulae
Although
use
for
acceptance
fic
the
many
conventional
years,
more
flow
amongst engineers.
b a s i s backed b y
formulae
rational
are
formulae
likely
are
to
remain
gradually
in
gaining
20
applicable.
Any
consistent
units
of
measurements
may
be
used
and
rational
flow
past
research
d a t a on
flow
formulae
bodies o r over
was on
for
flat
smal I-bore
roughness f o r
flow
i n pipes a r e s i m i l a r
plates
to those
( S c h l i c h t i n g 1960). The o r i g -
pipes w i t h a r t i f i c i a l
roughness. Lack
in
a boundary
a
shear
in a full
the centre.
layer
force
resistance
to
viscosity,
and
i s established
onto
an
relative
in
inner
w i t h each a n n u l u s of f l u i d i m p a r t i n g
neighbouring
motion
turbulent
of
flow
it
concentric
is
the
fluid
is
imparted
annulus.
termed
by
The
kinematic
turbulent
mixing
boundary
layer
layer gradually
the f l o w
i s established
expands
becomes uniform.
established flow
i s g i v e n by
at
until
it
The
the entrance to
a conduit and
length of
Beyond t h i s
S c h l i c h t i n g , (1966).
= 0.7
The
Re'"for
Reynolds
Re
number
i n c o r p o r a t i n g the f l u i d viscosity
flow
formulae.
and becomes t u r b u i e n t
for
equation
shear
head
force
loss
over
nD2/4
L
vz
XE
29
is
of
is
dimensionless
which i s absent
higher Re
length
m u l t i p l i e d by the a r e a :
TnDL = v h
VD/V
Flow i n a p i p e i s l a m i n a r f o r
The
basic
(2.7)
t u r b u l e n t flow.
pipe
i n t h e conventional
low R e !less
( n o r m a l l y the case
derived
equal
number
by
setting
to
the
loss
than
2 000)
i n practice!.
the
in
boundary
pressure
Fig.
2.2
Moody r e s i s t a n c e d i a g r a m for u n i f o r m f l o w
i n conduits
21
22
where X
is
the
( 4 7 / y ) ( V Z / 2 s ) ( r e f e r r e d to
shear
stress,
loss over
head
is
the
length L .
pipe
diameter
and
engineering
turbulent
ivterest
and
complex
hf
Re
is
the
friction
and
!he
relative
The
and
transition
zone
undefined
but
= 64/Re
will
L a m i n a r flow
between
is
also
i.e. X
not occur
laminar
of
little
i n practice.
Turbulenr
rough
practice.
is
flow
friction factor),
Darcy
the
X i s a f u n c t i o n of
F o r l a m l n a r flow,
roughness e/D.
as
flow
conditions
boundary.
conditions
are
distribution
The
derived
in
may
occur
for
from
general
turbulent
the
boundary
either
with
equations
the
friction
equation
layer,
smooth
factor
for
which
is
or
for
the
both
velocity
from
derived
m i x i n g l e n g t h theory:
Integrating,
w i t h k = 0.4
where
the
is
velocity
hydrodynamical l y
/+=
distance
y= v / m s o
5.75
log Y
y
is
from
a
the
laminar
/%=V
= e/30
log
fl
a n d 2.11
(2.11)
and expressing v
2 log -
0.8
layer,
i n terms of
vdA w e get
(2.12)
smooth b o u n d a r y ) a n d
1.14
i s affected and
+ 8.5
equations 2.10
( t u r b u l e n t boundary
Jf
and
(2.10)
5.5
i s r o u g h the l a m i n a r sub-layer
5.75
Re-arranging
= 210g Re
sub-layer,
that
For a
was found e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .
the boundary
J-T
boundary.
Thus
at
smooth b o u n d a r y there
Where
(2.13)
rough boundary)
23
Notice
tive
that
for
r o u g h n e s s e/D
smooth
boundary,
and for
very
is
independent of
rough boundary
it
is
the r e l a -
independent
o f t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r Re f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s .
Colebrook
and
White
combined
E q u a t i o n s 2.12
a n d 2.13
to p r o d u c e
a n e q u a t i o n c o v e r i n g b o t h smooth a n d r o u g h b o u n d a r i e s a s w e l l a s t h e
t r a n s i t i o n zone;
(D
e +Rx
9.35)
1 = 1.14 - 2 l o g
Their
Equation
equation
reduces
2.13
rough
satisfactory
for
results
radse's original
ness.
h!atural
roughness.
TABLE
2.2
for
(2.14)
to E q u a t i o n 2.12
pipes.
This
various
experiments
for
smooth
semi-empirical
commercially
pipes,
and
equation
available
used s a n d as a r t i f i c i a l
to
yields
pipes.
Niku-
boundary
rough-
r o u g h n e s s i s e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e e q u i v a l e n t s a n d
T a b l e 2.2
g i v e s v a l u e s of e f o r v a r i o u s s u r f a c e s .
Roughness of p i p e m a t e r i a l s
V a l u e o f e ~n mm f o r n e w ,
( H y d r a u l i c s Research station,
c l e a n surface
Finish:
1969)
Smooth
Rough
Average
_-__.
Glas?, d r a w n metals
S t e r l , DVC or AC
0
0.015
Coat?(( strel
0.03
GaIvnr>cze-d, v i t r i f i e d c l a y
0.06
Cast i r c r o r cement l i n e d
0.15
Spun concrete or wood s t a v e 0 . 3
R i v e t e d steel
1.5
F o u l sewers, t u b e r c u l a t e d
6
water mains
Ur,Iinrd rock, e a r t h
60
_____
0.006
0.003
0.03
0.06
0.15
0.3
0.6
0.06
0.15
0.3
0.6
I .5
15
30
150
300
__-
Fortunately A
increases
constant
i s not v e r y
linearly
with
d e p e n d i n g on
sensitive
age
local
to t h e v a l u e o f e assumed.
water
for
conditions.
pipes,
There
the
may
proportionality
also
be
reduction
i n c r o s s s e c t i o n w i t h age.
The v a r i o u s r a t i o n a l f o m u l a e f o r
::J
Moody
this
and
viscosities
graph
water
of
at
is
were
presented
various
p l o t t e d on a
Fig.
as
temperatures
2.2.
are
single
The
graph
kinematic
listed
the
in
Apprndix.
The Moody d i a g r a m
pipe
velocity
to d i r e c t
amenable
head
loss,
velocity
to
and
head
rate
is
flow
or
is
solution for
trial
calculate
r e c a l c u l s t e v e l o city etc.
and
known.
the
error
Reynolds
Unfortunately
convrse,
i.e.
approach
is
number,
Convergence
then
for
it
veloc:ity,
necessary
read
loss
not
given
i.e.
off
i s f a i r l y r a p i d however.
if
very
guess
then
24
The Colebrook W h i t e e q u a t i o n i s e a s i e r to use i f h e a d loss i s g i v e n
and velocity
loss
Station
i s to b e c a l c u l a t e d .
given
or
at
equation
It
flow
Wallingford
Cclebrook-White
graphs
or
velocity
i s not
so e a s y
however.
re-arranged
produce
to
( H y d r s u l i c Research S t a t i o n ,
The
the
simple
solve f o r
to
Hydraulics
in
variables
explicit
head
Research
the
flow/head
1055
1969):
i n t h e form-
E q u a t i o n 2.14 may b e a r r a n g e d
(2.15)
Thus
e,
for
g r a p h may
graph for
has
any
water
plotted
f l u i d at a certain
b e p l o t t e d in terms of V,D
at
step
15OC a n d e = 0.06.
similar
also a v a i l a b l e for
a
graphs
further,
and
to
V,
the
R a n d S,
gravity.
for
non-circular
Colebrook-Whi te e q u a t i o n
tional
Using
and S.
various
sections,
conditions.
Research
dimensionless
but
including factors
this
form
resistance diagram
was
published
with
d e r i v e d on a s i m i l a r b a s i s
of
2.3
The
the
Station
charts.
(VVatson,
graphs
for
viscosity,
equation
they
Fig.
2.3
as
are
Going
re-wrote
parameters
the
propor-
roughness
produced
in dimensionless parameters.
their
i s such a
b y r e p l a c i n g D b y 4R.
in
terms o f
Fig.
The H y d r a u l i c Research S t a t i o n
Hydraulics
universal
also
an
This
graph
example
is
1979).
Comparison of F r i c t i o n F o r m u l a e
Diskin
(1960) p r e s e n t e d
useful
comparison of
the f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s
f r o m t h e Hazen-Will iams a n d D a r c y e q u a t i o n s :
The D a r c y e q u a t i o n may b e w r i t t e n a s
or
v
v
=JTprn
(2.16)
c Z &R
(2.17)
cz
The
&p
(2.18)
Hazen-Wi I I iams
equation
may
be
rewritten
for
al I
practical
5 1 5 ( V / C W ) * (Cw/Re)
By c o m p a r i n g
be deduced t h a t
this with
0.15
(2.19)
/gD
t h e Darcy-Weisbach
equation
(2.16)
i t may
26
The
Hazen-Williams
Re
and
2.2).
and
It
values
will
be
Cw
coefficient
may
be
observed
from
Fig.
with
in the t r a n s i t i o n zone.
pipes
the
with
therefore
Moody
2.2
that
functionof
diagram
lines
for
(see
Fig.
constant
coefficient
i .e.
number
is
p l o t t e d on
actual l y
reduce
the
greater
the
Reynolds
one
a p a r t i c u l a r p i p e as
rate.
The
It will
around 10 ) .
Manning
p a r t f u l l pipes.
equation
is
widely
used
for
open
channel
flow
and
The equation i s
(2.21
where
is
1.00
in SI
TABLE 2.3
1.486
u n i t s and
where A
h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s A/P
One
is D/4
for
i s the
a c i r c u l a r p i p e , a n d i n general
method of
ventional
KV2/2g
and R
0.010
0.01 1
0.01 2
0.013
0.015
0.017
LOSSES
i n section
press
I b units,
Smooth glass, p l a s t i c
Concrete, steel ( b i tumen I i n e d )
galvanized
Cast i r o n
Slimy or greasy sewers
Rivetted steel, v i t r i f i e d wood-stave
Rough concrete
MINOR
in ft
i s the cross-sectional
expressing
i s the e q u i v a l e n t
friction
loss
formulae
losses through f i t t i n g s
where
is
the
head
loss
l e n g t h method,
are
used.
in terms of
coefficient.
often
Modern
used when
the con-
p r a c t i c e i s to ex-
gives typical
he =
loss
27
coefficients
plementary
although
data
and
valve
loss
The v e l o c i t y V
opening.
to
manufacturers
coefficients
may
which
also
will
provide
vary
sup-
with
gate
bore of the p i p e o r f i t t i n g .
TABLE 2.4
Loss coefficients f o r p i p e f i t t i n g s
Bends hBKBV2/ 2 g
Bend a n g l e
Sharp
30"
45"
60 O
90
1 80
90" w i t h g u i d e vanes
r
0.07
0.10
0.12
0.13
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.08
if
the r a d i u s i s
r/D=l
0.16
0.07
0.13
0.18
0.32
0.68
1.27
2.2
0.22
0.2
r a d i u s of bend to centre of p i p e
A significant
reduction
in
bend
loss
i s possible
hv = KvV2/2g
Type:
Opening:
SLuice
Butterf I y
Globe
Needle
Ref I u x
1/ 4
1 /2
3/4
Ful I
24
120
5.6
7.5
1 .o
1.2
0.2
0.6
0.5
1-2.5
0.3
10
Wal I-Wal I
Angle
___
0
-
Contract ions :
Expansions
hc= KcVJ29
h = K V 2/2g
c
c l
A 2 4
0.2
0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
- __ __
7.5"
150
30 O
180"
.5
.37
.25
.15
.07 0
Al/A2
0
.13
.32
.78
1 .O
.05
.15
.27
.36
.02
.08
.13
.17
0 0
.02 0
.03 0
-04 0
28
Entrance and e x i t
he = KeV2/2g
losses:
Protruding
Sharp
Bevel l e d
Rounded
Entrance
Exit
0.8
0.5
0.25
0.05
1 .o
1 .o
0.5
0.2
IN PIPES
I ntroduct ion
Valves
the
and other
cause of
is
reduced
water
giving
rise
Knapp
et
upstream
fittings
vapour
to
vaporizes.
cavitation
1961).
al,
and
in pipes
bubble formation
The
bubbles
damage
The
downstream
fluid.
The
geometry
conditions
referred
to
velocity
increases
as
to
pressure,
r a t e affec? the c a v i t a t i o n p o t e n t i a l
the
critical.
as
may
the
pipe
of
the
as
well
ratio
the
h e a d may
When
be
the
pressure
subsequently
collapse
or
valve
valve
the
damage
well
closure
vapour
cavitation
1970,
(Ball;
as
valve
as
which
cavitation
the
reduce
degree of
under
The
and
which
downstream.
as
and
p r e s s u r e of
commences
increases
of
upstream
for
identifying
the
flow
are
as
flow
downstream
to
p r e s s u r e increases.
A
of
number
operation
The
of
of
popular
reduction
empirical
control
measure
ratio,
commercially
i.e.
to
work
of
the
potential
r a t i o of
valve
types
influences
of
s a f e zone
less
valves
the
for
problem
is
the
pressure
u p s t r e a m to d o w n s t r e a m p r e s s u r e s .
valves
ratios
cavitation
are
than
said
3 or 4.
critical
operate
to
w i t h a c a v i t a t i o n index a s indicated
various
the
v a l v e s h a v e been p r o p o s e d b y v a l v e s u p p l i e r s .
of
available
pressure reducing
relationships
It
for
i s h o w e v e r more l o g i c a l
Jater.
conditions,
pressure
Many
efficiently
reducing
Since t h e geometry
the
or
application
flow
control
of
is
described.
TYPES OF VALVES
Valves
are
used
for
i s o l a t i n g o r flow control.
two
aistinct
purposes
in
pipelines,
namely
29
I s o l a t i n g Valves
Isolating
valves
They
should
only.
They
be
are
and
there
damage
not
close
off
in
the
fully
open
operated
the o b s t r u c t i o n to
is
to
the
flow
or
through
fully
closed
pipe.
position
i.e.
gate
used
is
often
shut.
the seat
to
to
l i t t l e pressure reduction o r
practically
designed
the flow
and
At
that
stage
flow
control
cavitation
v a l v e body may r e s u l t .
is
until
the
possible
and
T h i s type of v a l v e i s
i.e.
it
i s designed
valves
spherical
include
valves.
designed
to
These
close
operated b y
gate
as
valves,
valves
rapidly
spindles
with
are
as
screw
butterfly
generally
possible.
threads,
valves
and
operated
by
Although
butterfly
gate
r o t a r y or
hand
and
valves
are
valve
seating
these
from
the
fully
open
position.
I n order
valves
spindle
may
have
indirectly
from
reduction
the
gear
boxes
handwheel.
in
to
overcome
high
the r a t e of closure
order
Alternatively
to
drive
electrical
the
and
sl(iice
in
bore area
non l i n e a r ,
area
valves,
10.1,
Figs.
a n d degree of
reduces
rapidly
i s reduced r a p i d l y
rise
to
10.2
valves
and
10.4,
The
and
t u r n i n g of
the
in
u n f a v o u r a b l e w i t h respect
higher
reduction
butterfly
in
the
to
final
water
d u r i n g the f i n a l
water
velocity
hammer
in
the
pressures
pipe.
handwheel
The
of
than
as
the
closure
and
tne
uniform
problems
of
are
between
generally
is
valve
closure.
pressures
stages of
valves
relationship
the gate
stages
hammer
spherical
that
the
This
is
velocity
this
gives
rate
cavitation
of
are
Control Valves
Various
water
types of
i n pipelines b y
linearly
the flow of
r e d u c i n g the open a r e a a n d to c o n t a i n
30
typical
valve
valve).
2.4)
in
common
and plunger
a v a r i a t i o n of
slots.
any
( a needle
which
valves
even
is
and
more
basket
type
appropriate
r e l y on a s i n g l e
high
for
duty
pressure
increase i n velocity
and
have
variable
pressure
resistance
trim
i n a number of
damage
as
result.
r a t i o i s l i m i t e d at
It
10.3
Fig.
r a d i a l flow sleeve v a l v e s ( F i g .
valve
are
types
in
type
2.5)
(Fig.
The former
illustrated
slotted
type control
expansion
valves
reducing.
is
the r a d i a l flow
Multiple
control
use
rings
or
layered
baskets
reduce
the
stages a n d a r e s a i d to s u f f e r less c a v i t a t i o n
This
is
largely
because
each stage b u t o v e r a l l
i s a l s o recognised that
pressure
reducing
may be r e l a t i v e l y h i g h .
it
these v a l v e s a r e
the
less noisy
when
reducing
h i g h pressures.
The
needle v a l v e
was
as
it
at
a l l stages of opening.
or
the
COI
was
initial
valve)
(e.g.
or
quality
the
by
materials
pistons o r
1981).
Dvir,
water
as
workings.
valve
i s now replaced to a
sophisticated
the
such
latter
type
of
elastometers
valve
other
hand
the
( t h e sleeve
its
diaphram
type
i s not sensitive
f l e x i b l e d i a p h r a m prevents
the
to
as
The
On
i n power s t a t i o n p r a c t i c e
The
opening.
struction and
using
recognised as a streamlined
ingress of
cannot
to
poor
dirt
into
accommodate
may
also
be
subject
to
vibration
and
instability
as
venturi
towards
downstream
or
the atmosphere
stream
on
the
face of
system
and
of
of
the
i s supported
that
is off
also
be
operated
off
to
In
to
system.
some
types
the downstream
by a spring.
the
pressure
f l u i d pressure depending
Such p i l o t systems can be
the water
a r e often r e q u i r e d to prevent
can
piston.
i s exposed
a p i l o t control
hydraulically,
strainers
face
the p i s t o n
the operation
operated
exposed
face of
c o n t r o l l e d p r o v i d e d the flow
pressure.
the p i l o t
electrical
tubes
I n t h i s case
blocking.
solenoids
or
The
from
31
Fig.
2.4
i 2 . 5~
F l e x f l o Sleeve v a l v e f o r f l o w control
, .i i g h d u t y control
reduction
v a l v e n i t n t r i p l e aasi(ets
foi'
heao
p n e u m a t i c s u p p o r t system.
The
sure
control
to
system c a n
a n d t h e sensor
a
be designed
a c e r t a i n maximum f i g u r e .
pilot
d o w n s t r e a m senses
valve held b y
means o f
to
limit
t h e downstream
pres-
As t h e u p s t r e a m p r e s s u r e b u i l d s UP
an
i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e i t w i l l open
in
t u r n p e r m i t a b i g g e r p r e s s u r e f r o m u p s t r e a m t o come b e h i n d t h e p i s t o n
and
partly
close
control
flow
orifice
or
controls
get
the
ports.
Alternatively
in
which
case
rate
venturi
is
the
measured.
the
valve
p r e s s u r e on
The
pressure
may
b e u s e d to
either
side
of
in
difference
an
turn
p i l o t v a l v e w h i c h w i l l e i t h e r p e r m i t a g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e to
the
behind
the
piston
to
close
the
valve
or
exhaust
the
pressure
b e h i n d t h e p i s t o n to open t h e v a l v e d e p e n d i n g on w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d .
CAVITATION
The
IN CONTROL VALVES
mechanism
control
high
valve
is
velocity
turbulence
from
by
jet
as
statical
whereby
flow
converting
and
it
is
then
emerges
reduced o r
the
the
into
pressure energy
p r e s s u r e i s reduced
pressure energy
velocity
the
open
energy
pipe
upstream
is
again.
to v e l o c i t y e n e r g y
in a
into a
dissipated
The
in
conversion
i s obtained from
the
Bernoul I i e q u a t i o n ;
(2.22)
Here
that
P/W
is
the
is
datum a n d V
velocity
be V
upstream
the
pressure,
pressure
i s the w a t e r
head,
w h e r e H = P/W.
This
replacing
by
ah.
coefficient
is
often
introduced
v = c
where
the
the
i s often given
the
the
Thus
if
unit
weight
elevation
of
is
the
To
affects
so
fixed
however n e g l e c t s u p s t r e a m v e l o c i t y
the
account
in
latter can
for
the
be accounted f o r b y
upstream
equation
velocity
and
in
fact
head
the p i p e
in t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m
(2.23)
discharge
v a l v e opening.
valve
i s a c o n s t a n t then t h e
JzsnF;
Cd
water
above
t h e p r e s s u r e h e a d i s r e d u c e d to z e r o w o u l d
a n d downstream p r e s s u r e a l t h o u g h
velocity
is
is
velocity.
p o s s i b l e assuming
Apart
the
coefficient
from
the f a c t
discharge
which
that
coefficient,
may
vary
depending
on
t h e d e g r e e of o p e n i n g o f
even
if
the
discharge
33
coefficient
to v a r y
owing
open.
The
only
actual
be
found
incipient
i.e.
valve
is
and
a
from
the
a n d choking
stream.
stage of
throttling
experiment.
p o i n t at
i.e.
at
appreciably
Cavitation
which
the stage a t
vapour
which
affected
which c a v i t a t i o n
by
has
commences can
been
classified
bubbles commenced to
as
form,
the d i s c h a r g e coefficient o f
vaporization
of
the
water
the
down-
the energy
low
pressure
downstream.
cavitation
have
significant
factor
been
proposed
the
in
number
of
(Winn
indication
of
parameters
and
for
Johnson,
cavitation
is
assessing
1970).
the
The
cavitation
index.
(2.24)
where
is
the
pressure a n d s u b s c r i p t d r e f e r s to downstream,
u to
For
streamlined
tation
index
cavitation
drops as
often
case i t w i l l
valves
low
occurs
it
0.1
then
the
the
index
occur
until
the
cavi-
p o o r l y designed v a l v e s
i.e.
nearer
1.0.
at normal o p e r a t i n g pressure r a t i o s .
pressure
can
pressure
v a l v e s i s much lower.
pressure
not
whereas f o r
higher
whereas
the
as 0.1
at
may
In
any
a degree of c a v i t a t i o n
Pv
cavitation
be
index
if
the c r i t i c a l
by
factor
reduced
reduction
ratio
possible
with
For an average c r i t i c a l c a v i t a t i o n
reducing
ratio
Neglecting
that
i s from 2.24
neglecting
of
index
nearly
is
10
unstreaml ined
index of 0.33
vapour
pressure,
4.0.
Various forms of
1970).
Very
little
the c a v i t a t i o n
is
however
index
known
about
owing
quantitatively
to
the
photographic
the
scaling
down
of
the
format ion,
increase
in
methods,
bulk
pressure
caused
by
measurements
bubble
due
to
collapse
of
the
bubbles
and
sonic- methods.
2.6
Fig.
shows
the
It
is
recognised
that
pressure subsequently
the
accompanying
the
collapse
of
vapour
bubbles
when
noise a r e often
the
symptoms
of
the
T h i s and
poorly
selected
valve.
There
hammer
is
however
wave
the
closed so
an
celerity
interesting
and
the
b u b b l e formation
relationship
cavitation
increases
between
potential.
As
the
a
water
valve
is
the
which
free
in
turn
then
it
the
valve
gas
is
fraction
can
f u n c t i o n of
discharge
with
the
equation
equation
and
wave c e l e r i t y .
the
when
cavity
the
It
in
pressure.
The
bubbles
are
solved
pressure
to
pressure
This
increases.
bubbles
downstream
may
as
release
they
which r a p i d l y
are
therefore
released
not
then
initially
turns
q u a n t i t i e s of
due
collapse
it
drop
will
be
rapidly
the
wave c e l e r i t y
promise f o r
reduces r a p i d l y
i s reduced so that
neglects
wave
the p o t e n t i a l of
equation
index,
the flow
reflections
and
cavitation
to effect
so
to
into l i q u i d
gas
may
the
drop
completely.
the
lowering
index
cavitation
to
to
study
index
Small
(iteratively)
would
cavitation
form
closed due
begin
the
cavitation
downstream pressure
i s made d i f f i c u l t
again
contained
equations
gas
pressure
the
to
the
relating
of
related
together
mer
be
the upstream or
found
as
the
be
in
If
the
that
the
valve
is
Then as bubbles
reduces more s t e a d i l y .
on
but
it
does
hold
as a v a l v e closes especially
this
flow
theory
indicates
that
reduction
is
more
rapid
than
was
35
REFERENCES
1960. F l u i d M e c h a n i c s
A l b e r t s o n , M.L.,
B a r t o n , J.R. a n d Simons, D.B.,
f o r E n g i n e e r s . P r e n t i c e H a l l , N.J.
B a l l , J.W.,
1970. C a v i t a t i o n d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
I n T u l l i s (1970). Proc.
I n s t . Colorado State Univ.
D i s k i n , M.H.,
Nov.
1960. The l i m i t s o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e HazenW i l l i a m s f o r m u l a e . L a H o u i l l e B l a n c h e , 6.
D v i r , Y.,
1981. P r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r s in w a t e r s u p p l y systems. Water
a n d I r r i g a t i o n Review, Water Works A s s o c i a t i o n o f I s r a e l .
H y d r a u l i c s Research S t a t i o n , 1969. C h a r t s f o r t h e H y d r a u l i c Designs o f
C h a n n e l s a n d PiDes. 3 r d E d n . . H.M.S.O.,
London.
K n a p p , R.,
D a i l y , 'J.W.
a n d Hammitt, F.G.',1961.
C a v i t a t i o n . McGrawHill.
S c h l i c h t i n g , H., 1960. B o u n d a r y L a y e r T h e o r y . 4 t h E d n . , McGraw-Hill
N.Y.
T u l l i s , J.P.,
1970. Control o f f l o w i n c l o s e d c o n d u i t s . Proc. I n s t .
Colorado State U n i v e r s i t y .
Watson, M.D.,
J u l y 1979. A s i m p l i f i e d a p p r o a c h t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f p i p e
f l o w p r o b l e m s u s i n g t h e Colebrook-White
method. C i v i l Eng.
in
S.A.,
2 1 ( 7 ) , p p 169-171.
Winn, W.P.
a n d Johnson, D.E.
December 1970. C a v i t a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s
f o r o u t l e t v a l v e s . Proc. ASCE, HY12.
LIST O F SYMBOLS
cross-sectional
Hazen-Will iams f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
C'
friction factor
Cz
d e p t h o f water
diameter
N i k u r a d s e roughness
force
he
hf
f r i c t i o n h e a d loss
loss c o e f f i c i e n t
length of c o n d u i t
wetted p e r i m e t e r
pressure
f
Fx
g
a r e a of flow
Chezy f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
Darcy f r i c t i o n factor
gravitational
( e q u i v a l e n t to A )
acceleration
h e a d loss
36
Re S
flow rate
hydraulic radius
Reynolds number
h y d r a u l i c gradient
mean velocity
velocity a t a point
across a section
elevation
specific
mass density
shear stress
k i n e m a t i c viscosity
Darcy f r i c t i o n f a c t o r - ( f i n USA)
F i g . 2.6
weight
valve
37
CHAPTER 3
The
flows
controlled
points
through
by
and
steady-state
the
the
system
of
interlinked
difference between
residual
flow
pressure
pattern
will
pipes or
networks a r e
at
the
be established
the
input
drawoff
points.
network
such that
in a
(1)
The net
(2)
The
flow
towards
j u n c t i o n or
node
i.e.,
i s zero,
inflow
and
loss
head
any
around
any
closed
loop
is
zero,
i.e.,
only
l i n e head losses a r e u s u a l l y
and
most
loss
relationships
methods
= K?Qn/Dm
of
analysis
for
where
pipes
is
are
are
the
the o n l y
based
usually
loss,
head
significant
on
this
assumed
head Losses
assumption.
to
be
i s the p i p e
of
the
length,
Head
form
Ithe
calculations
are
simplified
if
the
friction
factor
can
be
It
the
in
of
i s often
same
series
or
to
loss
and
parallel.
know
the
e q u i v a l e n t p i p e which
flow
as
The
number
equivalent
pipe
of
would g i v e
interconnected pipes
may
be
used
in
place
The
of
head
useful
equivalent
different
equating
diameter
diameters
total
the
and
head
the e q u i v a l e n t p i p e of
of
compound
lengths
loss
for
length equal
in
any
p i p e composed of
series
flow
to
may
be
sections
calculated
the head
loss
by
through
K ( Z P ) Q ~ / D= ~ K~P Q " / D ~
..
De
(3.1)
38
( m i s 5 i n the Darcy f o r m u l a a n d 4.85
Similarly,
in the Hazen-Williams f o r m u l a ) .
total
KP Q " / D ~ =~ K P ~ Q ~ ~ / D ~ ~
e
i.e.
Q.
So
and Q =
So cance l i n g out Q , a n d b r i n g i n g D
and
to the
l e f t h a n d side,
P i s the same,
and i f each
De = [ C ( D i m / n ) ] n / m
The
equivalent
loss c h a r t .
read
off
(3.2)
diameter
For pipes
the
flow
could
also
in parallel,
through
each
be d e r i v e d u s i n g a flow/head
from
the
chart.
Read o f f
the
For p i p e s i n series,
loss w i t h assistance of
the c h a r t .
total
head
pipe
Read off
the equivalent
with
the total
possible
parallel.
could
this
using equivalent
Of
always
is
in
course
be
fact
the
used
the
diameters
methods of
to
for
network
a n a l y s e flows
minor
through
p r e f e r r e d method f o r
pipes
in
series or
a n a l y s i s described below
compound
more complex
pipes and
systems
than
The
both
loop
involve
method
and
successive
a n a l y s i n g p i p e networks
speeded
by
mathematical
39
The steps
i n ba ancing
the flows
are:
Draw
all
the
pipe
inputs,
network
drawoffs,
schematically
fixed
heads
to
a clear
and
booster
scale.
pumps
Indicate
(if
pres-
connect
pairs
ent).
If
there
is
more
than
one
constant
head
node,
dashed
the
flow
lines.
Assume
corresponding
corrections,
omit
to
this
diameter
fixed
pipe
and
but
length
loss.
head
include
In
it
and
calculate
subsequent
flow
calculating
head
I osses.
Imagine the network
To
speed
may
be
as a
convergence
assumed
assuming
loops
are
as
to
series
pattern of
of
the
form
large
loops
of
needed
to
closed
solution
of
superimposed
side
ensure
loops
some
by
side.
that
each
i n any
the
loops
Use
is
pipes
instead
only
pipe
order.
major
of
as
many
at
least
in
one loop.
Starting
with
containing
tracting
flows
as
time,
many
and
on
assume
calculating
loops
other
pipe
pipe,
drawoffs
to
one a t
any
the
flows
if
flow.
to
other
unknown.
as
there
around
i n each
loops
Proceed
a s i m i l a r basis.
assumptions
Proceed
the flow
at
to
loop
pipe by
sub-
nodes.
Assume
n e i g h b o u r i n g loops
I t w i l l be necessary to make
are
loops.
The
more
accurate
the
such
head
loss
h =
as
( p r e f e r a b l e i f the a n a l y s i s
Calculate
around
the
the
arriving
the
loop
ing
the
at
net
loop,
head
starting
i s not zero,
following
pipe
or
in
use
any
loop
flow/head
using
loss
chart
i s to be done b y h a n d ) .
loss
add head
the
each
in
Kk'Qn/Dm
around t h e
loop,
i.e.,
proceeding
correct
increment
If
the
net
head
the flows
arol;nd
flow
the
in
in
the
same
loss
around
loop b y adddirection
that
(3.3)
T h i s equation
i s the f i r s t
o r d e r approximation
to
the differen-
40
h = KEQn/Dm
Since
dh
KtnQn-'dQ/Dm
(hn/Q)dQ
i.e.,
c ( h + dh) = 0
C h +
(hn/Q)dQ = 0
(7)
I f there
is a
head from
booster pump
i n any
loop,
subtract
correction
the generated
u s i n g the above
equations.
(8)
(9)
Steps 5-8
(steps 5-71.
loop
balances
to a s a t i s f a c t o r y amount.
the
node
initial
corrected b y
flows
were
method,
heads
are
of
instead
assumed
at
assuming
each
successive approximation
corrected
for
the
loop
initial
node.
flows
Heads a t
around
nodes a r e
The
method.
steps
in
an a n a l y s i s
a r e as follows:-
(1)
Draw
all
(2)
the
pipe
inputs,
Assume
at
network
drawoffs,
initial
that
arbitrary
node
assignments,
schematically
is
the
to
a clear
scale.
Indicate
fixed).
speedier
The
will
be
each node
more
the
accurate
the
convergence of
initial
the
solu-
tion.
(3)
Calculate
head
the
using
flow
the
in
each
formula
pipe
to
any
(hDm/Kt)'/"
node
or
with
using
a
a
variable
flow/head
loss c h a r t .
(4)
Calculate
zero,
*"
the
net
inflow
to
the specific
node a n d
if
this
i s not
-Q
C(Q/nh)
(3.4)
41
T h i s equation i s d e r i v e d as follows:-
dQ = Qdh/nh
c ( Q + dQ)
We r e q u i r e
But
= 0
dH = -dh
so
F l o w Q a n d head loss h a r e
considered
node.
positive
if
towards
the
i n p u t s ( p o s i t i v e ) a n d drawoffs
(5)
Correct
(6)
the head a t
each variable-head
node in s i m i l a r manner,
i.e.
Repeat
ends
of
degree of
a
pipe
to 5 )
(steps 3
the procedure
sufficient
accuracy.
i s zero
at
until
a l l flows balance to a
stage,
omit
the
pipe
from
the
p a r t i c u l a r b a l a n c i n g operation.
A l t e r n a t i v e Methods of A n a l y s i s
Both
the
loop
method
and
the
node method of
networks can
be done m a n u a l l y b u t
networks.
done
If
tables
or
space.
Fig.
even
manually,
on the pipework
3.1
a computer
calculations
b a l a n c i n g flows
i s preferred for
should
layout drawing
be
if
set
there
out
in
large
well
in
i s sufficient
than
especially
if
for
the
loop
the
system
method
is
very
to
achieve
unbalanced
to
start
with.
It
is
are
include
number of
overcorrection
methods
in
some
for
speeding
cases,
or
the convergence.
using
second
These
order
method
i s slow
to converge on account of
42
the fact
that
Also
time.
corrections
the
d i s s i p a t e through
head correction
equation
an
amplification
factor
3Oomm
60m
h
*26
!a
2OOOm
lQIh
1140 1 7
s/h
0.7
0,7
0.7
97
0
0
0.7
+5s 80 1.5
+ 5 4 80 1.5
tS2.7 80 1,s
0
.1.7
*0,7
5,3
9
NOTES
Heads i n metres, flows i n l i t r e s per second, diameters i n millimetres,
lengths
i n metres.
Arrows
i n d i c a t e p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n of h C Q
( a r b i t r a r y assumption). Blackened c i r c l e s i n d i c a t e nodes w i t h f i x e d
heads,
numbers
in
circles
indicate order
i n which nodes were
corrected. Head losses evaluated from F i g . 2.3.
H =
Fig.
3.1
1.85
Q in
Q/ h
43
The
loop
flow
preparation.
defined
data
Flows must
indirectly
preparation
gence.
data
in
be
the
and
method
assembly.
has
assumed
assumed
Trial
disadvantage
loops,
flows.
in
data
and drawoffs
The
often offsets
relatively
and
the
around
pipe
interpretation
i s so because of
This
with
correction
are
added e f f o r t
in
the q u i c k e r conver-
error
design
is
also
cumbersome
if
Network A n a l y s i s b y L i n e a r Theory
The
ual
in
Hardy
Cross methods of
methods of
comparison
involve
the
solution
but
network
suffer
simul taneous
head
balance.
solution
and
very
few
with
the
number of
simul taneous
of
Simultaneous
iterations
drawbacks
in
w i t h computer o r i e n t a t e d numerical
flow
ber
a n a l y s i s a r e s u i t e d to man-
sets
of
the
effort required
methods.
The
equations
solution
has
the
latter
describing
effect
that
for
the
loop
flow
correction a n d node
equations,
even
if
rendered
l a r g e num-
linear,
requires
equations
problem
becomes
techniques
for
successive
a r e mathematically
subordinate
to
approximation
sophisticated b u t
the
mathematics.
Charles (1972)
approximation
at
each
step
and
establishing
of
non-
the engineering
Thus
Wood
and
i m p r o v i n g the l i n e a r
equations
for
head
(1980) s i m i l a r l y
8..
= C..+(H.-H.)
IJ
I
J
//m
where
the
the
IJ
term
each i t e r a t i o n .
Substitute
node :
in
square
(3.5)
root
sign
is
assumed
constant
for
equation
3.5
into
the
equation
for
flow
balance
at
each
EQ..
= Q.
i IJ
Q.
where
is
node
to
the
drawoff
negative
j,
at
if
node j
from
and
i.
to
f o r each node.
If
has
each
be
set
of
solved
each
is
Q..
'J
by
simultaneous
for
node
replaced
at
then
node.
i n 3.5,
l i n e a r i z e d expression
equations
each
initially,
the
(one for
The
new H ' s .
solve f o r
each
procedure
node)
is
to
one
which can
estimate
at
ed u n t i l s a t i s f a c t o r y convergence i s obtained.
OPTIMIZATION O F PIPELINE
The
in
pipe
to
previous
pipe
network
fixed
be
to
demands
for
layout
and
If
and
at
is
repeated
for
so d e r i v e d
the
various
at
of
would
be
This
another
would
flows
could
flows
trial
the
to
layout.
Each
would
to
meet
would
be accep-
alternative
diameters
process
of
have to b e costed a n d
calculated.
sufficient
layout
error
corresponding
be
i t would be neces-
just
try
flows
particular
proposed layout
i s repeated u n t i l
and
the
any
pattern
were
necessary
possible
then
For
flow
possibilities.
corresponding
hand.
calculating
nodes
pressures were s a t i s f a c t o r y ,
it
for
loops.
to meet c e r t a i n drawoffs,
sizes a n d a n a l y s i s of
solution
closed
diameters,
number
if
methods
without
inputs
network
a
not,
pipe
described
or
and
or
new
compare
analysed
table.
with
drawoffs
To design
sary
section
networks
SYSTEMS
the
that
a satisfactory
would
final
then
be
networks
network w i t h
least
cost selected.
A
out
technique
recourse
positive
with
closed
trial
techniques
and
error,
possible
head
losses
can
number of
be
described
used
least-cost
would
for
be
general
i s that
and
optimization
There a r e a
discussed
the
T h e problem
loops.
flows,
and
is
mathematical
ships.
tion
to
determining
technique
diameters,
tine
of
costs
network
desirable.
directly,
No
optimization
with-
direct
of
and
networks
the r e l a t i o n s h i p between p i p e
i s not
techniques
linear
require
linear
relation-
below.
The
l a y o u t s a n d these cases a r e
cases
are
normally
confined
to
45
single mains or
is
known.
To
tree-like
networks
optimize
for
network
which
with
the
closed
flow
in each b r a n c h
loops,
random
search
t e c h n i q u e s o r s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a r e needed.
Mathematical
analysis
design
techniques
techniques
techniques
techniques
(which
not
(again
mathematical
optimization
techniques
is
analysis
not
also
as
as
as
will
be
steepest
systems
they
operations
or
retained
are
research
descriptive).
( o r mathematical
such
known
nomenclature
really
techniques
include simulation
technique
are
incorrect
techniques),
name
optimization
selection
an
The
name
here.
Such
path
ascent
or
random
searching.
The
which
direct
optimization
ation
programming,
and
methods
linear
Dantzig,
Linear
dynamic
programming,
for
transport-
for a l l o c a t i n g s o u r c e s to d e m a n d s
is u s e f u l
programming,
1963).
computer,
which
include
inequalities
programming
(van
usually
der
Veen,1967
requires
the
use
and
of
D y n a m i c P r o g r a m m i n g f o r O p t i m i z i n g Compound P i p e s
One o f
can
normally
gramming.
be used without
the
an optimum
technique
mathematics.
The
diameters
length
trunk
of
main
along
the
line.
trunk
The
may
be
used
pipe which
and
number
main
problem
way of selecting
s e r i e s of e v e n t s a n d does n o t
pressures
supplying
of
the
on
techniques,
i n fact o n l y a systematic
technique
compound
depending
diameters
is
program from
and
recourse to computers,
of
may
is
may
to
select
vary
consumers
t h e most economic
in diameter
For
flows.
instance,
from
select
along
its
consider
reservoir.
be reduced as drawoff
to
involve any
The
takes place
t h e most economic d i a m e t e r
f o r each section of p i p e .
A
simple
example
and
the
should
point.
head at
the
demonstrates
3.2.
the p i p e l i n e in Fig.
the
each d r a w o f f p o i n t
hydraulic
The e l e v a t i o n s
grade
of
u s e of
the
technique.
Consider
Two c o n s u m e r s d r a w w a t e r f r o m t h e p i p e l i n e ,
line
i s n o t to d r o p b e l o w 5 m,
drop
below
neither
the p i p e p r o f i l e a t
any
T h e c o s t o f p i p e i s EO.l
p e r mm d i a m e t e r
per m of
46
pipe.
(In
pressure
this
head,
variation).
pipe
case
although
it
is
is
The a n a l y s i s w i l l
(point A ) .
residual
cost
the
assumed
simple
5 m,
take
to
account
arrangement w i l l
point A.
at
independent
The head,
will
we
only
the
such
consider
three
be w i t h minimum
at p o i n t B may be
H,
of
of
head i.e.
be
to
b u t to s i m p l i f y the
possible
corresponding
to
heads
with
Fig.
3.2
The
diameter
each o f
of
the
pipe
between
B,
and
c h a r t such as F i g .
2.3
and
i s i n d i c a t e d i n Table 3.1
along w i t h
(1)
also
will
number
of
3 =
but
9,
regarded.
possible
one
In
HC =
the
diameter
Now
B,
19
then
this
cost
only
three
hydraulic
these
3.1
is
the
possible
grade
lines
heads
between
at
B
at
an
adverse g r a d i e n t
(I I) a
set
of
grade
required
The cost of
to
of
Table
hydraulic
and
2.3).
consider
possible
line
between
hydraulic
for
flow
figures
is
6 and
C.
gradient
of
from
110 P / s
x
must
the
be
(I)).
may be dis-
Thus
to B
if
i s 0.006
310 rnm
(from
310 x 1 000
t h i s p i p e l i n e w o u l d be 0.1
so
The
is 3
presented f o r each
is
point C.
and
13
and
Fig.
f31000.
p i p e between A a n d
47
TABLE 3.1
D y n a m i c p r o g r a m m i n g o p t i m i z a t i o n of
1 1: 1 1 I
23
.004
300 1 6 0 0 0 0
.0065
260
52000
.009
250
50000
111
19
-006
310
62000
- ._
24
29
.0035
.001
340
430
68000
8 3000
__I. 5 1000:'f
86000
79000
165000
I --i
a compound p i p e
48
HC
there
with
an
which
In
i s one
minimum
asterisk.
need
this
be
total
cost
In
example,
the
when
next
pipe
and
for
proceeding
section
the
least
260,
total
cost
cost
340
and
tively.
It
which
case
may
section
as
sections;
with
are
This
added
000
mm
for
to
one w i t h
proceed
the
next
course many
would
increased
each s e c t i o n .
The cost o f
booster
station
pump
i t s cost
by
to
each
last
and
level.
t h e c o s t s of
optimum
Thus
pipe
at C,
and
the minimum
diameters
C and C
pipe.
corresponding
economic
standard
could
are
D respecin
diameters
b e selected
length could
for
each
be made up
l a r g e r s t a n d a r d diameter
a n d one
b u t w i t h t h e same t o t a l
head
p i p e c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d and t h e
considering
more
possible
heads
at
the p i p e s c o u l d be v a r i e d w i t h presssures.
could
be considered a t a n y
a n d c a p i t a l i z e d p o w e r cost
c o m p u t e r may
the
To
the
(I1 I).
of
result.
more s e c t i o n s o f
be
is
and
of
most
pipes
or
p o s s i b l e head
3.1
- B,
t h e n e x t smal l e r s t a n d a r d d i a m e t e r ,
Of
costs
the
keep
and
indicated.
s t a n d a r d diameter
the c a l c u l a t i o n s
accuracy
marked
section
the r e s e r v o i r
each
Table
next
gradients
the
and
Sections
desirable
nearest
D are
i s done f o r
S151
the
namely
selected from
is
be
the
of
two
C.
to
to
between
D,
hydraulic
Section
section
up
total
310
the
costs f o r
this
arrangement
possible
(It I)
3.1
Table
a n d C,
I t i s t h i s cost a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i a m e t e r s o n l y
recalled
t h e r e i s o n l y one p o s s i b l e h e a d a t
diameters
p i p e between A
of
p r ove useful
if
many
should
point.
be added
in
i n w h i c h case
the tables.
p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e to b e c o n s i d e r e d ,
will
b e seen t h a t
at
each step.
describe a p p l i c a t i o n s of
Transportation
not
required
programming
the
use
of
is
a
computer.
technique
The
such
the
resource
least-cost
along
system
each
is
route
which
technique
of
delivering
t h e least-cost
(1969)
a l l o c a t i o n of resources
another
a l l o c a t i n g t h e y i e l d o f a n u m b e r of
that
reduces
t h e t e c h n i q u e to s i m i l a r a n d o t h e r p r o b l e m s .
p r i m a r i l y for
consumers
programming
(1969) a n d B u r a s a n d Schweig
Kaliy
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n programming f o r least-cost
does
dynamic
p o s s i b i l i t i e s to be c o n s i d e r e d b y s e l e c t i n g
n u m b e r of
arrangement
t h e t e c h n i q u e of
sources
achieved.
should
normally
is
to
The
be
of
use
number
cost
of
linearly
49
proportional
the
to
technique
the
is
throughput
probably
of
along
no
that
use
in
route
and
selecting
sizes.
through
head
an
is
existing
small
in
pipe
distribution
comparison
with
system,
static
for
the
t h i s reason
optimum
pumping p a t t e r n
provided
head,
or
pipe
for
the
friction
obtaining
CONSUMER
REQUIREMENT
10 L l S
15 L I S
SOURCE
Fi9.
An
3.3
YIELD
12 L I S
Least-cost
example
a l l o c a t i o n p a t t e r n f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n programming
example serves
to
a r e two sources o f
i l l u s t r a t e the
water,
and 3 could d e l i v e r
A and B,
1 2 a n d 20 e / s
10 a n d 15 4 / s respectively.
of
pumping along
technique.
I n t h i s example,
a n d two consumers,
and N.
i s a s u r p l u s of water.
routes A - M, A - N,
I3
a n d M and N r e q u i r e
respectively
thus t h e r e
there
The cost
and B - N a r e 5,
7, 6
data
(I).
Each
unit
cost
corner
of
are
row
of
the
set
out
represents
delivery
in
a
along
corresponding
tabular
source
form
and
each
route
block
in
for
each
solution
column
i s indicated i n
the table.
in
Tabel
demand.
the
The f i r s t
3.2
The
top
right
step
i s to
50
make
an
that
each
block
arbitrary
yield
of
the
satisfies
bottom
the f i r s t
first
the
d e m a n d of
is
i s 2,
maximum
column
i s completed,
of
Starting
possible
the
and
resources
the top
allocation
is
left
10.
is
written
This
in
P r o c e e d i n g to t h e n e x t c o l u m n ,
the
since
in the
So t h e n e x t b l o c k
r o w A.
Proceed
through the
a r e allocated
allocation
with
amount
t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i s i n r o w 0 , n a m e l y c o l u m n N.
table making
in such a manner
resources
satisfied.
c o r n e r o f b l o c k AM.
column
row
assignment
demand
table,
the
left
initial
and
the
is
13
i f to
(even
in
the
the slack
second
row,
column).
then
t,he
Thus
the next
the
in
third
column.
mi
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n p r o g r a m m i n g o p t i m i z a t i o n o f an a l l o c a i o n
TABLE 3.2
( 1 )
CONSUMER : M
SOURCE Y I E L D
REQUIREMENT 5 :
12
10
SURPLUS
EVALUAT ON
15
NUMBER :
0
---J
20
7 13
EVALUATION NUMBER:
-2
( 1 1 )
0
A
12
20
~~
2
10
-2
the
figures
4
Once
initial
an
methodically
would
be
until
the
allocation
a
most
least-cost
is
made
d i s t r i b u t i o n emerges.
p r o f i t a b l e arrangement,
assign
are
re-arranged
To d e c i d e w h i c h
relative evalua-
t i o n n u m b e r t o e a c h r o w and c o l u m n a s f o l l o w s : Assign
numbers
the
such
evaluation
value
that
number
to
row
t h e sum o f
is
equal
to
and
work
out
the
cost
coefficient
other
evaluation
number a n d column
for
any
occupied
51
block.
2,
The v a l u e f o r
and
numbers
sum
on.
so
if
beneath
bigger
is 5,
column M
Now
write
than
the cost
sum
and
BM.
The
determined b y
BN,
the
added
allocation
BM,
it
If
this
would p a y to
The
would b e to
amount
which
biggest
and
introduce
can
be
i n fact
an amount
put
in
block
in
into
BM
is
i n Table 3.2
AN
is
BM
T h e biggest possible
would
and
requirements
to
coefficient.
one u n i t
block
to
and
cost
maximum
drawing
to block
yields
the block,
i n t o t h e block.
improvement
of
unoccupied block
case the o n l y ,
Block
each
f o r row B i s
improvement
evaluation
our
of
N i s 7,
and column e v a l u a t i o n
sum from
r a t e of
but
column
the row
coefficient
introduce a resource a l l o c a t i o n
immediately,
for
sum of
the
subtracted
consistent.
10,
maximum r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n
have to be subtracted
since
this
AM
block
this
would
10 i s made,
i.e.
from
In
case
from block
to
keep
the
evacuate
AM.
block
the
maximum
The
i n the block
Only one r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n
of
resources should
be done at
a time.
After making
number
to
and
the
until
the
most
fact
is
that
in
best
new
sums
no
distribution
in
in
and
further
there
any
allocation,
as
p r o f i t a b l e block
there
ficient
the
evaluation
repeat
possible
two
In
our
steps,
more
the e v a l u a t i o n
Allocate
improvement,
sum g r e a t e r
example
but
(11).
the r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n
cost
i s no e v a l u a t i o n
block.
re-calculate
Table 3.2
we
than
arrived
compl icated
resource
procedure
indicated
the cost
at
the
patterns
by
coef-
optimum
involving
programming.
with
in
niques
textbooks
such
as
There
on
the
subject
der
Veen
serves
in
happened
table
as
an
to
blocks could
be allocated
Computat ions
then
at the end.
many
Van
example o n l y
the
are
of
other
proceed as
and
evacuated
very
which
are
dealt
mathematical optimization
(1967)
introduction.
be
conditions
small
before and
Dantzig
For
(1963)
instance,
if
simultaneously,
quantity
two
one
denoted by
the q u a n t i t y
'e'
techn-
and
this
blocks
of
'e'
the
say.
disregarded
52
L i n e a r Programming f o r Design of Least-Cost Open Networks
i s one of
L i n e a r programming
niques.
The
systems,
use
of
although
the
computer
simple
linear,
cannot
so
be
closed
loops
to
design
each
branch
loss,
diameter
used
in
the
to
resort
known.
render
the
of
p i p e of
different
or
Since
cost
are
system
pre-selected
given
design
pipe
relationships
the
is
tech-
complex
by
hand.
programming
networks
For each
where
with
can
be
the flow
in
It
between
following
flow,
head
technique
the
treated as the v a r i a b l e .
length of
will
indicate
that
some
thereby
i n effect e l i m i n a t i n g them.
can
treated
be
pressure
at
in
the
certain
I inear
inequality
certain
range.
points
of
The
analysis.
in
diameter
pipes
h a v e zero
length o f
lengths,
linear constraint
above a f i x e d
the greater-than-or-equal-to-type)
total
The
be r e q u i r e d to m a i n t a i n
the network
p i p e of
each
is
b r a n c h o r main p i p e ,
diameter
for
done
Linear
of
networks
non-l inear,
linear:
is
approximations.
tree-like
the
essential
here
application.
successive
to
mains
normally
optimization
the r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a r i a b l e s
restricted
and
number
if
optimizing
trunk
is
be used
is
without
used
is
example
for
it
used
minimum
or
within
the
(a
a
a c e r t a i n diameter may be
r e s t r i c t e d because there i s i n s u f f i c i e n t p i p e a v a i l a b l e .
DIAMETER m m
UNKNOWN L E N t T H m
OPTIMUM L E N G T H m
HEAD LOSS m
Fig.
3.4
Least-cost
250
200
2 OD
150
X,
x3
50
x2
I50
XL
L 00
012
3.2
t r u n k main b y
trunk
0
0
1 - 6 6 TOTAL 5 . 0
l i n e a r programming
main w i t h
two
drawoff
points
(Fig.
53
3.4).
and
The p e r m i s s i b l e diameters of
of
the
second
v a r i a b I es , X,,
ferent
X2,
diameters.
comparison
but
loss,
linear
200
and
and X4
This
the
of
leg,
X3
simple
costs
of
the f i r s t
150
alternatives
is
used
here
are
lengths of
example could
all
programming
There
mm.
thus
be optimized b y
giving
to
four
pipe of
the
manual
correct
demonstrate
dif-
the
head
tech-
nique.
losses per 100 m of p i p e a n d costs p e r m for the v a r i o u s
The head
pipes a r e i n d i c a t e d below:-
Head loss @ 40 e / s
m/1OO m
D iameter
mm
250
200
150
linear
below
(I).
Table 3.3
0.1
0.42
constraints
and
the
on
the
coefficients
system
are
the
of
4
3
expressed
equations
x1
Objective Function:
The computations
a,
at
x4
= 4
= 5
proceed
i s necessary
to
and
very
to
satisfy
c
in
the
Table
by
introduce
setting
indicate
the
by
u n i t o f X,
To
amount
of
introducing
real
slack
i n the program b y
to zero,
variables
variables
into
each
The slack
v a r i a b l e s a r e designated
and
cost
(I),
particular
the
one
To
whether
it
is
are
set
the slack
4 and 5 respective-
(I)),
l i n e of
of
coefficients
i n i t i a t e the solution,
the values 5,
program
unit
their
the
variable
the
worthwhile
any other v a r i a b l e ,
column
determine
= m i n i mum
equality.
placed
3.3
b a n d c a r e assigned
all
artificial
h i g h values designated m.
variables a,
in
X2
x3
equation
equation
tabulated
0.25X1
Head L o s s :
it
are
in
Lengths
so
cost
i~100/100 m
m/1OO m
0.25
0.71
The
form
@ 14 e/s
would
variable.
be
Thus
disone
u n i t s of c.
replacing
any
variable
54
T A B L E 3.3
P-qg.
L i n e a r P r o g r a m m i n g S o l u t i o n of P i p e P r o b l e m s
co>t
V c r able _
C o e_
ff.
Avo
unt
_
_
OPPORTUNI T Y
:l
x2
4
x3
4
x4
3
0.25
0.71
0.10
0.42
x3
4
x4
3
Red.
5/.71
1.45
x1
I l l
x2
b
0.55
x4
3.45
0.1
0.42-
x3
4
l 4
1
1 .71m-4
x4
3
0 3.28-0.76m
1.69
1
-1.69
1.1-0.69m
0.5"
-2.38
2.38
3.38-8.2
IV
x4
4.5
0.5
-0.69
2.16
1.52
0.69
0.31
( N o f u r t h e r improvement posc iD l e 1
-2.16
I
m-
3.45'
0.24
-1.1
-0.71
0.76
1.I
11-1.lm
4 - 1 . l m 3-1.42m
x1
-0.46
lt0.46
x2
x1
dALUE:
x2
!-
rn-
m-
55
tunity
number
i s calculated
introduced,
then
(0.25
the
cost
m)),
the
opportunity
value
entries
that
of
the
total
program
thus
for
from
column.
each
column
by
in
the
the
the
(5 -
column
coefficient
coefficients
subtracting
the column
X2
The
is
column
that
is
which
may
per
the
lowest
since i t shows
( o r negative o p p o r t u n i t y
designated
the
key
opportunity
The
column.
value
the
variable.
value).
key
column
( i n the cost
mini-
determine
which
now
shows
mization case).
To
reduction
i.e.
multiplying
the
cost
(0 x
value,
by
and
of
m)
cost
The most p r o f i t a b l e v a r i a b l e t o
greatest
calculated
corresponding
second
cost
(1
the o p p o r t u n i t y
is
I f one u n i t of
increase b y
i s designated
column
variable
formed
each
would
which
the
in
for
be
the
maximum
introduced,
amount
calculate
the
of
the
key
column
replacement
ratios
variable
for
each
row as follows:Divide
the
corresponding
ment
be
ratio
is
amount
number
lowest
the
number
selected
positive
at
the
program
variable
introduced without
the
the
of
as
that
is
the
v i o l a t i n g any
replacement
ratio
of
each
maximum amount
is
the
designated
key
row
by
the
lowest p o s i t i v e replace-
the constraints.
of
intersection
The
for
column
which
could
The row
the key
and key
with
row a n d
the
row,
key number.
After
introducing
( T a b l e 3.3
(11))
so
new
variable,
that
the
replacement
program v a r i a b l e and
by
the
new
the
and
its
cost
ratios
is
remain
rearranged
correct.
The
i t s cost coefficient
variable
matrix
coefficient.
The
amount
column
as well as the body of t h e t a b l e a r e r e v i s e d as follows:Each number i n the key row i s d i v i d e d b y the key number.
From each
number
number
i n the key
in
key
the
The
ratios
procedure
and
negative
all
non-key
row,
row m u l t i p l i e d b y
column
g i v e n as T a b l e 3.3
in
divided
by
the
the
key
subtract
the
corresponding
new
The
tableau
is
(11).
of
revising
opportunity
studying
the
table
value.
positive opportunity
opportunity
is
In
values
repeated
the
so
values
until
example
the
there
Table
least-cost
and
is
3.3
solution
replacement
no
further
(IV)
i s at
shows
hand
56
(indicated
by
the
current
program v a r i a b l e s
and
t h e i r corresponding
values).
The
ming
reader
(e.9.
cription
should
Van
of
der
the
r e f e r to a s t a n d a r d textbook on
(1967) a n d D a n t z i g
Veen,
technique.
There
are
l i n e a r program-
(1963)) f o r
many
other
cases
full
des-
which
can
type
and
be mentioned below:the
If
constraints
not
just
are
introduced
are
equations,
equations.
into
The
the 5 (less-than-or-equal-to)
of
slack
the
variables
1.h.s.
artificial
of
slack
with
each
zero
cost
constraint
variables
with
coefficients
to make
high
them
cost
coef-
f i c i e n t s a r e then omitted.
If
the
constraints
of
are
introduce
artificial
slack
into
the
1.h.s.
the
with
zero
of
cost
the 2
(greater-than-or-equal-to)
variables
constraint
coefficients
from
high
with
and
cost
subtract
each
slack
inequality
type,
coefficients
variables
to
make
them
equations.
If
the
objective
value
with
function
function
the
to
is
highest
be
is
to
be
negative
maximized,
minimized,
value
the
is
the
opportunity
selected,
opportunity
if
the
with
the
but
value
h i g h e s t p o s i t i v e v a l u e i s selected.
The
opportunity
ponding
variables
one u n i t of
If
two
the
when
very
the
that
i.e.
amount
the
of
represent
they
shadow
indicate
the
values
of
the
corres-
value
of
introducing
row
i s selected,
v a r i a b l e i n t o the program.
replacement
ratios
program
matrix
is
a r e equal,
variable
in
rearranged.
whichever
the
other
Merely
row
will
assume
it
to
first
the
be
zero
have
s m a l l v a l u e a n d proceed as before.
example
then
values
of
pipe
programming
two
stage
diameters
and
search
optimization,
is
given
methods
in
are
namely
Stephenson
also
(1964).
discussed.
method.
layout
and
Non-linear
For
instance
57
REFERENCES
Buras,
N.
and S c h w e i g ,
Z.,
1969. A q u e d u c t r o u t e o p t i m i z a t i o n b y
d y n a m i c p r o g r a m m i n g . Proc. Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g r s . 95 ( H Y 5 ) .
Cross, H.,
1936. A n a l y s i s o f f l o w i n n e t w o r k s of c o n d u i t s o r c o n d u c t o r s . U n i v e r s i t y of I I I i n o i s B u l l e t in 286.
D a n t z i g , G.B.,
1963. L i n e a r P r o g r a m m i n g and E x t e n s i o n s , P r i n c e t o n
U n i v e r s i t y Press, Princeton.
Isaacs, L.T.
a n d M i l l s , K.G.,
1980. L i n e a r t h e o r y m e t h o d s f o r p i p e
n e t w o r k s a n a l y s i s . P r o c . Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g r s . 106 ( H Y 7 ) .
Kal l y ,
E.,
1969.
P i p e l i n e p l a n n i n g b y d y n a m i c computer programm i n g . J . Am. W a t e r W o r k s Assn.,
(3).
Lam,
C.F.,
1973.
D i s c r e t e g r a d i e n t o p t i m i z a t i o n of w a t e r systems.
P r o c . Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g r s . , 99 ( H Y 6 ) .
S t e p h e n s o n , D., 1984. P i p e f l o w A n a l y s i s , E l s e v i e r , 204 pp.
V a n d e r Veen,
B.,
1967.
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e T h e o r y of O p e r a t i o n a l
R e s e a r c h . C l e a v e r Hurne, L o n d o n .
Wood, D.J.
and C h a r l e s , O.A.,
1972. N e t w o r k a n a l y s i s u s i n g l i n e a r
t h e o r y . ? r o c . A X E , 98 (HY7) p 1157 - 1170.
L I S T O F SYMBOLS
cost
diameter
head loss
head
const a n t
Iengt h
flow
58
CHAPTER 4
AND SURGE
WATER HAMMER
Transient
are
often
pressures
the
cause
caused
by
bursts.
of
change of
The
r a t e in conduits
flow
pressure fluctuations
associated
w i t h s u d d e n f l o w s t o p p a g e c a n b e s e v e r a l h u n d r e d metres head.
Transients
in
gories:
Slow
surge,
whereas
of
the
or
fluid
small
closed
motion
rapid
and
mass
in
change
conduit
changes
is
flow
in
of
oscillation
flow
referred
rate
or
the
classed
into
two cate-
fluid
is
referred
accompanied
by
elastic
to
as w a t e r
pressure
hammer.
the
two
to
strain
For
slow
theories
yield
t h e same r e s u l ts.
It
i s normally
(whenever
the
r i g i d column
pressible
the
easier
theory
theory
mass.
column
relating
umq
in
the
an
head
system b y
applicable)
than
difference
instantaneous
conduit
i s d e r i v e d from Newton's b a s i c
to
r i g i d column
elastic
applied
the
theory
theory.
With
i s t r e a t e d a s a n incomacross
acceleration.
d i f f e r e n c e between
bore
by
in the c o n d u i t
pressure
uniform
is
the w a t e r
produces
tion
to a n a l y s e a
t h e e n d s of
rate
the
The
the
in
of
equa-
water
change
of
ends
basic
col-
velocity
a n d is
l a w o f motion,
(4.1
where
is
conduit
tion and t
The
with
may
the
is
head
in
flow
useful
deceleration
the
or
is
between
velocity,
ends,
L i s the
gravitational
accelera-
the
is
two
i s time.
water
starting
hydro-electric
tion
difference
v
equation
slow
lating
trip
the
length,
be
graphical ly.
of
level
up
in
for
in
column.
in
variations
a
pumping
installation
solved
calculating
water
steps
The f o l l o w i n g
of s o l u t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n : -
fed
by
of
At
the
surge
line,
or
head
I t may
shaft
power
pressure
associated
in
calcu-
following
load
pipeline.
b y computer,
e x a m p l e demonstrates
rise
be used f o r
power
changes
The
tabular
the numerical
in
equa-
form o r
method
59
Example
100 m l o n g penstock w i t h a c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a ,
is protected against
bine,
with
water
cross
unrestricted orifice.
and
there
Calculate
is
the
hammer b y
sectional
The
sudden
rise
load
water
of
and
m2
an
i n t h e c o n d u i t i s 1 m/s
velocity
in
o f 1 m2
A2,
area,
initial
complete
maximum
A,,
rejection
at
level
the
in
the t u r b i n e .
surge
shaft
neglecting friction.
Take
-0.098h.
At
1 sec.
By c o n t i n u i t y ,
0.1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
0.5
0.476
0.428
0.359
0.272
0.172
0.064
or
method
Av
Another
water
column
the
and
of
cause
be
the
Following
pumping
line,
vaporization
column
r i g i d column
may
stop
water
4.16,
o f 2.26
m.
taking
The a c c u r a c y o f t h e
smaller
time
intervals
A h
include
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e r i g i d w a t e r column e q u a t i o n i s w i t h
water
distance
pumps
the
to
the
4.1
0.951
0.855
0.717
0.544
0.345
0.129
0.094
The method c a n r e a d i i y b e e x t e n d e d to
separation.
end
sufficiently
slowly
a n d i s calculator-orientated.
useful
upstream
cases
= 0.5~.
w h i c h may b e compared w i t h t h e a n a l y -
c o u l d be i m p r o v e d b y
respectively.
h e a d losses,
Equ.
m,
100 =
t h e mean v a n d h o v e r t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l s to c a l c u l a t e
taking
and
= -9.8h/
-0.049
-0.096
-0.138
-0.173
-0.199
-0.216
-0.223
s o l u t i o n o b t a i n e d from Equ.
numerical
= -ghAt/L
A v = -0.098h
0.5
0.976
1.404
1.763
2.035
2.207
2.271"
Av
A h = A1vAt/A2 = l v / 2
Ah = 0 . 5 ~
4.1,
beyond
theory
water
column
column o f
i n i t i a l flow velocity.
the
stopping
of
the
pressure
frequently
peaks
along
vapour
the
with
will
length t w i l l
of
the
pump
time
before
the
0
the
In
such
decelerate
analysis.
to d e t e r m i n e
stopping.
vapour
be Q = A t v * / 2 9 h
at
drops
line.
will
accurate for
r e s p e c t to
travel
volume
is s u f f i c i e n t l y
integrated twice
instantaneously
at
the
If
the
behind
where v
i s the
60
MECHAN I CS O F WATER HAMMER
Water
hammer
occurs,
as
would
indicate an
name
implies,
(or accelerated).
water i s r a p i d l y decelerated
theory
the
infinitely
The
column
r i g i d water
l a r g e head r i s e
p i p e l i n e c a r r y i n g l i q u i d were slammed s h u t
however,
when
if
a c e r t a i n amount o f r e l i e f u n d e r these c o n d i t i o n s ,
e l a s t i c i t y of the f l u i d a n d of
the p i p e
d i s c h a r g e end of
is
pipeline
will
pack
against
the
will
rise
sufficiently
gate,
to
The amount o f
the
water
of
the
causing
stop
momentum l a w .
amount
shut
the
itself.
fluid
in
rise.
stopped p e r u n i t
to
the
required
replace
There
a
is,
due
to
the
at
the
of
the
The
accordance
water
in
valve
upstream
pressure
liquid
if a
Thus
column
valve
instantaneously.
of
gate
pressure
with
the
time depends o n
volume
by
created
the
compression of w a t e r a n d e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p i p e .
I t can thus
be shown
that
the r e d u c t i o n in v e l o c i t y
Ah,
front
the
relationship
between
the
head r i s e
a n d the r a t e of p r o g r e s s of
A V
the
i s A h = -CAV/g
(4.2a)
where c i s t h e w a v e c e l e r i t y a n d g i s g r a v i t a t i o n a l
acceleration.
equation
It
is
often
wave
referred
to a s J o u k o w s k y s
law.
can
This
further
be
p r o v e d from a mass b a l a n c e t h a t
1/
If
y,)
3
.iw
kd
EY
the p i p e h a s a
(4.3a)
rigid
and r i g i d side f i l l
( e l a s t i c m o d u l u s E2 a n d
lining
( m o d u l u s Es)
thickness
t h e e q u a t i o n to use i s
(4.3b)
where w
i s the u n i t
p i p e diameter,
k
factor
about 0.9).
w e i g h t of
or
a s ZOO
which
depends
on
the
y the p i p e w a l l
end
fixity
when
for
free a i r
thin wall
i s present
of
for
steel p i p e s .
the
pipe
51,
the
(normally
r i g i d walled
I n t h e case o f
(see C h a p t e r
is
thickness a n d
c may
tunnel
plastic
be a s
low
m/s.
The
earlier,
pressure
thus
illustrated
reservoir
the
i s i t s b u l k modulus,
pipe,
liquid,
E i s i t s e l a s t i c modulus,
in
end,
reservoir,
wave
travels
Fig.
the
so
caused
upstream,
4.1(1).
pressure
that
the
by
valve
closure
superimposed on
When
in
the
the
wave
the
front
the
pipe
forces
velocity
now
reverses
b a c k to s t a t i c ( r e s e r v o i r ) p r e s s u r e a g a i n .
referred
static
reaches
water
and
head,
the
backwards
to
as
open
into
pressure drops
61
PRE5WRE NAVE
4.1
Fig.
negative
That
in
wave
the
The
entire
sucks
up
the
water
+v
and
(2)
wave
front
negative
back
to
will
in
thus
is
pipeline
-v
wave
of
head
pipe
to
the
into
the
the
head
w i l l repeat i t s e l f
travels
t u r n reach
pipe,
downstream from
where
amplitude
reservoir.
so
reverts
that
to
was
Cv,/g
Upon
the
static
the
below
velocity
the velocity
original
reaching
head.
the r e s e r v o i r .
Now
velocity.
static,
the
travels
reservoir
in the p i p e r e v e r t s
The sequence of
i n d e f i n i t e l y unless damped b y f r i c t i o n .
---+---1
Hz g
with
no
friction
2 L/c
Fig. 4.2
Head f l u c t u a t i o n s at v a l v e end.
3 L/c
it
4L7c
waves
62
The
4.2.
variation
In
the
case
in
head
of
pumping
conditions
i s normally
stream
the
of
reduction
charge
wave
in
pump
(Fig.
returns
the v a l v e
lines,
associated
is
pressure.
end
at
The
4.3),
towards
be as
decelerated,
the
pumps.
wave
trip.
change
resulting
in
towards
reverses
pressure
i n flow
The water
travels
velocity
The
indicated i n Fig.
most violent
a pump
negative
where
the
the
with
suddenly
will
at
and
the
downsudden
the
dis-
positive
pump
alter-
Wave front
snit i d l y
Vapour pressure
Initial V
F i g . 4.3
The
tion,
wave
via
in
stages
in
air
valves
be
seen
it
water
line friction,
flow
will
Fig.
up
behind
4.4
which
wave
are
Thus
and
air
in
cross
if
there
will
be
is
f r i c t i o n can
illustrates
wave
a rapidly
not
quite
shut
at
seca
drawn
The effect of
the p i p e l i n e from
the
changes
variation.
vaporize
travels
heads
by
gradual
the
from
most
different
valve.
horizontal,
due
The
to
effect of
one
equation.
tion
changes i n section
The
2Ah'A./c.
I
=
A1/c,
wave
or b r a n c h pipes can be
head change
Ah'
Ah'
or
pressure,
as
pressure
the
i s complicated
vaporization,
negative
readily
= Vo
Ah
/(1
after
r e a c h i n g a junc-
by the equation
A 2'=2
A3/C3 +
+ A 2 / A 1 + A3/A1
included
i4.4a)
...
.. .
(4.4b)
1
. c2
c3-
63
3
"Distance from valve"
2
Xz- F 'x
cvo
9
F i g . 4.4
Head a t p o i n t s a l o n g along p i p e l i n e w i t h f r i c t i o n ,
instantaneous stoppage
When a
valve
i n a g r a v i t y main i s closed g r a d u a l l y ,
analogous to a series of
system
could
form
of
be
analysed
analysis
simultaneous
to
the
is
solution
hammer equation.
lar
of
the
In fact
so-called
numerical ly
useful
for
or
graphically.
the sines
discharge
the effect i s
from the v a l v e .
demonstrating
valve
for
The
The g r a p h i c a l
the
principles
equation
and
of
the water
d r a w n on a g r a p h a r e v e r y simi-
characteristic
lines
adopted
in
numerical
pipeline
solu-
t ions.
4.5
Fig.
valve at
to
illustrates
L/c
and
degrees of
the
valve
analysis
The v a l v e
discharge
compute
closure
one
a n d S.
Thus
the
applies
head
the
of
i s closed over
characteristics
closure a r e p l o t t e d on the g r a p h .
To
graphical
for
with
a p e r i o d equal
four
different
The l i n e r e l a t i n g f r i c t i o n
i s also indicated.
at
water
the
valve
hammer
at
time
equation
L/c
4.2
after
initiating
between p o i n t s R
64
Av - A h
-(c/g)
A h
where
i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n f r c t i o n h e a d b e t w e e n R a n d S.
Ahf
Computations
at
+ (c/g) Av
the
Similarly
t h e w a t e r hammer e q u a t i o n f r o m S t o R ,
applying
A h
(4.2b)
waves
point
thus
hf
(4.2~)
proceed a l o n g
peak a n d
S occurs
then
at
l i n e s of
die out
L/c
slope
or
d u e to f r i c t i o n .
and
is
- c/g.
Ultimately
The m a x i m u m h e a d
182 m e t r e s a c c o r d i n g
to t h e
4.5.
computations on F i g .
The
fundamental
velocity
in
differential
conduit
may
wave
equations
b e d e r i v e d from
relating
pressure
consideration of
l a w o f m o t i o n a n d t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of mass r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
to
Newton's
and are:
(4.5)
ah + -c 2
- =a vo
at
ax
The
last
t o obey
tion
term
of
strictly
steady-state
correct.
are higher
normal
Tests
accounts for
with
friction
which
a constant f r i c t i o n factor.
friction
indicate
factor
that
for
head
transient
i s assumed
The assump-
conditions
i s not
losses d u r i n g t r a n s i e n t
flow
t h a n those p r e d i c t e d u s i n g t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r a p p l i c a b l e to
flow
reversals
4.5
in Equ.
Darcy's equation
conditions.
Energy
when t h e v e l o c i t y
is
probably
absorbed
during
flow
i s low and t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r c o n s e q u e n t l y
relatively high.
Methods of A n a l y s i s
common
pressures
a chart
for
zero
no
method
used
for
over
analysis
of
pipe
(Lupton,
systems
1953).
for
water
hammer
4.6
i s such
Fig.
line friction.
constant.
of
to be g r a p h i c a l l y
time
The v a l v e
and
the
To u s e t h e c h a r t
area
valve
i s assumed
discharge
to r e d u c e
coefficient
linearly
is
to
assumed
c a l c u l a t e t h e v a l v e c l o s u r e p a r a m e t e r cT/L
65
H
( m 1
20c
6'
- 200
::m
55
R 5
S'cVALVE
SHUT
_/--
-.
/---
R 2
RI
55 23
t'
51
t d t = L/c
_/-_ / - -
R,
-R
F i g . 4.5
Graphical
x -t
CHART
water hammer a n a l y s i s f o r
closure with f r i c t i o n
' 0
slow valve
66
and
valve
axis
head
parameter
loss
the maximum
are
the
below s t a t i c
of
lines).
Multiply
head.
Note t h a t
the c h a r t
is for
sluice
water
and
hammer
butterfly
valves
the e n d of
heads
T h e most economical
for
usually
are
the
are
such
the
graphical
in
intervals.
set
than
to
in
finite
pipeline at
time
form
The x
By
expressing
of
the
flow
the result t h a t
by
the c h a r t .
important I ines.
computer.
(Streeter
Solution
and Lai,
is
1963 a n d
water
and
hammer
solved
for
equations
are
successive
time
i n t e r v a l s a n d At
is
- t g r i d on which s o l u t i o n takes p l a c e i s
Starting
from
known
conditions
along
the
adding,
most
with
i s d i v i d e d i n t o a number of
4.7.
t,
in a r e a
t h e w a t e r hammer e q u a -
digital
differential
difference
ax/c.
Fig.
by
a n d the
above a n d
The c h a r a c t e r i s -
predicted
solution of
is
characteristics
The
The c o n d u i t
equal
cvo/g
1950) w h i c h d i f f e r s l i t t l e i n p r i n c i p l e f r o m t h e o l d
method.
expressed
systems
method o f
Streeter a n d Wylie,
depicted
by
that
valve stroke,
higher
method of
particular
by
the vertical
linear reduction
more a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i s i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y f o r
tions
off on
( f u l l lines) a n d minimum
reduction occurs a t
the
(dashed
Read
/g)
a c o n d i t i o n r a r e l y encountered in p r a c t i c e .
w i t h time,
tics
he/(cvo/g).
equations
4.5
and
At.
4.6
as
total
differentials
and
i n v o l v i n g dh a n d d v :
(4.7b)
Equs.
time
4.7a
At
and
4.7b
may
i n t e r m s of
be
known
solved
for
h'
at time t :
(4.8a)
(4.8b)
67
Valve closure factor
C T/L
F i g . 4.6
At
the terminal
either
speed.
The
is
fixed,
correct
points,
v
or
Equ.
imposed;
is
or
4.7a
function
or
4.7b
of
t o e v a l u a t e t h e new
commence
at
known
gate
solved
is
opening
simultaneously
h a n d v at time t
conditions
and
are
pump
with
+ A t . The
terminated
when
branch
4.8a
pipe
a n d 4.8b
s occurs or
there
is a
change
snoulci b e r e p l a c e d b y E q u s . 4.9
i n diameter,
a n o 4.10:
68
TIME
/
Fig.
x - t G r i d for water
method.
4.7
hammer a n a l y s i s b y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
Effect of F r i c t i o n
Fluid
along
friction
the
gradually
damps
If
conduit.
die
away
the
there
and
water
is
the
no
hammer
exciting
waves
as
influence
pressure along
they
the
the conduit
travel
waves
will
will
tend
to
s t a t i c pressure.
The
characteristic
dicts
the
wave.
At
method
the
of
wave
water
sharp
friction
wave
provided
pumping
over-pressures
friction
head
there
computer accurately
is
no discontinuity
i s necessary
an analytical
(1950)
demonstrated
travelling
stoppage
xxv
cates
it
by
back
is
solution
along
in
the
t o r e s o r t to some o t h e r
that
indicated
pre-
a
by
is feasible
at
t h e a m p l i t u d e of
line
the
with
friction
hyperbolic func-
4.4):
tanh
In
solution
Fortunately
Ludwig
instantaneous
(see F i g .
of
wave front,
analysis.
front.
hammer
fol lowing
tion
of
effect
a
method
lines
at
is
minimum
following
the
greater
and
cv
--./p)]
4
( 4gd '
pump
than
maximum
sudden
will
(4.11)
pump
exceed
the
approximately
head
stopping
0.7cv / g .
envelopes
the
pumping
0
along
maximum
head
Fig.
if
4.8
pipelines
the
indiwith
69
various
stream
plot
friction
end.
heads
To
use
following
the
multiply
factor
when
chart
stoppage
ordinates
is
should
only
valid
provided
at
no
point
fall
It
has,
however,
heads
with
column separation
profile.
at
by
the
up-
cv / g
and
there
is
no
column
envelope
mum
the
above o r below s t a t i c on a p i p e p r o f i l e d r a w i n g .
hf/(cv / g ) ,
The
instantaneous
chart,
10
below
separation
the
to
pipeline
the maxi-
those without
separation.
Fig.
heads along
the
downstream
end b y
following
a closing valve.
sudden flow
Turn
the c h a r t
stoppage a t
upside down
versa.
The
pressure
transients
fol lowing
power
failure
to
electric
motor
Nevertheless,
also
be
the over-pressures
checked.
caused b y s t a r t i n g pumps
Pumps
with
steep
induce h i g h over-pressures
when
a wave
By
partly
with
i s small
( o r zero)
head equal
closing
the
to
pump
when
head/flow
the pump
the closed v a l v e
delivery
characteristics
valves
This
i s switched on
head i s generated.
during
starting,
the
over-pressures
caused b y
closing
l i ne valves or
scour
valves
If
denly,
pumps
the
flow
close
to
the
water
column
atmospheric
i s vapour
thus
occur
supplying
will
pressure.
at
r e t u r n e d as a
peaks
If
the
grade
line,
the
pressure
cause
pressure.
a l s o stop.
hydraulic
may
an
The
lowest
pipeline
the
value
to
profile is relatively
sudden
drop
deceleration
to
to which
value
of
the
less than
p o s i t i v e wave
the
pipeline.
When
the
pressure wave
is
rejoin g i v i n g rise
70
Fig.
4.8
M a x i m u m and m i n i m u m h e a d e n v e l o p e s f o l l o w i n g
instantaneous pump stopping in pipelines w i t h
friction
71
Unless
pumping
some
method
pipeline
of
system
water
will
hammer
normally
comparison
most
lines
with
where
the
economic
pumping
solution,
i n s t a l l e d i t may
water
hammer
head.
and
have
to
I n fact
high-pressure
protection
be
is
designed
for
a
a
t h i s i s often done w i t h
heads
may
be
small
this m a y
For
short
lines
if
water
hammer
even
installed,
in
be the
protection
is
philosophy
against
water
reduce
The
the
surge
is
is
the
design
similar.
of
The
most
methods of
object
in
upsurge
entirely
behind
hammer
will
then
eliminated.
to
feed
be correspondingly
The
water
most
into
common
the
pipe
most
stopping
reduced,
method
of
or
protection
cases
to
the pumps.
may
limiting
is
even
the
be
down-
to drop.
Fig.
4.9
Suitable
i n Fig.
4.9.
locations
Most of
for
various
the systems
protective
locat ions f o r
devices
are
various
i I lustrated
Observe
that
column
beyond
phenomenon
of
the
gather
pump
If
to
flux
in
the
The
valve
of
would
and
flow
then
allow
the
into
stopped
no
by
would
the
the
water
energy,
energy,
the entrance
between
against
however,
potential
kinetic
be
Part
column
impact
consequently
may
device a t
heads
in
water
If,
maximum
and
hammer
The w a t e r c o l u m n g r a d u a l -
direction
minimum
water
water
i s converted
difference
the
of
the
phenomenon.
column
decelerate
which
there
will
water
hammer
installing
be
re-
the discharge t a n k
to
the pipeline.
in
water
the
elastic
surge
over-pressures.
point
reverse
or
to
momentum
throttling
vessel,
of
reverse
its
point
the
e l a s t i c energy.
hammer
in
so
motion
the
effect
the
at
change
of
allowed
water
with
v a l v e or
air
the
was
slow
energy
instead of
it
over-pressure.
or
arrested
sudden
flux
prevented
to
under
cause
is
coincides
no
is
momentum
column
momentum c h a n g e of
sudden
tank
energy
ends.
the
converted
kinetic
decelerates
the
cases
the
is
original
potential
ly
all
in
pressures on
e i t h e r s i d e to g r a d u a l -
l y equalize.
Fortunately
and
for
hammer
theory
analysis
may
be
i n some cases,
If
the
pump
of
bypass
is
of
similar
or
bypass
In
the
design
effects,
necessary.
analysis
of
elastic
may
reflux
these
water
be
systems
protective
by
incorporates
of
so
air
vessels
that
Rigid
surge
hammer
done
are
in-line
water
water
tank
trial
device
and
envisaged,
valves
may
instances
method of
oped,
by
solution,
varying
the
such
error.
column
action,
and
as
analysis
or,
or
is
usually
number
if
computer
discharge
location
similarly
design
valves
program
s i z e and d i s c h a r g e c h a r a c -
as
The
computer
reflux
graphically
economical
and
the
for
inertia
normally
an
analysis
of
determined
pump
for
system
b e developed.
teristics
not
valve,
be
available
the
of d i s c h a r g e tanks.
The
solutions
trial.
are
of
employed
pipeline
necessary.
could
charts
investigation
to
have
program
general
and
is
be
tank
size
methodically,
to
in-line
determined
usually
program could
parameters
have
of
the
by
most
be develan
opti-
reducing
water
mum s o l u t i o n a r r i v e d a t .
The
following
sections
hammer in p u m p i n g l i n e s ,
describe various
methods o f
73
Pump Inertia
If
to
the r o t a t i o n a l
rotate
pressure
the
pump
the
of
for
transients
e n t r a i n e d water
on
i n e r t i a of
may
will
delivery
while
be
side,
after
reduced.
continue
a centrifugal
thereby
power
The
feed
to
rotating
water
water
pump,
hammer
motor
and
i n t o the p o t e n t i a l vacuum
a1 l e v i a t i n g
The effect
failure,
the
sudden
deceleration
short
pipelines.
After
the
gradually
the
power
slow
delivery
higher
pump
in
delivery
gather
turbine
the
the
the
until
it
can
no
suction
at
side
direction,
of
the
these
will
it
with
there
pump.
in
the
no
The
reverse
conditions.
If
The
of
the
off,
the
deliver
force
pump
still
reflux
pump
or
will
reverse
against
through
spinning
rapidly
of
will
head is s t i l l
control
and
speed
pump
water
water
direction,
i t reaches r u n a w a y speed.
deceleration
cut
the d e l i v e r y
then
the
is
is
longer
the time.
head,
provided
momentum
under
rapid
motor
reverse
increase u n t i l
is
the
down
direction,
and
to
head e x i s t i n g
than
forward
supply
in
the
the
valve
on
decelerate
will
act
as
the
pump
will
reverse flow
a n d water
hammer over-
pressures w i I I resu I t.
I f there i s a r e f l u x v a l v e
reverse
still
wi II
flow
The
occur.
be
on
arrested,
pressure
the
but
changes
delivery
water
at
ing
the
work
done
after
the
wil I
1963) o r b y computer.
a time increment A t
i n decelerating
the pump,
overpressures
t h e pump f o l l o w i n g power f a i l -
u r e may be c a l c u l a t e d g r a p h i c a l l y (Parmakian,
The pump speed N
side of
hammer
i s obtained b y equat-
transferred
to the water:
Solving f o r N
- N2
= L N we get
900wHQ A t
A N = n' MNFN
where
is
(4.12)
the
is the speed
of
the time
head
above
moment of
in
rprn,
interval,
suction
inertia
of
the
pump
impeller
and
motor,
head a n d
i s the discharge.
H i s the pumping
As
an approxima-
74
tion,
The
head/discharge
accurately
characteristics
of
the
pump
can
be
fairly
and
on
the
points
are
(4.13)
constants
which
can
head/discharge/speed
be
evaluated
characteristics
provided
of
the
three
pump
are
known.
Substituting
pipe,
and
vA
where
4.8,
u s i n g Equ.
is
the
cross
two equations
sectional
result
area
involving
of
the
two
un-
the
in
r e s u l t s of
chart
form.
pipeline
P.
The
times
of
parameter
and
the
various
for
presented
upsurge at
values
charts
flow
l a r g e number of
Charts
also
of
by
Parmakian
indicate
pump
indicate
reversal,
zero
inertia
the
and
maximum
pump
speed
the
pipeline
reverse
and
along
speed
maximum
re-
verse speed.
Kinno
and
which
include
speed
of
ing
the effect
the pump
maximum
Kinno
flow
of
have
prepared
that
through
if
comprehensive
charts
i s also discussed.
upsurge
suggests
reverse
(1965)
Kennedy
reverse
Of
rotation
of
could
be
the
upsurge
the
pump was
i s a chart
interest
the
pump
reduced
permitted,
but
is
indicat-
prevented.
considerably
with
if
reverse r o t a -
tion prevented.
4.10
Fig.
will
occur
ues
for
the
maximum
summarizes
in
various
minimum
head
the
head
values
around 85 p e r cent.
wave
will
of
the
subsequen
mitted,
are
also presented
ues
the
magnitude
prevented
maximum
with
of
the
are
and
systems
from
to cover
be observed
r e t u r n s to
upsurge
in
at
the pump
upsurge which
reflux
valve.
headrise
above
operating
that
If
Kinno's
paper,
and
Valthe
pump efficiencies
( t = 2L/c).
if
flow
reversal
These values
would occur
reversal
head
Ho
which
flow
below H
pressures
power f a i l u r e .
typical
the pump
the c h a r t .
minimum
following
taken
a r e adjusted
occurs when
the f i r s t
maximum
pumping
if
would
The v a l i s per-
reverse flow
was
be
prevented
was
the
approximately
75
The
the
author
pump
inertia
pressures.
the pump
has
If
simple
will
the
have
inertia
r u l e of
an
thumb
effect
parameter
in
Here M
i s the moment of
from
Fig.
4.10,
and
i n e r t i a of
it
was
the water
MNZ/wALHoZ
the pump,
assumed
a s c e r t a i n i n g whether
reducing
and AL
ed
for
at
least
hammer
exceeds
0.01,
10 per cent.
N i s the speed
i n rpm
c/g
is
approximately
e q u a l to 100.
F i g . 4.10
76
Some i n s t a l l a t i o n s have a fly-wheel
the
moment
of
inertia.
impractically
be
In
heavy,
most
also
cases
flywheel
the
would
have
to
start-
In
subsequent
sections
the
effect
of
pump
inertia
is
neglected
instantaneously.
One
the
the
of
against
water
pump
(Fig.
charge o n l y
ing
in
conditions
head
and
the
simples
hammer
4.11).
arrangements
is
reflux
of
through
to
the
the
the
line
parallel
with
non-return
pumping
pressure
head
would
difference
bypass
be
would
head,
valve.
pressure
in
The
less
the
suction
reflux
valve
would
friction
than
the
case
pressure
any
dis-
higher
cvo/g.
which
v a l v e would
maintain
suction
suction
pumping
in
the pumps.
i n a closed position.
below
installed
or
protecting
valve
the same d i r e c t i o n as
the
The
reflux
loss
would
be
drop
drawn
therefore o n l y
in
the
bypass.
drop
The
J
S U C T I O N PIPE
F i g . 4.11
This
cases,
tion
er
method
as
pressure.
hammer
sure).
of
water
the d e l i v e r y
The
hammer
I n other cases
overpressure
method
protection
pressure w i l l
be
used
below
in
all
the suc-
(equal
really
cannot
has
i n v a l u e to
use
only
the
when
initial
the
drop
pumping
i n preshead
is
77
considerably
less
sure
along
the
tion
reservoir
than
entire
level
cv /g.
should
s t i l l be column separation
Normally
reservoir.
fairly
the
and
also
pipes
there
water
length
be
draw
may
be
above,
prevent
initial
be
the
suction
drop
i n pres-
tolerable.
relatively
high
or
The
suc-
there
may
line.
directly
cases
from
where
in a similar
pressure
constant
the
intake
the
should
i n the d e l i v e r y
intake
However,
long
I n addition,
pipeline
it
way
exceeding
head
pipe
too.
is
I n these
to that describ-
the d e l i v e r y
pres-
sure.
It
should
be
noted
pump
during
the
period
head,
if
especially
speeds,
as
is
bypass r e f l u x
the
that
water
that
the
case
the
may
machine
with
also
delivery
was
drawn
In
the
the suction
high
for
pumps.
be omitted,
through
i s below
designed
through-flow
v a l v e could even
be
head
specific
some cases
the
a l t h o u g h there i s normal-
Surge Tanks
The
water
pressure,
tank
in
as
of
of
grade
in
l i n e of
to be used.
in
the
surge
end
tank
of
treated
is
the
in
case
rise.
the
of
a pumping
tank
tank
for
Surge
line
is
i s open
the
flow
head
drop
are
although
there
It
profile
and
water
relatively
the
i t could
pipeline
surge
the
and
tank
between
other
be treated
independent p i p e l i n e shorter
or
this
filling
the
they
can
hydraulic
at
the
means.
as
may
at
to enable an open
a
some
length,
pipe,
principally
that
The
which
a r e cases where
pipeline
by
atmospheric
the p i p e l i n e .
the
seldom
is
hammer
large,
in
low enough
protect
to
to
variations
used
be possible to construct
against
exposed
is
tanks
systems.
intermediate
as an
surge
tank
penstocks,
I t may
tank
bottom of
pumping
pipeline
the
in
balancing
head
turbine
applied
and
the
discharging
case
head
be
while
acts
occur,
surface
tank
a peak
pumps
If
the
the discharge
section
could
be
in
a l pipeline.
ing
ween
power
the
failure
pumps
may
and
be
studied
surge
tank
analytically.
are
The
high-frequency
transients
water
bet-
hammer
78
phenomena
ably.
which
The
will
analysis
not
affect
concerns
the
the
water
slow
level
motion
in
hammer
will
not
pass
the
surge
very
is
the
tank
end.
height
and
The
the
of
open
delivery
head
gradually
since e l a s t i c
tank.
The
rate
of
(4.14)
above
increases as
water
the line.
head
notice-
the
= -gh/P
of
theory
waves
the tank
surges
the
level
the tank
the
level
in
of
the
drops (see F i g . 4 . 9 ) .
Another equation r e l a t i n g h a n d v
may be d e r i v e d b y considering
(4.15)
A v = Atdh/t
P
Ap
where
and At
respectively.
are
Note that
the flow
from
areas of
the p i p e a n d tank
i s assumed to be
zero.
Solving
Equs.
0 and v = v
4.14
and 4.15
that at t = 0,
a n d u s i n g the fact
to e v a l u a t e the constants o f
integration,
h =
one o b t a i n s an
express ion f o r h :
(4.16)
From
surge
in
t h i s equation
it
is
the
tank
i s apparent
,
surge
is
(II
/ 2 ) J AtP/A
g:
m
r
that
and
the
time
till
down-
the f i r s t
Time zero
i s assumed
be that
to
i n s t a n t at
there
a n d surge t a n k ,
correct
deceleration
then
continuity
equation
will
to
have
be
and
solved
the
rigid
not
column
numerically
for
hold, and
equation
successive
for
time
i n t e r v a I s.
The
fluctuations
in
tank
level
may
damped
be
orifice,
extreme
than
for
the
unrestricted orifice.
in
with
throttling
Parmakian
( 1 9 6 3 ) presents
number of
been
sophisticated
proposed
(Rich,
variations
1963).
The
in
differential
surge
tank
for
79
instance
The
includes
tank
may
variations
systems,
small-diameter
have a
are
more
as they
varying
riser
in
the
cross section o r
applicable
to
a r e useful f o r
hydro
m i d d l e of
the
tank.
m u l t i p l e shafts.
power
plant
than
Such
pumping
load v a r i a t i o n on turbines.
Discharge Tanks
I n s i t u a t i o n s where
the h y d r a u l i c g r a d e
one
which
pipeline.
under
The
pressure b u t
the p i p e l i n e p r o f i l e i s considerably
normal
tank
operating
water
would
lower than
surface
be below
conditions
is
tank,
but
from
the
isolated
be subjected to atmostpheric
would
the h y d r a u l i c g r a d e
line,
as opposed to
Fig. 4.12
Discharge tank
discharge
tank
would
normally
be
situated
along
rises.
The tank
the
nearer
should
be
discharge
will
the
level
connected
from
below
the
valve
would
water
be
the
should
be
Fig.
4.12
the
the
surface
held
bypass to
tank,
in
to
the tank
small-bore
discharged.
b e more e f f i c i e n t
tank
is
pipeline
to
the h y d r a u l i c g r a d e
via
reflux
elevation
tank.
the
in
the
pressure
the r e f l u x v a l v e ,
installed
depicts
to
first
rise
a n d successively h i g h e r
if
by
the
i n r e d u c i n g pressure v a r i a t i o n s
i n t o the p i p e l i n e
shut
on
fill
typical
valve
line.
It
i n s t a l l e d to
in
Normally
the
connected
to
the
slowly
tank
discharge
the
pumping
a float
tank
reflux
line.
valve
in
after
it
has
arrangement.
80
The
use
of
discharge
tanks
was
reported
in
detail
by
Stephenson
(1972).
The f u n c t i o n of
caused
The
by
pump
water
pipeline
action
a discharge
stoppage,
column
a
(or
of
subsequent
head
the
necessary
between
i s to f i l l
any
the
end
tank
tank)
difference
prevent
to
cause water
tank
will
discharge
g r a d u a l l y decelerate
between
reverse motion of
hammer overpressures
the
the
two
ends.
the water
of
the
under
the
may
be
It
t h i s could be achieved by
instal-
l i n g a r e f l u x v a l v e i n the line.
discharge
the
lowest
following
first
tank
tank
will
only
to
which
the
level
drop
tanks
tank
head
pump stopping.
along
should
operate
line
be successively
i s considerably
in
Thus
should
the
the
water
surface
i s above
pipeline
would
otherwise
be
less
higher.
less than
if
than
c v /g,
I n cases
cv /g,
and
where
r i g i d water
subsequent
column
theory
may
twice
discharge
distance
sectional
tank
respect
by
area
of
and
is
time,
to
column
travels
the
the
obtains
the
the
the
pipeline
where A
is
an
before stopping.
area of
is
the p i p e l i n e ,
head on
one
Q = APv 2/2gh,
tank;
pipe,
one,
is
with
this
cross
there
4.1
Equ.
tank
below
if
the
4.13
fraction
depicts
the
of
The coordinates
using elastic
the
head,
discharge
discharge
at
the
overpressures
theory
tank
never
tank
accurately
hammer
indicated by
the g r a p h
column
overpressures
discharged from a
increase.
exceeds
is
are
low.
less
than
by
r i g i d column equation.
a computer
approximately
r i g i d column
successively
For
applicable
I t appears,
that
tank expressed as
analysis
less
predicted
becomes
the
h,
is
of
the volume
and
however,
indicated
by
rigid
higher
the
that
0.5
theory,
cvo/g,
water
heads
rigid
water
hammer
the discharge
water
column
the
and
from
theory,
81
4.13
Fig.
tank
i s only
i s assumed
should be an
side)
of
be a t
in-line
the
r e t u r n from
to
tank.
reflux valve
Without
the tank
immediately
this reflux
towards
upstream
valve,
the pumps.
would
I n a d d i t i o n to water hammer
the discharge from the
downstream.
along
h'
a p o s i t i v e wave
The
The
maximum overpressures
the p i p e l i n e on
is
measured
fraction
above
the
If
cv / g .
of
indicated by
the c h a r t
the
discharge
head,
upstream r e f l u x
and
occur
The overpessure
is
expressed
as
i s omitted F i g .
valve
4.14
should be used.
For
peaks,
line.
very
long
pipelines
more
than
one
The
tanks
separation
is
should be
likeliest.
p o i n t beyond a tank
with
discharge
lowest
of
may
i n s t a l l e d at
The
as
number
tank
successively
be
installed
peaks where
the
head
will
which
higher
along
the
water column
occur
the
at
line
any
i s that
4.15
Fig.
along
first
a
tank
valve
is
be
tank
the
The
located
should
second
of
indicates
pipeline.
at
the
installed
should
discharge
is
chart
also
from
also o n l y
pump end of
immediately
have
two
the
line,
upstream
reflux
tanks
appiicable
valve
or
of
installed
provided
else
the
the
a reflux
tank.
immediately
The
upstream
it.
4.15
Fig.
is
between
the
and
open
the
for
really
tanks
different
end
only
is
equal
of
the
length
applicable
to
the
and
cases where
distance between
pipeline;
ratios
for
however,
4.15
Fig.
the distance
the second
the c h a r t s
could
be
tank
hardly vary
used a s a g u i d e
f o r other cases.
in
and
4.15
Fig.
second
second
tank
corresponding
is
that
line.
and
is
and
the
pipe
between
The
h,
tank,
the
and
the
relevant
discharge
h
difference
head at
length
discharge
The
the
h2 i s
the
tank
that
from
the
are
between
i n elevation
between
the
second
tank
is
tank
substituted i n
is
the
first
between
the p i p e l i n e .
two
a n d the discharge
from the f i r s t
and
elevation
t 1 is
second
in
difference
tanks
end of
the pipe-
broken
indicated
full
by
The
and J?
indicated by
the v a l u e
the
lines
lines.
i n d i c a t e d on
the
82
tc
08
06
O L
9 h'
c vo
0 2
0
10
08
Q ?gh
__
A
LV,'
06
OL
0.2
Fig.
4.13
D i s c h a r g e f r o m t a n k a n d m a x i m u m head r i s e w i t h
i n - l i n e r e f l u x v a l v e u p s t r e a m of t a n k .
83
F i g . 4.14
F i g . 4.15
85
v e r t i c a l scale to o b t a i n the respective discharge Q from each t a n k .
The maximum overpressures i n d i c a t e d b y F i g . 4.15
I t is,
the
further
the
lateral
reflux
pipeline.
water
from
In
hammer
the
water
extent of
valve
may
then
tank
hammer
the
last
tank
and
t h i s case the r e f l u x v a l v e on
could
analysis
however, possible to
the overpressure b y j u d i c i o u s
between
tank
i n v a r i a b l y occur
possibly
exceed
should
be
with.
indicated b y
carried
location of a
delivery
end of
the pump s i d e of
dispensed
that
be
the
out
the
The discharge
the
chart,
based
on
and a
the
theory
by
trial
and
discharge
error
major
pipelines
with
should
be c a r r i e d out,
cular,
a final
check
tanks
and
and i n - l i n e
experience.
For
b u t f o r complex
large
either
friction
ref l ux valves i s
simple
cases
the
heads,
graphically o r
complete
analysis
b y computer.
In parti-
design c a p a c i t y o f the p i p e l i n e .
Even though a number of tanks may be i n s t a l l e d along a p i p e l i n e ,
vaporization
is
tanks.
Provided
steeply
between
water
on
always
there
possible
are
tanks,
no
this
hammer overpressures.
all
rising
vapour
sections.
along
local
rising
peaks,
sections
and
the
I imited v a p o r i z a t i o n
However,
Cases
are
air
the
l i ne rises f a i r l y
should
not
lead
to
known
bubbles t r a v e l l i n g along g e n t l y
between
where
vaporization
and
r i s i n g mains have r e s u l t e d i n
A i r Vessels
If
the
p r o f i l e of
discharge
tank
or
force
water
into
compressed
air
illustrated
in
the
in
in
the
will
vessel
should
tend
be
to
is
not
protect
vessel
4.16).
(a
The
to
line.
reverse.
the
air
to
may
it
use
be
surge
possible
to
wave b y means of
vessel
arrangement
i n the vessel
will
is
gradually
this
However,
unrestricted,
enough
line,
low-pressure
pressure
At
high
the
typical
i s released u n t i l
adjacent
column
pipeline
p i p e b e h i n d the
a
Fig.
decrease as water
that
a
tank
stage
the
whereas
inlet
decelerating
the outlet
should
be
of
water
the a i r
throttled.
86
suitable
reflux
arrangement
valve,
smaf I - o r i f i c e
4.16
Fig.
2.5
pirical
vessel
the
the
design
ratio
of
2.5.
The
the
when
( 1 9 6 3 ) suggests that
outlet
a n d recent
of
have
water
the
discharge
water
times
effect
to
shuts
out
column
through
reverses.
to r e f i l I slowly.
A i r vessel
Parrnakian
be
is
which
inlet
author
the a i r
loss.
vessel
However,
inlet
head
loss should
t hi s relationship
i s em-
loss
head
charts
reverse
head
to
reproduced
flow
has
head
loss
compiled
be
by
to
i n v e s t i g a t e d thoroughly.
parrnakian
forward
design
were compiled f o r
flow
charts
The a i r
head
loss
covering
an
the
equal
to
extended
i n l e t t h r o t t l i n g ( F i g s . 4.17
r a n g e of
p i p e l i n e s a n d v a r i o u s degrees of
to 4.19).
a l o n g the e n t i r e p i p e l i n e length,
volume
and
degree of
inlet
l i m i t to the overpressures.
The c a l c u l a t i o n s for
er;
lies
it
was
assumed that
between
adiabatic
a n d f o r r e a d i n g off the r e q u i r e d a i r
throttling
corresponding
to any
specified
Outflow t h r o t t l i n g i s neglected.
(HS
1.4
law f o r
constant)
and
the a i r
the
i n the vessel
isothermal
(HS
Fig.
4.17
F i g . 4.18
M a x i m u m and m i n i m u m p r e s s u r e e n v e l o p e s w i t h a i r
vessel. P = 1.
88
constant).
The
relationship
adopted
further
assumed t h a t t h e a i r vessel
pumps,
flow
was
HS1'3
It
constant.
was i m m e d i a t e l y
was
d o w n s t r e a m of t h e
The
dimensionless
parameters
associated
with
the
charts
are
as
fol l o w s :
Pipeline parameter
P = c v /gH
A i r vessel parameter
B = v 0'AL/gHoS
Throttling parameter
C = Z/Ho
where S
i s the
loss t h r o u g h
The
outlet
initial
air
t h e a i r vessel
head
loss
was
volume
in the
vessel,
and 2
i s the
head
i n l e t c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a l i n e v e l o c i t y -v
assumed
to
be
negligible.
Note t h a t
0-
Ho i s
i n t h i s case.
0.2 I
Fig.
4.19
with
a i r vessel.
The c h a r t s a r e u s e d a s f o l l o w s to d e s i g n a n a i r v e s s e l :
line parameter,
P,
The p i p e -
line velocity
89
and
pumping
head,
4.17
to 4.19.
T h e p i p e l i n e p r o f i l e is p l o t t e d on the a p p l i c a b l e set of
minimum-head
it
does
not
fall
to
below
The
inlet
the
The
throttling
to
10 ( o r more).
pumping
works
necessary
at
any
to
the
C.
of
of
l/lOth
thus
of
still
smaller
S,
air,
design
suppress
diameter
vortices
cause
line
is
procedure
i s to
m,
the
main
the
cannot
value
of
2 m/s a n d
corresponding
pipe diameter).
be
equal
tolerated,
it
inlet
I f the
will
B (corresponding to a
be
larger
i s known.
to ensure no a i r escapes
volume.
is
usually
designed
to
The vessel
i n t o the pipe-
This
i s the volume
1/1.3
be about one-half
the
and
the water
in
to
the degree of
approximately
of
200
i s c a l c u l a t e d once B
be s u f f i c i e n t
main p i p e diameter.
dissolve
point
selected
depend on
The normal
outlet
such that
Figs.
achieved b y s e t t i n g C approximately
order
be
from
volume
c a p a c i t y should
line,
to
indicated
volume of a i r )
The
the
out
select
to
profile
maximum-head
of
selected
envelope selected
( F o r a p i p e l i n e velocity
head
chart
corresponding
overpressures
represented b y
overpressures
pipeline
of
diameter
corresponding
the
value
read off
same c h a r t .
the
the
curves a n d a minimum-head
vaporization.
used
and
air
entrainment.
to some extent
The
air
and w i l l
in
the
vessel
will
h a v e to replenished b y
means of a compressor.
reflux
reduce water
extent
of
positioning
the
of
shock.
reflux
hammer pressures.
led
upstream of
the
effect
of
valve
i n s t a l l e d on
hammer pressures,
For
the
the
In
valves
fact,
i t s own
although
in
some
in
i t may
pipeline w i l l
limit
situations
the
later-
indiscriminate
in
l i n e could
instance
if
a pressure r e l i e f v a l v e was i n s t a l -
reflux
other
valve
valve.
It
the
may
be detrimental
reflux
valve
also
amplify
would
to
water
counteract
reflections
from
reflux
tanks,
the
of
tank
the
valves
discharge
or
reflux
would
tanks
vessel
valve.
n o r m a l l y be used
or
would
This
air
vessels.
discharge
would
water
alleviate
i n conjunction
Following
into
the
pump
with
shut-
the p i p e e i t h e r
violent
pressure
90
drop
The reflux
valve
would
then
arrest
the
water
column
at
the
time
of
reversal,
energy
of
momentum change
the water
in
column.
There
would
therefore be
little
vapour
be
tolerable,
in
water
vapour
at
the
would
pockets
i n the p i p e l i n e f o l l o w i n g
provided
the
vapour
hammer pressures.
pocket could
arrested
not collapse
the water
at
of
the
i t s p o i n t of
vapour
resulting
i n fact be prevented w i t h an i n - l i n e
downstream extremity
be
pockets d i d
Reversal of
pocket.
reflux valve
the water
minimum momentum,
column
there would
so
be l i t t l e head rise.
Vaporization
water
If
hammer
the
first
peaks,
the
of
extent
theory.
along
vapour
peaks
wouJd
the
last
be
and
the
was
confined
could
head on
peak
in
the vapour
pipeline
The decelerating
rigid
water
column
be
pipeline
where
pressure of
In
the water.
than
subsequent
to
first
peak.
the
estimated
using
rigid
the
dispersion
with
a vapour
would
be the d i f f e r -
respect
pocket,
to
t,
Integrating
one o b t a i n s
an
k?AvoZ/2gh, where h i s
ensure
reflux
valve,
suitable dip
to
The
column
area.
locating
lateral
the
higher
equation
the volume of
the
vaporization
expression f o r
at
at
ence
and
occur
pressure dropped to
rise
the
o r between
the
would
i n the p i p e l i n e
proper
functioning
i n order
of
some
The v a l v e should be i n s t a l l e d
to
trap
the water
column r e t u r n s .
A small-diameter
permit
slow
occur on
of
the
bypass
r e f i l l i n g of
restarting
order
of
to
the r e f l u x v a l v e should be i n s t a l l e d to
the vapour
the pumps.
one-tenth
of
pocket,
or
pipeline
diameter.
An
should be
air
release
91
valve
be i n s t a l l e d in the p i p e l i n e a t
should
the peak
to release a i r
low pressure.
It
stream
of
the
pumps.
Such
hammer
pressures
in
through
the
and
pump
the
reflux
valves
pipeline.
prevent
They
water
would
not
merely
hammer
prevent
prevent
pressures
water
r e t u r n flow
r e a c h i n g the
pumps.
In
some pump
installations,
instead of r e f l u x valves,
(1968)
Kinno
delivery
to
be
valve.
the
Assuming
he
closing
control
valves,
studied
tolerable,
automatically
effect
of
limited
describes
how
c o n t r o l l e d closure
return
water
flow
of
through
hammer
pump
the
pump
overpressures
can
Release Valves
There
are
number of
sophisticated water
(often r e f e r r e d to as surge r e l i e f
a b l e commercial l y .
matically
open
The
valves
pipe
leading
in
the
effect
are
suction
the
gradually
normally
the
v a l v e s o r surge suppressors) a v a i l -
close
the
needle
reservoir.
The
complete
range
the
valve
type,
or
discharge
velocities
pump
valves,
have a gradual
closure.
Needle a n d
which
tripping.
discharge
else sleeve
v a l v e s must
of
after
which
designed to minimize c a v i t a t i o n
high
release v a l v e s
to the suction r e s e r v o i r ,
suitably
with
then
are
over
These valves
hammer
into
mounted
throttling
sleeve
valves
a n d corrosion associated
occur
d u r i n g the t h r o t t l i n g
process.
The v a l v e s a r e u s u a l l y
reflux
valves
should
not
and
i n s t a l l e d on
discharge
discharge
into
directly
the
The
returns
on
should
the
the top of
maintaining
suction
as
they
reservoir.
They
i n v a r i a b l y draw
by
an e l e c t r i c a l
fault or
b y a pres-
valve
to
the
pipe
suction
to
pumps
open
as
the piston
the
pressure
fully
before
the
p o s i t i v e pressure
increases a g a i n
within
negative
wave.
pressure
As
wave
the pressure
the v a l v e g r a d u a l l y closes,
desired
limits.
The
closing
may be a d j u s t e d b y a p i l o t v a l v e i n t h e h y d r a u l i c c i r c u i t .
rate
92
Reflux
Pump valve
Acc u mu lot or
Suction
reservoir
4.20
Fig.
The
returns
on
valve
to
should
the
open
pumps
as
the top of t h e p i s t o n
maintaining
the
fully
valve
arrangement
before
positive
the
pressure
within
negative
pressure
increases a g a i n
simp1 i f i e d
pressure
As
wave.
the v a l v e
wave
the pressure
g r a d u a l l y closes,
I i m i ts.
desired
with
The
closing
rate
may be a d j u s t e d by a p i l o t v a l v e i n the h y d r a u l i c c i r c u i t .
If
no
the v a l v e
to
the
water
of
overpressure
operating
hammer
the
llel.
higher
would be sized
pumps,
They
head.
could
Where
likely
is
t w o or
be
than
the
to discharge
to
operating
the f u l l
reliability
be
is
problem
operate
to
at
head
flow
of
at
tolerable,
head equal
importance,
during
may
is
a
be
and
if
partial
shutdown
installed
i n para-
successively
lower
delivery
throttled
delivery
heads.
In
the
valves,
event
of
normal
pump
shutdown a g a i n s t
t h e i r oper-
at ion.
The types of
ing
lines
use
is
This
control
n o r m a l l y cannot open
therefore
method
of
limited
water
to
in
less than
pipelines
hammer
over
protection
is
two
kilometers
normally
most
in
length.
economical
93
for
cases
when
the
pumping
there
hammer
is
analysis
no
head
greatly
exceeds
cv /g,
since
the
should
be
against
performed
underpressures,
check
to
that
water
water
column
less
above,
sophisticated
which
has
valve
been
used
spring-loaded
release v a l v e .
sure
reaches
prefixed
than
on
the
small
The v a l v e
maximum.
control
pump
i s set
valves
described
installations,
to open when
Some overpressure
is
the
the pres-
i s necessary to
best
method
depend
system.
on
The
of
the
water
hammer
hydraulic
and
accompanying
table
protection
physical
for
pumping
characteristics
summarizes
the
ranges
line
of
over
the
which
v a r i o u s devices a r e s u i t a b l e .
ting
the
When
bypassing
values
of
it
i s g r e a t e r than
the
pumps
may
becomes necessary
For
suffice.
use
to
The protective
approximate
suitable
order
device,
of
a surge t a n k ,
smaller
discharge
a n a i r vessel, o r a
devices l i s t e d i n the t a b l e a r e a r r a n g e d
increasing
one checks
a reflux
successively
i n combination w i t h an i n - l i n e r e f l u x v a l v e ,
release v a l v e .
in
protection
valve
tank
method of
down
cost,
the
thus,
table
to
until
select
the
the
most
variables
are
o r more p r o t e c t i v e devices on
the
w i t h i n the r e q u i r e d range.
It
same
omical
In
may
line.
be
to
in
use
two
p o s s i b i l i t y should
arrangement often
particular
effect
possible
This
the
reducing
the
rotational
comprehensive water
not
i n e r t i a of
required
hammer
the
capacity
analysis
of
pump
a
often
tank
has
or a i r vessel.
would be necessary
a slight
A
i f a series
94
TABLE 4.1
Summary of methods of water hammer protection
Method of
Protection
( i n approximate
order of increasi n g cost)
I n e r t i a of pump
Required r a n g e
of v a r i a b I es
MN*
Remarks
Approxi mate on I y
wALHo2 > 0 * 0 1
Some water may a l s o
be d r a w n through
pump
Pump bypass
reflux valve
In-line reflux
va I ve
__
cv
Surge tank
h small
> 1
gh
P i p e l i n e should be
n e a r h y d r a u l ic g r a d e
l i n e so height of tank
i s Dractical
P i p e l i n e p r o f i l e should
be convex downwards.
Water column separation l i k e l y .
Automatic release
valve
D i scharge tanks
cv
>
h = pressure head
a t t a n k , p i p e l i n e prof i l e should be convex
upwards
'
gh
A i r vessel
cv
o
<
__
gHO
95
REFERENCES
Kinno,
H.
and
Kennedy,
J.F.,
1965.
Water
hammer
charts
for
c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p systems,
P r o c . Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g s . ,
91 (HY3)
247-270.
Kinno,
H. ,1968 W a t e r h a m m e r c o n t r o l i n c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p s y s t e m s ,
P r o c . Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g s . , 94 (HY3) pp 619-639.
L u d w i g , M. and Johnson, S.P.,
1950
Prediction of surge pressures
i n l o n g o i l t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , P r o c . Am. P e t r o l e u m I n s t . , N.Y. 30
(5).
L u p t o n , H.R.,
1953
G r a p h i c a l a n a l y s i s o f p r e s s u r e surges in pumpi n g s y s t e m s , J . ~ n s t . W a t e r E n g s . , 7.
P a r m a k i a n , J . , 1963. W a t e r Hammer A n a l y s i s , D o v e r P u b l i c . I n c . , N.Y.
R i c h , G.R.,
1963. H y d r a u l i c t r a n s i e n t s , D o v e r p u b l i c s . I n c . , N.Y.
and L a i , C.,
1963. W a t e r h a m m e r a n a l y s i s i n c l u d i n g
Streeter, V.L.
f l u i d f r i c t i o n . P r o c . Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g s . , 88 (HY3) pp 79-112.
Streeter, V.L.
and Wyl ie, E.B.,
1967. H y d r a u l i c T r a n s i e n t s , McGrawHill.
D.,
1966. W a t e r h a m m e r c h a r t s i n c l u d i n g f l u i d f r i c t i o n ,
Stephenson,
P r o c . Am. SOC. C i v i l e n g s . , 92 (HY5) pp 71-94.
Stephenson, D.,
1972. D i s c h a r g e t a n k s f o r s u p p r e s s i n g w a t e r h a m m e r
i n p u m p i n g l i n e s . P r o c . I n t n l . Conf. o n p r e s s u r e surges,B.H.R.A.,
C r a n f ie l d.
Stephenson,
D.,
1972.
Water hammer p r o t e c t i o n o f p u m p i n g l i n e s ,
t r a n s . S.A.
I n s t n . C i v i l E n g s . , 14 ( 1 2 ) .
L I S T O F SYMBOLS
a i r vessel
p a r a m e t e r v 'AL/(gHoS)
t h r o t t l i n g p a r a m e t e r Z/H
p i p e l i n e diameter
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of p i p e w a l l m a t e r i a l
( e x p r e s s e d as a f r a c t i o n )
g r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration
p r e s s u r e h e a d a t an i n t e r m e d i a t e s e c t i o n o f t h e p i p e l i n e
h'
hf
f r i c t i o n h e a d loss
he -
h e a d loss t h r o u g h d o w n s t r e a m v a l v e f u l l y o p e n
head
(in
in
p i p e l i n e measured
c a s e of
air
vessel
above
design,
take
as absolute,
atmospheric head)
p u m p i n g head above suction r e s e r v o i r level
Ho I
-
p u m p i n e r t i a p a r a m e t e r MN'/WALH
p u m p p a r a m e t e r F M N Z c / l 80wALv gH
'
i.e.
level
plus
b u l k modulus of water
length of an intermediate p a r t of p i p e l i n e
pipeline length
moment
p i p e l i n e parameter cv /gh
volume of a i r i n i t i a l l y
time
l i n e a r v a l v e closure time
water v e l o c i t y i n p i p e l i n e
i n i t i a l water velocity
of
inertia
t r a i n e d water
of
rotating
p a r t s of
motor
and
( = mass x r a d i u s of g y r a t i o n ' )
i n a i r vessel
in pipeline
wal I thickness o f p i p e
z -
pump,
i n l e t f o r p i p e l i n e velocity
en-
97
CHAPTER 5
A I R IN PIPELINES
INTRODUCTION
It
The
flow
or
is
recognised
that
air
a i r may be absorbed at
at
the
entrance
i n free form
tively
large
they
will
the
air,
of
remain
in
The
in
likely
air
water
entrained
may
An
to
many
or
air
pockets.
either
present
line.
i n bubbles or
volume
section.
cross
to
is
free surfaces,
thus
pipelines.
in
be
turbulent
in
accumulate on top of
travel
along
equilibrium,
the
solution
l i n e to peaks.
be e n t r a i n e d by
There
the f l o w i n g
Air
It
i n solution
i s only
air
losses
the
to
when
form
to
i s not
increase.
to
form
those
in
partly
on
the
problems
bubbles
large
full
drain
the system,
of
used
the
to
pipe.
release
l i n e a n d to draw
arise.
may
pockets.
coalesce
Flow
pipes,
Air
valves
of
the
top
and
rise
to
conditions
then
become s i m i l a r
except
quantities
i n from
dissolved
b u l k s a n d head
that
in
slightly
pipeline
it
which collects
different
air
of
of
w i l l be pressurized.
used to e l i m i n a t e the a i r
large
air
to permit
The water
i n c l u d i n g the free a i r ,
top
also
that
The
pipe
Air
bubbles
i s l i k e l y that
likely
during
design
the
are
filling
of
d i t i o n s i n the line.
PROBLEMS O F A I R ENTRAINMENT
Air
fects.
drawn
in
through
Minute a i r
bubbles o r
- the formation of
lapse and erode
lers
in
Air
vacuous
air
supply
in
due
drawn
flow to be unsteady.
to
in
the
in
which
have
can
a number of
ef-
promote c a v i t a t i o n
subsequently
rapidly
col-
high
gulps
can
solution
cavities
particular
pressures.
pump
peripheral
can
cause
speed
which
vibration
by
lowers
causing
98
Large quantities
intermittent1
-__
a.
I-
Air e n t r a i n e d
by a falling
jet
* 1
'
To pump
__1-
____
Surface dimple
barely
detectable
-=-+
---+
Well define
surface
dimple
-.
Air drawn
intermittent ly
from bottom
of vortex
into intake
c . Vortex formation
FIG.
5.1
to a i r
entrainment.
99
Air
i n a r i s i n g main,
emerge
Air
from
solution
if
whether
ambient
pipes o r
pocket
the
acceleration
in the pipe.
of
The
dispersed
pipeline w i l l
increase.
include surging,
by
latter
the water
b u b b l e form,
may
the top of
be washed along
air
or
temperature
may
i s reduced.
u p to h i g h e r points.
vent
i n s o l u t i o n o r i n b u b b l e form,
pressure
past
the velocity
will
result
the a i r
i n the water,
of
pocket.
Even
if
air
is in
i n g o f v a l v e s or v i b r a t i o n s .
Air
may
water,
size
in
present
bubbles,
from
velocity
be
is
mm/s)
that
rising
to
to
slow
they
the
concentration
micro
5 mm.
so
in
the
bubbles
Micro
in
surface.
or
pockets
in
bubble,
mm
suspension
I n fact
on
solution.
the
90 rnm/s,
for
top
Bubbles
be smaller,
turbulence
sion i n f l o w i n g water.
of
bubbles may
(e.g.
stay
form
of
the
0.1
mm
considerable
bubble,
time
before
may create a n e q u i l i b r i u m
that
sediment
s t a y s i n suspen-
w = dgZ/18 v
(5.1
in
range
and t hei r r i s e
v of water a t 20 C i s 1.1
viscosity
x 10-6m2/s, d
i s b u b b l e diameter a n d g i s g r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration.
For
air
bubbles
to
form
should be present.
Then
be
solution.
released
from
depends
on
the
2% a i r
by
volume
readily
temperature
nucleus
capacity
of
and pressure.
The
At
measured a t
f i g u r e v a r i e s from 3.2% at OC
AIR
or
uneven
standard
water
to
dissolve
air
atmospheric
down to 1.2% a t
surface
pressure.
This
looo.
depending
the water.
on
its
temperature,
will
pressure a n d
absorb a i r a t a r a t e
degree
of
saturation
of
100
a.
Air
b.
Air
c.
pocket w i t h s u b c r i t i c a l
flow past.
pocket w i t h super-critical
A i r pocket
F i g . 5 .2
Air
flow past.
in e q u i l i b r i u m position.
pockets in pipelines.
101
Air
in
flowing
form
free
water.
may
The
also
suction p i p e entrance w i l l
entrance
likely
velocity
to
be
partially
carried
and
drawn
when
be
formation
dragged
a
greater
This
free
in
vortex
entice a i r
the
in.
of
the conduit
to
or
drawdown
i n t o the conduit.
the
turbulence,
air
may
later
the
conduit.
As
pressures
again
the
the
The h i g h e r the
the
more
dissolve
air
is
wholy
or
I n any case i t i s
along
by
outside
reduce,
it
may
be
configuration
tendency
draw
to
(1957), Prosser
to
in air.
intake.
approaches
be1 lmouthed
and
important
b e a r i n g on
minimize a i r
concentric
of
preferably
straight
facing
inflow.
The
downwards
inlet
should
be
Hoods ( s o l i d
upstream.
degree
entraining
of
submergence
drops . o r
hydraulic
should
be
jumps
are
as
great
be
to
as
possible.
avoided.
Fig.
Air
5.1
The
rate
of
diffusion
of
gas
across
liquid
interface
can
be
-dM_
dt
AK
(Cs-
C)
(5.2)
is a
transfer
l i q u i d f i l m constant,
is the concentration a t
v i s c o s i t y a n d turbulence.
saturation.
per
u n i t time
t,
i s the area
K is a f u n c t i o n of temperature,
(5.3)
where r i s the d e f i c i t r a t i o , Co i s the concentration a t time 0,
i s the volume of water per surface area A ( V / A
= depth of water).
and V
102
HYDRAULIC REMOVAL OF A I R
Air
trapped
increase
the
in
air
a p i p e and allowed to
pocket
The
size.
accumulate,
water
cross
some o r a l l of
the
Alternatively
water.
entraining
air
and
gradually
sectional
will
area
will
increase u n t i l at
hydraulic
carrying
i t away
jump
may
form
i n b u b b l e form,
in
as
the
pipe
depicted
in
F i g . 5.2
The
pipe
relationship
diameter
between
has
been
a i r pocket volume,
investigated
by
washout
number of
velocity
and
workers,
and
(1975).
Q2
gD
= 0.707
where D
tan
(5.4)
equation
energy
is s i m i l a r
diagrams
possibility
critical.
that
to
5.3
(Figs.
the
air
in
parameter
is
the
specific
momentum a n d
In
fact
points
5.4).
and
removed
if
the
water
it
depth
to
drops
the
below
air.
Wisner
air
et
al
independent of
slope and
r e l a t i v e volume of
(see F i g .
Hydraulic
A
air
They
is a
function
i s practically
of Reynolds number
vD/v
and
5.5)
Jumps
hydraulic
jump
draws
in
air
in
the
the r i s e velocity of
i n d i c a t e r i s e velocity
long time.
form
of
bubbles.
These
to coalesce a n d remain i n
the bubbles by
103
104
>
1o2
Fig.
5.5
= VD/v
E q u i l i b r i u m velocity of water f o r
at l o 0 to 70 to the h o r i z o n t a l .
Kalinske
and
Robertson
rate
air
entrainment
of
(1943)
at
air
pockets
in
pipe
hydraulic
jump
was
given
the
by
the
equation
Qd/Q
where
= 0.0066(F1
Qd
is
the
- 1)le4
(5.5)
volumetric
r a t e of
air
entrainment,
Q i s the water
I
flow
rate
F1
and
is
the
upstream
r e l a t i o n s h i p was d e r i v e d f o r
free
surface
considerably
downstream.
greater
air
a jump
Froude
vl//gyl.
That
i n a r e c t a n g u l a r channel w i t h a
Experiments
entrainment
number
by
rate
the
author
i n closed
pipes
indicate
(see Fig.
5.6)
Free F a l l s
jet
falling
free
into
pool
of
water has a s i m i l a r
air
intake
105
effect
was
to
low
jump.
Avery
they
head
the
represents
found
aeration
the
this
r a t e of
higher
was
expended
air,
the base of
For an
for
efficiency
energy
in
i n t a k e at
(1978).
a e r a t i o n at
decreasing
21% oxygen
Assuming
Oxygen
a n d Novak
losses,
loss
head
term
by
50%,
ciency of
for
m
hydraulic
studied
lost
or
free f a l l s
oxygen defi-
to 1.6
up
head
only
would
initial
k g 0 /kWh
losses,
e.g.
k g 02/kWh.
in
the
indicate
The
or
jump
aeration
at
kW
fall.
rates
for
a i r u p to 8 kg/kWh.
Water
flowing
amount
inlets
with
fall
free
e.g.
morning
glory
type s p i l l w a y s ,
able
into
of
air
1976).
(Ervine,
Gravity
pipelines
are
therefore
F:
J3A/B
Fig.
5.6
A i r removal a t h y d r a u l i c jumps
in c i r c u l a r conduits.
A I R VALVES
Air
valves.
fices
air
accumulating
These
are
is
up
are
to
accumulated
in
normally
mm
in
of
in
the
i n diameter).
a
chamber
pipe
'small
may
be released b y
orifice'
type
(typical ori-
permit
ball
to
air
sufficient
be
released
the other
hand a i r discharge
d u r i n g f i l l i n g operations
(before
106
No peok
Horizontal
Section Of Pipeline having d w n w a r d grade
and point of increaseof downward grade
Datum
Scour
Horizontal
Long descending section of pipeline
FIG.
5.7
P o s i t ~ o no f
Datum
107
pressurization)
may
be
leased
pipe
and
through
from
is
air
the
seat
Fig.
low.
i n t a k e d u r i n g vacuum conditions
'large orifice'
around
10.6
a i r valves,
the
orifice
illustrates a
the b a l l of
when
double
in
pressure
air
valve
the p i p e
which
i s re-
inside
with
the
both
small and a l a r g e o r i f i c e .
The
sures
size a n d spacing of
outside
the
pipe
a i r valves w i l l
and
permissible
pressures
inside,
the
size
for
the
discharge r a t e
the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of
air
and
are
as
through
follows
orifice
(Marks,
than
gauge p l u s atmosphere a n d p,
an
involve
1951).
0 . 5 3 ~ ~( a l l
If
the
pressures
i s i n i t i a l p r e s s u r e ) , then
(5.6)
For p 2 ' 0 . 5 3 ~ ~ then
the flow
becomes c r i t i c a l
a n d flow
r a t e i s inde-
(5.7)
where W
a
is
the o r i f i c e area,
rn
is
the
mass
C i s a discharge coefficient,
density
of
air
and
letting
air
into
is
the
a d i a b a t i c constant.
Normally
or
out
of
whether
it,
p2
for a i r a n d C = 0.5
Qa = 0.34 a
where
second
a
the
is
air
less
valve
than
is for
0 . 5 3 ~ ~ Then
.
substituting
the
is
if
SI
pipe
1.405
i t s i m p l i f i e s to
/-
Qa
(5.8)
tne
volumetric
units are
i s the area of
of
water a n d S
a
Since a i r density
r a t e of
employed)
the o r i f i c e ,
is
the
air
measured
at
( i n c u b i c metres p e r
the
initial
pressure,
relative
i s proportional
flow of
density
to
of
air
at
initial
pressure.
t h i s simp i f i e s
f u r t h e r to
( 5 9)
Qa = lOOa
where
Qa
is
the
air
volume
flow
absolute) in m 3 / s a n d a i s in m'.
r a t e at
initial
pressure
(+
O m
Thus
t o r e l e a s e 1% a i r f r o m a p i p e f l o w i n g a t a v e l o c i t y of 1 m/s,
a n d under
low
t h e n (5.8)
r e d u c e s to
~ . _ _ _
1 m/s x A = 0 . 3 4 a J 9 . 8
0.01
i.e.
d = 0.006D
thus
10/1.15
lo-
(5.10)
1% o f
be about
the
p i p e diameter
to
r e l e a s e 1% a i r b y v o l u m e i n t h e p i p e .
The
theory
of
(1950)
to
cavity
formed b y
derive
metres
of
is
the
velocity
h2
the
orifice
flow
water
for
the
is
is a
was
through
used
air
If initial
head
column
Parmakian
valves
to f i l l
a
in
the
is
beyond
orifice,
each
a i r and S
by
head (absolute)
D i s the p i p e diameter,
diameter,
a d i a b a t i c constant
f o r h2 > 0 . 5 3
hl,
is
acceleration,
the
for
an
p a r t i n g water columns.
orifice
of
through
equations
water
gravitational
flow
s i d e of
the
air
i s the r e l a t i v e
valve,
is
i s t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of a i r ,
the
then
hl,
(5.11)
a n d f o r H <C).53hl
2-
(5.12)
air
For
at
300
above
sea
level
and
air
temperatures
of
24OC
t h e n Sa
p l u s 20% h u m i d i t y
equivalent
t o hl
9.97
i s 1.15
m of
x 10-
water.
a n d atmospheric pressure i s
i s 1.405.
For a i r valves
is
a b o u t 0.5.
HEAD LOSSES I N P I P E L I N E S
Air
suspended
increase
in b u b b l e form o r
t h e s p e c i f i c volume.
in p o c k e t s i n f l o w i n g
T h e mean v e l o c i t y
water
will
i s consequently h i g h e r
109
to convey
equation
(5.13)
v to use w i l l be v = ( 1
The velocity
where v
i s the velocity
of
f)v
(5.14)
p u r e water f l o w i n g and f
i s the volumet-
of
loss
velocity
head.
If
h y d r a u l i c jump
forms,
I f the velocity
i s subcritical
difference
in
velocity
the
the head
head
a i r pocket
size of
air
i s due p r i m a r i l y to
is
such
that
throughout,
is
lost.
5.4.
It
be
established
more
WATER HAMMER
The
water
presence of
hammer
free
air
considerably.
in
pipelines
Fox
(1977)
can
reduce the s e v e r i t y of
indicates
that
the
celerity
c =
/*
(5.15)
(5.16)
diameter,
i t s thickness,
2% o f
of water,
K i s i t s b u l k modulus, D i s the
E i t s modulus of e l a s t i c i t y ,
i s the
at
pressure
head of
50 m of
water
Thus
reduces the c e l e r i t y
(5.17)
where
Av
reduction
is
in
the
Ah.
change
in
velocity
of
flow.
There
i s thus
large
110
reason
on
to see why
the other
partly full
cannot a p p l y .
Stephenson (1967)
pipe.
smal I a i r proportions
J gAh/f
c =
where
Ah
(5.18)
a n d Ah = 50m.
i s a school of
in
pipelines
pressures.
The
cessively
large
reduction
in
thought
as
intention
p r o a c h i n g columns.
head.
of
The
hammer
which f a v o u r s the i n s t a l l a t i o n of a i r
means
is
air
idea
in
of
reducing
primarily
to
wi II ,
Calculations
volume
a l l e v i a t e water
water
cushion
however,
the
hammer
over-
impact of
indicate that
ap-
an ex-
i s r e q u i r e d to produce any
significant
stems
vessels
from
pipelines.
the
I t will
use of
air
be r e a l i s e d that
air
to
in
air
smal I
relatively
trip,
volume.
Upon
pressure
reduction
following
puk = constant
where
pump
(5.19)
i s the volume of
necessary
volume
of
air.
air at
a n a l y s i s to be excessive f o r
An
unusual
low
The size of
air
v a l v e s to draw i n the
(vacuum) pressures w i l l
be found on
l a r g e diameter pipelines.
to a i r coming out of
solution
in
the
a
top
pump
of
the
trip.
line
After
supposedly
number of
collapsed on
years
the
pressure
rise
p i p e b u r s t along a
l i n e a l o n g the s o f f i t .
REFERENCES
Avery, S.T.
and Novak, P, 1978. Oxygen t r a n s f e r at h y d r a u l i c structures. Proc. ASCE, HY11, 14190, pp 1521-1540.
1957. The prevention o f vortices i n
Denny, D.F. a n d Young, G.A.J.,
intakes. Proc., 7th Con. I n t . Ass. Hydr. Res., Lisbon
E r v i n e , D.A.,
1976. The entrainment of a i r i n water. Water Power and
Dam Construction. pp 27-30.
1977. H y d r a u l i c A n a l y s i s o f Unsteady Flow i n Pipe NetFox, J . A . ,
works. Macmillan, London.
Glass, W.L.,
1980. C a v i t a t i o n of a pump p i p e l i n e . Proc. I n t . Conf.
Pressure surges. BHRA, Canterbury.
111
K a l i n s k e , A.A.
and B l i s s , P.H.,
1943. Removal o f a i r f r o m p i p e l i n e s
b y f l o w i n g w a t e r , C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , ASCE, 13, 10. p 480.
K a l i n s k e , A.A.
and R o b e r t s o n , J.M.,
1943. C l o s e d c o n d u i t f l o w , T r a n s .
ASCE. 108, 2205, pp 1453-1516.
M a r k s , L.S.,
1951. M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s H a n d b o o k , 5 t h Ed. McGraw
H i l l , N.Y. 2235 pp.
P a r m a k i a n , J.,
1950. A i r i n l e t v a l v e s f o r s t e e l p i p e l i n e s . T r a n s . ,
ASCE, 1 1 5 , 2404., pp 438-444.
P r o s s e r , M.J.,
1977. T h e H y d r a u l i c D e s i g n of Pump Sumps and
Int a k e s , BHRA, and C I R I A , L o n d o n . 48 pp.
Stephenson, 1967. P r e v e n t i o n o f v a p o u r p o c k e t s c o l l a p s e i n a p u m p i n g
l i n e . T r a n s . , S o u t h A f r i c a n I n s t . C i v i l E n g s . 9 , ( l o ) , pp 255-261.
W i s n e r , P . , Mohsen, F.M. and Kouwen, N.,
1975. Removal o f a i r f r o m
w a t e r l i n e s b y h y d r a u l i c means. Proc.,
ASCE. 101, HY2, 11142, pp
243-257.
LIST
OF SYMBOLS
orifice area
area
wal I thickness
wave celerity
d i s c h a r g e coef f i c i e n t
co -
i n i t i a l concentration
c o n c e n t r a t i o n at s a t u r a t i o n
p i p e internal diameter
cs
b u b b l e diameter
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
volumetric concentration of a i r
Froude number
g r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration
head
a d i a b a t i c constant
I i q u i d f i Im c o n s t a n t
bulk m o d u l u s
mass d e n s i t y o f a i r
m a s s r a t e o f t r a n s f e r o r s p e c i f i c momentum
pressure
water discharge r a t e
ratio
112
time
a i r pocket volume
r e l a t i v e density o r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y
water v e l o c i t y
r i s e velocity
o f bubbles
mass r a t e of flow of a i r
depth of flow
Darcy f r i c t i o n factor
p i p e slope a n g l e
k i n e m a t i c viscosity
113
CHAPTER 6
EXTERNAL LOADS
Low
large
as
pressure
diameter
well
tion
as
with
pipes,
especially
pumping
internal
vacuum
mains
loads.
sewers,
should
or
even
be designed f o r e x t e r n a l
loads
The v e r t i c a l
pressure
inside
the
gravity
soil
mains
load a c t i n g
p i p e could
in combina-
cause
the
pipe
to
S O I L LOADS
The
load
transmitted
to
pipe
from
the
external
surroundings
of
pipe:
The
more r i g i d
causing a
l a r g e p a r t of
take.
pipe
is
relative
The s i d e f i l l
the b a c k f i l l
to
tends to settle,
the trench
thus
T h i s occurs
as a p i p e i s supported l a t e r a l l y
trench o r f i l l :
of
lation
conditions
w i t h the w i d t h
for
Fig.
pipes.
a n d depth of
loads
to
pipe,
6.1
The
i l l u s t r a t e s v a r i o u s possible i n s t a l load
transmitted
to
the p i p e v a r i e s
Embankment f i l l s may
depending
on
the
relative
also t r a n s m i t
settlement
of
s i d e f i l l and topfi I I .
Young
sive
and
equations
various
trench
Trott
and
and
(1984), a n d C l a r k e
charts
for
evaluating
soil
embankment
conditions.
Although
assumptions a r e subject
yet
no other
to question,
loads
on
many
exten-
pipes
of
in
their
(ref.
Spangler,
1956).
Trench Conditions
The s o i l
load transmitted
t h e w i d t h a n d depth of
For
normal
to a
r i g i d pipe
in a
trench depends on
vertical-sided
trench
(Fig.
6.la),
fill
at
the sides of
114
the p i p e w i l l
be neglected.
On
the sides of
trench
fill
developed
and
is
the
sides
of
the
pressure
the
trench
load.
trench
is
to
the
the trench,
the
to
Equating
to
vertical
the
proportional
a n d the sides of
horizontal
h a n d the f r i c t i o n of
takes some of
therefore
between the f i l l
active
the other
the trench
the pipe,
vertical
u p w a r d forces
on
any
the b a c k f i l l a g a i n s t
The cohesion between
neglected.
The
friction
of
friction
coefficient
a n d the r a t i o K of
pressure
horizontal
in
the
slice
the
soil.
in
the
load on a
p i p e at depth H ( 1 9 1 3 ) :
Upward
load
per
unit
length
Pipe a t
of
s u r f ace :
W + dW = W
yBdh
2K t a d
Wdh/B
Solution g i v e s
W = CdyBZ
-2K(tane )H/B
where t h e load coefficient C
2Ktan6
r a t i o of
l a t e r a l s o i l pressure to v e r t i c a l
1 - s i n 9 f o r a c t i v e s o i l conditions
1 + sin 0
a n g l e of
load.
a n d cohesionless soil
i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n of b a c k f i l l
h e i g h t of f i l l above p i p e
trench w i d t h
u n i t w e i g h t of b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l
Ktane
l o ) , Cd
Note
that
For
approximately
i s given
f o r deep
approaches a
the s i d e f r i c t i o n
trench.
Cd
soft c l a y s to 0.16
i n Fig.
trenches,
(H/B
6.2
for
greater
v a r i o u s values for
than
shallow
equal to H/B,
takes more of
or
wide
the
most of
approximately
trenches
(H/B < l ) ,
Cd
is
so
W = yHB
i.e.
i n the trench
very
for
(6.2)
the b a c k f i l l
115
ALTERNATIVE
/-FORM
SIDE
b : WIDE TRENCH
SHALLOW EMBANKMENT
o S R R O W TRENCH
dSHALLOW EMBANKMELT
PLSlTlVE PROJECTION
c :
DEEP
EMBANKMENT
PROJECTION
POSITIVE
-__
TA2r
- - - - - -- - - - --- --
g SHALLOW E M B A N K M E N T
N E GAT1VE PROJECT1 ON
h:
DEEP EMBANKMENT
N E GAT IVE P R O JE CT ION
1 TUNNEL OR H E A D I N G
OR THRUST BORE
Fig.
6.1
A l t e r n a t i v e backf i I I s
W I D E TRENCH
D E E P EMBANKMENT
_-
f : EMBANKMENT
NEUTRAL PROJECTION
----
__-_.__
---/
EMBANKMENT
INDUCED _
T R-E N C H
116
tion
indicates
the
trench
that
width
the
increases.
the equation
width
load on a r i g i d p i p e increases i n d e f i n i t e l y as
no
next section)
then
apply
evaluate
the
load
trying
and
embankment
the
This
i s not
some trench
6.lb
the
criterion
and 6 . 1 ~ ) . I t i s necessary to
trench
(using
(see
criterion
6 . 3 ) , and
Fig.
6.2)
(using Fig.
select
to
that
the
case
the crown of
of
'V'
trench,
of
the
trench.
If
the
flexible
width
to
I n t h i s case @ instead of 0
the pipe.
Cd
relatively
the trench
plane
is
side-fill
then
the
is
load
use
i s that
i n the formula f o r
on
compacted
pipe
the
at
and
the sides
the
depends
on
pipe
the
is
pipe
(6.3)
C d = H/B
and i n t h i s case
YHD
Embankment Conditions
is
pipe
said
to
be
projects
projection
positive
natural
under
above
(Figs.
6.ld)
projection
if
ground
the p i p e crown
projection
or
embankment
the
level,
and
pipe
and
the
conditions.
ground
6.le).
the
i s below
trench
original
It
is
is
rigid
embankment
(Figs.
6.lg
the
it
referred
and
the n a t u r a l ground
condition
If
level
is
to
lies
crown
the
positive
as
complete
completely
relatively
level
of
is
above
shallow.
If
and 6 . l h ) .
For very
deep
condition
( r e f e r r e d to
If
crown
level
the
projection
For
tends
to
drag
with
the n a t u r a l
complete
positive
projection
s e t t l e more than
downwards
on
level
it
i s a neutral
(Fig. 6.lf).
the
to
is
here
CcyD2
the
directly
fill
case the f i l l
directly
above
beside the p i p e
The s i d e f i l l
the p i p e and
tends
increase
117
where the load coefficient
e
cc =
2K tan@.H / D
-1
2Ktan@
LOAD COEFICIENT C,
F i g . 6.2
The l i n e
l a b e l l e d complete p r o j e c t i o n condition
v a l u e of
condition
for
Ktan@
= 0.19,
in F i g .
only
of
g i v e s the
a c e r t a i n h e i g h t of f i l l
the p i p e w i l l s e t t l e at a d i f f e r e n t r a t e to the s i d e f i l l .
depends on the product
He,
settlement r a t i o s where
6.3
the
pipe
projection
above
This height,
ratio
and
the
118
s
The settlement
ground
of
adjacent
fill
includes
p i p e crown
includes settlement of
the settlement of
the s i d e f i l l .
the bottom of
the o r i g i n a l
the
soil
to
i s 0.7
value
well
s n o r m a l l y v a r i e s from 0.3
1.0
for
compacted.
resulting
rock
b u t 0.5
The
product
soil
foundation.
common
is
su
for
used i n F i g .
6.3
to e v a l u a t e the
v a r i o u s embankment conditions.
I t i s not
necessary to e v a l u a t e H
for
unyielding
soft y i e l d i n g founda-
load coefficient
The equation
or
for
for
deep embankments a n d
incomplete p o s i t i v e
projection conditions
ment
condition,
it
(i.e.
minimum
but
was e v a l u a t e d by Spangler f o r
adverse
friction)
condition,
and
Ktan4
these
0.19
values
are
g i v e n i n F i g . 6.3.
Fig.
the
6.3
pipe
also
settles
Spangler
gives
more
evaluated
friction)
for
label led
complete
this
values
than
for
case,
and
the
of
Ktanb
and
for
adjacent
=
0.13
the
case
backfill
(i.e.
when
(i.e.
minimum
the
values
are
incomplete
trench
conditions
the
top
negative
indicated
of
5).
favourable
in
since
6.3,
Fig.
the
mech-
the
6.19
=
where
negative
and 6 . l h )
projection
Cn
trench)
condition
(see
(6.6)
i s the same as C
i n Fig.
6.3 f o r
negative su b u t
with
a n d the settlement
incomplete
CnYB2
replaced b y 6 i n a l l expressions.
u
(or
ratio i s
119
1
Load coefficient C
F i g . 6.3
(Spangler,
f o r embankment conditions
1956).
the f i l l
of
It
certain
replacing
negative
it
by
projection
r a n g e from -0.5
The
The
f o r u = 0.5,
load
amount
of
lightly
to - 1.0 f o r u = 2.0.
f o r u = 0.5
per
unit
compacted
compacted
condition
an embankment whether
W
deflection o f the p i p e
removing
and
(Fig.
to -2.0
l e n g t h on
fill
fill
6.li).
d i r e c t l y above the p i p e
directly,
For
this
i.e.
inducing a
condition
may
f o r u = 2.0.
a completely f l e x i b l e p i p e under
YHD
load on a
is
(6.7)
r i g i d pipe i n a
p r o j e c t i o n c o n d i t i o n ) i s a l s o yHD.
trench up to
i t s crown
level
(neutral
120
C l a r k e suggests
lar
to
for
that
on a
that
pipe
the
l o a d on
in a
trench,
w th
t h e cohesion of t h e m a t e r i a l above.
this
conclusion
are
not
or
tunnel
a
reduction
factor
allowing
The a s s u m p t i o n s i n a r r i v i n g a t
and
convincing
further
theory
would
be
extent
be
we1 come.
Clarke
also
suggests
that
t r e a t e d a s embankments a n d
preferable
take
to
place
using
between
uniform
surcharges
the equivalen t
pure elastic
theory,
soil
different
fills
at
depth
as
of
large
determined.
some
load
densities
This
transfer
and
soil
is
must
masses
soil
is
conditions
the
density
the
are
water
which
saturated
normally
pressure
would
(but
not
less
would
in
result
the
submerged)
severe
than
produce
for
the
uniform
l i k e l y to c r a c k a p i p e t h a n a p u r e v e r t i c a l
maximum
density.
load
The
saturated
radial
on
submerged
case,
pressure
as
less
load.
Example - N e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n case
The
top
ground
of
pipe
level
trench.
and
in
2 m wide
there
is
trench
high
is
m below
embankment
natural
above
the
Projection r a t i o u =
1
2
- =
0.5
Settlement r a t i o s = -0.4 s a y .
H/B = 8 / 2 = 4 .
From F i g .
6.3,
load coefficient
= 3.1
L o a d p e r m o f p i p e = CnyB2 = 3.1
It
is
customary
transmitted
infinite,
the
surface
homogeneous,
The f a c t
in
by
to
that
theory
transmitted
use
elastic
loads
to a
isotropic,
theory
to
evaluate
material
the
pressures
to assume a semi-
surrounds
the p i p e .
t h e s i d e f i l l may s e t t l e d i f f e r e n t l y to t h e p i p e i s i g n o r e d
and suitable factors
load
if
the p i p e
s h o u l d be a p p l i e d
is flexible.
to
decrease
the
U n f o r t u n a t e l y no such f a c t o r s
a r e a v a i l a b l e yet.
If
the
t h e l o a d a p p l i e d o n t h e s u r f a c e i s of l i m i t e d l a t e r a l e x t e n t then
induced
pressure
on
any
horizontal
plane
below
the
surface
121
decreases w i t h depth.
consequently
the
The deeper
the p i p e ,
On the other
h a n d the
load,
for
or
evdluating
the
sections
The
impact factor
below
2.0
the
safe
varies
but
adopt
depth
the type of
from
full
due
to
surface
are given
in
1.3
load a n d depth of p i p e
for
slow
moving vehicles
i f the p i p e i s shallow.
greater
the amount of
the
loads
i n f i n i t e extent,
impact f a c t o r should a l s o be a p p l i e d .
with
moving vehicles
cover
loads,
to
vary
and
transmitted
limited or
suitable
will
surface,
reduces f o r
point
below.
f o r fast
the
a pressure of
than
of
the p i p e diameter
reduction
value
the
and
i s debatable and
impact
to
factor
isolated
i t may be
until
conclusive
T r a f f i c Loads
The
following
loads
I n fields
(2)
Under
are
useful
for
design
purposes
(see a l s o
1969).
: two wheel
light
roads
two
main
roads
and
wheel
apart.
(3)
Under
eight
wheel
of four
heavy
traffic
153 type HB
(BS
load)
l a t e r a l l y , measured from i n n e r
a x l e to inner axle.
(4)
Airport
runways:
four
210
k N wheel
loads
spaced
at
1.67m x
0.66 m.
Pipelines
would n o r m a l l y be designed f o r f i e l d
ened under h e a v i e r t r a f f i c .
design
loads e x t r a t o p f i l l
I f construction
Stress Caused by
Boussinesque's
below p o i n t
as
l o a d i n g a n d strength-
loads a r e l i k e l y to exceed
Point Loads
e l a s t i c theory
g i v e s the v e r t i c a l
load a n d a distance X
stress a t
depth H
122
3P H 3
27r(HZ + X ' )
The stress at
the
stresses
occur
any
due
(6.8)
5/2
point
to
due to two o r
the
individual
d i r e c t l y under e i t h e r
load o r
loads.
The
and
the
large
pipe
Concrete
for
pipe
diameter,
diameter
Pipe
and
(l),
loads
average
value
a p p r e c i a b l y across
should
Association
surface wheel
stress w i I I v a r y
the
some
be
taken.
load i n kg/m
The
of
pipe
and
Line Loads
The v e r t i c a l
stress at
q per u n i t l e n g t h is,
depth H
any
below
l i n e load of i n t e n s i t y
b y e l a s t i c theory,
2q~3
n ( X Z + H 2) 2
stress
surface
could
intensity
load.
any
depth
beneath
be e v a l u a t e d b y assuming
p r i s e a number of
ma1
at
point
loads,
distributed
the
load to com-
i n f i n i tesi-
loads
to
give
the
vertical
under
loaded
under
surface
with
one
rectangle
table.
the
particular
rectangle.
loaded
and
area
load
and
the
the
corner
influence
of
coefficients
stress at
loaded area
the p o i n t
any
point
into rectangles
i n question.
Calculate
a n d Y a r e the l e n g t h and b r e a d t h of
corresponding
due
intensity
the p o i n t
assume
the
stress
rectangle,
If
above
where L
read
the
Newmark's
d i v i d e the
directly
a n d Y/H
Evaluate
multiplying
loaded area,
corner
the r a t i o s L / H
area.
stress
uniformly
each
rectangular
the
are given
the
loaded area on
by
to
the
summate
influence
each
the
factor
rectangle
influence
stress
of
coefficient
due
to
from
the
load
by
for
the
each
such
area
extends
to above
the p o i n t and
123
TADLE 6.1
o 0222
00435
Similar
loaded
influence
circles
into
rectangles
also
influence
and
coefficients
strips,
or
small
charts
but
point
a r e available for
normally
loads
available for
any
without
can
be
much e r r o r .
evaluation
shape
the
intensity
dispersion.
of
the
surface
There
are
1969).
resolved
load
since
there
l a r g e extent
is
no
lateral
Y.
Effect of R i g i d Pavements
A
load
rigid
surface
load.
thickness h,
where
pavement
laterally
and
The
stress
at
reducing
the
depth
stress
below
distributing
intensity
rigid
due
the
to
pavement
a
of
is
C_P/R2
(6.10)
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
pavement thickness
= r a d i u s of
f o r concrete)
stiffness
or
4 000 000 p s i
124
U
modulus
of
0.028N/mm3
subgrade
for
reaction,
poor support
is
normally
function
of
H/R
s i n g l e point
concrete
and
three
X/R
times
and
the
slab
normally
Pressure
has
the
effect
of
coefficients
for
point
1970)
Pipe Assn.,
Pressure on p i p e = CrP/R2
Depth of Top of Pipe Below Pavement
Point Load
Radius o f Stiffness
20
24
020
054
032
03 1
03?
032
062
051
047
010
022
l!d2
026
o:?
24
043
036
llib
021
28
037
03 I
073
019
32
36
012
025
40
41
02%
013
0XJ
018
O? I
019
018
OIR
027
015
014
48
52
56
018
015
014
Olh
014
012
01 I
60
012
Ol!
013
012
cil?
on9
63
011
010
ni;
00s
008
009
nux
uni
12
75
009
ons
007
037
OOR
'I-;
00-
[I!)&
gn
007
007
OOh
00'
08
1 2
l!3
101
ObX
061
12
089
076
16
?0
03
08
68
020
~.
Cr
is
i n Table 6.2
for
thickness.
i s tabulated
__
(1
slab
00
___
A typical
N/mm3
about
five
times
its
i n a t t e n u a t i n g a p o i n t load.
(Amer. Con.
H
R
from
thickness of s o i l f i l l
TABLE 6.2
about
varies
to 0.14 N/mm'.
i s 0.084
v a i u e f o r good support
which
(Ifil
01:
-~~
U? i
02:
017
016
015
010
or19
28
load
on
pavement
125
REFERENCES
L I S T O F SYMBOLS
trench w i d t h
load coefficient,
embankment
condj tion,
positive projection
case
load coefficient,
trench condition
load coefficient,
embankment condition,
negative projection
case
load coefficient,
r i g i d pavemerot
d i ameter
effective modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of s o i l
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
pavement thickness or v a r i a b l e depth
depth of
cover
inert ia
l a t e r a l to v e r t i c a l s o i l pressure
l e n g t h of
loaded area
bending moment
bending
and
or
refer
deflection
to
top,
coefficient
bottom
and
(subscripts
side
t,
b,
moments a n d
s,
hori-
126
pressure
p o i n t load
l i n e load per u n i t length
radius
r a d i u s of stiffness
settlement r a t i o
wal I thickness
project ion r a t i o
v e r t i c a l pressure
W
l a t e r a l soil pressure
permissible r i n g load
vertical
horizon t a I distance
w i d t h of
load area
a n g l e of bottom support
def I ect ion
u n i t weight of soil
a n g l e of
trench
friction
between
backfill
a n g l e of f r i c t i o n of b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l
Poisson's r a t i o
and
sides
of
127
CHAPTER 7
CONCRETE PIPES
BEDDING
THE EFFECT OF
Non-pressure
external
the
design
pipes
are
external
load
per
drain
for
main
self
at
are
the
crown,
weight
and
by
the
live
weight
of
pipe
to
bed.
The
load
loaded
thus
is
called
strength
practical
factors
determination
of
withstand
rigid
laboratory
of
water
the
and
vertical
concrete
per
the
very
is
and
to
the
vertical
haunches
and
the
the
haunches.
The
and
horizontal
soil
pressure a n d
pipes).
supported
on
length r e q u i r e d to f r a c t u r e
the
strength.
load
reliable.
and
while
Although
theoretically,
theoretical
more
uncertain
load
laboratory
calculated
the
load
line
unit
the
be
specify
vertical
influence
of
is
could
due
( i n t e r n a l water
designed
flat
bottom
loads,
withstand
classes
stresses
at
to
standards
different
compressive stress
caused
designed
Various
The
the
run
are
pipe
are
unit
pipes
pressures.
of
stresses
transient
or
internal
reinforced accordingly.
stresses
loads,
not
loads
bending
main
sewer
loads,
and
(The
effect
the
of
number
the
of
experimental
tensile
lateral
strength
constraint
ed
in
that
Fig.
standard
7.1.
The
load which
inforced
pipes,
will
concrete
or
testing
is
defined
produce a c r a c k
pipes
90% of
arrangements f o r
strength
the
60% of
or
1/10000
inch
(0.25
mm) f o r unre-
ultimate
load
for
1/100
the
(0.025
inch
i I lustrat-
pipes a r e
B r i t i s h Standard 556 as
in
mm)
wide
reinforced
crack
load
for
excess
of
b e a r i n g test
that
was
for
the
bearing
2-edge
standardized
and
test
bearing
is
test.
usually
Recently
5
the
to
10%
3-edge
t o r y strength.
Pipes
wide
higher
laid
length
than
in
of
the
trenches
arc
by
are
the
laboratory
usually
bedding.
strength
supported
The
as
over
strength
the
bending
is
relatively
consequently
moments
are
128
less.
F i g . 8.2
summarizes
the
theoretical
b e n d i n g moment c o e f f i c i e n t s
8 . 4 ) (CPA, 1962).
0 mm
15&brmm
rubber
2 -EDGE
3-EDGE
3-EDGE
FOR ANY OIA UP TO l8OOrnrn
Fig.
7.1
The
the
S t a n d a r d c r u s h i n g test b e a r i n g s f o r r i g i d p i p e s
ratio
bedding
of
field
factor.
strength
Various
to
laboratory
types
of
bedding
b e d d i n g f a c t o r s a r e l i s t e d b e l o w (CPA,
TABLE 7.1
strength
and
1967; ACPA,
is
defined
the corresponding
1970):-
Bedding factors
120" R.C. c o n c r e t e c r a d l e o r a r c h
3.4
Class A
120 p l a i n c o n c r e t e c r a d l e o r a r c h
2.6
Class B
Granu Ia r bedding
1.9
Class A
Class C
H a n d s h a p e d t r e n c h bottom
1.5
Class D
H a n d trimmed f l a t bottom t r e n c h
1.1
For
as
rigid
concrete
pipes
the
lateral
support
of
the
sidefill
in
the t r e n c h does n o t a d d n o t i c e a b l y to t h e s t r e n g t h .
factor
of
safety
K of
1.25
to
1.5
i s normally
When p i p e i s p r e s s u r i z e d ,
used w i t h u n r e i n -
i t s h o u l d be designed
so t h a t : -
external load
f i e l d strength
Unreinforced
+
or
internal pressure
bursting pressure
reinforced
(not
<
(7.1
prestressed)
concrete
pipes
are
129
normally
only
drains.
for
non-pressure
The
concrete
may
to
internal
pressures,
subjected
certain
used
tensile
strength,
be
pipes
stressed
in
and
such
as
tension
even
if
though
c r a c k s may develop a n d
sewers
the
and
pipe
concrete
leaks a r e
was
has
likely
if
pipes
normally
precautions
may
do
be
not
necessary
require
for
lining
certain
or
wrapping.
liquids,
for
in-
the aggregate a t
m a i n t a i n i n g an even surface.
cement,
pipes,
especially
when c e n t r i f u g a l l y
w i t h those of l i n e d steel pipes.
cast,
can
compare
favourably
Prestressed
pressure
for
long
ses
than
that
for
pipes
when
becoming
a popular
over
competes
medium for
800 mm
approximately
large-bore
economically
with
diameter.
It
steel
has
the
plain-walled
must
be
and d i s t o r t i o n even
pressures.
is
Prestressed concrete
pipelines
advantage
steel
concrete
pipes.
pipes.
reasonably
if
The
wall
thick
to
the
use
of
manufacturing plain-walled
p l a i n walled
buckling,
collapse
i s not r e q u i r e d to r e s i s t i n t e r n a l
the thickness
Consequently
thickness o f
prevent
high-tensi le
steel
pipes,
steels
is
restricted
onto
forming
concrete
core.
pipes
The
helical
the b a r r e l of
each
i n a mould o r c e n t r i f u g a l l y
then
steam
cured
to
mortar.
steel
cylinder
load
under
concentrated
forcing.
Plain
stressed
longitudinally
winding
by
is
winding
subsequently
rapid
strength
improves
the
wire,
are
as well
pretensioned
increase
and
often
acts
as
lined with
longitudinal
The
is
winding.
distributes
reinforced with
as c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y .
vertically
The concrete
before
a steel c y l i n d e r
watertightness,
The
coated.
be formed w i t h
concrete cores
reinforcing resists
formed
i n a h o r i z o n t a l position.
ensure
Alternatively
The
are
bars or
the
reinpre-
longitudinal
130
bending
stress
longitudinal
i n the core w a l l s d u r i n g c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l
wires
are
pretensioned
and
released once
winding.
The
the
has
core
set.
Fig.
7.2
Prestressed concrete p i p e
The prestressing
close
wire
to y i e l d p o i n t .
It
i s wound
loses a
proportion
i s put
of
i t s stress
due to creep
A concrete c o a t i n g
into service.
tensile
of
manufacture
inherent
do
on
some
seepage
cause
the
pipe
of
Further
in
tees)
may
the
or
the
after
through
neglected
in
accounting
for
design
of
soon
seal
h y d r o s t a t i c test
core
but
may
due
is
to
before c o a t i n g
be
immediately
permitted
the
usually
at
and
this
before dispatch of
spalling
cracks
A
winding
the
insertions.
stressing
is
concrete.
immediately
water
The pipes a r e u s u a l l y
needed
core
cracking,
rubber
the
h e a l i n g p r o p e r t i e s of
done
stage.
of
strength
f i e l d pressures b u t
of
the
integral
socket
be f a b r i c a t e d from steel
be of
steel
o r concrete b u t care i s
concrete
will
sockets
occur.
o r cast
iron,
to
Specials
ensure
(bends
no
and
matching
spigots
up
over
and
number
sockets.
Small
angle
joints
which
may
take
the prestressing
wires
of
bends
are
up
n o r m a l l y made
2"
to
deflection,
C i rcurnferent i a l
The
Prestressing
tensile
stress
wound
i s less than
wire
is
instant
of
the
the core
immediately a f t e r
This
section
onto
in
prestressing
i s under
core
at
relaxation
of
any
section,
stress whereas
the
point
the
steel
of
the
the other
winding
stress a f t e r
the a p p l i e d tensile
is
pipe
side
half
winding
to
its
final
wi II
stress.
force.
one
i s free.
side
the
At the
of
the
The s t r a i n
strain.
in
The
therefore correspond
Afs
i f
n
co 1
i s the r a t i o of
where n,
the concrete a t
the
where f
so
i f
fco
elasticity
of
i s t h e core stress a f t e r
steel
to that of
w i n d i n g and f
hence
n
co 1
i s the
51
winding.
f
. -
SI
the modulus o f
time,
initial
steel
stress and f
Since f o r e q u i l i b r i u m of forces
s =
t
co c
(7.2)
and
fSo
where S
(7.3)
fcotc'S
Circumferential
After
static
may
test
to
undergo
amount of
Prestress a f t e r
winding
the core,
detect
has
cracks.
usually
concrete creep
Losses
the p i p e
Any
taken
is usually
creep
place
has occurred.
which
by
this
subjected to a hydrothe
prestressing
time,
and
steel
certain
CI
fco
(7.4)
132
where
is
the
fsi
The
stress
for
(7.5)
any
particular
test
loading
may
be
calculated
using
7.9
thickness
tb equal
as q u i c k l y
and
between
fCitC/S
Equs.
coefficient
as possible a f t e r
of
creep
to zero.
the
testing.
concrete core
transfer
as
much compression
to
the
c o a t i n g as possible.
The c o a t i n g adds to
area
a n d reduces stresses
to
the
pipe
has
been
three months a f t e r
cured and
i s r e a d y for
service
(usually
m a n u f a c t u r i n g ) the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l tension
is
(7.6)
t + f t
c2 c
b2 b
Equating
the
creep
and s h r i n k -
-fc2-f
+ - c1
Ec2
Ec2
( E l a s t i c ) (Creep )
f .+f
CI
c2
+ v
c2
sl -fs2
(7.7)
ES
( E l ast ic-steel )
(Shrinkage)
b2
- f
b2
52
ES
if
the e l a s t i c modulus E
c2
Eb2
c2
= vb2 = v
sl - f52
say.
133
2+ w
v E c 2 ( t c + t 6 K b ) + tcfcl w c
fsl - fS2 =
(7.9)
S ( l + wc ) + (tc+tb2+wc)/n
__
2
2
2+Wb
(7.10)
(7.11)
Circumferential
There
are
number
of
field
loading
conditions
which
should
be
examined i n c l u d i n g :-
In open
(1)
trench
internal
with
test
operating
or
pressure p l u s
(2)
I n b a c k f i l l e d trench
with
i n t e r n a l pressure p l u s l i v e load p l u s
(3)
I n backfilled
trench
with
live
load p l u s self
weight
and pipe
empty.
(4)
In
backfilled
trench
with
internal
pressure,
self
weight,
crown
(due to
most
highly
prestressing
sures),
cal
at
plus
sections
bending
the haunches
load p l u s
sing
stressed
plus
plus
usually
external
at
loads
the
plus
internal
pres-
( d u e to prestressing p l u s bending p l u s v e r t i -
i n t e r n a l pressure)
bending
are
under
vertical
a n d a t the support
plus
horizontal
( d u e to prestres-
loads
plus
internal
pressure).
Compressive
area
per
unit
and
length
of
wall
comprising
the
d i r e c t l y on
the effective
p i p e core
pl us coating
A = t
+ tb + ( n 2 - 1 ) S
Bending
weight
of
moment
of
moments
pipe
plus
inertia
due
(7.12)
weight
per
soil
to
of
unit
loads,
water
length
are
of
external
resisted
wall.
The
live
by
loads
the
effective
distance
and
of
the
134
(7.13)
where d
i s the diameter of
the prestressing
wire.
The corresponding
= t c + t b - e
(7.14)
The moment of
e3
I=____
+ ( t c + ds/2 - e I 2 ( n 2 - 1 ) S.
(7.15)
prestressed
circumferential l y .
tensile c r a c k s
the
pipes
The
are
prestressed
longitudinal
prestressing
is
i n the concrete d u r i n g w i n d i n g of
longitudinal
casting
causes
local
in
longitudinal
the
longitudinally
the
core.
When
the
assists
added
as
prevent
to
The
we1 I
as
in
is
wound
onto
reducing
the
the
core,
it
The tension
resulting
principle
for
the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l
wires,
the
longitudinal
stressed
to
their
SlL
core cross sectional area
uL,
total
is A
bars
lose some
I f the b a r s a r e i n i t i a l -
cross sectional
i s AS,
area
the p i p e
is
the stress
f c o ~-
f . A
SlL s
+ nlAS
(7.16)
core
release of
is
normal l y
the
of
prestressed circumferential l y
longitudinal bars.
(7.17)
The h e l i c a l
wire
immediately
winding,
is
derived
from
after
at the p o i n t of
elastic
theory
for
1959) and i s
135
approxima tel y
q
0.54 S f S O / v
(7.18)
i s t h e circumferential steel
so
the e x t e r n a l diameter of the core.
where
The
maximum
due to bending
local
longitudinal
stress a f t e r
tensile
and
winding,
and D
is
compressive stresses
experimental l y to be approximately
fcmL = 0.3fco
(7.19)
neglected
neutral
mum
in
Equs.
7.18
and
7.19
as
the
tensile
stress
in
the
core
wall
steel
is
near
the
anyway.
The rnaxi-
may be d e r i v e d w i t h
the assis-
tance of a Mohr d i a g r a m ( F i g . 7 . 3 ) :
I f fcmL > fcoL,
c t L =/qz
fcml
(
2
and
i f
""4
2-
then
COL
f c o L > fcmL
then f c t L =
h2
+ ( f C 0 L - FcmL
2
fcoL
cmL
SHEAR
STRESS
Fig.
7.3
( 7.20a )
(7.20b)
136
It
will
be
longitudinal
seen
from
prestress,
Equs.
which
7.20
and
i s proportional
that
to
the
larger
the
the smaller
COL
is
ctL'
Longitudinal S t r e s s e s A f t e r L o s s e s
The
longitudinal
in the f i e l d .
pipe
points
the
in
creep
and
act
to
At
this
have occurred
stress
longitudinal
neglected.
bedding.
will
compressive
bars
resist
longitudinal
bending
of
the
will
stress
stage
in
h a v e been
is
not
S h r i n k a g e of
high,
the
c e r t a i n amount of
concrete
and some
t r a n s f e r r e d to
the
concrete
shrinkage
longitudinal
the c o a t i n g .
creep
can
As
the
usually
be
t h e c o r e does r e d u c e t h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s i n t h e
b a r s and t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s i n t h e c o r e becomes:
u f
A
L siL s
fc2L
Ac
Once
added
(7.21 )
pipe
the
ESAS
n2AS
the
to
is
stress
in
service,
due
to
longitudinal
prestressing.
The
bending
extreme
stresses
fibre
are
bending
stresses a r e
MD
21
fc3L
where M
(7.22)
i s t h e b e n d i n g moment
t h e e f f e c t i v e moment o f
and
inertia of
the section i s
-64
(l D 4-
(d
+ (n2
+ 2t + d 5 ) *
1 ) AS
(7.23)
P r o p e r t i e s of Steel and C o n c r e t e
The
steel
used
for
is
i s n o t uncommon.
have
taken
is fairly
normal
to
place,
high.
This will
e n s u r e t h a t a f t e r c r e e p and
confine
working
stresses
to
less
than
50% o f
the
in
and
yield
stress.
Steels
work
with
w i t h and
high
yield
in f a c t
stresses
are often
b r i t t l e and
difficult
to
137
than
the
yield
stress.
The
to
may creep s l i g h t l y
distinguish
test,
stress
in
therefore
between concrete
so
the
necessary
in
of steel
selecting
the
i s approximately
(30 x 10
steel
works
is
T h e modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
6
psi).
prestressing w i r e .
200 000 N/mm2
Care
they
steel
are
is
a f t e r prestressing
a n d steel
usually
creep
considered
typically
around
but
it
is difficult
between w i n d i n g and
together.
5% a n d
This
occurs
loss
in
w i t h i n a few
hours a f t e r w i n d i n g .
Concrete
day
achieved.
are
the
under
of
High e a r l y strength
cube
cracks
cast
strengths
vibration or
60 N/mm2
(e.9.
will
strength
at
the
most p r o b a b l y
time
centrifugally
and
28
( 8 700 p s i ) a r e f r e q u e n t l y
50 N/mm2 o r
w i n d i n g as e a r l y as possible.
able for
of
cores
cube c r u s h i n g
7 200 p s i ) i s desir-
a r e permitted d u r i n g w i n d i n g
(any
bending
than
tensile
about
calculated
10%
bending
bending
in
the
strength
i n order
stress
of
tensile
field
in
the
strength
stress
should
be
to a l l o w f o r
i t y of cracks developing.
the core d u r i n g w i n d i n g
cube
in
the
limited
at
that
core
to
due
about
should be
age,
to
and
the
longitudinal
5% of
the
cube
p e r m i t t e d under
coating
(This
should
i s for
be
transient
less
b u r i e d pipe.
than
conditions.
about
The
10% of
the
tensile stress
cube
in
strength.
a n d the
4625
BS
operating
0 . 7 4 7 m if
0.623
does
plus
not
permit
backfill
water
tensile
pressures,
stress
but
in
permits
during
works
hydrostatic
test.
the
a
core
for
tensile
normal
stress
of
a n d a tensile stress of
(Where F
is
the
crushing
modulus of
elasticity
of
AL/L
increases
( 3 000 000 p s i )
1970; Ferguson,
w,
= w
concrete
to
w i t h the s t r e n g t h
40 000 N/mm2
1958).
fc/Ec
138
where
fc
is
the
average
creep occurs a n d E
compressive
i s the f i n a l
stress
during
Creep i s high f o r
the r a t e of
time.
creep reduces w i t h
casting
(at
the
time
three
months a f t e r casting.
Hence f o r
test
be 30% h i g h e r f o r
I t may
i s approximately 0.3
factory
that
testing
the
core)
the coating,
two days
and
is
1.3
the coefficient
1.3
i s used to c a l c u l a t e creep,
the time between f a c t o r y
of
time
w varies with
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y .
after
the
a n d f i e l d conditions
elements i n the f i e l d .
Shrinkage
ing,
typical
of
l a r g e l y on the method of c u r -
v,
v a r y i n g from
to
Example
Calculate
circumferential
after
winding,
curing
concrete
and
and
under
field
steel
stresses
conditions
during
for
the
15 mrn c/c.
8
length L = 4 m,
coating
S = 0.00131
diameter,
mm
tb
N/mmz.
Vertical
lateral
soil
loading
pressure 0.5
of
steel
m2/m of pipe.
A S = 0.00121
e f f e c t i v e l y over 30"
25 mm,
due
x
arc.
m2.
to
winding
L o n g i t u d i n a l wires 24 N o .
Maximum
soil
vertical
core thickness
5 mm diameter at
internal
and
live
0.02
N/mmz.
pressure
load 0.04
0.8
N/mrn2,
Bottom support
inside.
Steel: L o n g i t u d i n a l prestress = 400 N/mm2 .Winding prestress =
1000 N/mmz. ES = 200 000 N/mm2. Creep coefficient u = 0.95.
Concrete:
= 30 000 N / m m 2 ,
CI
from f a c t o r y test to f i e l d test.
n
= 6.7
= 5.3
= 1.0
Wb
= 1.3,
Creep w
4
:
v = 10
shrinkage
Stresses due to w i n d i n g
-
fco
1 000 x 0.0131
0.075 i 0.00131 x 6 . 7 / 2
16.5
N/mm2
(7.2)
139
16.5
so
0.075
0.00131
= 880 N/mmz
(7.3)
Works t e s t o f c o r e :
fcl
fSl
0.95 x 16.5
15.7 N/mm2
0.95 x 880
840 N/mm2
(7.4)
a f t e r curing :
-f
s2
s2
fb2
2+1 .o
1 O-4x38x1 0
' (0.075+0.025m)+O. 075x15.7xl.O
0.00131 (ld$)+(0.075+0.02*)/5.3 2+1 0
76 N/mmz
=
-
c2
764~0.00131-6.4x0.025
0.075
Under f i e l d
(7.9)
(7.10)
(7.11)
11.2 N/mm2
loading:
Transformed section A =
C e n t r o i d to
inner surface e
0.105 m'/m
(7.12)
0.12/2+(5.3-1)(0.075+0.005/2)(0.00131)
0.1+0.00131(5.3-1)
0.0515
Cent r o id t o
outer surface e
0.1
Moment o f
I = 0*05'53+0*04853 + (0.075+0.005/2-0.0515)2
inertia
(7.13)
0.0515
(7.14)
0.0485
x(5.3-1)(0.00131)
Stresses a t b a s e B : ( t e n s i o n
85.9~10-~m~/m
(7.15)
v e f o r concrete stresses)
T e n s i o n d u e to n e t i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e :
ft =
-7,4 N/mmz
2 x 0.105
B e n d i n g moment c o e f f i c i e n t s f r o m F i g .
For vertical
load,
Nb =
8.2:
0.235, and f o r h o r i z o n t a l l o a d ,
NS
0.125
Net b e n d i n g moment =
=
140
Stress on o u t e r face f
Stress on i n n e r face f
Steel s t r e s s :
b3
c3
0.075
- f
fb2
11.2-7.4-
+ -MeO
I
0.00755
85.9
+ 0.005/2-0.0515
x 0.0515=
-IN/mm2
= 0.026
= 764
+ 5.3
(7.4
0.00755
x 0.026)
791
N/mm2
85.9 x
Although
stresses
the stresses a t
at
similarly,
other
points
t h e b a s e a r e u s u a l l y t h e most s e v e r e ,
on
the
circumference
should
the
be checked
and c h e c k s s h o u l d b e d o n e b o t h w i t h and w i t h o u t t r a n s -
ient winding,
t e s t i n g and i n t h e f i e l d .
REFERENCES
C o n c r e t e P i p e A s s n . , 1970. D e s i g n M a n u a l - C o n c r e t e P i p e , A r l i n g ton.
BSCP 2007 P a r t 2, 1970. R e i n f o r c e d and P r e s t r e s s e d C o n c r e t e S t r u c t u r e s , BSI, L o n d o n .
C o n c r e t e P i p e Assn.,
1962. L o a d s o n B u r i e d C o n c r e t e P i p e s , Tech.
B u l l e t i n No.2, T o n b r i d g e .
C o n c r e t e P i p e Assn.,
1967. B e d d i n g and J o i n t i n g o f F l e x i b l y J o i n t e d
C o n c r e t e P i p e s , Tech. B u l l e t i n No. 1 , T o n b r i d g e .
F e r g u s o n , P.M.,
1958. R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e f u n d a m e n t a l s , Wiley,N.Y.
1950. D e s i g n of p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e c y l i n d e r p i p e , J.
K e n n i s o n , H.F.,
Am. W a t e r W o r k s Assn., 42.
T i m o s h e n k o , S.P.
and W o i n o w s k y - K r i e g e r , S.,
1959. T h e o r y o f P l a t e s
and S h e l l s , 2 n d Edn., McGraw H i l l , N.Y.
Am.
L I S T O F SYMBOLS
inside diameter
outside diameter
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
stress
c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h o f 150 mrn c u b e s a t 28 d a y s
(compressive o r tensile)
141
I
moment of
inertia
factor o f safety
length
bending moment
e l a s t i c modular r a t i o E
shear stress
thickness
s h r i n k a g e coefficient
creep coefficient
Subscripts
b
coating
core
steel
bending
shear
tensile
longitudinal
initial
after winding
at time of f a c t o r y test
a t time of
under f i e l d pressure
laying
/E c
142
CHAPTER 8
The
highest
pressure
to
internal
fluid
due
pipe
there
and
weight
are
effects.
pressure.
general
has
The
bending
no
The
pipe
to
resist
pressure
stresses
are
is
uniform
except
equations
for
normally
for
the
those
around
the
and
self
water
stresses
resulting
Circumferential
wal I stress
p.d.'
I
Fw
where p
is
Fr
i s pressure,
internal
diameter
f o r p l a i n stress,
For
i.e.
doL
podo'
i s diameter at
and
)
(8.1 )
d.'
d i z do2 ( P,-P
do2 - d.'
d i 2 doZ( P-,P
do2 - diL
p.d.'
I
1
Radial stress
podo'
(8.2)
doZ - d i z
i s external
diameter.
d.
The e q u a t i o n s a r e
longitudinally.
s t r e s s i s a m a x i m u m on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e a n d i s
di2
F max
In
with
practice
the
resist
where
di
+ do2 P
+ do
2t
the
diameter,
wall
thickness
a n d the w a l l
is
normally
small
in
comparison
t is t h e w a l l t h i c k n e s s
p
i s the i n t e r n a l pressure
d i s the e x t e r n a l diameter
f
i s t h e y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e steel
J i s the j o i n t factor.
E q u . 8.4
of t/d.
overpredicts
On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
the
true
stress
by
some
just u s i n g d instead of
3 r e d i c t s t r e s s b y 1% f o r e v e r y
1% t / d .
1%
(d-t)
for
every
1%
would under-
143
The
design
factor
depend on
will
have
been
many
the
burst.
over-pressure,
are
the accuracy
assessed,
quences of
allows
safety
with
which
working
margin.
What
factor
to use
loads a n d t r a n s i e n t pressure
pressure,
economics and
the conse-
unknown
o r even 0.7
of 0.6
a factor
loads,
use of
i s reasonable,
a factor
of
the order
b u t i f there
to 0.5
of 0.3
would be wiser.
The j o i n t
varies
J allows
factor
0.85
from
for
for
furnace
imperfections
butt-welded
i n welded seams,
joints
1.0
to
and
for
seamless
resist
internal
pipes.
Smal I-bore,
pressures
the
only,
the
wal Is,
high
fluid
internal
but
more
the
pressure
pipe
pipes
larger
important
the
in
pressure
the
designed
diameter
also
be
be
the
loads.
possible,
considered
to
and
become the e x t e r n a l
may
should
are
acting
thinner
the
Vaporization
in
which
case
in
conjunction
of
this
with
e x t e r n a l loads.
If
the p i p e
magnitude
i s restrained
is
VF
induced
which
strengthened
to
form
some
is
longitudinal
Poisson's
and
tension of
is
the
have
I NTERNAL PRESSURES
to
resist
very
high
internal
b y b i n d i n g w i t h hoops a n d s p i r a l s .
pipes
ratio
wal I tension.
circumferential
Pipes
longitudinally,
where
in
the
thick
h i g h pressures.
It
may be
i s often d i f f i c u l t
p l a t e s which would be r e q u i r e d to r e s i s t
the
On
pressures
other
hand
it
a n d w i n d i t w i t h s t r a p s o r rods.
The r i n g s r e q u i r e d to r e s i s t
same
function
against
in
tension
resist
the
as
external
stiffening
loads.
and
external
the
does
load,
not
I n fact
the
need
which
to
should
through
rings
The w i n d i n g
l o n g i t u d i n a l section
possible.
internal
required
to r e s i s t
be
as
to
resist
internal
prominent
as
col lapse
pressures acts
the
rings
to
i n e r t i a of
the p i p e a n d therefore be as h i g h as
tension r i n g s , as they w i l l be c a l l e d ,
should be
144
a n d b r o a d as possible to keep the distance between them to a
as f l a t
minimum.
There
will
be
high
circumferential
stresses
are f a r apart.
I n comparison,
are
usually
also
be
spaced
used
to
in
the
number
strengthen
longitudinal
pipe
wall
bending
between
stresses
rings
if
and
the r i n g s
s t i f f e n i n g r i n g s to r e s i s t e x t e r n a l loads
of
old
diameters a p a r t .
pipes
which
are
Tension r i n g s may
to
be
subjected
to
the
stress-strain
r e l a t i o n s h i p and
the d i f f e r e n t i a l
equations
of
Timoshenko
(1959) d e r i v e d a n equation f o r
subjected
cylinder
to
a radial
the
radial
displacement of
pressure a n d w i t h tension r i n g s at
equi-spaci n g
Put
b4
12(1-v2)
dZt'
(8.5)
and
bs
(8.6)
where v
t
i s the w a l l
Let
x1
r i n g spacing.
cosh a
sinh a
cos a
sin a
(8.7)
sinh a
sinh a
sin a
sin a
(8.8)
cosh a
sinh a
x2
x3
+
+
Fr,
cos a
sin a
i s g i v e n by
(8.11)
where A = cross sectional area of
The
circumferential
pipe
wall
the r i n g .
stress,
Fw,
mid-way
between
rings
is
given by
=
FW
a n d the
@[l+ 2 ( F 2t - 1 ) X 4 ]
2t
r Pd
longitudinal
i s given by
bending
stress
(8.12)
in
the p i p e under
the
rings,
Fb
I
-0
.
I
<
0
g!
r
>
a,
m
L
a,
[r
C
.a,
C
m
In
L
a,
a
.-C
LL
a
.-C
L
145
a
L
.-C
.-0
a,
r.-
D
.-
m
m
.-Um
m
a,
m
QJ
3
-
LL
.-a
i
a,
vi
- .-5
L
a,
a,
c
5
.-i
V
146
(8.13)
The
stresses
shown
A)
that
are
indicated
by
Fig.
a s s i s d e c r e a s e d t h e r i n g s t r e s s Fr
w h i c h c o u l d h a v e been anticipated.
to equal
for
8.1,
the circumferential
f o r s m a l l s,
wall
0.3.
tends to
It
pds/
a p l a i n pipe,
pd/2t.
tends to
+ A ) , w h i c h w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d , and t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l
be
(ts +
Fr tends
N o t e t h a t f o r s m a l l A,
stress of
may
Also,
4 pds/(ts
beding stress
Fb
tends to zero.
For l a r g e r i n g spacing ( > approx.
pd
F tends to
+ 0.9lA/t&
pd
+ 0.91
tJtd/A
(8.14)
2t
1.65
Fb tends to
2-1,
(8.15)
2t
t e n d s to @ i.e. t h a t f o r a p i p e w i t h o u t r i n g s .
2t
I t may be observed b y comparing F
F r and Fb f r o m F i g s .
and F
8.la,
8.lb
in
and 8 . l c
fact
Fw,
reduced
if
t h a t t h e m a x i m u m s t r e s s f o r most p r a c t i c a l r i n g s i z e s i s
the
circumferential
r i n g spacing should be
area
pipe
wall
stress.
s / J y z i s l e s s t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.0.
should
longitudinal
be of
cross
l e s s than
the
same
sectional
2 J l d
order
area
of
Also,
is
only
the
and
magnitude
between
Fw
I n other words,
rings,
as the p i p e w a l l
to
ts,
enable
the
r i n g s t o b e o f use.
large
For
diameter
sures,
the external
under
external
bending,
Spangler
critical
occur
at
pipes
load is frequently
load
by
buckling,
under
low
t h e c r i t i c a l one.
overstressing
due
internal
pres-
Pipes may f a i l
to
arching
or
For
only,
flexible
and
rings
under
plane
stress
subjected
to
vertical
loads
points around
the crown,
the
the
circumference.
The
i n v e r t or t h e s i d e s .
worst
b e n d i n g moments
T h e b e n d i n g moments p e r
147
Angle of bottom
suwor? p degrees
Fig.
8.3
D e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s for
degrees
loaded pipe.
148
u n i t length a r e g i v e n b y a n equation of the form
where
and
(8.16)
NWR
is
is
the
a
pipe
respectively).
The
radius,
coefficient.
(Nt,
vertical
i s the v e r t i c a l
Nb
and
and
NS f o r
horizontal
load per
top,
changes
unit
length
bottom and
in
sides
diameter
are
NnWR3/EI
where N
(8.17)
i s a coefficient.
t3/12
Figs.
(8.18)
8.2
and
at
vertical
deflections
unit
the
8.3
moments
line
load or
length),
Collapse of
to
been
and
of
the
and
pipe
for
Nt,
sides
Nb a n d Ns f o r the
respectively,
diameter.
The
coefficients
across the w i d t h of
different
angles
of
and
bending
are
the p i p e
bottom
for
support 6
the
for a
( W per
as
8.4.
distorted
normally
linings,
bottom
load d i s t r i b u t i o n
5 percent of
should
g i v e values of
top,
indicated i n Fig.
has
is
the
be
some 10 o r 20 percent.
diameter
limited
are
to
I n p r a c t i c e deflections
sometimes
about
tolerated.
up
The deflection
The h y d r a u l i c properties,
i.e.
UPTHRUST
F i g . 8.4
149
Effect of L a t e r a l Support
The
of
lateral
flexible
lateral
support
pipes
support
of
sidefill
in a
considerably
and
trench
increases the s t r e n g t h
reduces
deformations.
Without
the s o f f i t a n d
carry.
But
l a t e r a l l y as
the
it
sidefill
be
may
is
in
the
established
compacted
sides
with
the
of
the
will
fill
deflect
outwards
i n c r e a s i n g the pressure of
pipe.
vertical
a r c h action as well
load
An
equilibrium
being
condition
transferred
as b y r i n g action.
The
to
the
stress due
to the a r c h action
carry
the
extreme case,
the
lateral
loaded v e r t i c a l l y thereby
against
haunches b y
In
pipe
stress
will
equal
the v e r t i c a l
be i n p u r e compression,
load
w i t h the stress
to wd/2t
where
If
could
W/d
the
p i p e underwent
support
whatever
(8.19)
arch
would
no noticeable
be
strength
determined
i s given
i.e.
by
lateral
distortion
bending
the
to the p i p e b y
the
load
strength
it
plus
the s o i l pressure on
the permissible v e r t i c a l
on the p i p e i s
+ w
(8.20)
i s the permissible
b
bending stress or more l i k e l y
where
equal
to
lateral
servatively,
greater
load
(limited
this
pressure on
as
lateral
indicated
dead
by
ring
i s the a r c h i n g load,
a
the sides of the p i p e , which, con-
in
subsequent
pressure i s approximately
either
by deflection). w
than
the a c t i v e
soil
bending
load o n l y
one
but i s usually
equations.
For
sand,
t h i r d of the v e r t i c a l
i t i s approximately
h a l f the v e r t i c a l pressure.
I f the v e r t i c a l
active
and
away
lateral
increase the
from
soil
the
pressure,
lateral
pipe
the
pressure.
and
pipe wall
will
deflect out
laterally
Barnard
(19571,
using
elastic
theory,
150
suggests assuming a
pressure equal
wall
triangular
to total
vertical
corresponding
AX/2
1.25
where E
1.25
pressure
factor
becomes 1.4
time,
e l a s t i c i t y of the s o i l .
The factor
radial
for
(8.21 )
d/ES
(w-w,)
should be
1.7
The
increases
for
deflection
as
the
r a d i u s of
2 percent of
a deflection of
of
5 percent.
and an a d d i t i o n a l
c u r v a t u r e decreases.
The deflection
The
the diameter
also
and
increases w i t h
be expected e v e n t u a l l y .
If
the
creep
decrease.
e.g.
On
deflection
the
plastics,
other
of
the
hand
soil
pipe
can compensate f o r
large,
is
materials
this,
lateral
which
support
exhibit
can
creep,
load.
The
relationship
determined
modulus
from
of
degree of
of
laboratory
elasticity
of
triaxial
soil
varies
for
N/mmz
for
fill
widely
compaction o r n a t u r a l density,
modulus
consol i d a t i o n
loose c l a y
is
or
approximately
as
it
loosely
density
Values h i g h e r than
be
The effective
on
soil
c o n f i n i n g pressure,
may be as
as 20 N/mm2 f o r
3 N/mmzfor
Proctor density.
depending
F o r example
high
the s o i l should
tests.
type,
duration
as 2
low
dense sands.
compacted f i l l ,
The
5 N/mrn2
a n d 7 N/mmz f o r f i l l
to 95%
compacted sands.
The r i n g
load on
indicated
by
as
ponds
to
bottom
the p i p e
Equ.
8.17.
support
i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e e l a s t i c deflection
T a k i n g N,
over
30'
and
equal
the
t o 0.108,
load over
pipe
width and p u t t i n g
AY
A
-
AX
--
0. 108wd3
8E I +0.043ESd3
For p l a i n
A , then s o l v i n g f o r A/d
function
of
pipe
and 8.21,
(8.22)
I = t3/12,
diameter,
from 8.17
loading,
soil
modulus
and
the
ratio
as
wall
th i ckness/di ameter.
A
-
--
0.108~
0.67E(t/d)'
+ 0.043Es
(8.23)
151
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between deflection a n d wal I thickness f o r p l a i n
p i p e i s p l o t t e d i n F i g . 8.5.
I t w i l l be observed that a steel p i p e
wall
thickness
restrain
5MPa a n d soil
Pipes
trench
are
to
diameter.
as
low
distortion
as
to
4%
of
the
2% p r o v i d e d
diameter
the
soil
will
be
sufficient
modulus
is
greater
to
than
increase
The
the
lateral
strutted
internally
vertical
diameter
support
increases
during
and
when
backfilling
reduce
the
of
the
horizontal
the s t r u t s a r e removed
The v e r t i c a l deflec-
It
(Stephenson,
the f u l l
1979).
w i d t h of
If
the p i p e
( a =
180')
60'
AY
0.103wbd
/8E1
(8.17b)
AY a n d A X ,
the total
load,
w
The
w I /d3
I/d3
bending
(8.21b)
a n d s o l v i n g for w b
(8.24)
0.006ES/E
moment
in
the
wall,
M,
is
due
to
ring
load a n d
is a
where
the
is
the
distance from
extreme f i b r e
i s taken
(8.25)
0 . 1 9 ~ d 2 / 2 hence b e n d i n g stress f
= Mr/l
b
b
the centre of
g r a v i t y of
pipe).
the section
The balance of
the
to
load
0. 006wES/E
I /d'
(8.26)
+ 0. 006ES/E
wad/2a
where
is
the
(8.27)
cross
sectional
area
of
wall
per
unit
length
( t
for
152
The
=
total
fb
lateral
fa,
permissible stress f
(l/d3
w
permissible
ES to steel
i n terms of
(8.28)
load w
The r e l a t i o n s h i p
i s a f u n c t i o n of
moduli of soi
a n d the r a t i o o
i s plotted
i n Fig.
the permis
f o r p l a i n wal
8.5
pipe,
For t h i c k
as
the base i s f
0.003 dE /Ea
the r e l a t i v e thickness t / d
E.
at
is
i n the w a l l
l o a d i n g p e r u n i t area
0.006ES/E)f
r/d
0.1
compressive stress
therefore
more
load
can
deflection
becomes
the
is
pipe
pipes,
be
taken
large
i n r i n g bending.
that
so
the
i n p u r e compression,
hoop stress.
Actually
side w a l l
so (8.27) p l u s (8.25)
soil
and
For t h i n n e r
side-thrust
the
limit
pipes,
increases
i s due
the
to
the
until
wall
The
(8.29a)
/32ESEl/d3
b u c k l i n g equation,
support.
gated
This
by
proposed b y
ClRlA
(1978)
allows
for
lateral
the
Transport
and
Road
Research
Laboratory
investi-
(which
is
found to o v e r p r e d i c t w ) :
W
The
( 1 6 E s 2 E l / d 3 )1 / 3
g i v i n g a deflection of
load w d
on the c h a r t
for
any
is
selected
(8.29b)
from
2% i n the diameter
The c h a r t
(8.23).
p a r t i c u l a r w a l l thickness r a t i o .
in
each
case
from
the
chart
by
comparing
charts
should
be
i s also p l o t t e d
thus y i e l d s the l i m i t i n g c r i t e r i o n
p l o t t e d where
and E
stiffening
deflection,
rings
a r e used
careful
design
it
is
possible
to
reach
the
limit
in
two
or
more
T h i s i s c a l l e d balanced design.
backfill
(1956)
in
allowed
more
for
lateral
theoretical
he d e r i v e d f o r v e r t i c a l deflection i s :
way
support
than
to
the
Barnard.
pipe
The
due
to
equation
153
UZWd3
8 E l + 0.06Esd
A =
(8.30)
T h i s corresponds to ( 8 . 2 2 )
i s substituted for N
i f UZ
and a v a l u e of
Here U =
Z =
bedding
constant
(varies
from
( v a r i e s from 1.0
0.11
for
point
to 1.5).
support
to
E =
The
Due
to
pressure
inside a
pipe
the
that
vertical
fact
the
may
also
contribute
diameter
to
its
stiffness.
i s compressed to s l i g h t l y
the v e r t i c a l u p t h r u s t due t o i n t e r n -
al
the s i d e t h r u s t b y an amount of
pressure becomes g r e a t e r
which
tends
to
return
the
than
p i p e t o a c i r c u l a r shape.
2@
A more general
UZWd3
8 E I + 0.05ESd
(8.31)
+ 2 UZpd3
0.002
0.005
0.01
0.02
Relative thickness t / d
F i g . 8.5
Permissible load on p l a i n p i p e
0.03
154
ST
FFENING RINGS TO
Morley
pipes
BUCKLING W I T H NO SIDE
RESIST
(1919) developed a
under
uniform
stiffening
ring
tice.
theory
The
external
bined internal
for
of
stiffened
often
indicates
i s considered necessary
in p r a c -
pressure.
spacings wider
also
theory
than
neglects
the
the
SUPPORT
The
buckling
theory
possibility
of
failure
under
com-
however, y i e l d an i n d i c a t i o n of s t i f f e n i n g r i n g spacing.
Using
which
an
indicates
axial
the
she1 I
cylindrical
no
analogy
take
without
and
assumes
2E
developed
external
b u c k l ing.
the
wall
an
equation
w,
which a
pressure,
is
small
in
v i s Poisson's r a t i o ,
(8.32)
d7
I = t3/12, so
For p l a i n p i p e ,
Morley
El
24
1 - v 2
strut,
maximum v e r t i c a l
can
expansion,
with
(3)
v2
(8.33)
1.65 E
For
thick-wal led
stresses the w a l l
(8.34)
tubes,
the
material
to
elastic
yield.
An
col lapse
i t s elastic
pressure
limit
wi II
be
( w = 2ft/d)
that
which
whereas f o r
f a i l u r e w i I I be a combination of b u c k l i n g
empirical
formula
indicating
the
maximum
i s the y i e l d stress.
The e x t e r n a l
resist
w,
s,
buckling.
was
found
i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to
if s
by
experiment t h a t
the collapse
load,
L.
155
From experiment L = 1 . 7 3 E
(8.36)
so i f w
L2E ( t / d j 3 = 3.46
The
actual
permissible
(8.37)
stress
is
less
than
the theoretical
due to
(8.38)
If
the
full
vertical
elastic
external
r e n g t h of
pressures
i.e.
he p i p e i s to be developed
w
'Jt,
then
the
ring
o resist
spacing
shou I d be
(8.39)
t
be of use i f w >1.65E ( - ) 3 .
I t should also be ascerd
2f t
tained that w z - ,
which i s the e l a s t i c y i e l d p o i n t .
d
= Pft/d, then r i n g s w i l l o n l y be of use i f
If w
Rings w i l l o n l y
t/d<f/E
1/30
f o r m i l d steel.
(8.40)
F u r t h e r studies of b u c k l i n g of s t i f f e n e d p i p e a r e g i v e n
Fig.
8.6
Pipe w i t h s t i f f e n i n g r i n g s
156
Example 1 :
Tension Rings
A
The
N/rnm*,
permissible
and
the
working
maximum
wall
stress
in
thickness
mm.
Assume a
10 rnm diameter w i r e
and
calculate
the
required
internal
the
which
wall
can
is av ai l abl e for
spacing
of
the
5 N/mm2.
pressure of
is
be
to
be
rolled
100
is
10
b i n d i n g the p i p e
binding.
An
unstiffened
p i p e c o u l d take an i n t e r n a l pressure of
pd
ow
2t
500
100
2 x
inspection of Figs.
s o we r e q u i r e F/@
2t
125,
1 82A rtd
8.la
1
00
125
0.8
1 . 8 2 ~ ~ ~= 1o 0
. 2~
10 ~ 1 0 x 5 0 0
and 8.1b,
the r i n g spacing r e q u i r e d to
m = 0.45,
:.
Notice t h a t
s = 0.45
the
amount
x 500
J10
of
steel
32 mm.
required
i s s l i g h t l y more than
is
stress
usually
in
the
the
circumferential
system,
r i n g s i f the p i p e w a l l
there
so
wall
stress
i s l i t t l e point
if
T h i s effect
which
is
the
i n using high-
limiting
tensile
i s of m i l d steel.
Example 2:
St i f f e ning R i n g s
Design a 3 m diameter
a
uniformly
distributed
steel
load of
kN/m2
with
r i n g s to support
soil
modulus of
N/mm2.
Maximum steel stress = 103 N/mm2, delection 2%.
Select t = 10 mm
Then s / d
(210 000/503) ( . 0 0 3 3 ) 3 / 2
(8.39)
157
0.39
Use
:.
100 mm h i g h r i n g s w i t h h/b
1200 mm.
= 10 m a x f o r
no b u c k l i n g
i.e.
ring
t h i c k n e s s b = 10 mm
Centroid from c e n t r e w a l l c
Moment o f i n e r t i a
=
(h+t)bh
2( bh+ts)
h3b + S ( t c ) '
-
hb
12s
t3
12
4.25
mm
tC2
(8.41)
(8.42)
3104 mm3/mm
Extreme f i b r e d i s t a n c e r
+
(8.43)
100.8 mm
Deflection:
A/d
0.1~0.060~3~
(8.22b)
8x210 0 0 x 3 1 0 4 ~ 10-9+0.05x3x33
0.017
1.7%
Maximum w a l l s t r e s s
(0.1x0.10/3.0+0.003x3x3/(210000x0.011
f =
) ) 0.06
3 1 0 4 ~ 1 0 - ~ /+0.006x3/210000
3~
1.7 N/mm2.
The
tions,
section
an
could
optimum
or
thus
be modified.
balanced
design
By
v a r y i n g the r i n g p r o p o r -
may
be
possible
i.e.
both
REFERENCES
B a r n a r d , R.E.,
1957. D e s i g n a n d d e f l e c t i o n c o n t r o l o f b u r i e d steel
p i p e s u p p o r t i n g e a r t h l o a d s a n d l i v e l o a d s , Proc. A m . SOC. f o r
T e s t i n g M a t e r i a l s , 57.
C l R i A ( C o n s t r u c t i o n I n d u s t r y Research a n d I n f o r m a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n ) ,
1978. D e s i g n a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n o f B u r i e d T h i n - d a l l P i p e s , Report
78, L o n d o n , 93 p p .
Jacobsen, S.,
1974. B u c k l i n g o f c i r c u l a r r i n g s and c y l i n d r i c a l t u b e s
u n d e r e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e , Water Power, 26 ( 1 2 ) .
Morley, A . ,
1919. S t r e n g t h o f M a t e r i a l s , L o n g m a n s Green E. Co.,
pp
326-333.
S p a n g l e r , M.G.,
1956. Stresses i n p r e s s u r e p i p e l i n e s and p r o t e c t i v e
c a s i n g p i p e s . Proc. Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g s . , 82(ST5) 1054.
1973. S t i f f e n i n g r i n g s f o r p i p e s , P i p e s and P i p e l i n e s
Stephenson, D.,
I n t l . , 18 ( 4 ) .
Stephenson, D. ,1979. F l e x i b l e p i p e t h e o r y a p p l i e d to t h i n - w a l I nPVC
p i p i n g , P i p e s a n d P i p e l i n e I n t l . , 24 ( 6 ) , 9-17.
158
Timoshenko, S.P. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S.,
1959.
a n d Shells, 2nd Ed., McGraw H i l l , N.Y., Ch. 15.
Theory
of
Plates
LIST OF SYMBOLS
cross sectional a r e a of r i n g
p i p e diameter
d.
i n t e r n a l p i p e diameter
e x t e r n a l p i p e diameter
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
passive resistance modulus of s i d e f i I I
permissible w a l l stress
wal I stress
bending stress
circumferential
stress
o r r a d i a l stress i n p i p e w a l l
circumferential
wal I stress
design factor
r i n g height
depth of b a c k f i l l above pipe
I
moment of
j o i n t factor
inertia
r a t i o of a c t i v e l a t e r a l pressure of f i l l to v e r t i c a l
pressure
c r i t i c a l r i n g spacing
bending moment
moment or deflection coefficient
i n t e r n a l pressure
pipe radius
distance from c e n t r o i d to extreme f i b r e of beam
r i n g spacing
wal I thickness
159
deflection time l a g factor
vertical
Poisson's r a t i o
pressure,
subscript
refers
bending a n d d to deflection
vertical
r i n g thickness
bedding constant
to
arching,
to
160
CHAPTER 9
SECONDARY STRESSES
STRESSES AT BRANCHES
If
in
the
stress
hole i s cut
wall
on
will
the
in
the w a l l
increase on
horizontal
of
a pipe,
each
axis
at
side
the
where
the
a
+ 2
S(l
is
horizontal
the
pipe
the
may
also
axis
a
force
the w a l l
able
to
minimize
entrance
the
main
pipe
forcing
may
angles
to
to
is
the
piece
the
collar
diameter
walls
are
on
each
side
of
plate
is
given
it
will
common
In
the bore o f
length.
is
For
branch
hole o r
in
be
branch
stress
The
If
9.1.
Fig.
on a
necessary
to
the
rein-
with
low
the b r a n c h connection to m i n i -
such
necessary.
cases
the
the
size of
hole cut
in
the b r a n c h p i p e and r e i n -
For small
a s u i t a b l e method of
onto
axis
the
practice
than
collar
plate,
in the p l a i n pipe.
that
loss.
the
hole o r
circular
significant
to
vertical
b r a n c h p i p e occurs.
assuming
otherwise
out
of
thickness,
t
the
that
the
head
by
cut
and
assuming
hole
larger
would
is
tangential
elliptical
b r a n c h pipes at r i g h t
strengthening
main
pipe
the p i p e con-
around
the
branch
thickness
which
in
the
use s k i r t s at
weld
9.2).
of
times
all
is
applied
i s to
barrel
of
is
is
stress
hole
case
three
be especially
(Fig.
force
the
distortion.
mize
cular
and
at
where
pipework
pipe
to
is
pressure
nection
and
beside a
stress
stress
b
In
increase
wall
the
vertical
circumferential
pipe
The
small
1951),
length
=
stress.
distribution
hole.
stress
(9.1
uniform
hole
applied
the
of
a/b)
the
circular
of
side
i n a p l a t e i s (Tirnoshenko a n d Goodier,
S'
the circumferential
the
same,
the
w'
the
col t a r
have
been
main
pipe,
the
thickness
of
permissible
and
that
w i t h the b r a n c h p i p e diameter.
width,
the
the
i.e.
wall
stress
the
takes
taken
in
collar
the
of
circumferential
across
2t'w'
the
tD,
branch
the
main
the c o l l a r
width
is
diameter
where
t'
p i p e outside
pipe.
and main
small
This
pipe
compared
161
s
t
Fig.
9.1
Fig.
9.2
7-
lp-Sornetimes
used
LI
Fig.
9.3
L a t e r a l w i t h e x t e r n a l crotch plates
162
For
to the m a i n pipe,
v a r i o u s angles
crotch p l a t e s a r e p r e f e r a b l e to c o l l a r s ( B l a i r , 1946).
Crotch P l a t e s
Various
types of
ing laterals.
of
crotch
plates,
and
a design a i d
l a t e r p u b l i s h e d b y Swanson et a l
plates
which
pipes.
The
cases.
Trial
and
would
be
welded
on
use
to 9.7
Swanson's
in
plates
the j u n c t i o n of
nomograph was p r e p a r e d b y a n a l y s i n g a
deflections
9.3
a nomograph was
i n t o the c r o t c h a t
compatible.
any
l a r g e number of
Only
r e c t a n g u l a r sections f o r crotch
a r e design c h a r t s f o r e x t e r n a l crotch
results,
system
(normally
but
of
for
expressed
units.
small
the
i n the form of
in
p l a t e s based
dimensionless
parameters f o r
The design c h a r t s a r e f o r s i n g l e c o l l a r
diameter
laterals)
and
for
double crotch
off
terms of
plate
from
Fig.
9.5
the
crotch
widths
for
90"
lateral
plate
bl
with
width
and cl
expressed
in
a r e the crotch
as the
main pipe.
If
the
are
branch
unequal,
is
at
an a n g l e to the b a r r e l ,
Kb
read
and
from
crotch p l a t e w i d t h b y m u l t i p l y i n g bl
The
plate
Read
the
c/dl
and
widths
the
c a l c u l a t e a,
angle
whether
plate
thickness.
the
now
depth
of
or
9.6
the diameters
and
correct
b y K b a n d c1 b y Kc.
b=d (bl/d,)
K
a n d c=dl(c,/dl)K
1
b
r a t i o a/dl corresponding to b/dl
the
the
lateral
from
Fig.
9.7
and
.
or
hence
Check
increase
are
p l a t e top
Fig.
plate
If
so,
the
thickness
plate
and
is
try
liable
again.
to
buckle,
The
shape
so
and
163
9.4
Fig.
The
E x t e r n a l crotch p l a t e s
shape
developing
often
be
together
of
the
bent
at
p l a t e should
of
intersection
then
of
be
the
intersection
point,
and
if
b /d,
1.0
0.5
0.5
20
pd
-1
f t
Fig.
9.5
Single
plates
be f i l l e t
t h i n enough,
Crotch p l a t e side w i d t h
1.5
by
may
welded
may a l s o be
c, dtJ,
the
bent to follow
the
line
164
Fig.
9.6
Effect of
165
For
right
large
angles
installations
the
to
design c h a r t s f o r
t h i r d p l a t e may
a x i s of
3-plate
the
main
pipe
(see F i g .
designs a r e not a v a i l a b l e ,
t h i r d p l a t e t o a 2-plate
merely a d d i n g a
be r e q u i r e d ,
design.
9.3).
placed at
Although
Swanson suggests
Discretion should be
circumstances.
The
deflections
are
reduced
considerably
by
a d d i n g a t h i r d p l a t e though.
Whether
judgement.
crotch
The
p l a t e s should
author
advises
be
using
design pressure P
i s g r e a t e r than
of
the
safety,
diameter
t,
of
is
Certain
the b r a n c h p i p e a n d
Wyss L t d .
pipe
in
(Suss a n d Hassan,
'Y's.
material
(Stephenson,
disadvantages
External
inefficiently
at
all
crotch
i s also a matter of
plates
if
the
internal
wall
the b r a n c h p i p e a n d b a r r e l . y
Internal Bracing
used
i s y i e l d stress.
1971)
external
crotch
plates
prompted
Escher
1957) to i n v e s t i g a t e i n t e r n a l b r a c i n g for
crotch
plates
and
require
act
in
more
bending,
steel
than
consequently
internal
use
crotch
An
internal
as a guide vane.
T h i s effect,
for
through
some
two
flow
pipes
considerably
is
configurations.
For
to a confluence,
less
than
the
the head
with
case of
water
loss w i t h
'T'
standard
com-
reduces head
flowing
internal
webs
junction.
The
both
pipes
gradually
flared
at
the
confluence,
9.8)
station
two
delivery
branch
pipes.
pipes,
such
For
as
with
i s recommended f o r
pumping
penstocks f o r
hydro-electric
performed
to
together
stat ions,
station
suction
h y d r a u l i c model
pipes
and
tests should be
divergence a n d taper,
and
weight
of
c r o t c h plates.
steel
The
for
internal bracing is
less than f o r
compact arrangement f a c i l i t a t e s
transport
the
confluence,
ing
pipes
internal
increased
there w i l l
designed
bracing will
velocities
crotch p l a t e s o n l y .
diffusers
are
and
be a h i g h head
rapidly
appears
to
be
flares
head
losses
than
h a n d i f the expansion
at
paths,
with
the
caus-
external
i s too a b r u p t
loss.
with
the
cone-shaped
p r o t r u d e i n t o the flow
higher
On the other
increases
with
a n g l e of
flare
about 7; degrees
once
the
(Rouse,
angle
1961). A
74 degrees
to
the
axis
for
the
main
pipe
and
15
degrees to the a x i s f o r t h e b r a n c h p i p e .
The
use
branch
and
of
main
internal
pipes
bracing
to
confines
practical
the
range.
angle
For
between
the
confluence angles
flow
in
the
main
pipe.
hole cut
in
the
main
impractically
heavy.
confluence,
45-degree
branch
pipe
would
before the f l a r e .
For
very
small
have
Note that
to
for
any
other
be constructed
the use of
angle
with
of
approach
bend
the
immediately
i n t e r n a l b r a c i n g i s confined to
the
acute
obstruct
angle,
flow.
as
internal
The obtuse
bracing
a n g l e must
at
be
the
obtuse
strengthened
angle
with
would
external
crotch plates.
To minimize head losses,
all
branches
of
whose centre l i e s a t
the surfaces w i l l
flat.
the
There may
main
the
are
tangential
be i n planes.
flare
meets
resulting
continued
beyond
would
strong
be
confluence
to
sphere
the intersection of
pipe
eliminate
the
the
the
confluent
problems
point
of
where
should
it
enough to t r a n s f e r
pipe
(see
torsion,
Fig.
9.8).
To
'B'
may
be
plate
bend.
The
pipe
loads to t h i s p l a t e ,
the
walls
and the
r e s u l t i n g arrangement simp1 i f i e s f a b r i c a t i o n .
To
determine
surfaces,
and
the
the
p r o f i l e s of
the
lines of
intersection of
equations
were set
horizontal
distance
along
the
that
the elevations of
intersection I ine,
The
a n g l e of
the
the equation t a n
confluence
a x i s and
The
ceeding
point
i n t e r s e c t i n g p l a n e to the dis-
the cone
Using the
angle,
is
p l a n e to the main a x i s , 8 ,
) / s i n a cos
the
branch
angle of
e ,
i s given by
where a i s the
cone surface to
its
intersection
in
steps
profiles
along
the
i n t e r s e c t i n g plane.
pipe
it
i s possible to
'Y's
analytically,
be solved by computer,
intersection
line.
study
In
fact
the
stresses
the general
case
in
the
bracing for
i s v e r y complex a n d
studies
have
relied
on
model
analysis
was
based on
membrane
theory
i.e.
the
pipe walls
cos
per
unit
where P
width
l i q u i d pressure a n d R
i s the
i s the
forces
due
to
the
wall
stresses
results
indicated
force
intersection
l i n e of
an
in
line,
action
the
that
the
plane,
was
of
element
of
the
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to
v e r t i c a l l y a n d h o r i z o n t a l l y in the plane.
perpendicular
on
intersection
cone
to
the s i d e of
plotted g r a p h i c a l l y .
the r e s u l t a n t
forces on the
inter-
The p o s i t i o n and d i r e c t i o n of
four
It
was
was constantly
points
the
along
the
observed that
the
i n s i d e the
intersection
p l a n e a n d a c t i n g i n tension on the i n t e r n a l b r a c i n g p l a t e .
The
most
tension.
centre
line
bracing
of
the
plates
crown,
is
Hence
economical
internal
the
plate.
indicated
twice
the
plate
Thus
of
the
stress,
be
force on
found
that
impractically
and
the
rower
plate
the
crown
to
plate
may
most
the
be
i n pure
from
+ F/tw,
where f
resultant
question
on
thickness.
to
in
terms
of
the
the r e s u l -
economical
the
bracing
thicker
bending
I n some cases i t w i l l
from
and
plate
resultant
for
thickness
p l a t e may
tension
force
at
extreme f i b r e
is
be selected,
the c h a r t s .
and
p l a t e in p u r e tension.
the
equation
r e s u l t a n t force.
anywhere
l i n e of the cones.
i n combined
the
or
interpolated
perpendicular
the
internal
centre,
calculated
shape
than
the
else
corresponding
are
widest
at
derived
width
case
more steel
tude of
from
which
obtained
/tw2
the
the
9.10
intersecting
thin,
of
to
in
plates
contain
the
width
9.8
and
the
Figs.
in
distance
thickness
permissible
tant
b r a c i n g p l a t e would be one
The n a r -
consequently
The w i d t h of
various
stress,
points
6F
the
was
(u-w/Z)
F i s magni-
the
intersection
similar
line,
analysis
was
is
plate
performed
width
for
and
is
the e x t e r n a l
in
plate
crotch
charts,
of
to
Figs.
crotch
the
9.8
to
plates for
main
pipe
and
9.10,
a
pipe.
and
The
various
most
angles
suitable
of
flare
Model tests to
169
-.---
6;
Lc=!23 tcn2
2
G.03303
..L
0
"
WITH R E C O M M E N D E D A N G L E S
F i g . 9.8
170
9.9
171
0.2
OL
02
0.L X / D
0.6
9.10
Crotch p l a t e s f o r
confluence pipe.
plain
pipe
with
15"
taper
172
The design procedure f o r
a
trial
plate
width,
p l a t e thickness,
crotch
plate
t,
say
the
maximum
the
obtuse
angle
w/30.
less
than
the
a g a i n s t wear.
and
for
less
indicated,
The
plate
is
the
enough
withstand
to
thicknesses
the
rigid
compute
should also p r e f e r a b l y
main p i p e ,
not
be
to ensure d u r a b i l i t y
wall
thickness
of
After
selecting
the p l a t e thicknesses,
the corresponding
STRESSES AT BENDS
The
than
wall
those
stresses
stresses
bending
induced
stresses
wall,
are
and
as
the outside of
normally
is
inside
the
caused
the
to
design
the
of
bend
by
or
cast
bend.
only
The
the
for
The
iron
to
blocks
stresses
on
w a l l on the
worst
thickness
on
the
-PD
2t
i.e.
ratio
is
stress a n d
stress
outside of
i s taken o n l y of
i.e.
on
the
it
the
bend
circumferential
as on the i n s i d e of
assuming the p i p e w a l l
to
the t h r u s t
due to the
i n s i d e i s less than
takes no bend-
ft
the
the bend
stresses a r e c a l c u l a t e d below.
local
against
inside of
circumferential
be reduced i f account
the b l o c k . Circumferential
out,
increase in c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l stress
it
higher
Longitudinal
thrusting
the
could a c t u a l l y
but
are
straighten
stress,
of
bend
increase i n l o n g i t u d i n a l
the
wall
tends
anchor
l e n g t h of
the bend.
safe
fabricated
circumferential
a r e m a g n i f i e d because
on
are
outside
in
P(R-D/4)
i n t e r n a l pressure on
9.11,
0D/2
(R-D/4)
(9.2)
(R-DJ2)
the normal
(R-D/4)
the p i p e diameter.
where R
i s the r a d i u s of
the bend a n d D
is
173
9.11
Fig.
In
addition
etc.,
discussed
work
caused
variations
designed
pipeline
and
analysed
bution,
so-called
piping
in
pipe
using
systems.
if
in
the
form
and
design
or
in pipe-
temperature
a n d should be
or
at
large
thrust
anchors a r e
as a s t r u c t u r a l
system w i t h
movements.
The
techniques
such
standard
or
pipework
joints or
f i n i t e element
of
strains
plant
can be treated
structural
Crocker a n d K i n g ,
and
junctions
t e r t i a r y stresses
elastic
no movement
thrusts
bends,
These stresses a r e r e a l
chemical
system
slope-deflection
available
movements,
exposed
lateral
secondary stress at
there a r e sometimes
relative
interconnections
installed.
axial
the
above,
by
in
for
to
methods,
computer
system
as
could
be
moment-distri-
many o f
programs.
which a r e
(See
also
1967).
THE P I P E AS A BEAM
Pipes should
longitudinal
settlement
between
of
normally
direction
the
supports,
be
even
if
designed
they
bedding
could
Three
possible
are
cause
to
to
r e s i s t some bending
be
buried.
sections to c a n t i l e v e r
bending
patterns
i n the
Unevenness o r
together
o r span
with
the
174
corresponding critical
The
maximum
b e n d i n g moments a r e i n d i c a t e d i n F i g .
span
which
modate i s c a l c u l a t e d below.
Fb
simply
supported
pipe
9.12
could
accom-
The m a x i m u m f i b r e s t r e s s i s
M/Z
where
(9.3)
M is t h e b e n d i n g
p i p e whose w a l l
moment and Z
thickness,
t,
is t h e s e c t i o n m o d u l u s .
is small
For a
in comparison w i t h the i n t e r n a l
d i a m e t e r D,
nD2 t / 4
So if M
Fb
and
WL2/8
(9.5)
W L Z / ( 2 n D 2t )
o r L2
(9.4)
2nD2 t Fb/W
if a
pipe of
specific weight
weight
yw
J8DtFb/(ywD
Thus f o r
=
ys
(9.6)
D = 1 m,
4ySt)
80 000 N/m
is conveying
water
at a specific
(9.7)
0.012 m,
then
the
F b = 100 N/mm2,
maximum
yw
permissible
- 10 000 N/m
simply
3 ,
supported
s p a n L = 26 m or 86 f t .
For
low
internal
water
pressures,
b u c k l i n g of
the w a l l s
may
also
b e a p r o b l e m and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y s h o u l d b e i n v e s t i g a t e d ( e s p e c i a l l y a t
t h e s u p p o r t s w h e r e t h e s h e a r s t r e s s is h i g h ) . See also P e a r s o n ,
1977.
P i p e S t r e s s at Saddles
The m a x i m u m
supported in a s a d d l e i s (Roark,
F
(0.02 - 0.00012
where
span,
due
to
1954):
(9.8)
Note t h a t f o r a s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d
weight
continuous pipe.
of
pipe
of
length
equal
to
the
span,
as
i.e.
for
If Q i s i n Newtons a n d t i n mm t h e n F i s i n N / m m 2 .
175
WlUNlT LENGTH
REACTION
WL12
WlUNlT LENGTH
Wll2
MAXIMUM
BENDING
MOMENT.
WLI2
WL
5 x 2
3 z
a.
El
Simply
Supported
F i g . 9.12
Cantilevered
c.
Fixed Ends
b.
The a n g l e of
or
width
WLl2
wL2/a
DEFLECTION
crete
WlUNlT LENGTH
strap
of
the
support
To t h i s
diameter.
bottom support, 6
saddles.
mum l o n g i t u d i n a l
i s n o r m a l l y 90"
The stress
provided
it
local stress a t
is practically
is
small
120'
or
for
con-
independent of
compared
with
the
the
pipe
a continuous beam,
R i n g Girders
Steel
ground
may
pipes
etc.
may
be
B u c k l i n g of
laid
and
be
the
back
plain
the
vicinity
developed
under
the
a r e useful
rectangular
fixed
in
over
ground,
ravines,
of
all
in
cross
r o u n d the pipe.
there
i s no s i d e f i l l
the
Chapter
ring
8.
may
The
be
Rigid r i n g
i n these circumstances.
section,
The
or
local
evaluated
longitudinal
marshy
i n these circumstances
as
g i r d e r s at each support
may
ground
t h e p i p e a n d stresses
support
above
The rings
T o r H shaped,
with
p i p e bending stress
using
the
bending stress
ring
theory
i n the p i p e
w a l l under a r i n g is
1.65
0.91
Pd
h J%T/A
2h
in
(9.9)
176
A
where
be
added
any
longitudinal
area of
stress
in
the r i n g .
the
pipe
To
t h i s stress must
due
to
beam
action
between supports.
T h e r i n g stress i n the r i n g g i r d e r i s
1
0.91A/(hj hd)
In
addition
the
there
r i n g girder
Pd
(9.10)
2 7
will
be
local stresses
to the supports.
g i r d e r a n d rest on a s l i d i n g or
of
the p i p e a n d contents
due to
t h e method of
Legs a r e securely
fixed
fixing
to the r i n g
r o l l e r b e a r i n g on a p i e r .
The weight
more comprehensive a n a l y s i s
presented
in
Crocker
and
King
of
the stresses
(1967).
See
i n r i n g girders
also
Cates
(1950)
is
and
( 1933).
Scharer
TEMPERATURE STRESSES
Pipes
outside
with
will
high
differences
be subject
temperature
differences.
have
maximum
their
compressive
the
and
on
the
temperature on
the
heat flow
the p i p e diameter,
in
to r a d i a l
The
value
temperature
the
inner
the
inner
and
wall
is
above
I f the w a l l
l o n g i t u d i n a l stresses
a n d outer
i s steady.
inside
a n d c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l stresses due to
circumferential and
on
between
surfaces,
the outer
t h a t on
is thin
being
surface
the outer
if
wall,
i n comparison w i t h
equations:
on the i n n e r surface F
i s the thermal
elasticity,
a ET
Fe
c
(9.11)
-20
aET
-2(1-u)
(9.12)
coefficient o f expansion,
E i s the modulus of
v i s Poissons r a t i o ,
is
always
and l o n g i t u d i n a l stresses,
For
normal
c I imatic
less
than
the
Fc i s
The r a d i a l stress
maximum c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l
temperature differences
the stresses
are rela-
177
tively
C,
low.
v =
Thus f o r
longitudinal
longitudinally
as
The m a g n i t u d e o f
after
T =
0.3 f o r s t e e l p i p e , t h e n F m a x
installation)
stress
a
may
result
t h i s stress
(see
Ch.
also
of
be
induced
temperature
i s aET
10 f o r
= 12 x
per
17 N/mmz.
in
change
pipe
after
restrained
instal lation.
analysis
including
effects
of
supports).
REFERENCES
B l a i r , J.S.,
1946. R e i n f o r e c e m e n t o f b r a n c h p i p e s . E n g i n e e r i n g , 162.
Cates, W.H.,
1950. D e s i g n s t a n d a r d s f o r l a r g e d i a m e t e r s t e e l w a t e r
p i p e , J. Am. W a t e r W o r k s Assn., 42.
C r o c k e r , 5. and K i n g , R.C., 1967. P i p i n g H a n d b o o k , 5 t h E d . , M c G r a w
H i l l , N.Y.
P e a r s o n , F.H.,
1977. Beam b e h a v i o u r o f b u r i e d r i g i d p i p e l i n e s . P r o c .
Am. SOC. C i v i l E n g r s . , 108 ( E E 5 ) 767.
1954. F o r m u l a s f o r s t r e s s and s t r a i n , McGraw H i l l , N.Y.
R o a r k , R.J.,
p . 418.
Rouse, H., 1961. E n g i n e e r i n g H y d r a u l i c s , W i l e y , N.Y.,
S c h a r e r , H.,
1933. D e s i g n of l a r g e p i p e l i n e s . T r a n s . Am. SOC. C i v i l
Engs., 98 ( 1 0 ) .
Stephenson, D.,
1971. I n t e r n a l b r a c i n g f o r p i p e c o n f l u e n c e s . T r a n s . ,
S.A. I n s t n . C i v i l E n g r s . , 13 (11).
Sulzer,
1941. P a t e n t e d s t i f f e n i n g c o l l a r s o n t h e b r a n c h e s o f highpressure p i p e l ines f o r hydroelectric power works. Sulzer Technical
R e v i e w , 2 ,lo.
Suss, A. and H a s s a n , D.R.,
1957. R e d u c t i o n o f t h e w e i g h t and loss o f
in d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p e s f o r h y d r a u l i c p o w e r l a n t s .
Escher
energy
Wyss News, 30 (3) 25.
Swanson, H . S . ,
C h a p t o n , H.J.,
W i l k i n s o n , W.J.,
King, C.L.
and N e l 1955. D e s i g n o f w y e b r a n c h e s f o r s t e e l p i p e s . J. A m .
son, E.D.,
W a t e r W o r k s A s s n . , 47 ( 6 ) 581.
Timoshenko, S. and G o o d i e r , J.N.,
1951. T h e o r y o f E l a s t i c i t y , McGraw
H i l l , N.Y.
L I S T OF SYMBOLS
a r e a of r i n g g i r d e r
a,b
h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l
a,b,c
c r o t c h p l a t e t o p and s i d e w i d t h s
D or d-
a x e s o f an e l l i p s e
p i p e diameter
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
r e s u l t a n t force on c r o t c h p l a t e a t a n y point,
wal I thickness
factor o f safety
o r stress
178
span o r length
bending moment
water pressure (same u n i t s as f )
saddle reaction
radius
stress a p p l i e d to a p l a t e
crotch p l a t e thickness
temperature difference
distance from p i p e w a l l to F
w i d t h of crotch p l a t e at any p o i n t
load p e r u n i t l e n g t h
horizontal
distance
from
crown
along
mid-plane
or
centre-I ine
of
crotch p l a t e
vertical
distance
above
crown
of
crotch
plate
section modulus
a n g l e of confluence of b r a n c h p i p e w i t h main p i p e
coefficient of temperature expansion
a n g l e between crotch p l a t e and main p i p e a x i s , o r a n g l e
of support
specific weight
angle
of
flare,
or
taper,
of
main
pipe
a x i s to cone)
a n g l e of f l a r e ,
Poisson's r a t i o
o r taper,
of b r a n c h p i p e
(measured from
CHAPTER 10
PIPE MATERIALS
Steel Pipe
Steel
i s one of
i s d u c t i l e yet
work,
the most
has a
high
It
strength.
pipe walls,
is
relatively
as
it
easy
to
i s the strongest
type of j o i n t .
Steel
grades
p i p e s i n the U.K.,
used f o r
and
their
corresponding
BS 4360
Grade 40
230 N/mm2
Grade 50
355 N/mm2
Grade 55
US 572
450 N/mm2
290 N/mm2
Grade 4 2
Grade 50
345 N/mm2
Grade 60
Grade 65
The
for
higher
grades
are
preferred
they
a r e easier
Small-bore
seams,
but
welded
either
to
weld,
(less
a n d on
than
larye-bore
450
pipes
448 N/mm2
high-pressure
account
pipelines
but
horizontally or
asbestos cement
pressures,
and
it
of
steel
made
spirally.
site.
pipes
from
are
steel
wall
thickness
rolled
plate,
Pipes a r e made
Steel
and plastic
requires
the e x t r a
loads.
mm)
are
10 m and more a n d j o i n t e d on
than concrete,
low
:
for
they a r e more r e s i s t a n t to e x t e r n a l
to
414 N/mm2
pipe
pipe
coating
and
is
in
and
lengths
up
more expensive
small
for
without
bent
sheathing
bores
to
2nd
prevent
corrosion.
iron
is
more
and
flanges.
corrosion-resistant
I n fact
actual
steel,
sand c a s t i n g
a l t h o u g h i t i s used f o r
Plain
than
'specials'
but
more
i s now r a r e l y
such a s bends,
p i p e s a r e n o r m a l l y formed of
grey
iron
180
or
ductile
and
iron
by
dimensions
of
centrifugal
ductile
spinning.
iron
pipes
Standard
are
pressure
specified
classes
BS 4772
in
and
i r o n p i p e s i n 854622.
of grey
able
to
cement
resist
is
p i p e i s made of
relatively
relatively
high
cheap,
cement
tensile
strong
and asbestos f i b r e ,
stresses.
and
Although
which
asbestos
corrosion-resistant,
it
is
'specials'.
Concrete Pipe
Reinforced
ical
for
loads
large
easier
and
in
or
are
diameters.
than
corrosion
jointing
and
They
steel
on
are
resistant.
making
able
account
Their
later
to
resist
their
of
main
external
extra
wall
weaknesses
connections.
There
buckling
thickness,
appear
i s as
to
be
Plastic Pipe
Technological
this
has
advances
been o f
special
cized p o l y v i n y l c h l o r i d e
gases,
drains,
Kingdom
for
and
small
UPVC
for
in
interest
Europe.
large
pipes
Glass
it
is
It
fibre
is
Polyethylene
although
diameters.
suitable
Although
is still
a r e causing
The
resin
for
some
were
engineering.
sewer
also
is
used
usually
density
r a p i d and
Unplasti-
f o r chemicals,
pipes
i n the United
to
limited
more
extent
expensive
polyethylene
has
than
recently
l a r g e diameter p i p e l i n e s .
also
used
expensive
specialised
to a
but
l i m i t e d extent
used
applications
with
as
an
it
for
pipe-
inert
filler
i s corrosion-
l i g h t and strong.
and
is
it
High
is
comparatively
resistant, r i g i d ,
and
and
1960's
the
pipeline
irrigation
lines.
in
in
waterpipes,
bore
plastics
has
not
time
i t s many advantages
working
stress
of
plastic
i s less
14 N/mrnz
so p l a s t i c cannot
be used f o r
limited
l a r g e diameter
strength
buckting
and
pipes.
be
The
used
subject
deterioration w i t h
collapse.
can be used
high-pressure
in difficult
friction
as
to encrustation
to
I t i s also subject to
its flexibility
many
can cause
corrosive f l u i d s a n d
loss
beneficially
time a n d
i s resistant
It
mains.
a n d gas
i s lower than f o r
most m a t e r i a l s a n d
types of
l i n i n g to other
pipes.
i t can
It
is
less
accommodates g r e a t e r
has
loosened
and
high
coefficient
of
thermal
expansion,
may
distort
or
even
collapse
joints
so
may
be
I t i s susceptible to damage
under
load.
Ribbed
and
stiffened
easy
to
extrude
As
PVC i s f l e x i b l e a n d e x h i b i t s creep,
plastics.
in
an
when
heated.
u n p l a s t i c i z e d form
is
ethylene
easier
to
were
with
developments
Polyethylene
(UPVC) f o r
work
than
and
it
PVC
are
pipes.
the manufacture of
UPVC
polyethylene.
and
With
for
thermo-
i s generally
this
reason
improvement
used
Poly-
earlier
i n production
advantages.
thermal
expansion
high-density
lene
for
is
stronger
than
and
has
polyethylene,
polyethylene
(HDPE)
has
smaller
although
improved
coefficient
of
recent ly-developed
properties.
Polyethy-
developed
in
It
the
for
flexible
appendix.
pipework.
Because
of
Properties
the
low
of
elasticity
of
plastics,
water
pipes
may
be j o i n t e d
though
these
methods
are
factory
fitted
flanges
or
by
difficult
spigots
solvents
for
and
large
sockets
of
fusion
welding,
diameters.
with
rubber
al-
Screwed o r
rings
are
also used.
The
tees a n d branches
is difficult
f i t t i n g s a r e fre-
quen t I y used.
The p r i c e of
the 1960's,
PVC pipes
i n the U.K.
30%
in
whereas other p i p e m a t e r i a l s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g i n
182
cost.
In
the
U.K.,
cast
iron
than
1 N/mmz.
pipes
PVC
for
pipes
are
cheaper
diameters
less
than
than
asbestos cement
450 mm and
I t i s r a p i d l y r e p l a c i n g salt-glazed
and
pressures
less
and asbestos-cement
At
out
the
pipes
world.
are
The
used
figure
in
ever
may yet r e v o l u t i o n i z e
BVMA,
1964; P a u l ,
spent
is
i n 1972 on p l a s t i c p i p i n g through-
likely
to
increasing
pipeline
r i s e considerably
proportions
engineering
and
(see
as
new
also
plastic
discoveries
Boucher,
1948;
1954).
LINE VALVES
There a r e many
which
depends on the d u t y .
depend on economics.
the
pipe
diameter,
waterworks
the
same
trapped,
be
lined
weighed
certain
level
and
as
up.
v a l v e s a n d the size w i l l
Normally v a l v e s a r e sized s l i g h t l y
practice i t
whereas
The spacing of
installed
with
reducer
on
soffit
the
I n choosing
the
circumstances
either
side.
In
the
pipe,
to
prevent
in sewerage a n d sol i d s t r a n s p o r t ,
against
smaller than
cost
it
the
of
may
size,
the
the cost of
head
loss
desirable
be
being
the v a l v e should be
through
to
air
the i n v e r t s should
it,
maintain
although
the
full
in
pipe
valves
the
spacing
problems.
Sections
leaks
and
waste
would
the
valves
are
are
frequently
being
of
function
the p i p e l i n e may
volume of
be
installed at
water
f u n c t i o n of
i n s t a l l e d at
which
of
intervals
economics
and
of
to
operating
have to be isolated to r e p a i r
would
the spacing of
h a v e to
be d r a i n e d
i s o l a t i n g valves.
to
Scour
i n the p i p e l i n e
profile.
It
around
i s sometimes a d v i s a b l e to
in-line
facilitate
i n s t a l I smal I-diameter
by-pass
valves
opening
( w h i c h may
be manual o r
by
means of
an e l e c t r i c
o r mechanical a c t u a t o r ) .
Sluice Valves
Sluice v a l v e s ,
o r g a t e valves,
183
for
isolating or
scouring.
They
seal
well
under
high
pressures a n d
are
which
handwheel,
two
types
is
attached
and
attachment
of
spindles
to
the
a non-raising
gate
raising
and
the
does
s p i n d l e which
10.1).
i n the gate ( F i g .
for
gate:
rising
not r o t a t e w i t h the
i s rotated i n a
screwed
I u b r ica t e.
The
gate
be
may
para1 lel-sided
or
wedge-shaped.
sealing
the wedge-gate
high pressures s t a i n l e s s
sluice
valves'
troublesome
to
simplicity
operate.
and
They
need
positive
a
action,
big
force
they
to
are
unseat
a n d l a r g e v a l v e s t a k e many
Fig.
10.1
Sluice v a l v e
sluice
fairly
valves
less
are
space.
valves,
cheaper
The
especially
h i g h resistance to flow
the thickness of
than
sealing
at
valves
for
larger
sizes
i s sometimes not as e f f e c t i v e as
high
even
the d i s c obstructs
sluice
pressures.
i n the f u l l y
the flow
They
also
open state,
even when
offer
because
i t i s rotated
184
90 degrees
to
the
the
gates
high
fully
open
position.
Butterfly
valves,
as
well
as
s l u i c e valves,
and
torques
seatings
to
open
would
them
erode
against
As
rapidly.
high
both
pressure,
types
they
require
often
have
Fig.
10.2
Butterfly valve
Globe Valves
Globe v a l v e s have a c i r c u l a r seal
spindle
pipe
and
axis.
handwheel.
The
flow
The
seating
changes d i r e c t i o n
r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h head losses.
bore pipework
connected a x i a l l y
is
a n d as taps,
ring
through
to a v e r t i c a l
perpendicular
to
the
a l t h o u g h a v a r i a t i o n i s used as a control
valve.
action
l i t t l e flow
suited for
as
they
t h r o t t l i n g flow.
close
whereas
They
sluice
resistance u n t i l p r a c t i c a l l y shut
damage.
Needle
valves
springs,
accumulators
may
or
be
used
actuators
butterfly
counterbalance
maintain
constant
flow.
even
at
axial
needle o r
throttl-
valves
offer
with
to
have a g r a d u a l
and
weights,
pressure
o r to m a i n t a i n
high flow
velocities.
spear-shaped
The
cone
method of
i n t o a seat.
sealing
is
to
push
an
There i s often a p i l o t
A v a l v e w i t h a s i m i l a r h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c to the needle v a l v e
185
is
the
sleeve
valve
atmosphere or
orifices
spray,
around
the
thereby
an
electric
for
valve.
cone
The
cone
tube
used
and
is
as
discharging
into
the
which s l i d e s over
i n a n umbrella-shaped
Needle a n d sleeve
valves are
actuator
away
use
for
b y a sleeve
water
maintenance
valve
seal
the energy.
as
rotates
suitable
They
hydraulic
or
dismantling
sealing
is
dissipating
a l s o occasionally
to
which
an open b a y .
the
(see Chapter
working
variation
from
the
of
the
pipe
4). They
parts
are
needle v a l v e
axis
require
inside
instead
but
of
the
the
being
withdrawn a x i a l l y .
Fig.
10.3
Needle v a l v e
Spherical Valves
( F i g - 10.4)
Spherical
have
valves
it.
When the v a l v e
the
bore
i s equal
the sphere,
rotary
p l u g with
is fully
opened
there
to
that
a n d normally
of
the pipe.
an
axial
hole t h r o u g h
i s no resistance to flow
The v a l v e s close b y
have a n offset
action
as
rotating
186
10.4
Fig.
Spherical
Reflux Valves
used
normal
to
flow
the flow
(Fig.
or
Reflux,
are
flow
the
or
check
the gate
the horizontally
gate
valves
in
automatically
conditions
stops,
keep
10.5)
non-return,
stop
the a i d o f s p r i ngs.
to
valve
as
the
they
i s k e p t open
by
open a t
practically
all
flows,
the flow
a l s o sometimes
u s e d to a s s i s t c l o s i n g .
Larger reflux
obstruct
the
in
which
flow,
to
flutter
at
case
and
Mounted in h o r i z o n t a l
tend
Under
and when
the flow,
in r a p i d c l o s i n g when
multi-gates,
direction.
h i n g e d g a t e closes b y g r a v i t y o r w i t h
to assist
used
a r e also known,
reverse
the
swabbing
pipes,
low
thickness
of
the
t h e g a t e s of
flows,
and
for
does
or
stop.
it
Springs are
v a l v e s may h a v e
of e a c h g a t e w i l l
pipeline
could be
may
be
partially
difficult.
some t y p e s o f r e f l u x v a l v e s
this
reason
an
offset
hinge
AIR
VALVES
Two
One
types
is a
(see a l s o
1943).
of
air
small-orifice
large-orifice
Lescovich,
release
1972;
valves
automatic
air
are
Parmakian,
normally
1950;
used
Sweeton,
i n pipelines.
a i r vent v a l v e .
A i r Vent V a l v e s
When a p i p e l i n e i s f i l l e d ,
profile,
thereby
increasing
losses a n d r e d u c i n g
the capacity
of
187
the
Air
pipeline.
permit
also
air
let
in
air
the
into
pipeline.
Without
collapse,
or
It
is also
cause
valves
pipe
the
normally
to escape when
installed
displaced
by
p i p e l i n e d u r i n g scouring o r
at
peaks
the f l u i d .
to
They
when emptying
the
u n d e s i r a b l e to
hammer
have a i r
pressure
T h e s e a l i n g element
full,
are
water
pipeline.
is
vent
i s seated
fluctuations
during
operation
i s a buoyant b a l l which,
a g a i n s t a n opening a t
the top of
may
of
the
when the p i p e
the v a l v e .
When
being f i l l e d
pipe and
the
valve
will
remain
l i f t s the b a l I a g a i n s t
open u n t i l
the seating.
When the p i p e
the water f i l l s
The v a l v e w i l l
the
not open
10.5
Fig.
The
Reflux v a l v e
valve
will
tend
should be r e a l i s e d t h a t
psi)
will
cause
sonic
Pressure differences
close
some
air
vent
blow
to
closed
a differential
velocity
of
0.027
around
valves.
The
at
high
air
velocities.
pressure of o n l y 0.1
air
N/mrn2
through
the
valve
N/mmz
It
(13
(300m/s).
( 4 p s i ) h a v e been found to
slamming
closed
may
damage
the
hollow b a l l seal.
In
practice
diameter
approximately
l/lOth
of
the p i p e diameter
188
is
used,
although
preferable.
t i o n diameter,
The
larger
The v a l v e
size
diameters
duplicate
installations
the size of
the
are
i n l e t connec-
air
vent
scouring
through
an o r i f i c e i s approximately
pressure
rate
valve w i l l
desired
same
and
i s r e f e r r e d to b y
of
the
difference,
depend on
pipe.
The
r a t e of
flow
of
air
ful I
but
filling or
the r a t e of
volume
vacuum
pressure
should
not
be
a1 lowed to develop.
A i r vent
relative
to
Various
the
possible
during
rule
is
the
of
During
vent
free
the
air
fitting
as a l l
air
flow
is
release
air
the
equal
the a i r
valves
area
most
the
the
gradient.
including
reverse
gradients
They
normally
fitted
r a t e of
should
initial
difficult
r a t e of
discussed
derived
m2
at
are
as
are
in
the
both
hydraulic
valve,
in m 3 / s
air
operations,
will
to
gradients
orifice
of
relative
b e considered.
sizing
thumb
valves
taken
an
for
r a t e of
of
should
with
sec t ion.
Equations
and
hydraulic
scouring,
Combination
flow
horizontal
to
evacuation
the
the
in
Chapter
be
Q/lOO
pressure.
factor
filling
in
air
line.
next
5.
As
where
The r a t e of
determine
of
in
though.
through
all
Care should be
be stopped a n d water
hammer
i s possible.
A i r Release Valves
Air
i s e n t r a i n e d in water
suction r e s e r v o i r o r
pockets
there
or
velocity
the
by
suction
reservoir.
The
air
may
be
at air
released when
i n pressure,
i s increased through
a r e s t r i c t i o n such as a p a r t i a l l y closed
An
valve.
from
in
i s a drop
in many ways;
increase i n temperature w i l l
solution.
Small
orifice a i r
also cause a i r
release
valves
are
to be released
i n s t a l l e d on
the
orifice
usually
air
valves
are
designated
12 to 50 mm diameter.
by
the
pressure
in
the
pipeline,
which
is
on
the
average
i n l e t connection
to 10 mm diameter.
the smaller
entrained
their
2% of
be a f u n c t i o n of
the
The
need be t h e o r i f i c e
volume of
the a i r
water
(at
189
atmospheric p r e s s u r e ) , (see Chapter 5 ) .
The small
o r i f i c e release v a l v e s a r e sealed b y a f l o a t i n g b a l l , o r
the
i n the connection on
needle
release v a l v e s
valve
will
a r e often
top of
open
and
release
combined w i t h
double
air
valve,
(see
Fig.
air.
drop
orifice
vent
valves
The arrangement i s c a l l e d
An
10.6).
will
Small
large orifice a i r
the b a l l
the
isolating
sluice
valve
is
LAREE ORIFICE
AIR VENT VALVE
10.6
Fig.
Double a i r v a l v e
Double a i r
valves
should
be
installed
at
peaks
in
the
pipeline,
They
should
also
be
points
along
l e n g t h of
grade
line.
It
should
installed
be
borne
a l o n g i n the d i r e c t i o n of flow
in
sections
Double a i r
falling
at
p i p e l i n e which
slowly
in
in
the
ends
is parallel
mind
that
air
and
intermediate
to the h y d r a u l i c
may
be
dragged
v a l v e s should be f i t t e d every
to
the
hydraulic
gradient.
to 1 km along descending
A i r release v a l v e s should a l s o be i n s t a l l e d on a l l
long ascending
190
lengths of
due
to
pipeline
the
where
lowering
of
in g r a d i e n t .
decrease
discharge
side
of
air
the
is
likely
pressure,
to
again
especially
at
p o i n t s of
pumps
and
at
high
points
on
large
valves
and
upstream of o r i f i c e p l a t e s a n d r e d u c i n g tapers.
THRUST BLOCKS
1969)
Unbalanced
thrust
results
at
bend
in
pipeline
due
to
two
The
act ions:
(1)
The dynamic
force
thrust
any
in
direction
proportional
is
to
the
change
in
where
is
direction
x.
compared
force,
the
and A Vx
flow
(10.1)
oqAVx
is
the
the reduction of
T h i s force
with
the
is,
force
fluid
mass density,
i s the
i n the
due
to
the
internal
negligible
pressure
in
the
pipe.
(2)
The t h r u s t
i n the d i r e c t i o n of each
pressure i n the p i p e i s :
Fx2
where p
of
(10.2)
PA
i s the i n t e r n a l pressure,
p i p e flow a n d
10.7).
The
0 i s the a n g l e of d e v i a t i o n o f the p i p e ( F i g .
resultant
outward
thrust
is
the
vector
sum of
the
and is
2pA s i n 0 / 2
(10.3)
an
all-welded
pipeline,
or
against
the foundation m a t e r i a l .
size of
the
addition
and
to
block
concrete
thrust
block
bearing
frictional
resistance on
the circumference of
against
by
the
the
pipeline,
bottom
there
the p i p e a n d block.
of
is
the
thrust
lateral
In
block
resistance
The maximum r e s i s t i n g
191
pressure
mass w i l l o f f e r
soi
1 + sin@ +
~ s 1h - s i n @
1969)
sin<
2cJ 1 - s i n @
where f
is
cohesion.
If
the
thrust
'
HZ
=
Ys-2
This
thrust
maximum
block
a n d i t s l e n g t h i s L, the total r e s i s t i n g t h r u s t i s
block
sin6
sin6
kHLJ
possible
1 + sin$
1 - sin
resistance
will
ponding
maximum
minimum
pressure
pressure,
which
soil
pressure
which
may
be
is
termed
(10.5)
only
be
developed
mass s l i g h t l y .
the
passive
if
the
thrust
block
if
the
The corres-
pressure.
The
i s the a c t i v e
were
free
to
Ifa
which
ysh 1
sin4 -
+ s i n @ "1
i s considerably
$-si+ nm
sin4
(10.6)
Fig.
10.7
T h r u s t a t a bend
192
10.6
Fig.
Thrust block
the
p a s s i v e pressure,
not permissible.
the
soft
block
the
to
activate
excavation.
rest"
full
of
The
horizontal
used
These
in a l l o w i n g
internal
stress
soil
to 0.7
for
friction
i n Table 10.1.
to
for very
pressure
(CP
1972),
are
seldom
vertical
less
usually
at
i n w a r d movement of
passive
movements
the p i p e i s
varies
soil
p l a sti c clays.
stress
the top of
from
where H
T h e "at
varies
H/20
for
i s the depth
permissible,
coefficients a r e p r o b a b l y more r e a l i s t i c .
loose sands
of
safety
movement of
"at
of
of
thrust
of
A factor
as f u l l
and the
rest" r a t i o
from
0.4 for
for
v a r i o u s soils a r e
indicated
193
Strength of Soils - t y p i c a l
TABLE 10.1
Type of soil
values
Angle of f r i c t i o n
Cohesion
N/rnmz
Gravel
35 O
Sand
30
Silt
28 O
0.007
Dense c l a y
5"
0.035
Soft s a t u r a t e d c l a y
0.15
Exarnp I e
Calculate
pressures a t
the
size of
N/rnrnz.
block
to r e s i s t
the u n b a l a n c e d
L e n g t h of 1 p i p e l e n g t h = 10 r n ,
C = 0.005
@ = 30,
thrust
i n a 1 000 rnrn d i a m e t e r p i p e o p e r a t i n g a t
a 45O b e n d
a p r e s s u r e o f 2.0
1 m,
N/mmz.
depth =
L a t e r a l f o r c e F = 2 x 2.0
3 x -If
s i n 2 2 i 0 = 1.20 MN.
T r y a t h r u s t b l o c k 3 x 3 ~ 3rn:
Weight of t h r u s t b l o c k 3 x 3 ~ 3 ~200x9.8/10
2
Weight of 10 rn l e n g t h of p i p e
Weight of w a t e r
i n p i p e 0.785x1zx10x9.8x1
OOO/lO'
600kN
40kN
80kN
Weight o f s o i l a b o v e p i p e l x l x 7 x l 8O0x9.8/1O3
130kN
Total weight
850kN
F r i c t iona I resistance 0 . 3 ~ 8 5 0
250kN
889kN
640kN
L a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e o f soi I a g a i n s t b l o c k :
1 + sin$
~1
sin$
1 + 0.5
1 - 0.5
32
~+32/ ~1 5 ~' v3 3~ 3
F = 18 0 0 0 ~ ~ ~ 3O3
L a t e r a l resistance of soil a g a i n s t p r o j e c t i o n of p i p e :
(18 000x1 . 5 x 3 / 1 0 3 x 2 x 5 j 3 )
Total
1x6.5
l a t e r a l resistance
= 1770kN
F a c t o r o f s a f e t y 1.77/1.20
1.48
A t h r u s t b l o c k s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d so t h a t t h e l i n e o f a c t i o n o f the
resultant
the
pipe.
may
best
of
the
resisting
This w i l l
forces
prevent
be done g r a p h i c a l l y
of the p i p e .
coincides w i t h
overturning or
or by
taking
the
l i n e of
t h r u s t of
u n b a l a n c e d stresses.
moments a b o u t
This
the centre
194
Thrust
blocks
horizontal
not
be
alignment
able
coupl ings.
to
needed
of
the
not
only
pipeline,
changes
in
vertical
or
i n s t a l led
removal
transmit
at
as
on one side of
and
are
a valve
of
the
longitudinal
forces,
i n a v a l v e chamber,
valve.
The opposite
such
to f a c i l i t a t e i n s t a l l a t i o n
wall
of
the
valve
chamber
-li;
10.9
Fig
Segment geometry
bend.
The
There
i n t e r a c t i o n of
are
involved.
above
a
many
The
ground,
tendency
of
effects
on
the
circumferent i a l l y
tial
a p i p e and
secondary
temperatures,
are
plinths
pipe
under
and
i t s supports
tertiary
general ly
or
to
the
secondary
by
effects
greatest
other
expand
of
strains
i s a complex subject.
forces
or
isolated
contract
and
in
displacements
pipes
supports.
There
longitudinally
temperature change,
due
supported
is
and
differen-
195
and
partial
pipe
or
f i x i t y of
total
vertically,
supports which
longitudinally
and
impose
forces on the
laterally.
iio
the
support
is
less force or
circumferential
longitudinal
Secondary;
due
to
due to
internal
internal
pressure
bending a t elbows,
across
supports.
Temperature
strains
at
angle
right
to
branches,
effects.
primary
the
cross
section.
changes i n section a n d
Poisson
strain.
ratio
Due
to
counter-
reaction
of
supports.
Tertiary;
Al though
the
secondary
accounted f o r i n p i p e design,
and
tertiary
stresses
are
often
not
Longitudinal Stress
If
the end of
a p i p e i s b l a n k e d o f f a n d u n h e l d the l o n g i t u d i n a l
stress i n the p i p e w a l l
i .e.
The
Poisson
and
the circumferential
if
Wpd/2t
is
the
and
modulus,
stress.
ratio
effects
ends
are
tries
held
corresponding
the
wall
r a t i o (about 0.3
reduce
to
the
wall
force
is
thickness,
the
tensile
length
Vp-irdz/2 where
the
strain
by
stress
E
and
vLpd/2tE
becomes
is
the
is
Ee
elastic
Poisson's
for s t e e l ) .
Temperature stresses
A pipe w i l l
expand or
contract
A
where
pipe
the
restrained
coefficient
"C a n d for p l a s t i c ,
If
there
Circumferential
is
longitudinally
of
expansion
will
for
undergo
steel,
, is
stress
12 x
aEAT
-6
10
per
50 x
temperature
gradient
across
the
pipe
wall
196
Forces at Bends
The force due to water
is
PA.
The
where
is
with
net
resultant
force
thrust
block
it
acting
outwards
i s 2pA
I f the r e s u l t a n t force
creates
longitudinal
a p i p e bend
sin
(8/2)
i s not countered
force
in
the
pipes
equal to 2pA s i n 2 ( 8 / 2 ) .
Lateral Movement
A
straight
outwards
a t u r e etc.,
pipe
of
relatively
length
big
fixed
amount
at
under
both
ends
expansion
will
due
to
buckle
temper-
b y an amount
(10.8)
dy
since dy2
+ (x/2)*
(x/2 + d ~ / 2 ) ~
dy =
x =
loom,
dy =
400 x
e.9.
I f the
pipe
-6
d x = xaAT = 100 x 12 x 10
0.02/2
supports
or
to
required
to
that
t i o n of
= lm.
restrained
is
between
x 20 = 0.02m
twist
laterally
supports
prevent
a simple supported
the
or
it
could
exert
buckling.
try
lateral
For example,
( l a t e r a l l y ) p i p e beam,
dy,
to
buckle
force
equal
the deflec-
under a force
F is
dy =
:.
FL3/EI
48
f o r above example.
1 x 210 x
= 40
lo9
1
13x.01/(1003x-~
48
kN
The l a t e r a l deflection
is
referred
pipe
fixed
at
both
ends
with
to
as
snaking
and
can
cause
elbow
will
bend outwards
dx
is
+ y/b)
the
net
expansion
in
length
of
pipe
with
length
197
Forces on Supports
The
equal
forces
and
on
the
opposite
support
to
the
blocks or
forces
p i l l a r s or
exerted
by
hangers w i l l
the
supports
on
be
the
pipe.
Free
to
Slide:
The
h e l d p i p e equals
IJ
is
the
the
Fixed
force
pipe
on
force
of
the f r i c t i o n force on
f r i c t i o n coefficient
pipe
snaking
longitudinal
the
block.
and
There
is
a freely
the block.
sliding or
i s pW,
This
lateral
the
smaller
highly
where
( w e i g h t ) of
force
to
resist
to
Block:
which
and
The
resulting
force
is
can
be
imposed on block
block,
or
(ii)
ance of
support a t
tudinal
force
in
sliding
due
to
or
f r i c ion between
b y p i p e e.g.
resistance of
i ) maximum
of
block,
( i v ) maximum net
temperature
( i i i ) resist-
or
change,
total
longi-
Poisson
ratio
effect a n d bends.
There i s thus a d i s t i n c t i o n between the f r e e to s l i d e case a n d the
fixed
case
a n d case
in
that
( i ) or
(ii) will
apply
to a
"free
to s l i d e "
pipe
( i i i ) a n d ( i v ) w i l l g e n e r a l l y a p p l y to a p i p e r i g i d l y f i x e d
to the support.
Thus
be
the force
i s computed as above,
as
above etc.
no
force
at
that end,
F o r the f i r s t
a n d then case ( i i i ) or
For case
a p i p e i s free (see F i g .
i f one end of
obviously
few
a n d beyond the f i r s t
( i v ) w i l l take over
( i v ) the "force a t
support
( i ) or
as one
may
( i i ) may
of
these
i n fact
is
apply
less.
be that due
it
can
That
be
a n d opposite to those at
however
bends
there
may
expected
i s forces
be
i n one
that
bending
to t r y to s t r a i g h t e n the bend.
forces
direction
moments.
in
welded
pipework
For
instance a t
l i q u i d on the p i p e w a l l
elbows
or
inside a c t i n g
198
During
transient
unbalanced
instance
forces
pressure
direction.
length
unbalanced
could
closure
at
Although
and
conditions
which
following
hammer
flow
one
the
eventually
forces
which
of
end
there
pull
a
of
pressure
line
wave
re-balance
can
however
pipe
off
in
the
vapour
a
may
may
force
may
travel
there
cause s i g n i f i c a n t
large
supports.
a
pipe
the
forces,
be
pipe
along
are
For
water
in
the
one
pipe
momentary
movement s t a r t i n g at
bends.
Support
resistance
length x + dx
l a t e r a l movement
dy
Fig.
10.10
total force
F1 + F2 + F3
Temperature
Movement
5" E L T
loose c o u p l i n g
f r i c t i o n on
supports
Fig.
10.11
L o n g i t u d i n a l forces i n p i p e w a l l created b y f r i c t i o n
on supports
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Venturi Meters
The
with
Venturi
minimum
pipelines.
(Fig.
10.12)
meter
offers
an
accurate
head
loss.
It
is
The v e n t u r i
throat
used
method of
mainly
has a converging
flow
for
measurement
large-diameter
section and g r a d u a l l y
measurement
r e a r r a n g e d as
is
based
on
the
Bernoulli
equation
which
is
199
v22
29
--29V 1 2
h , - h 2
(10.9)
Solving f o r discharge
,/=
Q = CdA2
(10.10)
(10.11 )
where d
for
separation
flow
and
downstream
calibrated
pipe
in
at
conditions
place
diameters f o r
i s a velocity
the throat
in
the
double
bends,
smal I t h r o a t / p i p e
is
required
100 p i p e
lengths
10.12
meter
should
l e n g t h of a t
diameter r a t i o s ,
l a r g e r throats,
downstream
impart
be
least 5
increasing
o r from branches
s w i r l i n g motion may
before a
Fig.
venturi
pipe.
a n d should have a s t r a i g h t
very
to 10 o r even 20 p i p e diameters f o r
or
a n d includes a f a c t o r f o r upstream
meter.
The
head
need up
loss
in a
/2g.
2
Venturi meter
Nozz 1 es
A contracted form of v e n t u r i
a short
meter
which has
discharge
equation
is similar
to
that
for
the
venturi
meter
but
the
O r if ices
An
o r i f i c e consisting
of
thin
plate with
a central ori f i c e i s a
200
popular
method
appreciable
0.61.
of
measuring
orifice
contraction
flow
in
large
coefficient
which
The
velocity
straight
pipe.
head
it
recovery
i s short
The
is
low
may
There
be
as
is
an
low
as
10.10 where
a d v a n t a g e that
pipes.
but
the
orifice
has
the
a n d can be i n s t a l l e d i n a short l e n g t h of
lengths of
straight
the o r i f i c e a r e s i m i l a r to those f o r
p i p e r e q u i r e d on each side of
v e n t u r i meters.
The o r i f i c e should
Fig.
10.13
O r i f i c e meter
Bend Meters
on
be
the
used
inside,
due to c e n t r i f u g a l
force.
Cd
10.10 i s approximately
(10.13)
r/2d
to
meters which
water
consumers
is
invariably
has a r o t a t i n g t i l t e d disc w i t h
types have r o t a t i n g wheels,
measured
a p e r i o d of time.
by
mechanical
A common type
s p i n d l e which rotates a d i a l .
lobes o r propellers.
Other
201
There
also
is
deflected vane
type
immersed
of
meter
which
i n the flow.
reacts
to
the
drag
on
conduits as well.
The
rotometer consists of
has a taper
in
the
that
increasing
upward
flow
the d r a g on
diameter
in
through
it
calibrated
the
vertical
upwards.
tube.
The
tube
which
is suspended
float
float
glass
positions
itself
so
p a s t i t a n d the tube
Electromagnetic
By
motive
and
force
advantage
including
nique
there
an
and
no
is
can
be
does
around
can
not
l o s s of
obstruct
shock
pipe
measured.
of
head
The
and
non-conducting
this
means.
the
flow
and
and
i s also
has
the
liquids
of
similar
tech-
i s based on sonic
being
downstream
an electro-
method
variety
by
wave,
upstream
i n s e r t i n g electrodes,
be
measured
impressed
between
field
I i q u i d by
the
induced
also
of
difference
magnetic
ionizing
sewage
which
velocity
is
that
i n the tube.
Induction
creating
material
developed.
sonic
velocity
The
is
measured.
most
accurate
volumetrically.
over
volume
certain
flow
To
time
may
be
methods
of
measure
the
the
flow
measurement
mass
or
i s diverted
measured
from
the
of
flow
weight
of
are
i n t o a weighing
volume
filled
by
fluid
in
tank.
a
mass
flowing
The
certain
t ime.
TELEMETRY
Automatic
systems.
ling
which
methods.
Data
data
Telemetry
is
transmission
a n d control
systems a r e tending
more
expensive
and
i s often used on p i p e l i n e
to replace manual
less
reliable
d a t a hand-
than
automatic
pressures,
may
flows,
be
required
opening
of
include
valves,
water
levels
temperature,
in
reservoirs,
qua1 i t y
or
pro-
202
perties
of
the
fluid,
mation
is
read
by
pump
a
speed
standard
or
power
consumption.
instrument
linked
by
The
infor-
mechanical
analogue
usually
expensive
uously
than
by
the
systems
relays,
numbers.
as
private
sent
The
transmitter
are
are
signals
or
multiplex
cables.
common
to
termed
binary
contacts.
in
of
electric
possible
series
and
via
of
level
binary
in
groups
telephone
conductors
number
less
scanning.
code
Every
transmitted
pair
also
a d e f i n i t e combination of
be
One
feed.
messages
but
intervals,
transmitted
may
Analogue
accuracy)
converted
cores
digits.
may
regular
i s represented by
of
2 percent
to
at
data
Signals
plus
series
(up
The
bits.
bit,
in
magnetic
measurand
known
each
from a t r a n s m i t t e r
interrogated
coded
or
or
digital.
be
digital
pulses
waves
out
less accurate
or
With
of
be sent
is
u n i t s of
lines
needed for
data
may
be
Alternatively
over
short
hydraulic
distances
by
or
pneumatic
pipe.
Radio
signals
may
transmission
be
conveyed
becomes
economic
transmission
to
information
the
extreme
a
or
decoder
analogue
play
to
to
data
of
diagram
dials
at
the
will
digital
or
digital
readings
values
mimic
system
and
bank
or
stored
may
the
measurand.
(a
for
be
on
p a p e r or
directly
decision-making
programmed
pumps
which
to
information
be fed
which
would
close
may
or
would
valves
r e l i e f mechanisms.
or
means
or
The
of
be
fed
of
discs
later
stage
manipulat i n g
result
the
system,
in
or
the
The
hydraulic
data
or
to
sound
decoded
feeds
the
alarms
at
displayed
on
system
with
tights
These diagrams
storage
cards.
a
data.
for
minimum
power demand.
operate
to
tapes,
be
rooms.
also
at
receiver
decoder
frequently
is
picture)
lights
Data
to
S i g n a l s can
magnetic
or
messages
versa.
charts
diagramatic
to optimize
match
by
dials,
p o s i t i o n of
the
comparater.
vice
on
a r e mounted i n c e n t r a l control
The
send
system
The
computer
information
to
be
L a r g e computers
instance b y selecting
pumping
cost,
computer could
machinery
or
and
or
send
water
used
can
those
turbines
signals
hammer
203
Mini
of
digital
computers
but
They
be
can
automatically
which
or
computers
telemetered
they
systems.
are
considerably
programmed
but
are
cannot
not
now
They
the
are
most
popular
sI ight ly
cheaper
cheaper
to
be
perform
used
programmed.
than
larger
certain
easily
They
can
for
other
of control
than
digital
tasks
be
form
or
analogue
computers.
computat ions
computations
increased
for
in c a p a c i t y
l i n k e d to l a r g e r computers as t h e need a r i s e s .
REFERENCES
Boucher, P . L . ,
1948. Choosing v a l v e s , K i Imarnock.
B r i t i s h V a l v e M a n u f a c t u r e r s Assn.
1964. V a l v e s f o r the C o n t r o l of
Fluids.
BS 1042, Flow measurement, BSI, London.
C a p p e r , P.L. a n d Cassie, W.F.,
1969. The M e c h a n i c s o f E n g i n e e r i n g
Soils, 5 t h E d . , Spon, London.
CP 1972. L a t e r a l S u p p o r t i n S u r f a c e E x c a v a t i o n s , S.A.
Instn. C i v i l
Engs.
L e s c o v i c h , J.E.,
1972. L o c a t i n g a n d s i z i n g a i r r e l e a s e v a l v e s . J. Am.
Water Works Assn., 64 ( 7 ) .
M o r r i s o n , E.B.,
1969. Nomograph f o r the d e s i g n of t h r u s t b l o c k s , C i v i l
Engg., Am. SOC. C i v i l Eng.
P a u l , L . , 1954. Selection of v a l v e s f o r w a t e r s e r v i c e s . J. Am. Water
Works Assn., 46 ( 1 1 ) 1057.
P a r m a k i a n , J.,
1950. A i r i n l e t v a l v e s f o r steel p i p e l i n e s . T r a n s . Am.
SOC. C i v i l Engs., 115 ( 4 3 8 ) .
Sweeten,
A.E.,
1943. A i r i n l e t v a l v e d e s i g n f o r p i p e l i n e s . E n g g .
News Record, 122 ( 3 7 ) .
L I S T OF SYMBOLS
A
soi I cohesion
con t r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
d i sc h a r g e coef f i c i en t
velocity
i n t e r n a l diameter
strain
e l a s t i c modulus
stress
force
gravitational
h o r H
d e p t h below s u r f a c e
cC
cross sectional a r e a
coefficient
cV
acceleration
f l u i d pressure
flow r a t e
r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e
wal I
thickness
temperature
velocity
normal force
length
direct ions
I a t e r a I d i s p I acement
temperat u r e c o e f f i c i e n t
soil density
f r i c t i o n coefficient
Poisson's r a t i o
s o i l mass d e n s i t y
a n g l e of
i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n of s o i l
205
CHAPTER 1 1
SELECTING A ROUTE
The
selection of
bearing
is
on
the
selected
on-site
capital
from
inspections
obstacles
and
have
the
profile
conditions
should
hydraulic
gradient
above
the
obviously
pumps
may
result
i n water
of
level
grade
the
be
to
is
data
In
selecting
considered.
the
i s flattest
line
and
Care
pipeline
on
route,
the
the
grade
as
low
flows).
the
input
If
be
p o i n t s of
(Low-flow
r o u t e should
possible
to
On
as
the
were
a peak
heads,
t h i s peak.
separation
the other
be kept
as
discharge
p o s s i b l e water column
hammer overpressures.
and
to ensure
rates,
there
and
terrain,
line.
peak
route
plans,
costs
should be taken
well
important
cadastral
available
as
for
between
costs.
hydraulic
considered
pipeline
as
other
below
be
operating
topographical
also
lines
any
services.
grade
Peaks
and
photos,
and
local
prcticability
ground
cost
aerial
a p i p e l i n e has an
which
h a n d the general
near
to the h y d r a u l i c
pipe
costs.
Once
surveyor.
regular
tions.
in
Pegs
Offset
for
is
in
along
changes
laying.
and
depth
in
the
it
is
pegged
centre-line
out
10
at
i n g r a d e a n d at
The
l e v e l s of
pegs
the
drawing
office,
at
peg.
indicated
identify
may
selected,
to
horizontal
by
100 m
deflec-
to
plotted
tests
is
at
then
the r o u t e to
Strength
route
put
pegs,
use d u r i n g
levels
along
are
intervals and
profile
bed
preliminary
each
a r e observed a n d the
with
Holes
ground
may
levels,
be augered
be done on s o i l
trench
s h o r i n g w i l l be necessary.
Underground
at
and
this
stage
and
or
underground
at
overhead
least
cables
services
before
may
excavation
have
a heading c o u l d be hand-excavated
should
to
be
to
be
accurately
avoid
supported
under them).
them.
on
located
(Drains
bridges,
or
206
L A Y I NG AND TRENCH I NG
type of
The
of
p i p e to be used for
economics,
although
materials
and
delivered
pipes
rigidity,
size of
pipes
are
be
supplied
and
to
in
i n t o the
For
small
may
be
lines
for
at
trench.
varies
small
pipe
Concrete
pipes may
p l a s t i c p i p e s may
handled
carefully
They
w a l l e d welded pipes,
side of
the trench,
The
working
width
the
method
laying
is
pipes.
and
widths
of
the
to
should
avoid
be
Pipes may
stored
be
low-
thick
laying
w h i l e steel
walled
pipe
weight,
jointing.
sandbags.
or
the
lengths
the
method of
be
of
The
pipe,
distortion.
the
diameter
working
or
of
thin
should
padded c r a d l e s
with
and
excavation,
ally,
on
diameter
excavation
Pipes
or
life
decision.
m lengths,
and
l a r g e l y be a matter
laying,
type
and
to 4
long,
will
job
for
the
the
vehicles
trench by
done
i n t o the
of
rolls.
coatings
transported
ered
20
even
on
in 2
often s u p p l i e d
over
affect
depend
transport
any
facilities
factors
will
10 or
be
damage
other
the
done
On
to
up
wrapping
'snaked'
required for
of
excavation
by
hand,
the
possibly
20 to 30 m a r e common,
j o i n t i n g and
a n d the p i p e then
construction of pipeand
hand for
other
m may
be
be
If
wide
large
even s i t e coating
50
laying.
3 m may
the
enough
mains where
i s done mechanic-
required.
Reserve
widths
a n d allow
l i n e s at a l a t e r stage.
Once
the
the
trench
trench
with
i s excavated,
the
centre
sight
of
line
is
may
case
are
avoid
necessary
in
be reduced
a
concrete
0.5
normally
widening
300
normally
damage
mm
and
the
with
U.K.
cover
to
0.8
which
to
minimum
may
m
be
more
for
are
loads.
prevent
steep
i n rocky o r
pipe
be
set
marked
up across
thereon.
The
1970).
superimposed
deepening
diameter
jointing).
laid
by
the
may
rails
frost
cover
0.9
of
minimum
penetration.
than
joints.
difficult
the
(0.8
to
The
pipe
is
width
of
diameter,
used
straddle
for
while
of
The depth
necessary.
1.2
to
cover
i n which
trench
is
with
local
pipes
over
laying
and
207
The
sides of
hesive
or
shoring
wet
open
the
soils
and
for
the sides of
angle.
should
deep
trenches,
Spoil
At
least
be
one
kept
trench
r e q u i r e d i n the bottom of
dry
h a v e to be supported
will
for
safety
Alternatively
slips.
trench
while working,
to
enable
be
open
the
to
away
trench
is
advisable.
i n wet
to
and
ground
lead
away
to a safe
in
water.
In
to a v o i d
D r a i n s may be
of embankment s l i p s a n d
be compacted p r o p e r l y .
bedded
The
l a t e r a l s o i l pressure.
depth
a
reasons.
be b a t t e r e d back
to reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y
backfill
jointed
cross-drains
well
i n unco-
stone
very
D r a i n p i p e s should
filter
wet
with
ground
frequent
cutoff
drains
may
bedding
reduce
is
be
damage
shaped
to
sandy
fit
to
or
may
haunches of
settlement
the
and
flat
minimize
pipes.
profile
crushed
the
on
to
rigid
the
material
gravel
bedded
preferable
of
The
the
pipe,
up
b e d of
pipe.
20
to
a r e often
a r e easy
should
bottom,
of
the
In
but
trench
rocky
to
used,
compact.
be continuous
in
mm
as
be
a
to
the
do not e x h i b i t much
they
beds
and
haunches o r
low-pressure r i g i d p i p e s a n d sewers.
under
joints
but
11.1
typical
bedding
bedding.
pre-
bed of
up
Fig.
of
to
Beds of sand,
brought
proper
may
ground
size,
Concrete
f l e x i b l e pipes o r
be b u i l t up a n d trimmed to shape.
stone
trench
deflections
(Refer
to
Chapter
associated w i t h d i f f e r e n t types of b e d d i n g )
to
shows
factors
1970).
soil.
(PI),
with
Soil properties
liquid
low
may
For
stampers o r
vibrators.
the
compact
Proctor
high
should
LL
often
soils,
be
dynamic
Density.
the bed w i t h a w i d t h of at
be
up
100
compacted
index
( P I = LL-PL).
satisfactorily
compacted
compaction
B a c k f i l l densities may be
Standard
the p i p e to 95 to
density
limit
PI'S fill
inundation.
of
may
%
in
For
pipes
required
by
i.e.
specified i n terms
it
is
practice
to
Proctor density.
100 to
large
is
For soils
merely
150 mm
95% Proctor
I t may
208
be necessary to s t r u t f l e x i b l e p i p e i n s i d e to prevent d i s t o r t i o n d u r i n g
t h i s operation.
fill
The
around
the
top
half
of
the pipe,
to 300
up
90-95%
to
Proctor
85%
quired.
is
the top
density,
normally
while
for
sufficient
in
open
h a v e stones
width
of
to
in
it.
compensate
topsoi I
and
Surplus
for
spoil
and
fill
around
re-
densities
the p i p e should
settlement
vegetation,
country
be
i s b a d ( R e i t r , 1950).
To a v o i d damage to p i p e o r coatings,
not
110% may
runways
carted
or
p r o v i s i o n of
land
away.
the
trench
Reinstatement
drainage,
and
fencing
1956).
THRUST BORES
To
avoid
traffic
soil
on
for
be
thrust
r o a d over
short
block
jack
or
Small
timber
pipes
shoe
the
d i r e c t i o n of
the
pipe.
the
may
pipe
is
inserted
The
in
stick.
by
the
then
With
auger
the
force
to 1 200 tons,
pipes
if
an
in
auger
end of
the
i t s back
may
the
pipes
and
length to
have
of
the
the
soil
bore
a
the
sharp
deviate
lubricated
stop
for
or
the
pipe
The
r e t r a c t e d a n d another
pipe
and
ahead of
with
long
pipe.
pipe
i s used,
load a n d main-
is
never
removed
the j a c k
push
pipe
should
the
against
up on r a i l s i n front
diameter)
of
Pushing
to
disrupting
the s l i g h t e s t obstacle w i l l
outside
hand
each
to ease the j a c k i n g
larger
or
required
but
at
avoid
be j a c k e d through
hole w i t h
rnrn
as
pushed i n f u r t h e r ,
behind
one
600
than
reduce f r i c t i o n .
jacking
i s dug
up
to
or
the p i p e may
hole
the p i p e ,
Occasionally
to
out
pipe,
f i t t e d to the f r o n t
bentonite
pipe
excavations,
a n d the p i p e set
(less
tain
dug
i s set
head or
is
deep
lengths.
jacked.
jack.
excessively
through
the
with
the
process
a
shoe
100 ton j a c k
repeated.
may
be up
may suffice.
PIPE BRIDGES
Pipes f r e q u e n t l y
rigid
jointed
pipes
h a v e to span r i v e r s o r
may
have
sufficient
gorges.
strength
support
them-
209
Class A bedding
Reinforced A,:
RamforcedA,
Dt 200 v m mln
M= 4
0 4%M. 3
I 0%
:
M.28
PI","
0 IZ5H
150 mm l l i "
0 25 d
I O O m m mm
Plain or Reinforced
bncr.1e 1 5 0 m k mi
Compocted
Gronulor t4
Y
CONCRETE ARCH
Class B bedding
M=
19
Dens@
Compacted
Bochf~l1
Class C bedding
M : I ~
01251'
Lightly
tO"'p0ct.
Bocuftll
GRANULAR IFOUNDATION
CiKANULAK
WUNUAII~
Class D bedding
refi1l.d
M-bedding
Fig.
11.1
support
from
Types of beddings
plus
selves
an
factor
the
the
pipe
existing
fluid.
For
larger
spans,
it
may
bridge.
If
truss
be
or
bridge
necessary
to
h a n g the
pipe
is
con-
to
be
210
structed for
the
the bottom,
of
or
bridge
is
Two
cables
the
hangers
pipe.
as
one
with
attached
an
ing,
wind
the
at
but
on
stays
an
preferably
could
The
be
along
the
tension member at
A n a t t r a c t i v e form
from
may
suspension
could
also
support
to
act
erected.
would
together
In
the
all
pipe
the
wind forces
be
designed
to
be
necessary
w i t h cross brac-
cases
should
p i p e to prevent
and
p l a n e through
the p i p e against
pipe
cables.
be spaced a p a r t
the v e r t i c a l
lateral
bridge,
the
T h i s means there w i l l
steel.
joint
they
to
designed
independent
welded
expansion
as
to support
again
be
as
the top.
supported
angle
helps
p i p e s could
cable
or
pipe
an
act
member a t
vibrations.
arch,
two
ported
p i p e could
a r e p r e f e r a b l e to one,
reduces
either
of
the
T h i s arrangement
and
act
pipe,
the compression
except
be
if
sup-
r i g i d jointed;
h a v e to be some form
thermal
stresses
devel-
oping.
The
often
is
it
laying
or
is
and
through
depend
In
common.
is
very
addition
Gas
and
which
on
pipes.
conditions
The
such
under-water
Floating
to
river
lines
as
currents,
crossings,
from
undersea
undersea
a r e also many
or
sludge
into
underwater
wave
In
calm
water
out
and
sunk.
thus.
Care
is
needed
on
nevertheless
height,
beds
industthe
sea
laying
will
type
of
bed
pipe:
floated
laid
winches
There
effluent
a n d Sinking:
shore,
been
discharge
expensive,
oil
t a n k e r b e r t h s a r e frequent.
towns
undersea
on
underwater
inescapable.
a n d length of
(1)
pipes
becoming
off-shore
ries
of
laying
barges
should
be
the p i p e may
Lengths
in
up
sinking
positioned
be j o i n t e d
500
to
the
along
have
rn
pipe
the
and
line
to
assist.
(2)
Bottom
be
Towing:
assembled
towed
along
Lengths
on
land
the
bed
are
jointed
bouyed
to
each
Strings
sea.
is
pipe,
i n strings,
to
sea
at
the
up
the
The
to
pipe
of
anchored
pipe
of
up
by
air
reduce f r i c t i o n
in
on
by
the
the
few
up
a
kilometres
may
long,
and
km
to
winch
together
pipe
sea
or
barge
on
the
shore.
by
buoys
of
bed.
If
the
tied
pipe
211
i s f i l l e d with
air
crete
to
coating
would
be
line.
get
susceptible
The stresses
caused
The
i t may
by
the
to
correct
side
buoyancy.
currents
i n the p i p e due
underwater
lateral
h a v e to be weighted down
drag
per
currents
unit
to
the
or
length
and
light
may
to
a cona
bend
tension
waves
due
Too
by
pipe
out
of
and bending
may
waves
be
critical.
and
currents
is
( u + v ) ~D/2g
Cow
where C
weight
pipe),
(about 0 . 9 ) ,
i s the d r a g coefficient
D
of
current
(11.1)
the
water,
velocity
is
(or
the
is
the
their
wave
components
outside diameter of
i s the s p e c i f i c
velocity
and
perpendicular
the p i p e a n d g
is
the
to
the
is gravi-
t a t i o n a l acceleration.
(3)
Lay
Barge:
jointed
an
on
arm
Pipes
a
may
special
(or
be
taken
lay-barge
stringer)
into
to
sea
in
pipe
barge,
a n d lowered continuously
place.
The
barges
down
proceed f o r w a r d
as l a y i n g proceeds.
(4)
Underwater
pipe
has
Jointing:
to
be
Underwater
accurately
jointing
aligned.
It
i s usually
currents.
the
to b u r y
is
trench
before
fluidizer
the
pipe
is
depths (Reynolds,
passes of
the f l u i d i z e r
long length.
The
trench
High-pressure
a r e r e q u i r e d so that
Too
deep
1970)
to
or be washed into
normally
jets
of
has
water
to
be
fluidize
A number of
over
each
1971).
(Schwartz,
as
be r e q u i r e d ,
laid.
A novel way of
difficult
diver w i l l
over-excavated.
bed
necessary
the p i p e s i n k s g r a d u a l l y
underwater
should
be
pipes
well
are
cwted
steel
and
with
lined
welded
and
joints.
cathodic
Pipes
protection
and
is
212
JOINTS AND FLANGES
The
of
type
pipe,
joint,
of
the
joint
to
use on
facilities
strength
and
flexibility
of j o i n t s a r e used ( E E U A ,
(I)
Butt-welded:
1968)
The
approximately
joint
is
clamped
right
around
walls
may
of
good
depand
cost,
on
the
type
watertightness
The
steel
back,
following
in
more
runs.
weld
the
pipe
leaving
tacked
or
require
make
the
30'
one
will
site,
requirements.
and/or
with
also
to
pipeline
on
of
types
:-
ends
bevelled
difficult
available
places
and
root.
then
pipes
inside,
lining
trued
mm
and
Large
pass
internal
are
The
welded
with
thick
although
it
in
pipes
less
may
be
flared
is
than
600 mm bore.
(2)
Sleeve
to
welded:
form
barrel
of
welded
inside
and
One
socket
the
the
end
and
other
too.
of
the
pipe.
If
lining,
if
pipe
edge
possible
11.2).
(see F i g .
internal
steel
leading
fillet
the
welded
joint
The e x t e r n a l
possible,
should
Two
methods
welding
and
essential
to
thorough
metallic
testing
and
to
including
the
air
should
weld
are
pockets
ultra-sonic
tion
and
and
useful
pipes,
the
or
film
single
is
but
For
from
may
is
X-ray,
are
Gamma-ray
around
smaller
may
the
where
of
double,
to
the
pipe
but
Strips
a n d bent over
and
Normally
etched
field
for
tests
hi gh defini-
With
in
to
magnetic
i s more
corners.
is
welding.
necessary.
p i p e to receive
pipes,
the
Gamma-ray,
inserted
gas
cavities.
possible
preferred
be
good
welding
lengths
be
equipment
inaccessible
made
avoid
ground
inclusions.
X-rays
and
the p i p e w a l l
weld
be
Oxy-acetylene
accompany
short
e i t h e r by
equipment
wrapped
wall.
on
tests
The
otherwise
X-ray
should
should
off.
Top-class
strength
confined
slag
methods.
contrast
for
be
cut
w i I I be non-destructive:
or
welding.
welds
radius.
available:
weld
destructive
predetermined
reveal
arc
high
sample
field
are
programme
testing
occasional
welding
achieve
Destructive
factory
of
the
p i p e coating
be
out
to
large-bore
the
the
portable
p i p e and
image from
overlapping
expo-
213
o m i t t e d for small
bore pipes
Fig.
11.2
Sleeve-welded
Fig.
11.3
Push-in
sures
are
made
joint
type j o i n t
from
outside,
thereby
exaggerating
defects
i n the near w a i l .
Welding
that
for
of
high
low-tensile
and post-heating
(3)
Screwed:
tensile
steels.
steels
require
Pre-heating
better
of
the
craftmanship
pipe
ends,
f o r stress r e l i e f a r e n o r m a l l y desirable.
Threaded
and
screwed
ends
and
sockets
are
only
(4)
Spigot
and
quently
socket:
Concrete,
have one
male end
socket
has
is
end
rubber
forced
cast
socketed
sealing
over
the
is
to
caulk
to
and
p l a s t i c pipes fre-
the other
gasket
ring.
shaped r u b b e r r i n g s a r e used.
resin.
iron
and
end
plain.
f i t t e d over
(see
i t a n d the
11.3).
Fig.
The
Various
i t w i t h bitumen compound,
cement
mortar,
lead or
hold
getting
rings
the
ring
into
the
can
in
place,
joint.
improve s e a l i n g
Spigot
normally
and
socket
accommodate
one
and
prevent
joints
or
with
two
dirt
rubber
degrees
of
available
for
(5)
Clamp-on
joints:
jointing
a
plain
rubber
to
as
illustrates
fixed
to
tension.
in
the
If
the
the
tension
the
of
The
and
as
brackets
type
and
diameter
parallel
ing
stresses
all
resist
four
of
the
to
the
are
for
this
the
for
transferring
coupling
the
(also
referred
These
designed
joints
to
take
longitudinal
or
tension,
tiebolts
brackets
even
bolts
barrel
shaped
pipe
axis.
to
may
take
In
in
fact
like
tie-bolt
used f o r
the
plan
to
take
bolts
are
it
be
the
to
of
the
shear
are
the
as
The
legs
legs of
a n d bend-
i s impossible to e l i m barrel
flanges,
iron
the
with
length
pipe
load
cast
bolts
minimize e c c e n t r i c i t y .
The
the
tie
selected
that
longitudinal
on
rings,
two
is
so
to
"U"
stresses
reason
sleeve.
designed
acceptable.
bending
be
clamping
cover
joint
pipes
by
or
and
Victaulic
to
normal l y
brackets
possible
bracket
pipe
of
may
pipe
involve
and
coupling).
between
to
are
normally
Dresser
each
Normally
the
are
the
inate
is
of
joints
barrel
sufficient.
welded
such
or
easily,
joint
designed.
close
pipe
deflection
barrel
walls
fully
one
movement
of
They
each
Johnson
degrees
movement.
proprietry
pipes.
between
Viking
accommodate
several
ended
seal
11.4
Fig.
Various
may
the
pipes,
with
be
pipe
brackets
preferable
wai I.
The
uses l i p s on the
215
Fig.
(6)
11.4
Slip-on
Flanged:
ends,
Steel
drilled
to
cast
if
Faces
rubber
rnrn
and
especially
frequently.
type coupling.
or
iron
p i p e s or
are
pipes
machined
other
insertion
standard
are
often
fittings are
patterns
and
bolted
gasket
flanged
likely
together
between.
according
to
at
the
to be removed
the
with
Flanges
are
diameter
and
working pressure.
Ful I
used
face
for
flanges.
than
to
over
pipe
the
pipe
but
end
around
the
front
around
the
pipe
inside
edges
of
method
The
to
of
tend
method
use
to
leave
of
flanges
dish
metal
less
attaching
the
pipe
and
at
the
Alternatively
flange
high
10
may
be
pressure
back
both
is
flanges
extending
then
of
bevelled
work
carried
the
one
for
to
bolts
the f l a n g e
mm
or
rings.
the
the
is
thick
have
joint
when
weld
are
slightly
with
approximately
fillet
barrel.
bore,
soft
simplest method i s to s l i p
for
or
iron
Some
for
pipe.
the
a n d the
diameter
pipes.
circle
the
of
preferred
cast
outside
rings
The
bolts
bolt
though.
the
an
of
joint
varies.
beyond
the
with
tightened
the
with
for
and
low-pressure
inside
used
holes
joints
diameter
and
face
Flanges
are
rings
inside
flanges
raised
with
high-pressure
Joint
the
steel
gaskets,
flange
of
the
welding.
have
lip
216
on
the
flange
projecting
Jointing
and
standard
thrust
codes of
the
end
of
the
pipe
that
so
w i l l be f l u s h a f t e r welding.
the
over
flanges
are
fairly
practice,
and
must
thick,
as
indicated
be securely
welded
by
to the
(1)
flanges
of
water
is
to
as
are
retaining
prevent
thick
tudinal
used
of
flanges
pipe
pipes
structures.
leakage
as
on
water
which
stress,
are
The
object
and
they
are
although
which
of
flange
in
these
are
designed
the
cast
not
to
walls
flanges
necessarily
transfer
should
be
longi-
securely
attached to the p i p e w a l l .
(2)
Blank
flanges
ends.
Their
moments
at
clamped
occurs
where
and
at
the
is
the
name
should
edges
implies,
be
the
the
the
the
perimeter
the
is
clamped
as
fluid
bolts,
flange
thickness.
maximum
stress
to
resist
For a c i r c u l a r
maximum
radial
and
pressure,
i n s t a l l e d at
calculated
at
are,
thickness
is
blank
bending
disc
rigidity
bending
equal
to
stress
pdZ/16t2
i s the p i t c h c i r c l e diameter
If
the
would
occur
at
the
rigidly
centre
and
COAT I NGS
Buried
steel
the p i p e
during
pipes
i s coated.
transport
are
laying
attack,
should
h a r d enough
to
stones
to
the
in
pipe
the
wall
to
Coatings should
and
biological
be
subject
electric
to
prevent
yet
pipe,
and
to
damage
moisture,
temperature
damage
sufficiently
flexible
and
unless
i d e a l l y be r e s i s t a n t to s c r a t c h i n g
the
currents
trench,
and
of
corrosion
enough
to
during
chemical
variations.
and
They
h a n d l i n g a n d due
adhesive
to
withstand
adhere
the
well
flexing
of
most
followed
outer
by
common
a
coating
wrapping.
brushing,
applied
The
sandblasting
by
spray,
coating
for
reinforced
pipe
or
brush
pipes
with
surface
is
acid pickling,
or
dipping
is
fibres
thin
and
initially
adhesive
then
possibly
cleaned
the
pipe
in
bath.
by
is
coat
an
wire
then
Bitumen
217
or
coal
coat
t a r enamel
the
woven
pipe
glass
pipe
bare
to
matting.
The coating
or
jointing
in
may
to 6 mm t h i c k ,
cement
be
primed
and
in
in
in
the
followed
tar.
by
felt
or
paper
or
The p i p e i s then
in
the f i e l d a f t e r
welding
The
total
thickness
left
of
tar
include
pitch,
epoxy
paints,
bedded on an adhesive),
zinc
applied
painted
with
by
resins or
galvanizing.
bitumen
mortar
coatings
offer
the case
of
l a r g e bore t h i n
usually
12
to
Finished
means of
metal
the p r i m a r y
based
plastics,
Exposed p i p e s may
or
aluminium
enamel
1962).
Cement
are
After
impregnated
least 5 mm.
coal
and
be a p p l i e d
coated
adhesive o r
mortar
(AWWA,
with
i s sometimes
factory,
self
This
the
and
coating should be at
(either
wrapped
assist
joints,
for
spirally
be
fibre
asbestos f e l t
whitewashed
may
Holiday
brushes
or
($
mm
coatings
electrical
20
may
rolling
potential
is
3/4
An
springs
applied
for
is run
across
(AWWA,
flaws,
electrical
pin
conductor
along
the
to
buck1 i n g
inch) thick
checked
detector.
resistance
walled pipes.
to
be
additional
1954,
1962).
holes etc.
in
the p i p e coating.
coating and
by
the form of
current
An
is
LININGS
Steel
pipes a r e
friction
losses.
substances
in
particular,
corrosion.
l i n e d to r e s i s t
Unlined
the
the
steel
fluid.
oxide
Corrosion
In
is
of
interna
pipe
the
rapidly
by
be
case of
scraped
adding
oxidized
by
solids-conveying
water-conveying
m a i n t a i n i n g a h i g h pH e.g.
may
off
pipes
leading
may
be
corrosive
systems
to
in
further
inhibited
by
lime.
bitumen
(3
to 5 mm t h i c k ) o r coal
Bitumen,
which
most
enamel
petroleum,
Before
popular
(2
to
linings
mm
are
thick).
is
by-product
of
the
lining
the
pipe
wall
is
cleaned
by
sand-
218
b l a s t i n g or
spray,
other
dipping
in particular
resistant
to
moisture
the
to
tar
bitumen,
damage
enamels
i s then a p p l i e d by
lining
a smooth surface.
smooth f i n i s h .
than
subject
coal
and
s p i n n i n g to o b t a i n
provides a
consequently
Plasticised
methods
or
Coal
tar
although
by
impact
have,
enamel
is
it
and
however,
i s also more
more b r i t t l e
flexing
now
brush,
Spun enamel
of
been
the
and
pipe.
developed
to
paints
are
careful
appl ication
to
other.
each
the
in
type o f
portable
The
but
layers.
water
used
it
Coal
tar
as
they
pipes
Cement mortar
also
to
used
12 mm
gally
by
large
( 1 / 4 to
successfully
cleaned b y
lining,
for
to pipes
machine
thickness
for
of
the
lining
adhere
varies
with
the
should
water.
be
Lead
avoided
for
based p r i m e r s
a r e toxic.
pipes.
thick.
the f i e l d .
or
although
coats
the o r d e r of 0 . 3 mm a p p l i e d
linings
taint
I inings,
successive
applied centrifugally
inch)
in
ensure
epoxy
bore
wire-brushing
to
i s n o r m a l l y of
is
successful l y
necessary
recommended
paint,
to
also
is
The
spinning
Mortar
lining
the p i p e ,
is
usually
l i n i n g s have been a p p l i e d
sand b l a s t i n g ,
propelled
drawn or
by
applied
slowly
along
the
line
(Cole,
1956).
On
made
pipes
good
over
at
about
field
600
joints
mm
bore,
manually
most
or
by
factory
linings
mechanical
may
be
applicators.
CATHOD I C PROTECT I ON
Despite
of
steel
fittings.
the
pipes
use
Corrosion
protective
of
often
occurs
coatings,
through
i s due p r i m a r i ly
flaws,
corrosion
pin-holes
to two causes;
of
the
at
or
walls
exposed
g a l v a n i c corrosion
1948).
Ga I vanic Corrosion
When
lyte,
two
current
electric
dissimi l a r
may
current
electrolyte.
flow
flows
Particles
materials
are
connected
from one m a t e r i a l
from
or
the
ions,
anode
leave
to
to
the
through
the other.
the
cathode
anode
an
electro-
The r e s u l t i n g
through
causing
the
corrosion.
219
Such
action
may
take
place
when
two
dissimilar
contact
in
material
osion
conductive
occurs
marked
c e n t r a t ions
sulphur.
w i t h pipes
soi I w i t h
in
or
type of
has
been
to
i n corrosive
water
is a
lime
instance
high
w i th
form
the
successfully
trench
in an e l e c t r o l y t e may also
are
in
different
of
The effect
is particularly
differential
chemical
oxygen con-
content
biochemical
action
especial l y
in
the s o i l
a c t i o n r e s u l t i n g from b a c t e r i a . A method
galvanic
used
metals
of
fittings
soils.
i s alSo caused by
which
add
(for
v a r y i n g characteristics,
in
Corrosion
which
to
soil
to
backfill.
counteract
soil
corrosion
Stress concentration
lead to corrosion.
was
in the steel
the s o i l
ivity
resistivity
using
associated
bridge
circuit
drop.
Standard
volt
measurements,
or
survey
but
any
major
or
by
highly
conductive
soil
may
The
potential
in
difference
measured
by
connecting
electrode
in
contact
frequently
tial
If
the
of
the
used
soil,
is
are
should
at
currents are
current
done
by
taken
and
the
for
these
an
exper-
have a
resistivity
of
corrosive
buried
voltmeter
between
soil.
pipe
conditions.
the
to 0.7
available
be
and
The
the
copper
as
a p i p e i s 0.5
pipe
with
Readings a r e n o r m a l l y
1952).
between
evaluating
Soi I r e s i s t -
conducted.
measuring
surveys
a n d a poorly conductive s o i l ,
important
be
probes
in the pipe.
as a s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e f o r major
should
i n ohm - centimetres.
i s measured
in-situ
measurement of the c u r r e n t
i s a t a l l suspect,
soi I
pipelines, a
tests or
pipe
the
soil
potential
and
sulphate
is
a special
half
conditions.
is
cell
is
The poten-
higher
voltage
likely
to flow
than
0.85
volts
below
from p i p e to s o i l ,
that
thereby
of
cor-
r o d i n g the pipe.
To
by
(Fig.
prevent
t h i s corrosion,
conductor
11.5).
preferably
to
the
pipe
sacrificial
in
the
anode
vicinity
of
may
be connected
possible
corrosion
the
water
table
and
currents
will
tend
to
leave
220
from
to
the
the
pipe
be
anode
anode.
to
instead
If
cause
applied.
fact,
magnesium,
zinc
nesium
the
electro-chemical
may
the
Magnesium
anodes
Common
ions
are
normally
per
the
further
give
of
to
designed
potential
need
installed
in
anodes
metals.
iron,
has
k i logram
are
Mag-
high
of
material)
hydrogen
thereby
This
is
actively
termed
polar-
the
( A l a y e r of
anodes,
attack.
200
steel
these
from
polarization.
leaving
against
anodes
alloys
hours
be
corrosion
the
sacrificial
difference
(ampere
the
from
electrical
sometimes
or
anodic
limiting
dissimilar
external
may
potential
to
the
metal
Magnesium
no
aluminium,
resistant
thereby
sufficiently
current.
greatest
replace
insulating
ization).
the
and
pipe,
is
resistor
equivalent
is fairly
ions
the
action
I imi t
to
has
of
anode
galvanic
In
connection
and
the
about
10
year
kg.
life
Junction
BOI
Wilh
R o a l ~ t o ri f Required
Fig.
11.5
T h e spacing
requirements
volts
The
below
the
spacing
of
ductive
soil
soil
provided
imating
pipe
by
the
a n d size of
to
bring
soil
poorly
the p i p e
required
of
anodes
pipe
potential
sacrificial
and
means
the
will
to
along
the
anodes w i l l
coated
i s well
pipe
is
ground
bed
to
potential
entire
vary
to
coated.
current
be determined by the c u r r e n t
safe
from 3 m
30
in
least
of
the
d.c.
r e s u l t i n g p i p e to s o i l p o t e n t i a l a l o n g the pipe.
drain
source
current
and
0.85
pipe).
poorly
in
highly
con-
conductive
actually
and
(at
length
of
est-
from
the
measure
the
221
As
rule
where
is
and
pipe
may
the
factor
the
i s i = 10/r
current
of
be
thumb,
of
a g a i n s t corrosion
as
low
amps,
in
safety
of
0.5
as
current
required
to
protect
pipe
i s the s o i l
is
resistance
incorporated.
per
cent
for
The
good
i n ohm cm
area
of
exposed
coating,
r i s i n g to
the
total
anode
(less
than
soils
with
required
size
500
ohm
lower
of
number
draw-off
may
be
cm)
current
calculated.
large
anodes
In
(greater
should
km
than
be
of
pipe
highly
(20 k g )
anodes
conductivities
smaller
per
used
known,
conductive
may
be
about
to
is
used
soils
but
in
ensure
an
adequate
c u r r e n t output.
If
use
a
an
an
electricity
impressed
sacrificial
current
anode.
v i d e the necessary
With
supply
impressed
type
of
it
i s usually
protection
transformer-rectifier
current
Scrap
iron,
frequently
used.
Steel
soils
available,
(Fig.
may
11.6)
be
cheaper
to
instead
of
i n s t a l led to pro-
dc c u r r e n t .
corrosive.
ductive
is
and
i n s t a l l a t ions,
or
graphite
anodes
for
this
will
reason
rods
buried
quickly
in
corrode
high s i l i c o n
cast
coke
in
be selffill,
are
highly
con-
i r o n anodes a r e
preferred.
The
type
of
omics.
Impressed
in
long
the
lations
are
impressed
applied,
run,
anode
the
have
general
to
in
potential
be
installations
to
immediate
volts
be
at
qua1 i t y
of
the p i p e coating.
ferable
to
sacrificial
anodes
are
protect
vicinity
long
potential
100
high
point
km
spacing
the
soil
case
of
may
be
pipe
a
The
than
off
rapidly
high
voltage
pipe-to-soil
should
b e i n g below
coatings.
instal-
the
fa1 I s
length.
Impressed c u r r e n t
if
of
econ-
cheapest
fewer
voltage
length
the
the
In
consequently
of
damage
and
potential
though,
to
low
anodes.
longer
pipe-soil
long-term
frequently
relatively
a
(the pipe
may
costs
The
applied
are
sacrificial
voltage
voltages
may
for
protects
could.
applied
the
exceed
Larger
maintainance
than
turn
depend on the
i n s t a l Iations
installations
in
away
soi I ) .
as
current
which
sacrificial
may
current
required
from
to use w i l l
protection
not,
that
of
in
the
Impressed
current
depending
on
the
resistivity
is
higher
than
222
Considerable
only
"hot
economic
spots",
occasional
savings
points
or
shutdowns
can
are
subject
be
often
to
tolerated
achieved
aggressive
this
by
protecting
attack,
should
be
and
if
considered.
Stray Current E l e c t r o l y s i s
The
most
currents
severe
leaving
form
pipe.
r e t u r n c u r r e n t s through
as a steer
p i p e nearby,
the conductor
steel
will
ampere
of
instead of
be
corroded
current.
measurements
recordings
The
should
be
corrosion
Railways
rails,
but
is
often
and
if
caused
other
there
users
by
of
stray
dc
dc
current
Where the c u r r e n t
rate
current
taken
of
may
pipe/soi 1
from
or
of
Ibs)
be detected
potent iat
over
(20
kg
day,
leaves the p i p e ,
per
by
actual
measurements.
the
as
year
per
current
Continuous
currents
may
fluc-
t u a t e w i t h time.
B o r e d or S u b m r r g e d
Hod8 Cothodic
Rolotlv8 t o E l w . t r o l y t 8
Structure
Iron or grophite 1
Fig.
11.6
The
corrosion
by
connecting
to
the
may
would
associated
the
destination
leave
have
sufficiently
the
to
low
pipe
of
pipe
be
to
at
the
along
with
the
point
current,
some
impressed
prevent
stray
on
currents
where
with
length,
the
current
pipe
the
may
current
conductor.
in
to
escaping.
be
which
leaves
The
case
maintain
it,
current
current
the
voltage
ground
prevented
bed
and
223
When
the
pipe
mechanical
across
them
i s cathodically
joints
if
are
protected,
electrically
necessary.
Branch
c a r e should be taken
bonded,
pipes
may
by
welding
have
to
be
that
cable
insulated
the currents.
THERMAL I NSULAT I ON
Fluid
the
in
surroundings.
pipeline
are
sometimes
the
interior
of
layer
face
through
fluid
of
the
be
heated
or
cooled
by
the
serious
climates
conduction
often
i n a r c t i c climates a n d h e a t i n g i n t r o p i c a l
or
from
may
Ice formation
the
inside
pipe
of
an
pipe
the
and
by
problem.
exposed
pipe
wall
pipe
and
wall,
is
transferred
number of
wrapping
by
convection
Heat
in
and
ways:
to
by
boundary
r a d i a t i o n from the e x t e r n a l
and
wind
currents
in
the
air
s u r r o u n d i n g the pipe.
TABLE 1 1 . 1
Thermal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s
Therma I c o n d u c t i v i t y
k cal
Mater ia I
m sec
Water
0.000
C"
sq f t hr F o
14
Air
0.000 005
0.15
Steel
0.014
420
0.000
Concrete
0.0002
Slag wool
0.000 01
EEUA,
The
is
B t u in
0.3
01
0. 3
1968.
heat
loss
proportional
to
by
the
conduction
temperature
through
an
gradient
homogeneous
across
the
pipe
wall
wall
a n d the
AT
A0
(11.2)
224
Q
where
is
the
temperature
k
is
the
is
area
the
of
amount
pipe
difference
thermal
of
heat
across
conducted
surface,
is
wal I ,
the
conductivity,
the
kilocalories or
in
duration
time,
wal I
is
the
tabulated
in
Table
et
at
Btu,
A0
is
thickness
11.1
for
A
the
and
various
materials.
An
heat
equation
transfer
equation
has
was
developed by
through
the
been modified
wall
to
Riddick
of
agree
pipe
with
(1950) for
conveying
relationships
the total
water.
The
i n d i c a t e d by
(0.
I - ' o ) / 250D
_- _ _ _
t, + t o + 1 +
1
(11.3)
and since
the
temperature
k c a I/kg/sec
in
specific
heat
degrees
of
water
Centigrade
is
per
unity,
sec
the
equals
r a t e of
the
drop
in
loss
in
heat
where
kcal/m sec C o
thickness of coating m
c o n d u c t i v i t y of c o a t i n g kcal/m sec C o
heat loss through boundary
0.34(1
0.020i)v0'8/D0'2
water velocity
layer =
m/s
100
273 1 3
kcal/m2 sec C o
e m i s s i v i t y factor
0.9 f o r b l a c k a s p h a l t a n d concrete
0.7 for cast i r o n a n d steel
0.4
for aluminium p a i n t
w i n d velocity
km/hr
34f1
+ 0.78V
(-
'i
-90 0.25
225
The h e a t
generation
although i t theoretically
by
fluid
friction
is
usually
negligible
i n c r e a s e s the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e f l u i d .
Example
An
uncoated
thick
steel
water
at
300
walls,
an
mm
diameter
exposed
initial
to
pipeline
10
t e m p e r a t u r e of
km/hr
10C.
000 m
wind,
long
5 mm
with
conveys
100 C / s
of
The a i r t e m p e r a t u r e i s 30C.
Determine t h e e n d t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e w a t e r .
0.7
0.1/0.785
0.34
0.054
0.005
~-
Kf
Kr
tl
-
x 0.32
= 1.42
x 1.42'8/0.30.2
x 0.7
( 30
m/s
= 0.67
10-3 = 0.001
27313
- o.35
0.014
kl
(30 - 1 0 ) / ( 2 5 0 x 0 . 3 )
0.35 + 1/0.67 + (0.001
= 0.00103C/sec
0.0029)
insulation
erature fluids
of
industrial
i s a subject
on
pipework
i t s own.
= 0.7"C
h i g h or
carrying
The cost of
low
temp-
t h e heat t r a n s f e r
s h o u l d be b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t t h e cost of t h e l a g g i n g .
Heat
erature
heat
heat
the
used,
transfer
of
the
transfer.
transfer
to
from
surroundings,
The
may
temperature
or
of
buried
which
temperature
vary
the
with
turn
in
gradient
time
and
surroundings
o m i t t i n g the term l / ( K
pipelines
is
and
are
is
depends
the
influenced
consequently
difficult
known,
on
to
Equ.
temp-
by
rate
evaluate.
11.3
may
the
of
If
be
+ Kc).
REFERENCES
226
AWWA S t a n d a r d C203, 1962. C o a l T a r Enamel P r o t e c t i v e C o a t i n g s f o r
Steel W a t e r P i p e 30 Ins. and O v e r , N.Y.
AWWA S t a n d a r d C205,
1962.
Cement M o r t a r P r o t e c t i o n L i n i n g and
C o a t i n g f o r Steel W a t e r P i p e 30 I n s . and O v e r , N.Y.
BSCP 2010, 1970. P a r t 2, D e s i g n and C o n s t r u c t i o n of Steel P i p e l i n e s
in Land, B S I , L o n d o n .
Cates, W.H.,
1953. C o a t i n g f o r s t e e l w a t e r p i p e , J. Am. W a t e r W o r k s
Assn. 4 5 ( 2 ) .
1956. D e s i g n o f s t e e l p i p e w i t h cement c o a t i n g and l i n Cole, E.S.,
ing, J . Am. W a t e r W o r k s Assn., 4 8 ( 2 ) .
C o n c r e t e P i p e Assn.,
1967. B e d d i n g and J o i n t i n g of F l e x i b l y J o i n t e d
C o n c r e t e P i p e s , Techn. B u l . No. 10, T o n b r i d g e .
Engineering
E q u i p m e n t U s e r ' s Assn.,
1964.
Thermal
I n s u l a t i o n of
P i p e s and Vessels, H a n d b o o k No. 12, C o n s t a b l e , L o n d o n .
Engineering
E q u i p m e n t U s e r s Assn.,
1968.
P i p e J o i n t i n g Methods,
H a n d b o o k No. 23, C o n s t a b l e , L o n d o n .
1975. P i p e l i n e p r o t e c t i o n r e v i e w ,
P i p e s and P i p e l i n e s I n t e r n a t i o n a l ,
20(4).
Reitz,
H.M.
1950. S o i l m e c h a n i c s and b a c k f i l l i n g p r a c t i c e , J . Am.
W a t e r W o r k s Assn., 4 2 ( 1 2 ) .
R e y n o l d s , J.M.,
1970. S u b m a r i n e p i p e l i n e s , P i p e s and M a n u a l .
3rd
Ed. S c i e n t i f i c S u r v e y s , L o n d o n .
and T o m a s s i , A.,
1950. F r e e z i n g of
Riddick,
T.M.,
L i n d s a y , N.L.
w a t e r in e x p o s e d p i p e l i n e s , J. Am.
W a t e r W o r k s Assn.,
42(11).
S c h n e i d e r , W.R.,
1952. C o r r o s i o n and c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n o f p i p e l i n e s ,
J. Am. W a t e r Works Assn.,
44(5).
Schwartz,
H. I., 1971. H y d r a u l i c t r e n c h i n g of s u b m a r i n e p i p e l i n e s ,
P r o c . Am.Soc. C i v i l E n g r s . 9 7 ( T E 4 )
Sowers, G.F.,
1956. T r e n c h e x c a v a t i o n and b a c k f i l l i n g , J. Am. W a t e r
W o r k s Assn., 4 8 ( 7 ) .
1948. The C o r r o s i o n H a n d b o o k , W i l e y , N.Y.
U h l i g , H.H.,
L I S T OF SYMBOLS
A
AS
area
a r e a of steel
drag c o e f f i c i e n t
w i d t h of t r e n c h
inside diameter
outside diameter
stress
gravitational acceleration
backfi I I a b o v e t o p o f p i p e
c u r r e n t in amps
227
K
C
Kf
Kr
kl
k2
bedding factor
pressure
amount of heat
resistance i n ohms
time
tl
t2
thickness of p i p e w a l l
t h i ckness of c o a t i n g
component of wave v e l o c i t y p e r p e n d i c u l a r to p i p e
mean
water
velocity,
or
component
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to p i p e
w i n d velocity
s p e c i f i c weight of water
0.
temperature i n s i d e p i p e
temperature outside p i p e
of
current
velocity
228
CHAPTER 12
INFLUENCE OF
The
pipeline
engineer
pumping
lines.
pump
opposed
as
inter-related
Pumes
must
head,
hence
of
the
pipe
That
with
i s frequently
is,
to
fluid
the
gravity
the
overcome
fed
pumping
line
is
concerned
forced
line.
The
equipment
friction
losses
The
engineer
The
pipe
Therefore
therefore
The system
engineers
selected
should
wall
their
(1969)
and
The
have
considered
to
pump,
be
i.e.
is
the
as
(1968).
aware
of
one
for
and
suction
the
in
thout
casing
electrical
a r e so s p e c i a l i z e d
It
various
costs.
example,
head
or
impeller
power
that
is
they
versa.
static
function
based
on
(which
considering
the
Pipeline
types of
pumps,
Stepanoff
(1957),
give
more
complete
also
The d e s i g n o f
shape
material,
and
i s covered
the
is
In fact
it
(1960),
supply,
from
is
requirements w i l l
pumpstation design.
the manufacturer.
engineers.
the
pipe
and
(19551,
t h o s e b y K a r a s s i k and C a r t e r
electrical
view
be
size
optimum
Similarly
equipment
by
design
net
turn
in
by
vice
to
head a n d f l u i d velocity
characteristics
Addison
pump
the
and
addition
in
thickness
friction
cannot
therefore
information.
IWt
of
pipe
I i m i t a t ions,
their
the
design
a f f e c t s w a t e r hammer h e a d ) a l s o a f f e c t t h e w a l l
other.
the design of
with
through
t h e p u m p i n g h e a d a n d p o w e r r e q u l .ement a r e a
diameter.
pressures.
interna I
DESIGN
PUMPS I N P I P E L I N E
motor design
in books
a n d control
the
pipeline
engineers
point
of
still
used
in
i n f o r m a t i o n i s presented.
TYPES O F PUMPS
P o s i t i v e D i s p l a c e m e n t Types
Least
some
used
industrial
in
pipeline
practice
a p p l i c a t ions,
are
nowadays,
positive
but
displacement
pumps.
229
The
reciprocating
to
move
to
to
enter
and
on
pump
fro
A p i s t o n or
i n a cylinder.
reverse
stroke
One-way
and
exit
ram
i s forced
v a l v e s p e r m i t the
into
the
receiving
liquid
conduit
p i s t o n can
rotary
be
positive
replaced
by
displacement
flexible
pumps.
diaphragm.
These
There
include s pi ral
are
types
a n d intermeshing gears.
Centrifugal Pumps
Rotodynamic pumps move
pressure
like
by
to
it.
through
rotating
low
heads.
The
For
an
latter
various
in
waterworks
may
high
may
the
form
is
is
by
an
impeller
by
assembling
guide
centrifugal
the
most
engineering.
This
parallel
is
are
limited
a number of
to
of
an
tabular
vanes
of
The
in
axial
the
casing
i s preferred.
the
pump
i s capable
head
pump
standard
of
hand-
a n d to p e r m i t f l e x i b i l i t y ,
which
can
be
100 metres of
generated
water,
but
lcllcr
,nes
12.1
to
Here
centrifugal
practical ly
i s possible.
Fig.
flow
casing
l a r g e flows a n d
as
l i t t l e over
impellers
pump
and
accepted
For h i g h flows
common.
form
( r a d i a l ) c e n t r i f u g a l flow.
common,
type
and hence
along
i s most common f o r
universal ly
up to 20 cumecs.
in
the
forced
impeller creates an o u t w a r d
forms
pumps
in
is
be
pump
heads
i m p a r t i n g a velocity
be
Liquid
There
T h i s type of
in
l i n g flows
action
propeller.
blades.
reduce s w i r l .
r o t a t i o n of
This
l i q u i d by
Sectional e l e v a t i o n of v o l u t e t y p e c e n t r i f u g a l pump
(Webber, F l u i d Mechanics f o r C i v i l Engineers, 1971)
230
The
inlet
entrainment
to
the
c o n d i t i o n must
and
delivery
the
permissible
pressure of
instead of connecting
of
be controlled
first
pumping
stage.
particularly
if
In
some
cases
flexibility
air
the
impellers
to a v o i d c a v i t a t i o n or
one
of
the
units
T h i s permits more
be
to
is
driven
by
v a r i a b l e speed motor.
The
driving
device i n a c e n t r i f u g a l
pump
i s termed
the
impeller.
I t may be a series of
eye
the
outer
the
discharge
or
inlet
volute
type
of
motor
in
pump
units
large
pumping
towards
casing
into
may
be
together
sizes.
solids
as
Pumping
in
much
rarely
periphery.
90
as
installations
can
for
have
it
The
percent
h a v e efficiences
suspension
Here
nozzle.
is
directed
efficiency
although
by
of
this
pump
and
efficiencies
duties
as
such
low
as
as
30
percent.
Usually
the
inlet
to
the
impeller
eye
is
d r i v i n g shaft
s i t u a t i o n s an
i n l e t may
to
as
double e n t r y
be on each side
pump.
This
on
one
side,
and
the impeller.
the
i n some
i n which case i t i s r e f e r r e d
involves
more expensive
casing
Fig.
spindle centrifugal
231
Pump u n i t s may be mounted w i t h
The
horizontal
the
maintenance
suction
well
preferable.
shaft
is
with
point
of
view.
required,
The motor
is
split
the s h a f t
casing
Where
is
vertical
the
space
vertical
spindle
most
is
or
horizontal.
practical
limited,
or
arrangement
from
deep
may
be
A N D DEF I N I T I ONS
TERMS
Head
The
water.
head
It
in
i t s general
sense
comprises elevation
sure head p / w
p l u s velocity
is
above
the
energy
per
certain
datum,
excess
of
u n i t weight of
z,
p l u s pres-
head v2/2g.
Total Head
Total
inlet
head
head
and
usually
it
is
refers
the
to
head
the
generated
by
12.3).
Fig.
12.3
discharge
the
pumps
head
to
(see F i g .
232
Net Positive Suction Head
In
order
to
avoid
in pumping efficiency
The
net
cated
The
It
positive
by
cavitation,
suction
pump
requirement
i s generally
head
referred
expressed
as
as
to
drop-off
the
can
function
the
net
absolute
u s u a l l y be
of
r a t e of
positive
head
head.
above
indi-
pumping.
suction
head.
vapour
pres-
I t is c a l c u l a t e d as follows:
( 2.1
= H r + H a - H s - H
= head
and
- Pv/W
= Hp
where H
as
entrainment
(NPSH) r e q u i r e d
manufacturer
is
air
at
inlet,
- H
relative
( 2. 2)
PV/W
to
centre
line
of
inlet,
head.
and
= vapour pressure
PV
= u n i t weight of water
Hr
= atmospheric
Ha
pressure
head
10
(about
of
water
at sea l e v e l )
H
S
Hf
He
elevation
NPSH requirement
drop-off
in
increases
side
of
figure
NPSH can
tests
(Grist,
firstly
at
at
al I
maximum
impeller
in
NPSH.
lishing
at
discharge.
least
It
the head of
should
be
1974).
flowrates
flowrates.
erosion
the
3
At
an
due
NPSH.
NPSH
the f i r s t
the
NPSH
NPSH
to
stage of
at
above
i s not
this
datum
a sharp
value.
It
just
i s of
the
order
the
tests.
c a v i t a t i o n o r from performance
i s reduced
less
than
the
cavitation
commences,
head
associated
generated
with
by
the
NPSH r e q u i r e d
3%
there
level
requirement
from
cavitation
3% decrease
The
the
suction
as
noise
l i m i t of
times
The
obtained
s t a r t s t o decrease.
figure
in
by observing
As
pump
i s p r e f e r a b l e to be on the conservative
NPSH.
be assessed
of
subjective
increase
or
considering
10 percent of
re1 i a b l e
centreline
is a
efficiency
with
when
of
head
drop
head
to
i s recommended for
avoid
NPSH,
cavitation
though.
For
estab-
should
this
be
reason
233
Specific Speed
The
specific
pump's
Ns
speed
capabilities.
of
There
are
two
slightly
different
definitions
of
speed
to
relative
i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c velocity
characteristic
velocity
of
of
the
the r o t a t i n g element
water,
i.e.
it
is
the
ND
speed
where
will
(units
velocity
Ns
is
the
be
periphery
impeller
introduced
i s proportional
is
vDb
the
of
is
the
the
rotational
later).
impeller
speed
is
proportional
and
From B e r n o u l l i ' s
is
to
i t s diameter
theorum
the
water
t o ND/ JgH.
proportional
where
of
width
But
of
the
p r o p o r t i o n b i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o D,
discharge
impeller.
is
proportional
For a n y
to
g i v e n geometric
so
Qa,&8D2
(12.3)
E l i m i n a t i n g D one a r r i v e s a t
NQf
O-
NS
This
(12.4)
is
dimensionless form of
are
consistent.
the
term
Unfortunately
and
express
r a d i a n s p e r second.
specific
most
in
speed p r o v i d e d the u n i t s
catalogues
revolutions
and
per
text
books
minute
(12.5)
units Q
imperial
is
u n i t s Q i s i n cumecs
S.1.
The
alternative
metrically similar
(or
definition
gal.
per
min)
one
arrives
expression for N
of
Ns
the
is
of
that
water
of
low
minute and H
per
NS i s the
of
against
the
metre
directly
former
impeller
associated
whereas
gallons
i n feet.
In
at
(or
the
speed
in
rpm
of
geo-
latter
head.
Then
dimensionally
by
sub-
dependent
reviewing
size
in
pump of
stitution
By
not
NS = NQi/H3/4
In
omit
(rpm)
NS
with
t a n g e n t i a l component).
to
relative
a
implies
(water
definition
thus
low
a
pumping
head
high
has
NS,
of
and
head
high
one
head.
fast
and
radial
low
obtains
In
fact
rotational
an
idea
high
speeds,
speed
relative
to
component
relative
to
234
Fig.
12.4
indicates
the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between
head per
stage
and
N is
(w
= 271
N/60).
Lo
Lo
W2 v u l t i - s t a g e
74-
t@
50
\-- n
\ 7
Ln
0,
$20
E
I
T e d flow
\ '
<
20
12.4
Fig.
50
Relationship
Ns
100
between
200
head
and
500
1000'
specific
speed
for
pumps
IMPELLER DYNAMICS
The shape of
the
radiai
flow
acteristics.
pump
the
impeller blades
pattern
basic
which
in
understanding
i s therefore useful
i n a c e n t r i f u g a l pump influences
t u r n gives
of
relative
in selecting a type of
velocities
inside
the
pump f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
duty.
Referring
is
u,
the
to
Fig.
velocity
of
12.5
the
the
circumferential
water
relative
i s v.
to
speed
the
of
the
impeller
is
impeller
w
and
235
T h e r e f o r e i m p a r t e d T = c h a n g e i n moment of momentum
= A(mvr)
=
1 r2v2
Fig.
12.5
where
is
an
element
mass
of
discharge
per
unit
time,
where
P = A (mvr) w
(12.9)
.'.
P =
.*.
the
(12.8)
i s t h e r o t a t i o n a l speed
Now r w = u1 a n d r w =
1
2
P = 1 u 2 v 2 c o s a dm 2
A l s o P = pgHQ where Q
.'.
and
i s o v e r a l l the vanes.
Power P = T w
.'.
(12.7)
V e l o c i t y v e c t o r s a t i m p e l l e r of c e n t r i f u g a l pump.
dm
integral
(12.6)
cos a dm
1
cos a dm - l r l v l
2
12.10)
u
2
/ulvl
cosa drn
12.1 1 )
i s the d i s c h a r g e r a t e
12.12)
gHJdm s i n c e p Q
12.13)
Jdm
12.14)
Head H = ( u v c o s a - UIVl
cosal)/g
2 2
coscll i s n o r m a l l y r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l .
cosa2 = u 2
Now v
t 2 cot
B2
(12.15)
where t 2 i s t h e r a d i a l component of v
.*. H
(u,
2
(12.16)
- t 2 cot B 2 ) / g
(12.17)
a n d Q = nDbt
...
2
A - BQ cot
where
density.
and
The
B2
are
(12.18)
constants,
blade angle
H-Q c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e ,
B2
is
gravity
therefore affects
as i l l u s t r a t e d
in Fig.
and
p is
water
t h e shape of
12.6.
mass
the pump
236
Fig.
12.6
Effect of b l a d e a n g l e on pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The
head-discharge
usually
produced
pumping
system.
and
selection
of
by
This
of
characteristic
the
manufacturer
relationship
combinations
of
is
i s one
pumps
and
used
useful
pumps
for
in
discussed l a t e r .
-BH
Fig.
12.7
Pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curves.
to
of
the
design
pipe
parallel
size
as
curves
viable
selection
will
be
237
Break
and
horse
pump
Fig.
also
be
or
duty
H-Q
changed
shaft
power
any
head
is
proportional
to
the
i n d i c a t e d on the same d i a g r a m
c u r v e may a l t e r
on
required by
pump
with
by
pump
(see
the d r i v e speed a n d
fitting
different
diameters.
tant
The
(BHP)
E a r e often
efficiency
12.7).
could
power
impeller
The r e s u l -
is
p r o p o r t i o n a l to N a n d D.
The
ally.
required
The
graph.
level
and
for
and
a
line
effect
pipeline
Thus
required
duty
Fig.
pump
12.8
illustrates
a's,
smooth
of
pipe,
between could
para1 lel i n g
the
assuming
more pessimistic f r i c t i o n
somewhere
i s most e a s i l y
determined g r a p h i c -
c h a r a c t e r i s i t c s a r e p l o t t e d on a head - discharge
different
new,
of
t w o or
(a)
and
(b)
factor
be
head
a
(static
friction)
h i g h suction sump
a
low
suction
applicable
selected
more pumps
plus
can
for
to
the
also
an
sump
level
older
pipe.
duty
line.
The
be observed
from
such a g r a p h .
2 in parallel
0flurves/
pipeline
\\
Fig.
12.8
P i p e l i n e a n d pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
water
238
Pumps
a
pipeline
line
pump
more
pump
operate
within
are
the
or
lower
added one
discharge
difficult
station
increase c a p a c i t y
curves
parallel,
are
booster
to
to
series
in
however,
at
to
any
control.
is
the
head
pressure.
other,
is
Frequently,
required
enable the f i r s t
design
above
to
12.9)
(Fig.
section of
In
for
i.e.
pipe-
such cases
whereas
added,
along
pumps
the
in
the
abscissa
break
pressure
pumps
r e s e r v o i r or
case
one
certain
station.
reservoir
may
sump
The
level.
on
operate
in-line,
the
suction
side
balancing
volume
is
hydraulic
In
the
grade
former
or
of
required
l i n e must
case
with
the
water
I n the
in
of
also
12.9
case
be
hammer
f a i l u r e i s more d i f f i c u l t to p r e d i c t a n d allow f o r .
Fig.
booster.
drawn
due
to
latter
trip
at
down
to
power
239
MOTORS
The
driving
wheel
or
most
speed
of
the
current.
The
number of
per
or
be
an
electric
by
the
pump
speed
is
Slip
the e l e c t r i c a l
can
of
motor.
The r o t a t i o n a l
of
N = 60Hz
alternating
divided by
the
frequency
in cycles
motors
per
second
be up t o 2 o r 5 percent
AC
water
i s a correction
types
turbine,
frequency
i s approximately
poles,
Hz
steam
a r e commonly
( f o r smaller motors).
used
for
driving
pumps:
synchronous i n d u c t i o n motors.
Squirrel
require
the
other
motor
cage motors
minimum
starting
two
with
types.
Their
However
starters.
it
i s usual
robust,
is
that
they
can be tolerated,
offers
If
the
require
than
large
a s q u i r r e l cage
most
direct-on-I ine
either star-delta
economic a n d
more e f f i c i e n t
economical
or
and
is
starting
not
auto-transformer
A l t e r n a t i v e s t a r t e r s compare as follows:-
S t a r t i n g Current
( p r o p o r t i o n of f u l l load)
and
full
induction
h a v e the
speed
0.5
to 2.5
1.2 t o 2.0
0.3
to 0.8
as r e q u i r e d
as r e q u i r e d
motors
are
started
a d v a n t a g e that
with
S t a r t i n g Torque
( f u l l load = 1 )
to 7.0
4.5
transformer
Slip-ring
to
this
to employ
Star - Delta
starters
design,
a r e general l y
disadvantage
starter
Direct - on
in
They
possible.
Type of Starter
Auto
simple
if
d i rect-on-1 ine
combination
permitted,
are
maintenance.
currents.
reliable
up
could
nowadays,
b ) wound r o t o r ( s l i p - r i n g )
c)
pump
controlled
is
p a i r s of
starter.
commonly
There
Three
of
pump
minute and
Hertz.
and
a)
power
relatively
they
low
by
means
of
resistance
c a n be smoothly
starting
current.
brought
They
are
motors
a d v a n t a g e of
are
high
used
load
on
factor.
large
They
installations.
may
They
be e i t h e r
have
induction
240
motors
or
speed.
Starting
ance o r
salient
pole
can
reactor
motors.
be
by
starters
They
run
at
direct-on-I ine,
depending
constant
synchronous
auto-transformer,
mainly
on
the
resist-
permitted s t a r t i n g
current.
Variable
speed
motors
constant
speed
although
commutator
are
used
being
can
as
well.
used
also
motors.
with
be
are
Belt
motors,
for
on
motor
or
Thyristor
savings
used
more expensive a n d
drives
cost
in
and
for
two
less e f f i c i e n t
units
are
v a r i a b l e speeds
small
motors.
speeds for
than
possible
resistances on s l i p - r i n g
starters
selecting
smaller
motors
are
now
Pole c h a n g i n g
squirrel
cage motors.
PUMPSTAT IONS
of
cost
the
machinery.
the
as
of
The
pipeline
will
he
the
structures
While
engineer
h a v e to
the
will
pump
with
control
will
effect
the
operation
hammer
protection
discussion
The
ant
can
effect
its
of
reduce
of
the
the
cost
details
cannot
be covered
here
concern
himself
with
The
the
is
and pump
of
capacity
requirements
may
of
of
may
be
more
layout
to
sumps
water
complete
al
(1974).
has an
import-
Twort
pipework
the
pipework
suction
there
by
inlet
of
the
stat ion.
given
Air
of
and
the
exceed
delivery
capacity
a pipeline.
efficiency.
the
and
system,
in
layouts
sump
operational
could
awareness
to
incorporated
the
house pumps
suction
valves.
pumpstation
of
the
b e a r i n g on the capacity
turbulence
The
of
design
need
install
each
to
design
et
the
in
by
pipeline
entire
vortices
or
considerably.
pumping
system
REFERENCES
H.,
1955. C e n t r i f u g a l a n d Other Rotodynamic Pumps, 2nd
Addison,
Ed., Chapman a n d H a l l , London, pp 530.
Grist, E . , 1974. Nett p o s i t i v e suction head requirements f o r avoidance
of
unacceptable c a v i t a t i o n erosion i n c e n t r i f u g a l pumps,
Proc.
C a v i t a t i o n conference,
Instn.
Mech. Engrs.
London,
p 153-162.
I n s t i t u t i o n of Water Engineers, 1969. Manual of B r i t i s h Water Engineering Practice. V o l . I I , Engineering Practice, 4th ed. London,
K a r a s s i k , I . J . a n d Carter, R., 1960. C e n t r i f u g a l Pumps, F.W.
Dodge,
N.Y. pp 488.
241
Kovats, A.,
1964. Design a n d Performance of C e n t r i f u g a l a n d A x i a l
Flow Pumps a n d Compressors, Pergamon Press, Oxford, p p 468.
KSB, Pump Handbook, 1968. K l e i n , Schanzlin 0 Becker, F r a n k e n t h a l ,
p p 183.
Stepanoff, A.J.,
1957. C e n t r i f u g a l a n d A x i a l Flow Pumps, Theory,
Design a n d Application, 2nd Ed., Wiley, N.Y., p p 462.
Twort,
A.C.,
Hoather, R.C.
a n d Law,
F.M.,
1974. Water Supply,
Edward Arnold, London, p p 478.
1971. F l u i d Mechanics f o r C i v i l Engineers, Chapman
Webber,
N.B.,
a n d H a l l , London, p p 340.
L I S T OF SYMBOLS
A,B
constants
BHP
break horsepower
width
di arneter
efficiency
g r a v i t a t ional acceleration
friction,
weight
of
water
u n i t mass of water
a n g I es
p 9.
242
BR I T I SH STANDARDS
Steel Pipes
BS
534
778
1387
1965Ptl
But-welding
2633
pipe fittings.
291 0
Radiographic
ex.
Carbon steel
welded
circ.
butt
joints
in
steel
pipe
3601
3602
3603
Carbon steel
- ordinary duties
: h i g h duties
3604
3605
Cast
I r o n Pipe
78-1
78-2
143
Malleable C
41 6
I spigot a n d socket s o i l ,
437
I spigot a n d socket d r a i n p i p e s a n d f i t t i n g s
1 130
C I d r a i n f i t t i n g s - spigot a n d socket
121 1
Cast ( s p u n ) i r o n pressure p i p e s
I screwed pipes
I screwed pipes
1256
Malleable C
2035
4622
Grey i r o n p i p e s and f i t t i n g s
Wrought
788
I f l a n g e d pipes a n d f i t t i n g s
I r o n Pipe
Wrought
i r o n tubes a n d t u b u l a r s
243
1740
Wrought steel p i p e f i t t i n g s
D u c t i l e I r o n Pipe
L772
BS
L86
A C pressure p i p e s
582
201 OP t4
Design a n d construction of A
3656
A C sewer p i p e s a n d f i t t i n g s
soil,
waste
and
ventilating
pipes
and
fittings
C pressure pipes in l a n d
Concrete
556
Concrete pipes a n d f i t t i n g s
4101
4625
fittings)
Clay Pipe
65
539
540
1143
Salt
glazed
ware
pipes
with
chemical l y
resistant
properties
1196
Clayware f i e l d d r a i n pipes
P l a s t i c a n d Other Pipe
1972
1973
Spec.
3284
polythene
pipe
(type
425)
for
general
3505
3506
UPVC p i p e f o r
3796
Polythene p i p e ( t y p e 5 0 )
3867
D i m s . of p i p e s O.D.
4346
4514
UPVC s o i l a n d v e n t i l a t i n g p i p e
4660
UPVC underground a n d d r a i n p i p e
i n d u s t r i a l purposes
purposes
244
4728
Resistance t o c o n s t a n t
i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e of
thermopl a s t i c p i p e
2760
CP312
l n s u l at i o n
1334
Thermal
insulation
4508
Thermal l y i n s u l a t e d u n d e r g r o u n d p i p i n g systems
CP3009
Thermal l y i n s u l a t e d u n d e r g r o u n d p i p i n g systems
Valves
8s
1010
Taps a n d v a l v e s f o r water
1212Pt2
1218 &
5163(m)
S I ui ce v a I ves
1415
V a l v e s f o r domestic p u r p o s e s
1952 &
51 54( m)
Copper a l l o y g a t e v a l v e s
1953
2060
Copper a l l o y stop v a l v e s
2591
G l o s s a r y of v a l v e s
3464 &
5150(rn)
I wedge a n d d o u b l e d i s c v a l v e s
3948 &
5151 ( m )
3952 &
5155(m)
I butterfly valves
3961 &
5152(rn)
4090 &
51 53( rn)
I check v a l v e s
4133 &
5157(rn)
F l a n g e d steel p a r a 1 l e l s l i d e v a l v e s
431 2
Stop a n d check v a l v e s
5156(m)
Screwdown d i a p h r a g m v a l v e s
5158(rn)
Plug valves
51 59(m)
Bal I valves
245
Jointing
10
21
Threads
1737
Jointing m a t e r i a l s a n d compounds
1821
Oxy-acetylene
welding of steel p i p e l i n e s
1965
B u t t we I d i ng
2494
Rubber j o i n t
3063
Dimensions of gaskets
4504
rings
Miscellaneous
1042
Flow measurement
1306
1553
Graphical symbols
1710
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p i p e l i n e s
205 1
Tube a n d p i p e f i t t i n g s
2917
Graphical symbol s
3889
39 74
Pipe supports
4740
Control v a l v e c a p a c i t y
Steel Pipe
SABS 62
Cast
71 9
720
Coated a n d l i n e d m i l d steel p i p e s
I r o n Pipe
50 9
Malleable C
746
81 5
I soil,
I pipe f i t t i n g s
waste,
546
72 1
A C soil,
f i t t i n g s f o r A C pressure p i p e s
waste and vent p i p e s a n d f i t t i n g s
246
946
pressure
pipe
286
pressure
pipes
819
A C sewer p i p e s
- constant
- constant
internal
diameter
type
outside
diameter
type
Concrete Pipe
676
R C pressure p i p e s
677
975
902
Structural
design
and
i n s t a l l a t ion of
precast
concrete
pipelines
P l a s t i c Pipe
SABS 791
UPVC sewer a n d d r a i n p i p e f i t t i n g s
92 1
P i t c h impregnated f i b r e pipes
966
UPVC pressure p i p e
967
UPVC s o i l ,
997
UPVC pressure p i p e s f o r i r r i g a t i o n
01 12
I n s t a l l a t i o n of PE a n d UPVC p i p e s
533
Black polyethylene p i p e s
Va I ves
144
C I s i n g l e door r e f l u x v a l v e s
191
Cast steel g a t e v a l v e s
664
C I gate v a l v e s
A W W AC20 1
c202
C203
Coal-tar
enamel
protective
coatings
for
steel
water
for
steel
water
pipe
C205
Cement
mortar
p i p e of sizes 30"
protective
a n d over
coatings
247
C206
F i e l d w e l d i n g o f steel water p i p e j o i n t s
C207
Steel p i p e f l a n g e s
C208
Dimensions f o r steel w a t e r p i p e f i t t i n g s
C300
R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e w a t e r p i p e - Steel c y l i n d e r
C301
R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e w a t e r p i p e - Steel c y l i n d e r
C302
R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e w a t e r p i p e - Non-cyl i n d e r
type
not prestressed
t y p e - prestressed
54 T
C602
I n s t a l l a t i o n of C I watermains
Cement m o r t a r l i n i n g o f w a t e r p i p e l i n e s i n p l a c e
( 1 6"
and o v e r )
API
INSTITUTE
T u b i n g and D r i l l P i p e
Std.5A
Spec.
f o r Casing,
Std.5AC
Spec.
Std.5AX
Spec.
f o r H i g h S t r e n g t h C a s i n g and T u b i n g
Std.5L
Spec.
Std.5LA
Spec.
f o r S c h e d u l e 5 Alum.
Std.5LP
Spec.
Std. 5LR
Spec.
for
Glass
Fibre
Reinforced
Thermosetting
Resin
Line Pipe
Std.5LS
Spec.
Std.5LX
Spec f o r H i g h Test L i n e P i p e
f o r S p i r a l Weld L i n e P i p e
RP5C I
C a r e and Use o f C a s i n g ,
RP5L I
R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t of L i n e Pipe
T u b i n g and D r i l l P i p e
RP5L2
I n t e r n a l C o a t i n g of L i n e P i p e f o r Gas T r a n s m i s s i o n
RP5L3
Bul.5C2
Performance
Properties
of
Casing,
Pipe
Bul.5T1
Non-destructive
Testing Terminology
Tubing
and
DrilI
248
AMER I CAN SOC I ETY FOR TEST I NG MATER I ALS
Concrete P i p e s
ASTMC14
C76
Concrete
Culvert,
Storm
Drain
and
Sewer
Pipe
I r r i g a t i o n or Drainage
C118
Concrete P i p e f o r
C361
R e i n f o r c e d Concrete Low-Head
C412
Concrete Cjrain T i l e
c443
Joints
c444
P e r f o r a t e d Concrete P i p e
c497
Determining
for
Circular
Pressure Pipe
Concrete
Sewer
and
Culvert
Pipe
w i t h Rubber gaskets
Physical
Properties
of
Concrete
Pipe
or
T i le
C505
Non-reinforced
Concrete
Irrigation
Pipe
and
Rubber
Gasket J o i n t s
C506
Reinforced
Concrete
Arch
Culvert,
Concrete
El I i p t i c a l
Storm
Drain
and
Sewer P i p e
C507
Reinforced
C655
Reinforced
Culvert,
Storm
Drain
a n d Sewer P i p e
Concrete
D-load
Culvert,
Storm
Drain
and
Sewer P i p e
Steel P i p e s
ASA
Cast
836.10
Steel p i p e s
i r o n Pipes
A1 42
I Pipes
A377
I pipes
A121.1
I pipes
Asbestos Cement P i p e s
C296
A C Pressure Pipes
C500
A C Pressure Pipes
C428
Pipes
and
Fittings
for
Sewerage
and
Drainage
249
Plastic Pipes
D2241
U n p l a s t i c i s e d PVC p i p e s
f o r Reinforced Concrete P r e s s u r e P i p e
250
BOOKS FOR FURTHER READING
Addison,
H.,
1964.
treatise on
Applied
Hydraulics,
Chapman H a l l ,
London
Albertson,
M.L.,
Barton,
J.R.
a n i c s f o r E n g i n e e r s , P r e n t i c e - H a l I,
American
Pipe,
Concrete
Pipe
Simons,
and
D.B.,
F l u i d Mech-
1960.
Association,
1970.
Design
Manual-Concrete
Arlington.
Am.Soc.Civi I
Engs.
and W a t e r
Pol In.
Control
Federation,
Am.Water
Works
M a n u a l M11,
Bell,
1960.
Assn.,
1964.
Steel
Pipe
1970.
M a n u a l 37,
and
Design
Design
N.Y.
Installation,
N.Y.
H.S.,
1963.
(Ed.),
Petroleum
Transportation
Handbook,
McGraw
H i l l , N.Y.
Benedict,
R.P.,
1977.
F u n d a m e n t a l s of
Pipe Flow,
Wiley
Interscience,
531 pp.
Bureau
of
Criteria
Public
for
Roads,
Structural
Was hi n g t o n ,
Of f i ce,
Clarke,
N.W.B.,
1963.
Reinforced
and
Design
Concrete
Instal lation,
Proc.
State
Inst.,
Printing
Buried
Pipelines
Univ.,
1971.
Control
of
Manual
of
Structural
Closed
Conduits,
London.
Flow
in
Fort Collins.
S.
Crocker,
Culverts
Govt.
DC.
1968.
D e s i g n a n d I n s t a l l a t i o n , M a c L a r e n and Sons,
Colorado
Pipe
U.S.
and K i n g ,
R.C.,
1967.
Sorensen,
K.E.,
P i p i n g Handbook, 5 t h Ed.,
McGraw
Hill.
Davis,
C.V.
raulics,
and
3 r d Ed.,
E.,
Holmes,
1973.
McGraw H i l l ,
Instn.
Nolte,
cations,
Rouse,
of
Applied
Hyd-
Handbook
of
Industrial
Pipework
Engineering,
Engs.,
1969.
Manual
of
British
Water
Engg.
Practice,
London.
Littleton,
Martin,
Handbook
N.Y.
Water
4 t h Ed.,
1969.
McGraw H i l l , N.Y.
C.T.,
W.L.,
C.B.,
1962.
Industrial Piping,
1961.
H a n d b o o k of
1978.
Optimum
McGraw H i l l ,
349 pp
I n d u s t r i a l Pipework,
Pitman,
Pipe
Size
Selection,
Trans
297 p p .
H.,
1961.
N.Y.
London.
Tech
Publi-
251
Stephenson,
Streeter,
Hill,
D.,
1984.
V.L.,
Pipeflow Analysis,
1961.
(Ed),
Handbook
R.C.
and
E l s e v i e r , 204 pp.
of
Fluid
Dynamics,
McGraw
N.Y.
Twort,
A.C.,
Hoather,
A. A r n o l d ,
2 n d Ed.,
Walski,
T.M.,
Walton,
J.H.,
Analysis
N.Y.
1970.
G.Z.,
pipelines.
Young,
1984.
2 n d Ed.
D.C.
and
A p p l i e d Science,
Water
Supply,
of
Water
Distribution
Systems.
Van
275 pp.
Structural
P i p e Development Association,
Watters,
1974.
London.
1984.
Nostrand Reinhold,
F.M.,
Law,
Design
of
Vitrified
Clay
Pipes,
Clay
London.
Analysis
and
control
of
unsteady
1984.
Buried
Rigid
flow
in
Butterworths.
Trott,
London,
J.J.,
230 pp.
Pipes.
Elsevier
252
APPEND I X
SYMBOLS FOR P I P E F I T T I N G S
GENERAL
Jo.
ELBOW
SLEEVED
TEE
BEND
JPtKETED
FRONT VIEW OF TEE
FILLET WELDEOTEE
CROSS OVER
HANGER
BELLMOUTH
A-
YMPLE SUPWRT
CHANGE IN D I A
TAPER
JOINTS
E L E CT RICALLY BONDED
FLANGED
BMT W E L D
ELECTRIULLY
INSULATED
FLEXIBLE
SCREWED
SWIVEL
SOCKET
E X PANS ION
SPIGOT 0 SOCKET
--+_3_
-4_f_
END CAP
S L E E V E COUPLING
VALVES
__
EUl TERFLY
ISOLATING
WEDGE
NEEDLE
GATE
GLOBE
REFLUX
DIAPHRAGM
ROTARY PLUG
RELIEF
AIR
MISCELLANEOUS
STRAINER
HYDRANT
SPRAY
FLOW INDICATOR
VENT
SURFACE BOX
DRAIN
M 0 TOR
P L A T E BLIND
HANDWHE E L
--+
J--
+
T
253
PROPERTIES OF P I P E SHAPES
Ring
AREA
F(D2-d2kTDt
fa -11
fi (0'-
d')
=TD"
PROPERT I ES OF WATER
Temperature
Specific Mass
F"
kg/rn3
Ib/cu f t
32
1 000
62.4
10
50
1 000
62.4
20
68
999
30
86
997
C O
Kinematic Viscosity
B u l k Modulus
s q ft/sec
N/rnm2
psi
1.79~10-~
1 .93x 1 0-5
2 000
290 000
1 .31XI
0-6
6
1.01x10-
1.41~10-~
2 070
62.3
1.09~10-~
2 200
62.2
0.81 x10-6
0.87~1
0-5
2 240
325 000
rn2/ s
Vapour Pressure
N/rnmz
psi
0.6~10-~
0.09
300 000
l.2~lO-~
0.18
318 000
2 . 3 ~ 1 0 ~ ~ 0.34
3
0.62
4.3~10-
PROPERTIES OF P I P E MATERIALS
Coef.
of
exp.per
5x10
Clay
Concrete
Asbestos cernen t
Cast
Iron
M i l d Steet
O C
Density
kg/m'
Modulus of elasticity
N/mrn2
psi
Y i e l d Stress
N/rnrn2
psi
Tensile Strength
N/mm2
Poisson's
psi
ratio
-300
0.2
1ox10-6
2 600
14 000-40 000
8.5~
1 0-6
2 500
24 000
8 . 5 ~ 0-6
1
2x106-6x106
-70
-10
000
-2.1
2 500
7 800
100 000
3.5~10
6
15x10
1 1 .9x10-6
7 850
210 000
3 1 ~ 1 0 ~
1 1 .9x10-6
7 850
210 000
31x10
900
138
20 000
955
240
35 000
22
3 200
32
4 600
1 100
17
2 500
0.5~10
40
+ 6 000
52
7 500
22 000
25
3 600
30
4 500
17
150
22 000
225
23 000
0.25
210
30 000
330
48 000
0.3
1 650
240 000
1730
250 000
400
14
2 000
High Tensile
Steel
Pitch Fibre
Polyethylene
40x 1 0-6
1 60x 1 0-6
Po I y e t h y l e n e
(high density)
2oox 1 o-6
PVC
50~10-~
1 300
UPVC
50~10-~
1 400
3 500
91 2
150
Po I y p r o p y I ene
1 8ox10-6
0.38
256
CONVERSION FACTORS
Length
1 i n c h = 25.4 mm
ft
0.3048 m
1 m i l e = 1.61 k m
Area
644 mrn'
sq i n c h =
1 a c r e = 2.47 ha
Vol ume
0.0929 mz
1 sq ft
1 ha
lo4
mz
35.31 c u f t
1 m3
1 gal.(imperial)
4.54 I i t r e s
1 US g a l .
3.79 I i t r e s
42 US gal.
barrel
35 i m p . g a l .
159 I i t r e s
0.3048 m/s
Speed
1 ft/sec
Acceleration
32.2 f t / s e c 2
Discharge
1 mgd (imperial)
1 m p h = 1.61 k m / h r .
35.3 c u s e c
0.981 m/s'
=
= g
1.86 cusec
im3/s
13.2 g p m ( i m p e r i a l ) = 1 P / s
Mass
1 I b = 0.454 k g
32.2 I b = 1 s l u g (US)
Force
1 Ib. f o r c e = 4.45 N
( 1 Newton
1 k g x 9.81 m / s ' )
Pressure
145 p s i = 1 MPa
Energy
14.5 p s i = 1 b a r
778 f t 16. = 1 B t u
1 Btu
1 MN/m2
252 c a l o r i e s
1 c a l o r i e = 4.18 J o u l e s
Power
550 f t
Ib/sec
1 HP
1 HP = 0.746 kW
Kinematic Viscosity
1 sq ft/sec
=
929 s t o k e s
0.0929 m z / s
1 c e n t i p o i s e = 0.001 k g / m s
Temperature
F o = 32
1.8C"
1 N/mmz
257
A b s o l Ute temperature R "
(Ranki ne)
= FO(Fahrenheit1
+ 460
= Co(Centigrade)
+ 273
A b s o l Ute temperature KO
(Kelvin)
71
= 3.14159
2.71828
258
AUTHOR INDEX
Abrarnov, N. 15
A d d i s o n , H. 228, 241, 250
A l b e r t s o n , M . L . 17, 35, 250
A n d e r s o n , O.A. 125
A v e r y , S.J. 105, 110
B a l l , J.W. 28, 35
B a r n a r d , R.E. 149, 157
B a r t o n , J.R.
17, 35
B e l l , H.S. 250
B e n e d i c t , R.P. 250
B e r n o u l I i , 16
B e r t h o u e x , P.M. 10, 15
B l i s s , R.H. 101, 111
B o u c h e r , P . L . 182 203
B u r a s , N. 49, 57
C a p p e r , P . L . 123, 125, 191, 203
C a s s i e , W.E. 123, 125, 191, 203
C a t e s , W.H. 176,
77, 216, 226
C h a p t o n , H.J. 177
C h e z y , 18
C l a r k e , N.W.B.
113, 125, 250
Cole, E.S. 218, 226
Col e b r o o k , 23
C r o c k e r , S. 173, 177, 250
Cross, H. 38,57
D a n t z i g , G.B. 51, 57
D a r c y , 21
D a v i s , C.V. 250
D e n n y , 9 . F . 101, 110
D i s k i n , M.H. 24, 35
D v i r , Y . 30, 35
Ervine,
D.A.
105,
110
F o x , J.A.
109, 110
F e r g u s o n , P.M. 137,
J a c o b s o n , S. 155,
Johnson, S.P. 95
60
Joukowsky
157
K a l i n s k e , A . A . 102, 104,
K a l l y , E. 48, 57
K a r r a s s i k , I.J. 228, 240
K e n n e d y , H. 121, 125
K e n n e d y , J.F. 74, 95
K e n n i s o n , H.F. 129, 140
K i n g , C.L. 177
K i n g , R.C. 173, 177
K i n n o , H. 74,95
K n a p p , R. 28, 35
K o v a t s , A . 228, 241
L a i , C . 66, 95
L a m , C.F. 56, 57
L a w , F.M. 240, 250
L e s c o v i c h , J.E. 186, 203
L i t t l e t o n , C.J. 250
L u d w i g , H. 68, 95
L u p t o n , H.R. 64, 95
M a n n i n g , 18
M a r k s , L.S. 107, 1 1 1
Marston, A.
114, 125
M a r t i n , W . L . 250
M i l l s , K.G. 32, 43, 57
Moody, 21
M o r l e y , A . 154, 157
M o r r i s o n , E.B. 190, 203
N e l s o n , E.D. 177
N e w m a r k , 122
Newton, 16, 58
N i k u r a d s e , 21
N o l t e , C.B. 250
140
Osborne,
110
Glass, W.L.
G o o d i e r , J.N.
177
G r i s t , E . 232, 240
J.M.
7,
15
H a s s a n , D . R . 165, 177
Hazen-VJ i I I i ams , 18
H o a t h e r , R.C. 240, 250
Holmes, E. 250
P a r m a k i a n , J.
73, 95,
186, 203
P e a r s o n , F.H. 177
P a u l , L. 182, 203
P o i s s o n , 176, 195
P r o c t o r , 150
P r o s s o r , 1vl.J. 101, 111
Isaacs,
R e i t z , H.M.
L.T.
43,
57
111
208,
226
108,
111,
259
R e y n o l d s , 20
R e y n o l d s , G.M. 211, 226
R i c h , G.R. 78, 95
R i d d i c k , T.M. 224, 226
R o a r k , R.J. 174, 177
R o b e r t s o n , J.M. 104, 111
Rouse, H. 166, 177, 250
S c h a r e r , H. 176, 177
S c h l i c h t i n g , H. 20, 35
S c h n e i d e r , W.R. 219, 226
S c h w a r t z , H . I . 211, 226
S c h w e i g , 2. 48, 57
Sirnons, D.B. 17, 250
Sorenson, K.E. 250
Sowers, G.F. 208, 226
S p a n g l e r , M.G. 113, 125, 146, 152,
157
S t e p a n o f f , A.J. 228, 241
Stephenson, D. 56, 57, 69, 80, 9 5 ,
110, 1 1 1 , 151
157, 165, 177,
25 1
S t r e e t e r , V.L. 66, 95, 251
Suss, A. 165, 177
Swanson, H.S. 162, 177
Sweeton, A.E. 186, 203
TSSYJ,
H.H.
218,
Van d e r Veen,
B.
226
51,
57
W a l s k i , T.M. 251
Walton, J.H.
250
Watson, M.D. 24, 35
W a t t e r s , G.Z. 251
Webber, N.B. 229, 241
Weisbach, 21, 109
W h i t e , 23
W h i t e , J.E. 9, 15
W i l k i n s o n , W.J. 177
W i n n , W.P. 33, 35
W i s n e r , P. 102, 111
W o i n o w s k i - K r i e g e r , S. 134,
Wood, D.J. 43, 57
W y l i e , E.B. 66, 95
Young,
Young,
160,
140,
157
177
260
SUBJECT INDEX
A b s o r p t i o n 99
A c t i v e s o i l p r e s s u r e 114, 149, 191
A c t u a t o r 92, 185
A d i a b a t i c 86, 107
Aesthetics 2
A i r pocket 89, 100
v a l v e s 106, 189
vessel 87
American Concrete P i p e Assn. 122,
125, 140
Anode, s a c r i f i c i a l 219
A p p u r t e n a n c e s 182
Asbestos cement 180
A x i a l e x p a n s i o n 176, 195
B a c k f i l l 113, 192
B a r g e , 211
Beam 213
B e a r i n g t e s t 128
B e d d i n g 115. 127
B e d d i n g f a c t o r 128, 207
Bend loss 27
meter 200
s t r e s s 173
B e n d i n g 144, 196, 213
B i n a r y n u m b e r 202
B i t u m e n 217
B o n i n g 206
B o u n d a r y l a y e r 22
B r a c i n g 161
B r a n c h 62, 68, 161
B r i d g e 208
B u b b l e 99
Buck1 i n g 152, 168
B u t t e r f l y v a l v e 27, 32, 184
B y p a s s 76, 79, 182
Cant i l e v e r 174
Capacity factor 4
Cash f l o w 1 1
C a s i n g 217
Cast i r o n 180
C a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n 218
C a v i t a t i o n 30, 97
C e l e r i t y 60
C e n t r i f u g a l f l o w 200
f o r c e 190
pump 229
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c method 66
pump 70, 73, 229
Chemicals 1
C l R l A 152
Clamp 212
C l a y 255
C o a t i n g , bi tumen 21 6
c o a l t a r 217
epoxy 217
g l a s s f i b r e 217
m o r t a r 23, 217
t a p e 217
Cohesion 191
Col l a p s e 148
C o l l a r 143, 161
Concrete p i p e s 127, 180
p r e s t r e s s e d - 129 180
p r o p e r t i e s 137, 255
Compound p i p e s 37
Compressibi I i t y 16, 60
Computers, a n a l o g u e 202
d i g i t a l 41, 202
Concrete P i p e Ass. 122, 125
C o n d u c t i v i t y 219, 223
Conductor 219
Cone v a l v e 30, 184
Consol i d a t i o n 149
C o n s t r a i n t 52
Container 2
C o n t r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t 200
Convect i o n 224
Conversion f a c t o r s 256
Core 129
C o r r o s i o n , g a l v a n i c 218
Cost, p i p e 3
power 4, 12
p u m p i n g 4, 8
C o u n t e r b a l a n c e 186
C o u p l i n g 230
C r a c k 127
Creep 130
Cross section 253
C r o t c h p l a t e 161
C r u s h i n g 137
Current, electric219
impressed21 9
stray220
C y l i n d e r 129
D e f l e c t i o n 146, 150
Design f a c t o r 142
O i ameter 4
261
D i s c h a r g e c o e f f i c i e n t 200
t a n k 79
Discount r a t e 9
D i s s o l v e 99
D r a i n 207
D y n a m i c p r o g r a m m i n g 45
Economics 2
E l a s t i c i t y 64, 255
E l e c t r o d e 220
E I ec tro-chemi c a l e q u i v a l e n t 220
E l e c t r o l y t e 218
E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n 201
El l i p s e 253
Embankment 1 1 6
Ernrnissivity 224
E m p i r i c a l 18
E n e r g y 16
E n t r a n c e l o s s 27
Epoxy 217
E q u i v a l e n t d i a m e t e r 37
Escher Wyss 177
E x c a v a t i o n 206
E x t e r n a l l o a d 115, 146
F a b r i c a t e d b e n d 194
F a c t o r o f s a f e t y 143
F i e l d p r e s s u r e 133
F l a n g e 212
b l a n k 216
p u d d l e 216
F l e x i b l e p i p e 142
F l o a t i n g 210
F i t t i n g s 182
Flow measurement 198
b e n d meter 200
e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c 201
mass 201
m e c h a n i c a l 200
n o z z l e 199
o r i f i c e 199
v e n t u r i 198
volume 202
Flow r e v e r s a l 75, 91
F l y w h e e l 76
F r i c t i o n 18, 68, 74
F r o u d e n u m b e r 104
G a l v a n i c a c t i o n 218
Gasket 215
Gate v a l v e 182
Globe v a l v e 184
G r a p h i c a l a n a l y s i s 14, 65
H a u n c h 128, 148
Head, loss 16, 37, 199, 232
v e l o c i t y - 16, 232
w a t e r hammer- 62
H e a d i n g 208
Heat loss 224
History 1
Hole 161
Hol i d a y d e t e c t o r 21 7
H y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t 18, 68, 238
H y d r a u l i c j u m p 104
I m p a c t f a c t o r 121
I m p e l l e r 229
I n e r t i a 73, 94
I n f l u e n c e c o e f f i c i e n t 122
I n s u l a t ion, t herrna I 224
I n t e r e s t 10
I sotherrnal 86
J o i n t , b u t t - w e l d e d 212
clamp-on 214
f a c t o r 142
f l a n g e d 215
screwed 213
sleeve w e l d e d 212
s p i g o t a n d socket 130, 214
K i n e t i c e n e r g y 72
L a g g i n g 224
L a m i n a r f l o w 20
L a t e r a l s u p p o r t 149
L a y i n g 205
L i n e l o a d 122
L i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g 52
L i n i n g , b i t u m e n 217
c o a l t a r 217
epoxy 218
m o r t a r 21 8
L i v e l o a d 120
L o a d c o e f f i c i e n t 114
soi I 113
superimposed 120
Longitudinal
stress
21 3
Loop 38
Loss c o e f f i c i e n t 27
Losses 26
Mass, c o n s e r v a t i o n of 16
M a t e r i a l s 255
M e c h a n i c a l meter 200
134,
198,
262
Membrane t h e o r y 167
Meter b e n d 200
rnkchan i c a l 200
n o z z l e 199
o r i f i c e 199
r o t 0 200
v a n e 200
v e n t u r i 198
Model 165
M o d u l u s of e l a s t i c i t y 137, 255
M o d u l u s of s u b q r a d e r e a c t i o n 124
Mohr
d i a g r a m 136
Momentum 16, 90
Motor 239
Needle v a l v e 91, 184
Network 38
Net p o s i t i v e s u c t i o n h e a d 232
Node 39
Non-l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g 56
Normal t h r u s t 190
Nozzle 199
O b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n 56
Ohm 219
Oil 1
Operating factor 4
O p t i m i z a t i o n 8, 45
O r i f i c e 86, 199
P a r t l y f u l l p i p e 100
P a s s i v e s o i l p r e s s u r e 191
Pavement 123
P e r i m e t e r , w e t t e d 102
P i p e , asbestos cement 180, 255
c a s t i r o n 179, 255
c o n c r e t e 180, 255
p l a s t i c 180, 255
p o l y e t h y l e n e 180, 255
PVC 180, 255
p r o p e r t i e s , 255
s a l t g a l v a n i z e d c l a y w a r e 255
steel 179, 255
UPVC 180, 255
Planning 1
P l a s t i c 180
P o i n t l o a d 121
P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o 144, 195, 255
P o l a r i z a t i o n 218
P o l y e t h y l e n e 180, 255
P o t e n t i a l e n e r g y 90
Power 236
Present v a l u e 10
P r e s s u r e , e x t e r n a l 110, 146
i n t e r n a l 142
w a t e r hammer 58
P r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e p i p e 129
P r o c t o r d e n s i t y 150, 207
Profile,
pipeline
72,
106,
238
P r o t e c t i o n , c a t h o d i c 218
w a t e r hammer 69
P u d d l e f l a n g e 216
Pump, b o o s t e r 2, 9
c e n t r i f u g a l 75, 229
i n e r t i a 73
power 5
t y p e s 228
P u m p i n g c o s t s 3, 12
R a d i a l s t r e s s 142
R a d i a t i o n 224
R a d i o 202
R a d i u s o f s t i f f n e s s 124
Rail 1
Reducer 169
R e f l u x v a l v e 71, 81, 186
R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 1 , 127
R e i n f o r c i n g 127, 143, 162
R e l a x a t i o n o f s t r e s s 131
Release v a l v e 91, 184
R e s e r v o i r 14
R e s i s t i v i t y 219
R e t i c u l a t i o n n e t w o r k 37
R e y n o l d ' s n u m b e r 20
R i b b e d p i p e 154
R i g i d pavement 123
p i p e 113
R i n g g i r d e r 175
l o a d 149
s t i f f e n i n g 154
s t r e s s 142
t e n s i o n 142
Road 1
Roughness 21
Route 205
S a c r i f i c i a l anode 219
S a d d l e 174
S a l t g l a z e d 255
S a n d 192
Scale 6
S c o u r i n g 210
Screwed j o i n t 213
Sea 210
205,
263
Secondary s t r e s s 160
S e c t i o n m o d u l u s 174
S e r v i c e s 205
Settlement 118
Shape 253
S h r i n k a g e 135
S i n k i n g fund 9
S l u i c e v a l v e s 182
Snake 206
Socket j o i n t 130, 214
S o i l l o a d 115, 146
m e c h a n i c s 193, 208
p r o p e r t i e s 113, 192
Span 213
S p e c i f i c mass 254
S p e c i f i c speed 223
S p h e r i c a l v a l v e 185
S p i n d l e 182
S t a n d a r d s 242
S t a r t e r s 239
Steady f l o w 16
Steel, high t e n s i l e 136, 255
p i p e 180
p r e s t r e s s i n g 136
p r o p e r t i e s 255
S t i f f e n i n g r i n g s 154
S t r a y c u r r e n t e l e c t r o l y s i s 219
S t r e n g t h , l a b o r a t o r y 137
Stress, b e n d i n g 196, 213
S t r e s s , c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l 133, 142
Stress, l o n g i t u d i n a l - 134, 198, 213
t e m p e r a t u r e - 21 5
S t r u t t i n g 149, 154
S u l z e r 177
Superimposed l o a d 120
S u p p o r t 128, 148, 194
S u r f a c e l o a d 120
S u r g e 58
- t a n k 77
Symbols 252
Systems a n a l y s i s 44
Te I erne t r y 202
T e m p e r a t u r e 195, 215
T e n s i o n r i n g s 143
T e s t i n g 206
T h e r m a l i n s u l a t i o n 224
T h e r m o p l a s t i c 180
T h i c k n e s s 142, 162, 224
T h r o t t l i n g 28, 184
T h r u s t b l o c k 192
b o r e 208
T i e b o l t 214
T o r q u e 235
T o w i n g 210
T r a f f i c l o a d 121
T r a n s i e n t p r e s s u r e s 60
Transport
and
Roads
Laboratory
152
Transportation, a i r 1
p r o g r a m m i n g 45
rail 1
road 1
waterway 1
T r e n c h 113, 206
T u r b i n e 77
Research
Uncertainty 1 1
U n d e r w a t e r l a y i n g 210
U n i f o r m l o a d 122
Unp I a s t i c i z e d p o l y v i n y Ic h l o r i d e 180, 255
Vacuum 97, 153
V a l v e , a i r r e l e a s e 106, 188
a i r v e n t 186
b u t t e r f l y 183
cone 184
c o n t r o l 29, 184
g l o b e 184
n e e d l e 184
r e f l u x 71, 81, 186
r e l e a s e 91, 184
s p h e r i c a l 185
s l e e v e 185
s l u i c e 182
Vane, g u i d e 165
V a p o r i z a t i o n 90, 97, 153
V e l o c i t y 16, 58, 199
V e n t u r i m e t e r 198
V i c t a u l ic coup1 i n g 194
V i k i n g l o h n s o n c o u p l i n g 194
V i s c o s i t y 23, 255
V o l u t e 229
V o r t e x 89
W a l l t h i c k n e s s 142, 162, 224
Water hammer 60
p r o p e r t i e s 254
s u p p l y 14
Wave 60
Web 162
W e l d i n g 212
'Wetted p e r i m e t e r 148
W r a p p i n g 216
X-ray
217
Y i e l d s t r e s s 152, 255