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    arr ag ait: Instrumentation Second Edition e F oi . OO posit j 40 & A-C VOL Enformation contained in this work has been obtained by Tata MeGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata MeGraw-Hili nor its authors Qiaruntee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata MeGraw- Hili oor its authors shall be responsible for any cxrors, ontissions, or damages arising oul of use of this information. This work i published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If suck services are required, the assisiance of an approprisie professional should be sought =) Tata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 2004. 1995, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. Sixth reprint 2006 ROLZRRYKRADAQ No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form ex by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a dalabase or retzieval syslem without (he prior written permission of the publishers. ‘The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not.be reproduced for publication. ‘This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, ‘Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 0-07-052370-6 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delbi 110 008, typeset in Times at Script Makers, 19, Al-B, DDA Market, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110.083 and Primed at Copaijee Enterprises, 1903 Main Road, Maujpur, Delhi 110053 Cover: Meenakshi Contents Preface to the Second Edition wit Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgenwnts Qualities of Measurements 1 BE LS of Static Error ‘L6___Sources of Error LT Dynamic Characteristics 9 LB Statistical Analysis JJ 1.10 Atomic Frequency and Time Standards 7 ‘L12 Graphical Representation of Measurements as a Distribution 19 Review Questions 20 Practice Problems 21 Further Reading 27 Indicators and Display Devices 22 ‘vill a Contents 16 at Impact Printers for Fully Fi i ss Characters (Drum Wheel) 53 00 ome 217 Line at a Time Impact Printers for Fully Formed Characters (Line Printers) 35 2.18 Drum Printer 57 2.20 Character at a Time Dot-Matrix Impact Printer 5& 2.21 Non-Impact Dot-Matrix (NIDM) Printers 60) Review Questions 60 Further Reading 6! i.___Ammeters 62 4.1_DC Ammeter 62 7 3.2 Mubtirange Ammeters 63 3.3. The Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt 64 a4 Requirements of a Shang 67 3.5 tending of Ammeter Ranges 47 3.6 RF Ammeter (Thermocouple) 68 3.7___Limitations of Thermocouples 710 3.8 Effect of Frequency on Calibration 70 3.9 Measurements of Very Large Currents by Thermocouples 7! Review Questions 74 Practice Problems 73 | Purther Reading 73 4._Volimeters_and_Multimeters 20 4.1 Introduction 74 43 DC Voltmeter 75 44 Multirange Voltmeter 76 45 Extending Voltmeter Ranges 78 4.12 AC Volimeter using Rectifiers 92 ' 4.13 ‘oltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier 93 4.14 AC Voltineter using Full Wave Rectifier oF 415 Muttirange AC Voltmeter 96 4.16 Average Responding Volumeter 96 4.17 Peak Responding Voltmeter 97 418 Tie RMS Voltmeter 98 Digital Vollanetirn : rai 3. 42 pT we 115 7 5.3 Dual Slope | DVM Voltage to Time Conversion) J/6- ut Integrating Type DVM (Voll to Frequency Conversion) 119 Most Commo used Principles of ADC (Analog to Digital Conversion) /2/ 5.6 Successive Approximations /22 ST wntinuous Balance or Servo Balancit Potentiometer Type DVM 126 $8 34-Digh 127 ae 5.9 Resolution and Sensitivity of Digital Meters 27 5.10 General, ifications ofaDVM 129 cae Based DYM_/29 Further Reading 132 6. Digital Instruments 133 _163 CRI s__i68 Block Di of i772 7.5 SimpleCRO 173 7.6 Vertical it 175 7.1 Horizontal Deflecting System _176 us Triggered Sweep CRO 177 Trigger Pulse Circuit 177 — an Delay Line in Triggered Sweep 9/78 7.11 Syne Selector for Continuous Sweep CRO [79 7.12. Typical CRT Connections 179 TAZ High Pregeensy CR or Trarafing Weve Type CRT Jat 7.13 Dual Trace Oscilloseype 482 ‘L16__Blectronic Switch 1&8 1d Sampling Osci 189 718 St i WLF Si. 90 TAD ital Readout Osci _ 193. 7.20 Measurement of cy by Lissajous Method 194 72 Spot Wheel Method 196 195 1.22__Gear Wheel Method 198 7.23 Checking of Diodes 199 7.24 Basic Measurement of Capacitance and Inductance 200 7.25 Oscilloscope as a Bridge Null Detector 201 7.26 Use of Lissajous Figures for Phase Measurement 203 7.27 Standard Speci cifications of a Single Beam CRO 203 ‘L28__Probes for CRO 205 ‘1.20 Attenuators 208 7.30 Applications of Osci 210 7.31__Delayed Sweep 21? ; 7,32 ital Oscil 0) 22 7.33 Fibre Optic CRT Recording Oscilloscope 2/5 7.34 __ Oscilloscope Operating Precautions 2/6 7.35 Placing an Oscilloscope in Operation 2/7 Review Questions 218 Practice Problems 219 Further Reading 219 8. 10. ‘Contents m2 Signal Generators 220 ee mm Ae ON Te) 8.4 Basic Standard Signal Generator (Sine Wave) 222 8.5 Standard Signal Generator 222 #6 Modem Signal Generator 223 3.7 AF Sine and Square Wave Generator 225 4.8 Function Generator 226 8.9__ Square and Pulse Generator (Laboratory Type) 228 4.10 Random Noise Generator__230 8.11 Sweep Generator 23] 8.12 TV Sweep Generator 232 8.14 Marker Cienerator 297 $14 Sweep-Marker Generator 234 B15 Wi 235 $.16 Video Pattern Generator 235 8.17 Colour Bar Generator 237 8.18 Vectroscope 24) illator(BFO) 243 8.19 Beat Frequency Osc 8.20 Standard Speci: of a Signal Generator 245 Review Questions 245 Further Reading 245 Wave Analyzers and Harmonic Distortion 247 9.1 Introduction 247 9.2 Basic Wave Analyzer 248 9.3 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer 249 od heer toe 2 Spectrum Analyzer on SE Digital Fourier Analyzer 258 9.8 © Practical FFT Spectrum Analysis using a Waveform Processing Software (SS-36) 26! Review Questions 264 Further Reading 265 Measuring Instruments: 2h * Wht Introduction 266 10.2 Output Power Meters 266 10.3 Field Strength Meter_267 10.4 Stroboscope 269 105 Phase Meter 270 10.6 Vector Impedance Meter (Direct Reading) 271 xi ae Contents i. 10.7 OMeter 274 10.8 LCR Bridge 283 1.9 RX Meters 297 10.10 Automatic Bridges 292 10.11 Transistor Tester 297 L012 Megger 298 10.13 AnalogpH Meter 299 Review Questions 303 Practice Problems 304 Further Reading 304 Bridges LL) Introduction 305 11.2 Wheatstone’s Bridge (Measurement of Resistance) 305 11.3 Kelvin'sBridge 3#2 L4_ Practical Kelvin's Double Bridge 3/5 LS ridge Controlled Circuits 3/6 11.6 ital Readout Bri S18 L.7__Mi Controlled Bri 319 1L8 ACBridges 320 Lg itance Bri 32 11.10 Inductance Comparison Bridge 322 11.11 Maxwell's Bridge 323 11.12 Hay"s Bridge 324 11.13 Schering’s Bris 327 L114 Wien's Bridge 329 11.15 Wagner's Earth (Ground) Connection 33! 11.16 Resonance Bridge 333 11.17 Types of Detectors 334 11.18 Precautions to be Taken When Using a Bridge 335 ‘Review Questions 335 Practice Problems 336 Further 339 Recorders 12.1 Introduction 340 12.2 Strip Chart Recorder 347 12.3 Galvanometer Recorder 344 12.4 Null Type Recorder (Potentiometric Recorders) 347 12.5 Circular Chant Recorder 35/ 12.6 __¥-¥ Recorder 352 12.7 Magnetic Recorders 355 12.8 Frequency Modulation (FM) Recording 358 12.9 Digital Duta Recording 360 12.10 Objectives and Requirements of Recording Data 362 14, Conteris: ame xill 12.11 Recorder Selections for Particular Applications 363 12.12 Recorder Specifications 367 12.13 Potentiometric Recorder (Multipoint) 364 12.14 Digi : Waveform Recorder (DWR) 369 12.15 Applications of a Strip Chart Recorder 37! Review Questions 373 Further Reading 374 Transducers 315. 131 Intraduction 375 14.2__Electrical Transducer 375 13.3 Selecting a Transducer 377 Li.4_ Resistive Transducer 378 13.11 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) 404 13.12 Pressure Inductive Transducer_408 13.13 Capucitive Transducer (Pressure) 4/5 13.14 b Cell aif 414 Picea Electrical Tronad 118 Li16 Photo Electric Transducer 4/9 13.17 Photo-Voltaic Cell 427 13.18 Semiconductor Phow Diode 427 13.19 The Photo-Transistor #24 13.20 Temperature transducers 425 13.21 Frequency Generating Transducer 447 13,22 Reluctance Pulse Pick-Ups 447 13.23 Flow Measurement (Mechanical Transducers) 443 L324 Mechanical Flow Meter 449 13.25 Magnetic Flow Meters 449 13.26 Turbine Flowmeter 45! 13.27 Measurements of Thickness Using Beta Gauge 457 Review Questions 457 Further 459 Signal Conditioning 460 14.1 Introduction 460 14.2 Qperational Amplifier (OPAMP) 464 14.3. Basic Instrumentation Amplifier 479 14.4 Applications of Instrumentation Amplifiers. (Specific Bridge) 485 vee Contents 15, 16. 14.5. Chopped and Modulated DC Amplifier 4&9 14.6 Modulators 490 Filters. S00 15.1_Introduction 500 15.2 Fundamental Theorem of Filters 500 15.3 Passive Filters Sid 15.4 Active Filters 308 15.5 Butterworth Filter 5/2 15.6 Band Pass Filer 327 15.7 Band Reject (Stop) Filter 531 15.8 AllPass Filter 534 15.9 Universal Active Filters 536 15.10 Designing Procedures for FLT-U2 537 15.11 Types of Active Filters 54! 15.12 Digital Filters 344 15.13 Discrete Functions 546 15.14 1-1 -D Sampling Theorem 586 15.15 The 2-D ‘Theorem 547 15.16 The J-D Z-Transform 547 15.17 Fundamental ies of 1-D Diginal 5 a4? 15.18 Fundamental of 2-D Digital 5: 549 15.19 Frequency Domain Representation 540 15.20 Fir 1-D Digital Filter Design (The Window Method) 554 15.21 Design Methods for IIR Digital Filters 556 15.22 1-D IIR Filter Design 559 15.23 Pro; for the Design of Butterworth schev UR Digital Filters by Means of the Bilinear Transformation 563 15.24 Microprocessor Based Digital Filter 367 Review Questions 512 Practice Problems 573 Further Reading 574 Measurement Set-up S75 16.1 Introduction S575 16.2. Measurements of Microwave Frequencies 57 16.3 Resonant Co-Asial Lines 57% 16.4 Cavity Wavemeters 577 16.5 _RF/UHF Field Strength Meter (Methods for measuring the Strength of Radio Waves) 577 16.6 Measurement of Sensitivity 579 16.7__Measurement of Selectivity 579 16.8 Intermodulation Method of Measuring 580. Non-Linear Distortion #80 16.9 Measuring Frequency Response in 585 Audio Amplifiers 16.10 Modulation 586 16.11 Measuring Frequency Modulation 589 16.12 Measuring Frequency Deviation 589 with a Radio Receiver 589 16.13 Measuring Amplitude Modulation Using CRO 390 Review Questions $94 Further Reading 595 17. Data Acquisition and Conversion 5% 17.1 Introduction 596 17.2 jective ofa DAS 508 17.4 Single Channel Data Acquisition System 600 17.5 Multi-ChannelDAS 602 17.6 Computer Based DAS 606 17.7 Digital to Analog (DVA) and Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters 607 17.8 Data Loggers 627 17.10 Electromechanical A/D Converter 643 17.11 Digital Transducer 645 Review Questions 647 Practice Problems 648 Further Reading 649 18._Data Transmission 011 L8.1_ Introstuetion 630 18.2 Data Transmission Systems 652 18.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Transmission over Analog 657 18.4 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 654 18.5 Pulse Modulation 656 18.6 Digital Modulation 665 18.7 Pulse Code Format 675 18.8 Modems 677 Review Questions 68! Further Reading 68] 19. Frequency Standards ‘682 19.1 Introduction 682 19.2 Primary Standards 682 19.3 Secondary Standards of Frequency 683 194 Practical Frequency Standards 683 avigee Contents: 19.5 Radio Signals as Frequency Standards 64 19.6 Precision Frequency Standards 684 19.7 The Atomic Clock a5. Review Questions 656 Further Reading 686 20.7 Measurement-of Power by Means of a Bolometer Bridge 690 20.8 Unbalanced Bolometer Bridge 69/ 20.9 Self Balancing Bolometcr Bridge 692 20.10 Measurement of Large Amount of RF Power (Calorimetric Method) 693 20.11 Measurement of Power on a Transmission Line 695. 20.12 Standing Wave Ratio Measurements 690 20.13 Measurement of Standing Wave Ratio using Directional Couplers 698 Review Questions 707 Further Reading 70 “21 Control Systems 2 QL RasieComtrol Action 702 212 Definition(Terminology) 703 21.3 ON-OFF Control Action 705 TL5 Offset 708 21.6 Basic Controller Configuration 708 2L7_ Classification of Controllers 709 218 Electronic Controller (EC) 700 219 Analog Electronic Process Controllers 7/0 21.10 Temperature Control using an Analog Electronic Controller 7/4 21.11 Choice of Electronic Transmission Signal 7/6 21.12 Digital Controllers 717 21.13 Digital Process Controller 719 21.14 Cascade Process Controller with Digital Controllers 72/ 21.15 Programmable Logic Controller 723 21.16 Distributed Control Systems 767 index. 7! Preface to the Second Edition The tremendous response to the first edition of this book has inspired me to bring out this second edition, which has been revised and updated, based on the suggestions received from the students and teachers using the book, As in the first edition, the book is written in a simple and lucid manner with the chapters arranged systematically to enable the reader to get thorough knowledge of all types of meusuring instruments and measurement techniques. With the advancement of technology in integrated circuits, instruments are ‘becoming increasingly compact and accurate. In view of this, sophisticated types of instruments covering digital and microprocessor-based instruments are dealt in detail, ina simpic and systematic manner for easy understanding. The basic concepts, working operation, copabilities and limitations of the instruments discussed in the book will also guide the users in selecting the right instrument far certain application. (Chapter | covers the basic characteristics and the errors associated with an instrument. Different types of indicating and display devices are dealt in ‘Chapter 2. This chapter discusses different types of printers and printer heads used with the computers. ‘The basic analog-type ammeiers for both DC and RF frequencies and different types of volumeters, chmmeters to multimeters are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. Digital instruments ranging from a simple digital volumeter w a microprocessor-based instrument and their measurement techniques are presented in a comprehensible style for easy understanding. Chapter 7 on oscilloscopes has been dealt in depth to familianze the students with the working of all types of Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes (CROs) and their Measurement techniques, Chapter 8 pertains te signal generation, Chapter 9 analyses the frequency component of a generated wave, and its distortion. Every instrament consists of an input sensing element or transducer, a signal conditioner, and a recording or display unit, Chapters 12, 13 and 14 cover the essential components of industrial instruments used for measurements and their usage. Different types of analog and digital filters are given in Chapter 15. A mathematical approach to explaining digital filters has been adopted to provide the students a clear insight into their working. Chapter 16 is on the measurement of microwave frequencies. A detailed discussion on the data xvii mee Pretace to the Second Edition acquisition system along with the latest data logger is covered in Chapter 17. Tnstraments from remote places transmit signals over long distances to a master central room where they are displayed. This transmission of signals has been explained in detail in Chapter 18. Frequency standards and measurement of Power at RF and Microwave frequencies are dealt with in Chapters 19 and 20 respectively. ‘The last chapter, newly added to this edition, deals with Control Systems, electronic control systems, in particular. This chapter covers the basic control systems, electronic controtlers, PLC and advanced control systems such as BCS, used in process control plants. Thope that this edition of the book will prove useful to all readers, students as well as teachers. All suggestions for further improvement of the book are welcome and will be gratefully acknowledged. HS Karst Preface to the First Edition This book is written to cater specifically to the needs of the students of electronics engineering. It will also be of use to the electronics students at polytechnics and other technical instinutes. It is written in a simple and lucid manner with the chapters arranged syste- matically to enable the reader to get a thorough knowledge of all types of measuring instruments and their measurement techniques, With the advance- ment of technology in integrated circuits, instruments are becoming more and. more compact and gecurate. In view of this, sophisticated types of instruments: covering digital and microprocessor-based instruments are dealt in detail, in 8 simple, step-by-step manner for easy understanding. The basic concepts, ‘working operation, capabilities and limitations of instruments are discussed in the book which will guide the users in selecting instruments for various. applications. Chapter 1 covers the basic characteristics and the errors associated with an instrument. Different types of indicating and display devices are dealt in ‘Chapter 2, Computer technology is a rapidly advancing field, and the hardcopy is of prime impertance, for which printers are used. This chapter also dis- cusses different types of printers and printer heads. The basic analog type ammeters both for de and RF frequency and different types of volimeters, ohmmeters to multimeters are discussed in Chapter 3 and 4, Digital instruments ranging from a simple digital voltmeter to a microprocessor-based instrument and their measurement techniques are presented in a comprehensible style for easy understanding. Chapter 7 on oscilloscopes has been dealt in depth to familiarise the students with the working of all types of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes (CRO) and their measurement techniques. Chapter § pertains w signal generation. Chapter 9 analyses the frequency component of a wave generated, and its distortion. Any instrument besicully consists of an input sensing element or transducer, signal conditioner, and recording or display unit. Chapters 12, 13 and 14 cover the essential components of industrial instruments and their measurement techniques, Different types of analog and digital filters are giver in the next chapter, A mathematical approach to explain digital filters has been adopted to provide the: students a clear insight into its working, Chapter 16 is on the measurement of microwave frequencies. A detailed discussion on data acquisition system along ROE Proface to the First Edition with the tatest data logger is covered in Chapter 17. Instruments from remote places transmit signals over long distances to a master control room where they are displayed. This transmission of signals has been explained in detail in Chapter 18. The last two chapters pertain to frequency standards and Measurement of power, respectively. Lhepe this book will prove to be useful to all readers. 1 will appreciate any suggestions which will help in the improvement of the book. AS Karst Acknowledgements First of all, Pexpress my deepest thanks and gratitude to my younger brother who gave me support without which it would have been difficult to complete My project, Secondly, I thank reviewers who read some or all of the manuscript, and gave suggestions for the improvement of my book, Lalso thank Signet Electronics Lad, who made available the photographs of instruments. I deeply acknowledge my wife and othér family members for their never- ending encouragement, moral support and patience during the preparation of this book, Last, but not the Jeast, I also thank my friends and colleagues who belped Tie in the writing of the beok, | CHAPTER 4 Qualities of Measurements a INTRODUCTION Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which serves not only science but all branches of engineering, medicine, and almost every human endeavour. The knowledge of any parameter largely depends on the measurement. The indepth knowledge of any parameter can be casily understood by the usc of measurement, and further modifications can also be obtained, Measuring is basically used to monitor a process or operation, or as well a5 the controlling process. For example, thermometers, barometers, ancmometers are used to indicate the environmental conditions. Similarly, water, gas and electric meters are used to keep track of the quantity of the commodity used, and also special monitoring equipment are used in hospitals. ‘Whatever may be the nature of application, intelligent selection and use of measuring equipment depends on a broad knowledge of what is available and how the performance of the equipment renders itself forthe job to be performed. But there are some basic measurement techniques and devices that are useful and will continue to be widely used also, There is always a need for improve- ment and development of new equipment to solve measurement problems. ‘The major problem encountered with any measuring instrument is the error. Therefore, it is obviously mecessary to select the appropriate measuring instrument and measurement method which minimises error. To avoid error in any experimental work, careful planning, execution and evaluation of the experiment are essential, The basic concern of any measurement is that the measuring instrument should not effect the quantity being measured; in practice, this non-interference principle is never strictly obeyed, Null measurements with the use of feedback in an instrument minimise these interference effects. 2am Electronic Instrumentation [ig] PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrament is essential for selecting the most suitable instrament for specific measuring johs. It consists of two basic characteristics—static and dynamic. rey STATIC CHARACTERISTICS ‘The static characteristics of an instrument are, in general, considered for instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process condition. All the ‘static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or another of a process called calibration. There are a number of related definitions for characteristics}, which are described below, such as accuracy, precision, repeatability, resolution, errors, sensitivity, etc. 1. Jesitument A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the quantity under measurement. 2. Measurement The process of determining the amount, degree, or capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units being used. 3. Accuracy The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the expected (desired) value. 4, Resolution ‘The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond. 5. Precision A measure of the consistency of repeatability of measure- ments, Le. successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for 2 given value of input), 6, Expected value ‘The design value, ic, the most probable value that ealculations indicate one should expect to measure. 7. Error The deviation of the true value from the desired value, 4. Sensitivity The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument toa change of input or measured variable. (WB ERROR IN MEASUREMENT Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted standard quantity. It involves connecting a measuring instrument into the system under consideration and observing the resulting response on the instrument, The measurement thus obtained is a quantitative measure of the 50- ‘Qualities of Moasuroments m2 called “true value” (since it is very difficult to define the true value, the term “expected value” is used). Any measurement is affected by many variables, therefore the results rarely reflect the expected value. For example, connecting a measuring instrument into the circuit under consideration always disturbs (changes) the circuit, causing the measurement to differ from the expected value, Some factors that affect the measurements are related to the measuring instruments themselves, Other factors are related to the person using the instrument. The degree to which a measurement nears the ecapected value is expressed in terms of the error of measurement. Error may be expressed either as ebsolute or as percentage of erzor. Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected value of the variable and the measured value of the variable, or e=¥,-X, where © = absolute error YL = expected value X, = measured value Absolute value x 100 Expected value = x 100 x ‘Therefore % Emcor = (2) x 100 itis more frequently expressed as a accuracy rather than error. Therefore A=1~|2—* where A is the relative accuracy. Accuracy is expressed as % accuracy a= 100% — % enor a=Ax 1% where a is the % accuracy. The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80 V. ‘However, the measurement gives a value of 79 V. Calculate (i) absolute error, (ii) % error, relative accuracy, and (iv) % of accuracy. am Electronic Instrumantation (i) Absolute estore =F, =X, = 80-79 =1¥ (i) % Emon = B=%s x 199 = HT * 100 = 1.25% Relative Accuracy [h -X, eas Asi-- =i- X | En) A= L= 1/80 = 79/80 = 0.9875 (iv) of Accuracy a = 100% A = 100 x G.9875 = 98.78% or a= 100% - % of error = 100% - 1.25% = 98.755 Tf a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise, ic. Accuracy means precision. However, a precision measurement may not be accurate, (The precision of 1 measurement is 4 quantitative or numerical indication of the closeness with which a repeated set of measurement of the same variable agree with the average set of measurements.) Precision can also be expressed mathematically as where _X, = value of the nth measurement X, = average set of measurement Example 12 Table 1.1 gives the set of 10 measurement that were recorded in the laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 6th measurement. | Table 1.1 a8. inl M02 o7 io ino 103 og 106 ne L. Measurement number Measurement value X, Bewes tahun ‘Quaities of Measurements mm § The average value for the set. of measurements is given by Sam of the 10 measurement values to 100.5 ~ The accuracy and precision of measurements depend not only on the quality lof the measuring instrument but alse on the person using it, However, whatever the quality of the instrument and the case exercised by the user, there is always some error present in the measurement of physical quantities. Gf) TYPES OF STATIC ERROR ‘The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement, i.e, repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different indications. Static errors are categorised as gross errors or human errors, systematic errors, and random errors, 1.5.1 Gross Errors These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or errors in recording observations. Errors may also occur due io incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes, These errors cannot be weated mathematically. ‘The complete elimination of gross ezrors is not possible, but one can minimise them, Some errors are easily detected while others may be elusive. One of the basic gross errors that occurs frequently is the improper use of an. instrument. The error can be minimized by taking proper care im reading and recording the measurement parameter. In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditians to some extent when connected inte a complete circuit. (Refer Examples 1 .3(a) and (b)). 6 am Electronic instrumentation (One should therefore not be completely dependent on one reading only: at least three separate readings should be taken, preferably under conditions in which instruments are switched off and on.) 1.5.2 Systematic Error These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as defective or worn parts, or ageing of effects of the environment on the instrument. ‘These errors are sometines referred to as bias, and they influence all measurements of a quantity alike. A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a systematic error. There are basically three types of systematic errors—(i) Instrumental, (ii) Environmental, and (iii) Observa- tional (0) insirumental Errors Instrumeéotal errors are inherent in measuring instruments. because of their mechanical structure, For example, in the D’Arsenval movement, friction in the bearings of various moving components, irregular spring tensions, stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of the instrument. Instrumental errors can be avoided by (a} selecting a suitable instrament for the particular measurement applications, (Refer Examples 1.3 (a) and (b)). (b) applying correction factors after determining the amownt of instrumental error. (ce) calibrating the instrument against a standard. (i) Environmental Errors Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device, including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or of magnetic or electrostatic Fields. These errors can also be avoided by (i) air conditioning, (ii) hermetically sealing certain components in the instruments, and (ili) using magnetic shields. (Hi) Observational Errors ‘Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer. The most common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale, and the error of estimation when abtaining a reading from a meter scale. ‘These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers. For cxample, anobserver may always introduce an error by consistently holding his head too far to the left while reading a needle and scale reading. Qualities of Maasuraments mm 7 In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic errors, Static errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its behaviour. Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in a measured variable, Example 1.5 (a) A voltmeter having a sensitivity of | kV is connected across an unknown resistance in series with a milliammeter reading #0 V on 150 V scale, When the milliammeter reads 10 mA, calculate the (1) Appareot resistance of the unknown resistance, (ii) Actual resistance of the unknown resistance, and (iii) Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter, (i) The total circuit resistance Ry = = = a =8kQ (Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter.) (i) The voltmeter resistance equals R, = 1000 OV/V x 150 = 150 kQ — AreR, _ kx 150k “R= Ry ~ 150k -8k . actual value of unknown resistance R, 1200k? = 142k = 845 kQ Actual value — Apparent value _ 845k — 8k x 100 Actual value 345k = 0.053 x 100 =5,3% (ili) % error = Referring to Ex. 1.3 (a), if the milliammeter reads 600 mA and the voltmeter reads 30 V ona 150 V scale, calculate the following: (i) Apparent, resistance of the unknown resistance. (ii} Actual resistance of the ‘unknown resistance, Error due to loading effect of the voltmeter. Comment on the loading effect due to the voltmeter for both Examples 1.3 (a) and (b). (Voltmeter sensitivity given L000 LV.) 1. The total circuit resistance is given by Rew Eg Bg ly 06 0A ‘8am Electronic instrumentation 2. The voltmeter resisiance A, equals AR, = 1000 C0 x 150-= 150 2 Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of unknown resist- ance = 502 je AEE ET gig R-R, 95k 50.167 = 50 O.167 % Error = 2187=% 190 = 100 = 0.33% re sole? SOd6T * In Example 1-3 (a), a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading resist- ance when connected across two points ina high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance circuit (Example 1.3 (b)) may give a more dependable reading. This show that voltmeters have a loading effect in the circuit during measurement. 1.5.3 Random Errors These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially reduced or at least accounted for. Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and may be of real concer only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed statistically. These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary Process of making measurements. Such errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability. Random errors can thus be treated mathematically. For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is tead at 15 minutes intervals. Although the instrument operates under ideal environmental conditions amd ix accurately calibrated before measurement, it still gives readings that vary slightly over the period of observation. This variation cannot be comected by amy methed of calibration or any other known method of control. Ba SOURCES OF ERROR The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a true measurement, ure as follows: L. Tasufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions 2. Poor design Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc. . Poor maintenance Exrors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment Certain design limitations Pw sw ‘Qualities of Measurements am O SBF DYNamic CHARACTERISTICS Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured vari- ables, Instead, they exhibit slowness or sluggishness due to such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance of electric capacitance, In addition to this, pure delay in time is often encountered where the instrament waits for some reaction to take place. Such industrial instruments are nearly always used for measuring quantities that Muctuate with time. Therefore, the dynamic and transient behaviour of the instrument is as important as the static behaviour, The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is determined by subjecting its pri- mary element {sensing element) to some unknown and predetermined varia- tions in the measured quantity, The three most common variations in the mens- ured quantity are as follows: L. Step change, in which the primary element is subjected to an instantame- ous and finite change in measured variable. 2. Linear change, in which the primary element is following a measured variable, changing linearly with time. 3. Sinuseidal change, in which the primary clement follows a measured variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusai- dal function of constant amplitude. The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are (i) speed of response, (ii) fidelity, (ti) lag, and (iv) dynamic error. (i) Spaed of Response It is the rapidity with which an instrument re- Sponds to changes in the measured quantity. (i) Fidelity [tis the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction), (iii) Lag It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured variable. tiv) Dynamic Error itis the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the instrament, if no static error is assumed, When measurement problems arc concerned with rapidly varying quantities, the dynamic relations between the instraments input and outpul are generally defined by the use of differential equations. 1.7.1 Dynamic Response of Zero-order Instruments We would like an equation that describes the performance of the zero order instrument exactly. The relations between any input and output can, by using suitable simplifying assumptions, be written as 10mm Electronic Instrumentation a” x; a™ =h, feb By =a m1 Fr dx; vc hy St by ee, CLT +7, tyme, (11 where 2, = ovtput quantity put quantity f= time a's and 6's are combinations of systems physical parameters, assumed con- stant. ‘When all the a's and b's, other than ay and Ay are assumed to be zero, the differential equation degenerates into the simple equation given as pha = Byty (12)

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