Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

ISSN: 2165-0373 (Print) 2165-0381 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tscm20

Future research needs in self-consolidating

concrete
Surendra P. Shah & Gilson R. Lomboy
To cite this article: Surendra P. Shah & Gilson R. Lomboy (2015) Future research needs in selfconsolidating concrete, Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 4:3-4, 154-163, DOI:
10.1080/21650373.2014.956238
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2014.956238

Published online: 18 Dec 2014.

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Date: 01 January 2016, At: 16:34

Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 2015

Vol. 4, Nos. 34, 154163, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2014.956238

Future research needs in self-consolidating concrete

Surendra P. Shaha and Gilson R. Lomboyb*

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a
Center for Advanced Cement Based Materials, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA;
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, 407
Town Engineering, Ames 50010, IA, USA

(Received 15 May 2014; accepted 15 August 2014)

The development of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) had revolutionized construction by its ability to achieve full compaction without mechanical vibration and consistency of quality. Use of SCC results in signicant reduction in construction time,
cost, and noise. With the growing utilization of SCC, the necessity for research to
understand and manipulate the fresh and hardened properties of SCC also increases.
The paper presents future research needs of SCC in the areas of rheology, construction, and sustainability. Aside from yield stress and viscosity, which are key properties for owability and stability, the mechanisms behind thixotropy need to be
understood. To be able to obtain a better grasp of the mechanisms driving the rheology of cement-based systems, the system needs to be studied at multiple scales.
Three research areas in construction using SCC are discussed; pumping, cast-in-place
of bridge components, and rock-lled concrete. Finally, the research need for further
sustainability is emphasize.
Keywords: rheology; pumping; cast-in-place bridge components; rock-lled
concrete; sustainability

1. Introduction
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) was
developed to obtain a durable concrete
that is less dependent on the quality of
construction work.[1] SCC passes
through and encapsulates dense reinforcement and lls formwork without any
mechanical consolidation due to its high
owability and stability. In recent years,
demands for taller and more complex
concrete structures and new construction
methods necessitate the use of SCC. This
drives for further development of SCC
for more control and versatility during its
plastic state and increase in mechanical
performance and durability.
In the following, research needs in
areas of rheology, construction, and

sustainability are discussed. In particular,

rheology research in thixotropy and its
multiscale aspects is discussed. The needs
in three construction method, (reliable
pumping assessment, rock-lled concrete,
and cast-in-place bridge components) are
also presented. Finally, the research needs
for further sustainability in SCC is
emphasize.
2. Rheology
Rheology in a cement-based system such
as SCC is complex due to the presence
of various constituent materials and the
time-dependent material changes they
undergo. During the dormant stage of
the hydration process, while concrete is

*Corresponding author. Email: grlomboy@iastate.edu

2014 Taylor & Francis

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Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

still plastic and owable, rheological
properties continuously evolve due to the
formation of early hydration products and
changes in concentration of ionic species
in the solution. To be able to obtain a
better grasp of the mechanisms driving
the rheology of cement-based systems,
the system needs to be studied at multiple
scales. Particle interactions are most signicant when they are at comparable
scales. At the nanoscale, the interaction
between nanomaterials such as polymer
additives,
nanoparticles,
unhydrated
cementitious materials, early hydration
products like ettringite and calcium
hydroxide, and the contribution of van
der Waals forces, steric effects, and
Brownian motion needs to be considered.
At the microscale or mesoscale, the interactions between cementitious particles
and the surrounding uid and mechanisms of occulation and dispersion are
to be studied. The macroscale scale study
would resort to groupings, such as the
behavior of cementitious pastes and ne
aggregates or mortar and coarse aggregates. Macroscale rheological properties
viscosity, yield stress, and thixotropy can
be measured.
2.1. Thixotropy
Viscosity in SCC has been a key factor
in preventing segregation, either at rest or
when the concrete is owing. Thixotropy
is gaining attention because the change in
viscosity at different construction stages
is a very useful property in improving
construction efciency, safety and economy. Proper thixotropy is important to
prevent segregation,[2,3] to reduce formwork pressure,[4,5] and to develop green
strength in slip-form construction with
semi-owable SCC [6,7] and in shotcreting.[8] Thixotropy is the reversible, isothermal, time-dependent decrease in
viscosity when a suspension is subjected
to an increased shear stress or shear
rate.[9]

155

2.1.1. Macroscale
Previous work at ACBM has demonstrated that a small addition of clays can
signicantly increase the green strength
of SCC mixtures.[7,1012] Such properties can effectively reduce SCC formwork
pressure. Figure 1 shows the formwork
pressure response of SCC mixes with and
without a 0.33% nanoclay (puried magnesium aluminosilicate) addition by mass
of binder, by [13]. It is apparent that
nanoclay signicantly reduced lateral
pressure. This behavior has previously
been tied to occulation behavior, where
studies have shown that clays increase
occulation strength [14] and oc
size.[15]
To measure the effect of palygorskite
nanoclay on rate of rebuilding,[16]
applied a rheological protocol where the
sample is initially sheared at a constant
shear rate to break down its structure and
then a xed shear stress lower than its
yield stress is applied.[17] The strain rate
decay provides a measure of the rate at
which the material regains enough structure to resist the applied stress; the faster
the rate of decay, the higher the rate of
rebuilding and vice versa. The protocol is
shown in Figure 2. It is initially shear
rate controlled, where a preshear is
applied for 60s. Then it switches to shear
stress control and the evolution of shear
rate is monitored. The shear stress is

Figure 1. Formwork pressure of SCC with

and without a 0.33% nanoclay addition.

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156

S.P. Shah and G.R. Lomboy

Figure 2. Shear rheological protocol for

obtaining relaxation time.

applied until the shear rate reaches zero.

A break criterion is dened in this step:
when the shear rate becomes less than
0.01s-1 (essentially zero), it moves to the
next step or the end of the test.
Figure 3 shows the evolution of shear
rate for an applied shear stress of
30 Pa.[16] For the plain cement paste,
the yield stress is considered to be
between 30 and 40 Pa. For 0.5% nanoclay cement paste, the yield stress is
between 140 and 150 Pa. Since the plain
cement paste has the lowest yield stress,
it governs for the shear condition of
50s-1, the applied shear stress was
between 20 and 30 Pa.

Figure 3. Strain rate decay from 50s-1 for

30 Pa applied shear stress of cement paste
with and without 0.5% palygorskite clay.[16]

The evolution of shear rate is tted

with the following exponential model,
c_ t c_ 0 expt=sr : s is characteristic
time and r is a dimensionless constant. In
the present case, the strain rate decay follows a compressed exponential, where
r > 1. The increase in viscosity of the
material is assumed to be due to jamming
within the material due to occulation
water is entrapped within ocs and the
effective density increases. Comparing
the time taken for shear rate to reach
zero, the nanoclay can reduce it by nearly
a factor of 10. The characteristic time for
the control paste is 0.31 s, while with
0.5% nanoclay, the characteristic time
reduces to 0.034s.
Roussel et al. [18] show that the
thixotropic behavior of standard fresh
cement pastes may nd two origins. They
had claried ambiguities in literature concerning the critical strain of fresh cement
pastes by a detailed analysis of their macroscopic behavior. They explained that
the largest critical strain (obtained by
constant strain rate) can be associated to
the network of colloidal interactions
between cement particles, whereas the
smallest critical strain (obtained by oscillary rheometry) can be associated to the
early hydrates, which form preferentially
at the contact points between cement
grains.
The development of the network of
cement particles interacting via CSH
bridges between particles can be decomposed in two successive phases: a rigid
percolation phase followed by a rigidication phase during which the elastic
modulus at low strain increases linearly
in time. These have reversible macroscopic consequences as long as the available mixing power is sufcient to break
the rigid links between cement particles.
The value of the apparent yield stress of
the mixture left at rest results from the
two above phenomena. Depending on
resting time, the dominant stress peak
observed during a static yield stress

Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

measurement will be either measured for
the rigid critical strain (at long times) or
for the colloidal critical strain (at short
times). At the rigid critical strain, its
value is only determined by the strength
of the CSH bonds in the rigid network.
At the colloidal critical strain, its value is
also affected by CSH nucleation.

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2.1.2. Microscale
Ferron et al. [15] studied the microstructure of concentrated cement-clay suspensions. They examined through scanning
laser microscopy, where a Focus Beam
Reectance Method (FBRM) probe was
used to measure the oc size evolution
under different shear stresses. Cement
pastes with and without sepiolite clay
(1.5% by mass of cement) were subjected
to alternating cycles of low (40 rpm) and
high (400 rpm) mixing intensities.
The results show (Figure 4) that the
clays increase oc size as represented by
the measured average chord length. The
cement paste with clay exhibited higher
mean chord length throughout the cycles.
However, during the low-intensity cycles,
both pastes experienced a similar evolution in chord length. Although the clay
mix started off the cycle more occulated
at around 2500s, the rate of oc growth
was similar to that of the plain cement

157

paste. This suggests that the clays had an

immediate effect on the degree of occulation (upon introduction or removal of
high shear) but had little inuence over
time, during which the rate of occulation appears to be dominated by the
cement phase.
FBRM was also employed by [19]
Yim et al. in studying the occulation
and breakage behavior of cement particles under Couette ow. At low rate of
shear strain, the cement particle size
increases over time and at a high rate of
shear strain, the cement particle size
decreases over time. They also found that
their measured decrease in viscosity correlates well with computed changes in
viscosity due to the increase in packing
density.
Chung et al. [20] studied occulation
and sedimentation using ultrasonic wave
reection (UWR). P- and S-wave
responses from hydrating Portland
cement paste were interpreted in terms of
occulation and sedimentation processes.
By calibration with an alumina suspension, the S-wave UWR response detected
sedimentation, while P-wave UWR
response detected occulation. Qualitatively, the progressive reduction in Swave reection coefcient during the rst
20 minute of hydration was attributed to
formation of increasing numbers of particleparticle contacts due to occulation,
and the increase in P-wave reection
coefcient during that same time was
attributed principally to sedimentation of
cement particles when partially dispersed,
which ceases once the particles become
occulated.
2.1.3. Nanoscale

Figure 4. FBRM results showing the evolution of mean chord length for pastes with and
without sepiolite clay addition.[15]

The occulation of cementitious particles

is due to the adhesion forces between
materials at the nanoscale that act when
particles are brought very close together.
Lomboy [21] studied the adhesion forces
of cementitious particles dry air and uid

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158

S.P. Shah and G.R. Lomboy

environment using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The cementitious materials

studied were ordinary portland cement,
y ash, ground-granulated blast furnace
slag; with mica, silica, calcite, and silicon
nitride as reference materials. The adhesion force was determined from pull-off
force measurements, which was then used
to calculate Hamaker constants according
to JKR or DMT [22,23] contact models.
The AFM experiments are conducted in
dry air and uid environments at pH levels of 7, 8, 9, 11, and 13. The results in
dry air indicate that y ash can have a
high Hamaker constant; also when in
contact with other cementitious materials.
The results in uid environments have
showed high Hamaker constants for portland cement and y ash.
Ferrari et al. [24] studied the interaction forces between ettringite crystals and
spherical and sharp silicon dioxide tips in
different electrolyte solutions and polycarboxylate-ether-based superplasticizer
(PCE) using AFM. Results show an
effective repulsion between ettringite surface and AFM tips for solutions above
the isoelectric point of ettringite (pH12)
and signicant attraction in solution at
lower pH. The addition of polyelectrolytes in solution provides dispersion
forces exclusively between the sharp tips
(radius 10 nm) and the ettringite surface, whereas the polymer layer at the ettringite surface results to be unable to
disperse large colloidal probes (radius
10 m).
3. Construction
The following describes research needs
for SCC in three areas of construction:
pumping; cast-in-place bridge components; and rock-lled concrete. Pumping
of concrete is the preferred method of
transport and placement in most construction sites because it is fast and an easy
method to transport concrete. Present
construction challenges needs concrete to

be pumped at much longer and higher

distances, such as in the Burj Khalifa
construction where concrete was pumped
to the world record height of 576 m.
Bridge components using SCC are often
made at pre-cast concrete plants. The process of producing cast-in-place bridge
component are challenging because of
the less controlled site conditions compared to a pre-cast concrete plant. Finally,
the research needs for rock-lled concrete
(RFC), a new type of concrete and construction method are discussed. RFC is a
type of concrete that is formed by rst
lling the on-situ formworks with largesized rocks (> 30 cm) which pile on each
other under gravity, then, SCC is poured
into the pre-packed rock skeleton to ll
the voids between rocks and make it a
solid concrete structure.
3.1. Pumping
The slump test and/or an engineers experience are often the basis for qualitative
estimation of pumpability of concrete.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Committee report on pumping published
in 1996, and reapproved in 2008, provides a chart for estimating pumping
pressure based on slump, pipe diameter
and length and direction, types of bends,
and pressure loss.[25] However, for construction of extremely tall buildings, and
long bridges and tunnels constructed with
SCC, a quantitative determination of the
ow rate at given pressure of pipe length
and of diameter is necessary for the
proper planning and execution of construction activities. Transport conditions
can also be used for designing suitable
rheological characteristics, viscosity and
yield stress, including segregation resistance, workability retention, and properties of lubrication layer.
When concrete is pumped through
pipes, a lubrication layer is formed
between the pipe wall and the inner concrete.[26] The lubrication layer facilitates

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Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

pumping due to its much lower viscosity
and yield stress than the inner concrete.
To accurately predict pumping, the rheological properties and thickness of the
lubrication layer and the inner concrete
should be studied.
Tribometers are employed to measure
the rheological properties of the lubrication layer.[27,28] A smooth cylinder is
inserted in a concrete mixture contained
in a bucket and is rotated to produce a
lubrication layer due to shear induced
particle migration. The lubrication layer
is presumed to be similar the concrete
owing in pipes. The rotation speed and
torque required applied in rotating the
cylinder can be used to determine the
rheological properties of the lubrication
layer formed on the surface of the cylinder. In the study conducted by [29], they
developed a tribometer that induces a
lubricating layer under conditions similar
to those present during the pipe ow of
pumped concrete. The dimensions of the
cylinder and the bucket (outer cylinder)
were determined by considering the shear
rates generated pumping of concrete.
Computational uid dynamics was
employed to develop the test method and
analysis for ow of concrete in the tribometer. Subsequently, they had conducted
full-scale pumping with 350 m and
548 m horizontal pipe layout and conducted predictions based on the measured
rheological properties and compared the
predicted values with the actual pumping
tests.
Feys et al. [3032] presented the relationships between rheological properties
and pumping of SCC. They discussed the
inuence of the rheological properties of
the concrete on the pumping process,
showing that viscosity and shear thickening have a major importance. They had
also shown that viscosity will decrease
due to pumping. Structural breakdown
and air content change the rheological
properties of the SCC. If structural
breakdown dominates the effects of the

159

air content, the SCC will show a larger

tendency to segregation. If the effects of
the air content dominate, the yield stress
of the SCC will increase, possibly
leading to improper lling of the
formwork.
3.2. Cast-in-place bridge components
In 2009, Khayat & Mitchell [33] released
their report on SCC for precast, prestressed concrete bridge elements. Their
study covers material properties and performance criteria for SCC used for precast,
prestressed
concrete
bridge
elements; key engineering properties,
durability characteristics, and structural
performance; and recommendations to
AASHTO LRFD specications.
Production of bridge components in
precast concrete plants undergo wellcontrolled conditions in terms of concrete
mixing and transport, component segmentation, formwork assembly, nishing,
and most importantly curing conditions
and safety. Bridge construction by castin-place SCC in North America has been
very limited due to the lack of design
and construction guidelines and issues
perceived to inuence construction efciency and structural integrity.
Currently, a research on SCC for
cast-in-place bridge components is being
conducted through the collaboration of
the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Iowa
State University and Northwestern
University
(Transportation
Research
Board, NCHRP 18-16).[34] The research
aims to develop specications and performance criteria for cast-in-place SCC that
can be used in the three categories of
bridge components: deck, superstructure
(girder, diaphragm, connection, closure
pour, concrete-lled tube), and substructure (pier, pier cap, abutment wall, wing
wall). In the process, parameters that
have signicant inuence on fresh and
hardened SCC properties will be identied; test methods for quality control and

160

S.P. Shah and G.R. Lomboy

quality assurance at the ready mix plant

and on site, as well as hardened concrete
will also be determined; and the constructability and structural performance of
developed SCC mixtures will be evaluated. Recommendations to AASHTO
LRFD Specications will then be given.

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3.3. Rock-lled concrete

RFC was developed by Tsinghua University in 2003 and has been employed in
over 40 projects in China, most of which
are large-scale concrete construction in
hydraulic engineering.[35] The application of large-sized aggregates in combination with SCC brings many advantages,
such as less deformation, no vibration for
consolidation, and faster construction. On
the other hand, these advantages come
with concerns, such as whether SCC can
effectively ll the spaces between aggregates, and whether the large interfaces
between SCC and rocks will become a
weak part that compromises the strength
and durability of the concrete. Therefore,
research challenges are to address the
owability of self-compacting matrix
(SCM), SCM aggregate size, large-sized
aggregate moisture condition, lling rate,
air void assessment, and microstructure
of large aggregate interface.
Xie et al. [36] investigated the lling
performance of SCC and the interface
between SCC and large aggregates. An
experimental setup was designed to stimulate SCC ow in a rock skeleton,
Figure 5. The effects of different factors
(aggregate size, yield stress, etc.) on the
lling capacity of SCC and the properties
of RFC were investigated on the basis of
lling rate, cross-section porosity, and
interface microstructure. The ndings
indicate that the interface microstructure
of RFC greatly depends on the lling
performance of SCC which is signicantly affected by the size and condition
of the large rocks. It was also found that
specimen cast with large aggregates had

Figure 5.

Experiment setup of RFC simulation.

lower porosity than that cast with medium aggregates in the entire interface
area, as shown in Figure 6. Given that
aggregate size signicantly affected the
lling performance and lling quality of
the SCM, RFC-type concrete may result
from the signicant effect of lling performance of SCM on the formation of
the interface, as well as the absence of
vibrations.
4. Sustainability
There is a global effort in the concrete
community to improve the sustainability
and reduce the environmental impact of
concrete in construction. Since its

Figure 6.
porosity.

Large-sized aggregate interface

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Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials

development, the use of SCC has greatly
contributed to reduction in energy use,
noise, cost in construction, and improve
construction safety. However, SCC uses
more portland cement than conventional
concrete mixtures in order to increase
paste viscosity for homogeneity and lling capacity, particularly in powder-type
mixtures. The replacement of portland
cement with large volumes of y ash, a
by-product of coal burning in power
plants, has been shown to improve SCC
owability, mechanical strength, and
durability. Fly ash in combination with
cement produces a stronger and more
durable concrete, providing a denser
microstructure. It also allows for the
reduction of cement use; cement is an
expensive component in concrete and
produces plenty of CO2 during production. Since y ash reacts by pozzolanic
activity, there would be a signicant
reduction in heat of hydration, but there
would also be longer induction periods
and delays in early-age strength gain.
To compensate for this shortcoming,
many methods have been explored to
accelerate the early-age hydration of y
ashcement systems, including mechanical grinding, chemical activation, and
mechanochemical treatment. Silica fume
has been found to be very effective in
accelerating cement hydration.[16] More
recently, a more pozzolanic-reactive
material, nanoSiO2, has been used to

161

improve the properties of cementitious

materials, and it shows excellent enhancing effects on the early-age properties
[37]. Figure 7 shows the reduction in
induction period on pastes due to 5%
addition of colloidal nanosilica (CNS) to
cement paste with 40% y ash replacement. The use of nanomaterials with supplementary cementitious material is an
avenue for improving the sustainability of
SCC.
5. Concluding remarks
Research in the rheology of SCC is a key
to increasing SCC versatility in construction and utility in various construction
types. Aside from viscosity and yield
stress, research thixotropy is of interest
because of its benets, such as in prevention of segregation during pumping, reduction of formwork pressure, timely green
strength and shape stability in slip-form
construction with semi-owable SCC, and
shotcreting. Studying at different scales to
be able to understand and control thixotropy is particularly challenging.
Recent construction methods are also
requiring better understanding of the
behavior of SCC. Examples of these are
pumping to extremely tall building, castin-place bridge components, and rocklled concrete. Research will contribute
to estimating the time and effort needed
in transport and providing guidelines for
ensuring quality construction and longterm performance.
Finally, research in further increasing
the sustainability of SCC is needed.
Research with nanomaterials can promote
the increased use of supplementary
cementitious materials and improve
strength and durability.
Acknowledgments

Figure 7. Temperature change due to heat of

hydration, FA-y ash, CNS colloidal nanosilica.

The authors would like to acknowledge the

contributions from Shiho Kawashima of
Columbia University, Kejin Wang of Iowa
State University, George Morcous of

162

S.P. Shah and G.R. Lomboy

University of Nebraska Lincoln, Jae Hong

Kim of UNIST, Ulsan, Korea, Raissa Ferron
of University of Texas at Austin, Nathan
Tregger of W.R. Grace, and Yuetao Xie of
Tsinghua University, China.

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Notes on contributors
Surendra P. Shah is a Walter P. Murphy Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering at Northwestern University and was the founding
director of the pioneering National Science
Foundation Science and Technology Center for
Advanced Cement-Based Materials. His current
research interests include: fracture, ber reinforced composites, nondestructive evaluation,
transport properties, processing, rheology,
nanotechnology, and use of solid waste materials. He has co-authored two books: Fiber Reinforced Cement Based Composites and Fracture
Mechanics of Concrete. He has published more
than 400 journal articles and edited more than
20 books. He is past editor of RILEMs journal,
Materials and Structures.
Gilson R. Lomboy is a Postdoctoral Research
Associate at Iowa State University. He
obtained his PhD in civil engineering materials in Iowa State University, USA and his
DEng in structural engineering from Asian
Institute of Technology, Thailand. His research
interests include: concrete durability and rheology, self-consolidating concrete, multiscale
testing and analysis of cement based materials,
atomic force microscopy of cement based
materials, nite element methods, nonlinear
analysis of structures, mechanics of laminate
composites.

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]
[10]

[11]

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