Standard specification of building

And
Road materials

Construction Design S.c

Addis Ababa

April, 2002

1. SAMPLING
Sampling soil/Aggregate mixture
- Shall be representative i.e Coarse fine shall be proportional
- The amount of sample depend on size of the soil /Aggregate
- If the sample is soil it should be properly in order not loose moisture

Nominal Sample weight

Max. size (kg)
(mm)

50mm 100
25mm 75
20mm 50
10mm 25
2mm 10

Sampling of fine /Coarse Aggregates

- Sampling requires skill and care
- For sampling use scoop or shovel
- Sampling from heaps of aggregates remove
- The top 15cm surface or penetrate the scoop 15 cm
The minimum amount of sample are

Nominal
Size Type of test Approximate minimum
mass
Of Aggregate
 25mm Sieve analysis 50kg
4.74-25mm Abrasion. Unit weight
<4.75 Specific gravity 25kg

ACV. 10% fines 10kg

soundness

Note:- For mix design of one batch

Cement
Produced by burning together Lime stone and Aluminum silicates (clay)

60-70 % 20-33 %
MAIN TYPES OF CEMENT
1)Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
2)Rapid hardening Portland cement (RHS)
3)Low Heat Portland cement
(Dams Bridges abutments and retaining walls)
4)Portland pozzolana cement
5)Sulphate resising cement
(Canal lings pipe line culvers e.t.c)
Standard specification of cement
1, Mortar strength 3 days 10.3 Mpa
7 days 17.2 Mpa
2, Setting time Initial setting setting time <45 min
Final setting time <10hes
3, Soundness (expansion) <10 mm
4, Fineness >1500 xm2/gm
 Construction materials
Binding materials
Organic - Bituminous / Asphalt
Inorganic - Cement/ Lime / Gypsum
- Fine aggregate/ sand
- Coarse aggregate
- Blocks –solid/ Hollow
- Bricks
- Tiles
- Fill material
- Reinforcement
- Concrete
- Rock/ Dimensional stones Marble granite

d) Odor - Describle the odor if organic of unsual soils containing

a significant amount of organic matter having
distinct odor of decaying vegetation
e) HCI – reaction – Describe the reaction with Hcl as none. Weak or strong
(This test is used to know the presence of carbonate/ Lime stone)
None - No visible reaction
Weak - some reaction with bules
Strong - Violent reaction forming bubles
F) Consistency – The test is used for fine grained soils
Very soft - Thumb will penetrate the soil (> 25mm)
Soft - ‘’ ‘’ ‘’ about 25 mm
Firm - ‘’ ‘’ ‘’ about 6 mm
Hard - will not indent the soil
 Sand - 100kg
C. Aggregate - 150kg
- The sample should be packed and properly tied and the following
Information shall be Included
- Client / Contractors Name
- Project Name
- Project Location / sample location
- Date of sample
- Sample BY
- Type of test
c) Sampling of concrete
2) VISUAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL AND ROCK

MINIMUM AMOUNT OF SAMPLE FOR VISUAL IDENTIFICATION

Max particle size Minimum amount of sample

(mm)

4.75mm 100 km

9.50mm 200 km

19.00mm 1000 km

38.10mm 8000 km

75.00mm 60 kg

a) Angularity is applicable any for gravel cobbles and boulders

Classify as Angular sub angular sub rounded or round
b)Color- Describe the color as Dark light brown red e.t.c
c) Moisture – Dry – Absence of Moisture
 Moist – Damp but if there is no visible moisture
Wet – Visible free water

WHY WE TEST CONTRUCTION MATERIALS ?

- The quality of construction materials is the base of any construction industry
- Knowing the quality of materials is to know the quality of the structure being
constructed
- Properties of soil shall be known before design
- Problems associated with the choose of materials is done with profound knowledge of
properties of construction materials
In order to know a structure/ building is done according to specification
- Durability of structures are based on the quality of construction materials (freezing
and thawing test)
- The service of a material in natural climate condition
HOW WE TEST AND TYPE OF TEST
CEMENT - Soundness setting time specific surface mortar strength
BITUMEN - Specific gravity viscosity penetration Flash point/ fir point Ductility
SAND - Sieve analysis silt content organic impurity clay lumps content unit
weight specific gravity chloride content sulphate content potential alkaline reaction
C.AGGREGATE - Ditto but ACV . AIV 10% Fines Value
Flakiness index
Bitumen Affinity
FILL MATERIAL – Gradation Compaction CBR Atterberg limits Field density
BLOCKS
Compressive strength
BRICKS
Water absorption and compressive strength
TILES
 Transverse strength wear and water absorption

REINFORCEMENT
- Tensile strength
- Yield strength
- Elongation
ROCK / DIMENSIONAL STONES
1. Compressive strength /Flexural
2. Bulk density
3. Water absorption
4. Visual identification of Aggregate
CONCRETE
- Compressive strength
- Water tightness
- Bending strength / Flexural strength
PROPERTIES CONCRETE
A) Properties of Fresh (plastic concrete)
B) Properties of hardened concrete
a. Fresh concrete
- Workability - affected by water size of aggrades shape grading
- Consistency
- Segregation
- Bleeding
b.Hardened concrete
- Strength
- Durability
- Fire resistance
- Permeability
- Strength gives the idea of most of the other properties (Water tightness durability-
wear resistance)
A strong concrete is more dense compact impermeable and resistance to weathering
Strength
- Compressive strength – structural purpose
- Tensile strength – 8 – 12% of com. Stre
- Flexural strength – for high way pavement ( an average value of 15% of compressive
strength)
- Shear strength

Compressive strength (kg/cm2) 200 250 300 350 400

Shear stress (kg/cm2) 18 19 22 23 25

Permeability:- Any factor tending to increase density and strength give rise to less
permeable concrete
The concrete is water tight if under 500 Kpa pressure tested for 3 days the depth of
penetration of water shall not Exceed 10cm
Durability :- The property of concrete to withstand factor which reduce the life of
concrete by disintegration
Affected by weather mechanical wear chemical corrosion ( sea water . industrial
warts Gates Sewage e.t.c)
FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
a) Water cement ratio
b) Cement content
c) Temperature
d) Aggregate size
e) Curing

Compressive strength of cubes /HCB/ brocks and titles

a)Types of cements
1) Portland pozzolana (ppc)
2) Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
Fc7 (PPC) = 0.57 FC 28
Fc7 (OPC) = 0.68 FC 28

b)HCB Indiv (kg/ cm2) Average (kg/cm2)

A 38 42
B 32 35
 C 18 20

c) Bricks Indiv (Mpa) Average (Mpa) Water absorption Max (%)

A 17.50 20 21
B 12.50 15 22
C 7.50 10
No/limit
D 5.00 7.50
No/limit
d) Terrazzo tiles
Water absorption shall not Exceed 8% Transverse strength Dry 3Mpa
Wet 3Mpa
STORING OF CEMENT
Cement is highly hygroscopic / Absorbs moisture- We have to protect cement from
dampness
- Make sure that the ware house is dry
- The distance between the ware house wall and cement pile should not be less than 30
cm
- Bags should be piled be piled on wooden plamks
- The height of bags shall no be more than 14 bags (2.52m high and 3m width)
- We have to use the rule First in First out
 CONTENTS
Preface page
1. Fine aggregate sand 1
2. Coarse aggregate 3
3. Hollow concrete blocks 8
4. Solid clay bricks 10
5. Hollow clay bricks 11
6. Terrazzo tiles 12
7. Concrete 14
8. Fill materials 24
9. Base materials 28
10. Reinforcement 30
10. Concrete sewer pipes 31
11. Asphalt pavements 34
12. Engineering classification of rocks 40
1. Fine aggregate/sand
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand manufactured sand or combination of
both
1.1 Grading requirement
Fine aggregate shall fulfill the grading requirement given below
Table 1

Sieve Size (mm) ASTM C33/ESC.D3.201

(% Pass)

9.50 100
4.75 95-100
2.36 80-100
1.18 50-85
0.60 25-60
0.30 10-30
0.15 2-10

Table 2

Sieve
Size ASTM C.33/ ESC D3 201

(mm) (% PASS)

10.00 100
5.00 89-100
2.36 60-100
1.18 30-100
 0.60 15-100
0.30 5-70
0.15 0-15

1.2 General requirement

Fine aggregate shall fulfill the following requirements when tested by the following
methods

Ite Type of test Method Allowable limits

m
No

1 Organic impurity content ASTM 40 Max plate No

3(ASTMC33)

2 Slit and clay content ASTMC11

a FOR CONCRETE SUBJECTED Max 3%

TO ABRASION (ASTMC33)

B All other concert Max 5%

(ASTMC33)

3 Clay humps and friable particles ASTMC142 Max 3%

(ASTMC33)

4 A soundness test by sodium sulfate ASTMC88 Max 10%

(ASTMC33)

B soundness test by Magnesium Max 15%

sulphate (ASTMC33)

5 Fineness modulus

A fine sand 220-2.60

B Medium sand 260-2.90

C coarse sand 290-3.20

 6 Chloride content (Max) BS 812 600mg lite

7 Sulphate content ( Max) BS 812 1000mg lite

2 COARSE AGGREGATE
1.2 Gradation
Coarse aggregate shall consist of gravel crushed gravel crushed stone the grading of
coarse aggregate shall conform to the following table (ASTM C33)

2.2 General requirement

Coarse aggregate shall full fill the following requirement when tested by the
method adopted

Item Type of test Test Allowable Limits

No Method

1 Coal limps and lignite content ASTM C 1%(ASTM C 33)

142

2 Clay limps and friable ASTM C 1%(ASTM C 33)

particles content 142

3 Dust content ASTM C 1%(ASTM C 33)

117

4 a/ Soundness test by sodium ASTM C Max 12%(ASTM C 33)

sulfate 88

b/ soundness test by ASTM C Max 18%(ASTM C 33)

magnesium sulfate 88

5 LOS Angeles abrasion (%)

wear

a/ for aggregate to be used in ASTM C Max 30%(ASTM C 33)

concrete for wearing surfaces 131

b/ for aggregate to be used in Max 50%(ASTM C 33)

all other concrete work
 6 Aggregate crushing value BS 812 Max 30%

a/ for concrete subjected two

wearing surfaces

b/ For other concrete BS 812 Max 45%

7 Flakiness index BS 812 Max 35%(BS812)

8 Aggregate Impact value

c/ for concrete subjected two BS 812 Max 30%

wearing surfaces

d/ for other concrete BS 812 Max 45%

9 Chloride content (Max) BS 812 600 mg/lire (BS 812

10 Sulphate concrete (Max) BS 812 1000 mg/lire (BS 812

2.3 Specific gravities

In the computation of quantities for concrete mixes it is the specific gravity of
the saturated surface dry aggregate that is always used the specific gravities of few
types of rocks are given below

Bulk specific gravity

Rock group Average Range

Basalt 2.75 2.7-2.9

Granite 2.65 2.6-2.70
Lime stone (firm) 2.65 2.6-2.70
Sand stone 2.50 2.0-2.60

2.4 Water absorption The absorption capacity is measure of the porosity of an

aggregate Approximate values of the absorption capacity of some types of aggregate
are given below
 Material Absorption Capacity
% by wt.

Sand 0-2

Gravel 0.5-1

Basalt 0-0.5

Granite 0-0.5

Limestone 0.5-1

Stand stone 2-7

2.5 Unit weight

The unit weight of aggregate is Important for calculating proportion of a concrete
mix (specially loose unit weight ) General range unit weight of some natural
aggregate are indicated below:-

Material Unit weight (|kg m3)

Sand ( dry ) 1320-1680

Gravel 1280-1440
Crushed stone 1250-1460

2.6 Standard physical requirement for dimensional stones

Type of test Granite Marble lime BMC

Stone
Water absorption% 0.4 0.2 3.0 0.05
ASTM C97

Density (kg m3) 2563 2595 2563 max 2758 max

ASTMC97 max max

Compressive Strength 131 min 52 min 55 min 62 min

(Mpa
ASTM C97

Brasion strength 25 min 10 min 10min 19.84 min

ASTM C97

Flexural strength 8.27 min 6.9 min 6.9 min 9.89 min
(Mpa)
ASTM C97

Modulus of rupture 10.34 6.9 min 6.9 min 7.20 min

(Mpa) min
ASTM C97
Nominal Amountes Finer than Each Laboratory sieve (Square – openings ) weight percent

Size 1 90 7 63 50 37.5 25 19 12.5 9.5 4.7 2.3 1.1

0 5 5 6 8
(sieves size)
0

(90 to 37.5mm) 1 90to1 - 20to6 - 0to15 - 0to5 - - - - -

0 00 0
0

(63 to 37.5mm - - 1 90to1 35to7 0to15 - 0to5 - - - - -

0 00 0
0

(50 to 25.0mm) - - - 100 90to1 35to7 0to15 - 0to5 - - - -

00 0

(50 to 4.75mm) - - - 100 90to1 - 35to7 - 10to3 - 0to

00 0 0 5

(37.5 to 19.0mm) - - - - 95to1 90to1 20to5 0to15 - 0to -

00 00 5 5

(37 to 4.75mm) - - - - 100 95to1 - 35to7 - 10t 0to

00 0 o30 5

(25.0to12.5mm) - - - - 100 100 90to1 20to5 0to10 0to -

00 5 5

(25.0to9.5mm) - - - - 100 90to1 40to8 10to4 0to 0to

00 5 0 5 5
(25.0to 4.75mm) - - - - - 100 95to1 - 25to0 - 0to 0to
00 60 10 5

(19.0to 9.5mm) - - - - - - 100 90to1 20to5 0to 0to -

00 5 5 5

(19.0to 4.75mm) - - - - - - 100 90to1 - 20t 0to 0to

00 o55 10 5

(12.5to4.75mm) - - - - - - - 100 90to1 40t 0to 0to

00 o70 15 5

(9.5to2.36mm) - - - - - - - - 100 85t 10t 0to 0t

o10 o30 10 o5
0
3.2 Dimensions
The nominal dimensions of hollow blocks are indicated below

Breadth {b} Height {h} Length {L} Face shell Web {e} Max. unit
(mm) {d}(mm) weight
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(kg/m3)

100 200 400 25 20 1200

150 200 400 25 25 1200

200 200 400 30 25 1200

250 200 400 35 30 1200

300 200 400 40 30 1200

d
e

b l

3.3 Minimum compressive strength

The minimum compressive strength for HCB according to ESC D3. 301 IS
indicated below.

Class Average of 6 units Individual units

Mpa Kg/cm2 Mpa Kg/cm2

A 4.2 42 3.8 38

B 3.5 35 3.2 32

C 2.0 20 1.8 18
3 Hollow concrete blocks
3.1 Classification Hollow concrete blocks be classified in to the following three
classes
3.1.1 Class A and B are load bearing units and suitable for
- External walls pointed rendered and masonry
- The inner leaf cavity walls or stone masonry
- Internal walls or partitions
- Panels in steel framed and reinforced steel framed buildings
3.1.2 Class C- non – load bearing units suitable for
- Non – load bearing walls and partitions
- Non – load bearing internal panels in steel framed and reinforced concrete
buildings
Note:- Six full size samples shall be taken from a lot of 4000 blocks or fraction
thereof for the compression test.

SOLID CLAY BRICKS

4.1 General requirements
Bricks shall be free from deep and extensive cracks. Damage of edges and corners
and expansive particles such as lime Bricks shall be burnt and have uniform color
and texture the deviation from paleness when measured for a bare length of 240
mm shall not exceed 6mm and cracks or patterns should not exceed 1mm in width.
4.2 Classification
Bricks shall be classified according to the numerical value of their compressive
strength water absorption saturation coefficient and efflorescence as indicated
below ( ESC D4 001)

Class Minimum compressive

strength
Max
Max.water Max saturation unite
Average Individual absorption (%) coefficient weight
of bricks (kg/m3)

5 bricks

Mp Kg/ Mp Kg/ Average of Indiv Avera Indivi 2200

a cm2 a cm2 idual ge of dual
 5 bricks brick 5 bricks
s bricks

A 20 200 17. 175 21 23 0.96 0.99

5
B 15 150 125 22 24 0.96 0.99
12.
C 10 100 75 No limit No No No
5
limit limit limit
D 7.5 75 50 No limit
7.5
No No No
5.0 limit limit limit

5 HOLLOW CLAY BRICKS

Hollow clay bricks shall mean a brick with parallel holes passing through it and
having an area not less than 25% of cross sectional area
The nominal dimensions of hollow clay brick as are indicated below

Nominal dimension (mm)

Height. h Breadth .b Length .l

140 250 25

140 400 250

160 250 250

160 400 250

5.1 Form and surface

The Following maximum permissible deviation shall be accepted
a. Plainness not exceeding 4.80mm for a length of 300 mm
b. Squareness exceeding 4.80 mm for length of 300 mm
c. Cracks not exceeding 1mm in width
5.2 Compressive strength
The minimum value of compressive strength of hollow clay bricks shall be as
indicated below (ESC.D4.126)
 Type Compressive strength

Average of 5 bricks Individual bricks

Mpa Kg/cm2 Mpa Kg/cm2

KK.SS.SK 7 70 5.5 55

Note:-
KK = With two faces for plastering
SS = With two faces smooth
SX = With one face smooth and the other face keyed

6. Terrazzo Tiles
Terrazzo tiles shall mean tiles whose wearing surface is composed of stone chips
mixed with sand ordinary or colored Poland cement and mechanically ground and
filled
7. Concrete
Concrete is a composite material consisting essentially of a binding medium within
which are embedded particles of relatively filler materials in cement concrete the
binder is cement and the filler material is aggregate of graded size from sand to
pieces of stone of varying diameter and shapes

7.1 Properties of concrete

7.1.1 properties of fresh concrete
As soon as water is brought in contact with other ingredients of concrete
freshly mixed concrete gradually undergoes changes until it becomes hard in its
plastic state the important properties are:-
- Workability
- Consistency
- Segregation
- Bleeding
Workability :- Freshly mixed concrete should to be transported placed
consolidated and finished without any segregation the workability of concrete is
affected by water content size of aggregate shape of aggregate grading of aggregate
etc
Consistency :- Consistency is closely to workability it is a term which describes
the ease with which fres concrete it is used to indicated degree of wetness.
Measurement of workability
Among various methods of determining the workablility of concrete the most
common method is slump test it is performed by measuring the subsidence of
concrete formed in a mould in the shape of frustrum of a cone diameter 20cm and
top diameter 10cm and the height is 30cm a tamping rod of steel 16mm diameter
and 0.6m long is used to compact the concrete in the mould is and carefully
observed gives the following three results

Slump Slump
Slump

a) True slump b) Shear slump c) Collapse slump

Note:- Concrete with shear or collapse slump is not recommended.

The recommended slumps for various works are indicated below

No Type of construction Slump in mm

Max Min

1 Heavy mass construction 50 25

 2 Pavements 50 25

3 Unreinforced footing casinos and 75 25

substructure walls

4 Bridge deck 75 25

5 Reinforced foundation wall and footings 100 50

6 Reinforced beams slabs and walls 125 75

7 Columns 125 75

7.1.1 Properties of hardened concrete

In its hardened state the various properties which need consideration are
1)Strength
2)Permeability
3)Durability
4)Elasticity
5)Shrinkage
6)Creep
Strength of concrete is the most important property as for as structural design is
concerned indirectly it gives an most idea on most of the other properties such as
water tightness.
Durability wear resistance e.t.c strength of concrete is measured either in
compression strength or tensile strength the method of compressive strength
determination is done on either or a specimen (height equal twice its diameter).
Note:- Cylindrical compressive strength is 80% of cube strength.
Tensile strength:- concrete has low tensile strength which ranges from 8% to 12%
of its compressive strength an average value of 10% is generally accepted
7.1.2 Classes of concrete
A concrete is graded in terms of is characteristic compressive cube strength attained
at the age of 28 days in Mpa for example C25 means characteristics cube
compressive strength attained at the age of 28 days (25Mpa |0 the permissible
grades for the two classes work are given below

Class Permissible Grades

I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

II C5 C15 C20

Class I:- concrete works carried out under the direction of supervisors registered by
the ministry as associate Engineers or above
Class II:- concrete works carried out under the direction of supervisors registered
by the ministry as Engineering aids.
Concrete are also graded as:-

Class Minimum compressive strength Minimum compressive strength

(mpa)

A 28 4000
C 18 2500
Y 28 4000

7.2 Characteristics compressive strength

Compressive strength of concrete is determined from test one 150mm cube at the
age of 28 day.
The characteristics compressive strength measurements may be expected to fall in
practice concrete may be regarded as complying with the grade specified for the
design test compliance and acceptance criteria
Criteria I:- This criteria may be applied in all cases but is less suited to large scale
sampling each lot is represented by three samples the strength of which are x1 <x2
<x3 the lot is accepted if the following conditions are satisfied simultaneously.
M3 ≥fck+K1
X1≥fck-k2
Where m3 = The mean value of three cubes
Fck = The specified characteristics strength
K1 k2 margins of strength given below (table)
Xi = is the average strengths of the minimum strength for the several lots
Criteria2 :- This criteria is suitable for large lot and the lot is accepted if the
following conditions are satisfied simultaneously
Mn – ISn ≥.fck
Xi≥fck – k2
Where :- M is the mean
Sn is the standard deviation of the sample results
Fck characteristics strength
I = a coefficient (1.4)
K2 = Margin (4 Mpa)
N = is the number of specimen.
The criteria may be modified as
Mn – 5.60 ≥fck
Table of margin of strength in Mpa
Margin of First two lot Third and fourth lot Fifih lot and above
strength

K1 5 4 3

K2 1 2 3

Example 1. Concrete cubes were sampled from foundation column and tested for
yhrir 28 days strength for 2nd and the results were 28.1, 27.2 and 28.4 Mpa
Note:- characteristics strength fck =25Mpa
M3 = 28.1+27.2+28.4 =27.90
K1 = 5
K2 = 1
X1 = 27.20
M3 = fck = K1
X1 = FCK+k2
27.90 = 25+5 27.90>30 Not true
27.2 = 25.1 27.2 <24 Not true
Both do not fulfill the compliance criteria hence the concrete test result not be
accepted and measures should be taken
Example 2. Concrete cube samples were taken for the third lot from a building site
whose specified characteristic strength is 25 Mpa and the laboratory test results
were 32.10Mpa 30.60Mpa29.4 Mpa
M3 = 32.10+30.60+29.40=30.70 Mpa
Xi = 29.40
K1 =4
k2
M3 = fck=k1
30.70>25+4
30.70>29
X1 =fck +k2
29.4>25-2 ok
29.4> 23 ok
Since the concrete fulfills the two compliance criteria the lote can be accepted
7.3 Measures to be taken in case of non compliance
a) The position to be concrete which does not fu fill the compliance criterion shall
be identified
b) The structural safety shall be checked by appropriate calculation
c) If such structural safety or durability is not assured the strength of concrete shall
be examined by taking drilled cores or concrete hammer test is performed
d) If the results of check test by non – destructive methods show that the quality of
concrete is inadequate or inadequate or show or show other defects the engineer
may require a loading test.
e) If structural safety and durability are not assured then the concrete shall be
rejected and the structure or member demolished or given a reduced structural
grading by limiting its service rating
7.4 Standard /Nominal mixes of concrete
These are standard mixes are rich in cement ( ordinary Portland cement ) and are
intended for use where the cost trial mixes or of cube testing is not justified the mix
proportions which are appropriate for grades C5 to C30 are indicated below.
 Table:- Standard mixes for ordinary structural concrete per 50 kg bag of cement ( opc)

Concrete Nominal 40 20 14 10
Grade max size of
Medium High Medium High Medium High Medium High
Aggregate
30 to 60 60 to 120 20to 50 50 to 10 to 30 30 to 60 10 to 25 25 to 50
(mm)
100
Workabilit
y Limits of
slump that
may be
expected
(mm)

C5 Total 640 550 540 480 - - - -

Aggregate 30-45 30-45 35-50 35-50
(kg) 0.312 0.275 0.277 0.252
fine
aggregate
(c/c)
Vol.of
finished
concrete
(m3)

C15 Total 370 330 320 280 - - - -

 Aggregate 35-50
(kg) 30-45 30-45 0.178 35-50
fine 0.2 0.183 0.16
aggregate
(c/c)
Vol.of
finished
concrete
(m3)

C20 Total 305 270 280 250 255 220 240 200
Aggregate 0-35 30-40 30-40 35-45 35-45 40-50 40-50 45-55
(kg) 0.165 0.155 0.156 0.143 0.146 0.13 0.137 0.121
fine
aggregate
(c/c)
Vol.of
finished
concrete
(m3)

C25 Total 265 240 240 215 220 195 210 175
Aggregate 30-35 30-40 30-40 35-45 35-45 40-50 40-50 45-44
(kg) 0.147 0.137 0.137 0.127 0.13 0.118 0.124 0.11
fine
 aggregate
(c/c)
Vol.of
finished
concrete
(m3)

C30 Total 235 215 210 190 195 170 180 150
Aggregate 30-35 30-40 30-40 35-45 35-45 40-50 40-50 45-55
(kg) 0.134 0.127 0.124 0.115 0.115 0.106 0.109 0.097
fine
aggregate
(c/c)
Vol.of
finished
concrete
(m3)
 7.5 concrete strength /Age
Most standard of code practices specify the 28 days strength of concrete for
structural design purpose this is in recognition of the fact concrete matures i.e gains
most of its strength within this time on the other hand it is found necessary to check
the suitability of a mix long before the results of the 28 days tests are available in
such cases the 28 day strength may be roughly calculated from the 7th day strength
results and expressed as

Fc28 = 1.5 fc7

Fc28 = The strength of concrete at 28 days

Fc7 = The strength of concrete at 7 days
8. Fill Materials /Soil or aggregate
8.1 Sub grade :- is the material below the pavement and may include insitu
material fill or improved sub grade these materials are used to support the
pavement and shall have the following requirements:-
- CBR value (100% MDD standard compaction and 4 days soak ) shall be more
than 5%
- swell at 100% MDD ( Standard compaction & 4 days soak less than 2%)
- Organic matter (% by weight) < 3%
8.2 Subbase material
These materials are gravel soil mixtures. Weathered rock etc and shall fulfill the
following requirements.
a. All materials shall have CBR at 95% MDD and 4 days siak. Minimum 30%
b. Natural gravels
- Max – size should be layer thickness or 80 mm which ever is the lesser
- Uniformity coefficient min = 5
- Plasticity index max = 15% in wet areas
- Gradation requirement shall be follows ( ASTMD 1241)
 Sieve Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
size A B C D E F
(mm)

50 100 100

25 - 75-95 100 100 100 100

9.5 30-65 40-75 50-85 60-100 - -

No4 25-55 30-60 35-65 60-85 55-100 70-100

No10 15-40 20-45 25-50 40-70 40-100 55-100

No40 8-20 15-30 15-30 25-45 20-50 30-70

No200 2-80 5-15 5-15 8-15 6-15 8-15

C. Clayey and sily sands

- passing 2mm sieve max 95%
- passing 0.07mm sieve 10% - 30%
- Uniformity coefficient >5
- plasticity index in dry areas, 5% - 20%
- plasticity index in wet areas, 5%-12%
8.3 Compaction Test
For high way work. For embankment and for building under slab the soil shall be
compacted up to its optimum moisture content to attain maximum density To check
for the soil whether it has attained maximum density or not the sample should be
tested in the laboratory to optimum moisture concrete and maximum dry density
there are two compaction methods
8.3.1 Standard proctor compaction :- Light compaction suitable for embankments
and fill under hard core
8.3.2 Modified proctor compaction :- Heavy construction projects
MDD
 Dry density
OMC

Moisture content
MDD = maximum dry density
OMC = Optimum moisture concrete.
8.4 Field density
In order to know the relative compaction of the material a test known as field
density test is recommended this test is performed on a fill road or embankment and
fill under floor slab A hole is dug inside the fill the field density of the soil is
determined by sand replacement method or by rubber balloon method
Relative compaction :- is the term used to compare the insitu compacted soil
density to the laboratory compaction density value and is defined as
Relative compaction = density of compacted field soil x 100≥ 95%
Maximum laboratory dry density
Note:1 For road construction the field density test shall be performed every 50m
left center and right as shown below.
Test should be done every layer before completion of the fill work
Road

50m 50m
50m

9. Base materials
 Abase material is defined is defined as any layer placed between the surface
concrete and the sub grade. It may be an asphaltic concrete black base crushed
stone gravel sand of low plasticity fine grained material with a stabilizing additive
etc placement foundation layers are frequently separated into two class and treated
granular materials are considered as bases where as the less stable materials sands
fine gravels and treated sub grated are placed in the sub base category Materials for
base shall have:-
- CBR value > 80% at 95% AASHTO MDD (Modified)
- Los Angeles abrasion max 50%
- Aggregate crushing value max 35%
- Plasticity index max 6%
- Liquid limit not more than 25%
9.1 Grading requirement for Base materials
Base coarse shall conform to ERA S standard specification section 200 below.

Sieve Base courses Surface courses

Size
A B C D E F G
(mm)

75 100

63 100

50 70-100 80-100 100

37.50 60-80 68-88 80-100 100

25.00 50-70 53-73 60-80 70-100 100

19.00 40-70 35-55 50-70 60-80 70-90 100

12.50 - - - 50-70 60-80 65-95 100

9.50 25-45 29-49 30-50 40-60 45-75 55-85 72-100

4.75 15-35 17-37 20-45 25-45 30-60 35-65 45-75

2.36 - - - - - - -
 2.00 5-25 8-28 10-30 15-35 15-40 20-50 25-35

6.425 0-15 0-18 5-20 1-20 0-30 0-15 5-35

0.075 0-10 0-13 0-10 0-15 0-20 0-15 0-20

10 Reinforcement /Deformed and plain Bars.

A deformed bar is defined as a bar that is intended for use as reinforcement in
reinforced concrete construction the surface of the surface of the bar is provided
with lugs or protrusions called deformations bars are of three minimum yield levels
namely as Grade 40(40.00 psi or 300 Mpa ) Grade 60 (60.00 psi or 420 Mpa ) and
Grade 75 (75.000 psi or 520 Mpa)
Preferred nominal sizes and grades are shown below

Grade Nominal diameters (mm)

40 8.10.12.14.16.20

60 8.10.12.14.16.20.22.26.32…56

75 20.22.24.28.30.32.38…56

10.1 Mechanical properties

Tensile strength yield strength and elongation of steel bar in accordance with
AASHTO M 53 /ASTM A 617 shall be as follow

Grade Grade Grade

300 420 520

Tensile strength >500 >620 >690

(Mpa)

Yield strength (Mpa) >300 >420 >520

Elongation minimum
 (%)

Diameter of bars
(mm)

10 11 9 -

14-16 12 9 -

20 12 9 7

22.24 - 8 7

30.32.38 - - 6

42.56 - - 6

Note:- Grade 300 bars are furnished only in size 10 to 20 mm

Grade 520 bars are furnished in sizes 20 to 57 mm

11 Concrete sewer pipes

Concrete sewer pipes are classified into two
Unreinforced normal strength concrete pipes
Reinforced extra – strength concrete pipes
11.1 Quality requirement ( Esc D3.326)
11.1.1 Load bearing strength
All classes of concrete pipes shall sustain with aut collapse the minimum
bearing load specified in table below
Minimum bearing load specified table below
11.1.2 Hydrostatic pressure
All classes of concrete pipes shall withstand an internal hydrostatic
pressure of 1.0 kg/cm2 without sweating or fissure
11.1.3 Permeability –
Concrete sewer pipes shall show no moist or damp spots at the end of the
test period 70% of the pipes sampled shall pass this test
11/1.3 Water absorption
The water absorption expressed as % of dry mass shall not exceed 15% for
all classes of concrete pipes
Table:- Dimensions and bearing strength of unreinforced concrete pipes

Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum bearing load

Internal wall Length
N/m Kgf/m
Diameter Thickness (mm)
(mm) (mm)

100 15 14800 1480

150 20 16000 1600

200 25 17500 1750

250 25 18500 1850

300 30 1000 19000 1900

400 40 20000 2000

500 45 22000 2200

600 55 25000 2500

Table:- Dimensions and bearing strength of reinforced concrete pipes

Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum bearing load

 wall Length
Internal Thickness (mm)
Diameter N/m Kgf/m
(mm)
(mm)
300 37 38000 3800

400 43 38000 3800

500 50 40000 4000

600 56 1000 43000 4300

800 68 49000 4900

1000 80 60000 6000

1200 92 72000 7200

12 Asphalt pavements
All asphall pavements are a combination of mineral aggregate and asphaltic
material constructed in various thickness and types the wheel loads for which a
pavement is designed governs the thickness of the pavement and the type of
construction to be employed
Heavy duty asphalt pavement are usually 3 inch or thickness and add more to the
strength and load support value of the overall pavement structure since the increase
in strength is proportional to the pavement thickness.

12.1 Classification
Asphalt pavements are divided into two broad classes with several sub classes
Class 1. Plant mixes
 Hot mix asphalt concrete
Cold mix asphalt concrete
Road and travel plant mixes
Class 2. Penetration or layered systems
Single asphalt surface treatment
Multiple coarse asphalt treatment
Penetraton macadam
1 Class I ( plant mixes ) – Are all asphalt pavements in which the aggregate is
coated with asphalt by mechanical mixing this class of asphalt pavement is usually
employed in heavy –duty construction.
a. Hot mix asphalt concrete is the higest type of asphalt concrete and the paving
mixture is manufactured in a mixing plant where the asphalt and aggregate are
heated to a temperature approximately 300 F
b. Cold mix asphalt concrete is slightly lower type of pavement than the hot mix and is
usually used for maintenance cold mix asphalt concrete is a mixture.
Of aggregate and liquid (cut bact) asphalt materials which are mixed and placed at
normal temperatures
c. Road and travel plant mixes this type of asphalt is performed with the aggregate at
normal atmosphere the liquid asphaltic material to be incorporated into the mix is
usually heated to a temperature which will provide the necessary viscosity for
homogeneous mix.
II. Class II ( penetration or layered asphalt pavements ) Are formed by placing
the asphalt and aggregate at a separate interval or in separate courses.
This class of asphalt pavement is used for both light and heavy –duty
construction
a. Single asphalt surface treatment :- this type of asphalt pavement is constructed by a
single application of asphaltic material and aggregate to newly constructed flexible
pavement
b. Multiple course asphalt :- In this type of pavement the operation is run in multiple
course surface by placing layers of asphalt and aggregate Each application of
asphalt and aggregate is called a course and each course employees smaller sized
aggregate successively.
c. Asphalt macadam :- in this type of layered construction clean crushed stone
reasonably uniform in size ( usually 2 to 3 inch ) is first placed on the prepared road
bed and rolled to produce a thickness slightly greater than the maximum size of the
aggregate the layer of crushed store is then heavily spread with asphalt.
12.2 Types of Asphalt cements
a. Petroleum Asphalt cement :- is a cementing agent derived from crude oil and
having the necessary physicochemical characteristics.
b. Cut back asphalt :- are manufactured by blending asphalt cement with a
specific amount of solvent which will rapidly evaporate upon using cut back
asphalt are classified as rapid curing medium curing and slow curing asphalts they
are designated by their initials RC MC and SC respectively the thinnest and most
fluid grade applies to the MC type only the next most fluid grade is designated by
the suffix number 70 and is common to RC MC and SC type other suffix number
denoting higher viscosities for each of three types are 250.800 and 3000
respectively.
The suffix numbers represent the minimum kinematic viscosity in centistokes at
140 F for the particular grade the composition RC. MC and SC cutbacks is shown
digrammatically in fig below
Grade 30 70 250 800 3000
Solvent

Asphalt
Cement
thin Viscous

12.3 Types of asphalt tests

a) flash point test. The flash point of an asphaltic produce is the temperature at
which during heating its vapors will temporarily ignite or flash when a small flame
is in concrete with it the flash point of a product represents the critical temperature
at and above which suitable caution should be taken to eliminate fire hazards
during heating and manipulation
b) Solubility:- In order to check the presence of insoluble salts dirt carbon and
minerals in asphalt it is dissolved in carbon tetra chloride and shall be tested for
solubility
c) Penetration test:- Is a measure of hardness or consistency of bituminous
material it is the vertical distance penetrate by the point of standard needle into the
bituminous material the standard condition of load time and temperature
d) Viscosity test:- it is the property by virtue of which it offers the resistance to
flow the higher the viscosity the slower will be the

Characteristics ASTM Grades

Test
method

Penetration770 D-5 40- 60- 85- 120-150 200-300

50 70 100

Viscosity at 270 H

A Saybolt furol ssf 120+ 100+ 85+ 70+ 50+

B Kinematic D2170 240+ 200+ 170+ 140+ 100+

centistokes

Flash point 0 F D402 250+ 450+ 450+ 425+ 350+

Penetration of 770 F 55+ 52+ 47+ 42+ 37+

Ductility

A at 770 F 100+ 100+ 100+ 80+

B at600 F 80+

e) movement of the liquid the viscosity affects the ability of the binder to spread
move into and fill up the voids between the aggregates
f) Ductility test :- this test gives a measure of adhesive property of bitumen and its
ability to stretch Ductility of bitumen material is measured by the distance in cm to
which it will elongate before breaking
12.4 Specification for Asphalt cement
Although asphalt specification are still and standardized completely most of the
state high way departments and other road building organization adopt their
specification after those of the Asphalt or AASHO
Specification for Asphalt cement
13 Engineering classification of rocks
From engineering point of view rocks are natural aggregate of minerals bounded by
strong and permanent cohesive forces these rocks cover great range of strengths

In practice the weathering grade and its terminology is not clear to most of people
dealing with civil works In a very crude definition weathering is the breakdown and
alteration of rocks and minerals at or near the earth’s surface into products that are
more in equilibrium with the conditions found in this environment most rocks and
minerals are formed deep within the earth’s interior are characteristically in
disequilibrium with conditions occurring on the surface Because of this
disequilibrium these materials are easily attacked decomposed and eroded by
various chemical and physical surface processes
There are three broad categories of mechanisms for weathering chemical physical
and biological
13.1 Products of Weathering
1) The process of weathering can result in the following three outcomes on rocks
and minerals
The complete loss of particular atoms or compounds from the weathered surface.
2) The addition of specific atoms or compounds to the weathered surface
3) A breakdown of one mass into two or masses with no chemical change in the
mineral or rock.
The residue of weathering consists of chemically altered and unaltered materials
the most common unaltered residue is many of the chemically altered products of
weathering become very simple small compounds or nutrient ions these residues
can then be dissolved or transpounds by water released to the atmosphere as a gas
or taken up by plants for nutrition some of the products of weathering less resistant
alumino-silicate minerals become clay particlesd other altered materials are
reconstituted by sedime3ntary or metamorphic processes to become new rocks and
minerals.
13.2 Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering involves the alteration of the chemical and mineralogical
composition of the weathered material A number of different processes can result
in chemical weathering the most common chemical weathering processes are
hydrolysis oxidation reduction hydration carbonation and solution .
Oxidation is the reaction that occurs between compounds and oxygen the net result
of this reaction is the removal of one or more electrons from a compound which
causes the structure to be less rigid and increasingly unstable the most common
oxides are those of iron and aluminum and their respective red and yellow staining
of sols is quite common in simply the reverse of oxidation and is thus caused by the
addition of one or more electrons producing a more stable compound
Hydration involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to a reacted compound
In many situations the H and OH ions become a structural part of the crystal lattice
of the mineral Hydration also allows for the acceleration of other deco positional
reactions by expanding the crystal lattice offering more surface area for reaction.
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate ions with minerals the
formation of carbonates usually takes place as a result of other chemical abundant
with carbon dioxide the formation of carbonic acid a product of carbon dioxide and
water is important in the solution of carbonates and the decomposition of mineral
surfaces because of its acidic nature
Water and the ions it carries as it moves through and around rocks and minerals can
further the weathering process geomorphologists call this phenomena solution the
effects of dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in water have already been
mentioned but solution also entails the effects of a number of other dissolved
compounds on a mineral or rock surface molecules can mix in solution to from a
great of basic and acidic deco positional compound the extent however of rock
being subjected to solution is determined primarily by climatic conditions solution
tends to be most important factor affecting all of the above mentioned chemical
weathering processes is climate climatic conditions control the rate of tempering
Experimentation has discovered that tropical weathering rates where temperature
and moisture are at their maximum are three and a half times higher than rates in
temperate environments.
13.3 Physical weathering
Physical weathering is the breakdown or rock material by entirely mechanical
methods brought about by a variety of causes some of the forces originate within
the rock or mineral while other are applied externally Both of these stresses lead to
strain and the rupture of the rock the processes that may cause mechanical rupture
are abrasion crystallization thermal insulation wetting and drying and pressure
release.
Abrasion occurs when some force causes two rock surfaces to come together
causing mechanical wearing or grinding of their surfaces collision between rock
surfaces normally occurs through the erosional transport of material by wind water
or ice.
Crystallization can cause the necessary stresses needed for the mechanical
rupturing of rocks and minerals crystal growth causes stress as a result of a
compound’s or an element’s change of physical state with change in temperature
the transformation from liquid to solid crystalline form produces a volumetric
change with in turn causes the necessary.
Mechanical action for rupture there are primarily two types of crystal growth that
occur they are ice and salt upon freezing the volumetric change of water from
liquid to solid is 9% this relatively large volumetric change upon freezing has
potentially a great rupturing effect several researchers have discovered in the
laboratory and field that frost action plays a major role in weathering in temperate
and polar regions of the earth the threshold temperature for frost action is at least -
50 Celsius and it is at this temperature that the most effective rupturing occurs.

The crystallization of salt exhibits volumetric changes from 1 to 5 percent

depending on the temperature of the rock or mineral surface most salt weathering
occurs in arid regions but it may also occur in cold climates
The physical breakdown of rock by their expansion and contraction due to diurnal
temperature changes is one of the most keenly debated topics in rock weathering
research known as insolation weathering it is the result of the physical inability of
 rocks to conduct heat well this inability to conduct heat results in differential rates
of expansion and contraction thus the surface of the rock expands more than its
interior, and this stress will eventually cause the variance in the colors of mineral
grains in rock dark colored grains because of their absorptive will expand much
more than light colored grains therefore in a rock peppered with many different
colored grains rupturing can occur at different rates at the various mineral
boundaries.
Alternate wetting and drying of rocks sometimes known as slaking can be a very
important factor in weathering slathering occurs by the mechanism of ordered
water which is the accumulation of successive layers of water molecules in between
the mineral grains of a rock the increasing thickness of the water pulls the rock
grains apart with great tensional stress recent research has shown that slaking in
combination with dissolved sodium sulfate can disintegrate samples of rock in
twenty only twenty cycles of wetting and drying
Pressure release of rock can cause physical weathering due to unloading the
majority of igneous rocks were created deep under the earth’s surface at much
higher pressures and temperatures As erosion brings these rock formations to the
surface they become subjected to less and less pressure this unloading of pressure
causes the rocks to fracture horizontally with an increasing number of fractures as
the rock approaches the earth’s surface spalling the vertical development of
fractures occurs because of the bending stresses of unloaded sheets across a three
dimensional plane
13.4 Biological Weathering
Biological weathering involves the disintegration of rock and mineral due to the
chemical and / or physical agents of an organism the types of organisms that can
cause weathering range from bacteria to plants to animals
Biological weathering involves processes that can be either chemical or physical in
character some of the more important processes are
1. Simple breaking of particles by the consumption of slils particles by animals
particles can also fracture of animal burrowing or by the pressure put forth by
growing roots
2. Movement and mixing of materials many large soil organisms cause the movement
of soil particles this movement can introduce the materials to different weathering
processes found at distinct locations in the soil profile
3. Simple chemical processes like solution can be enhanced by the carbon dioxide
produced by respiration carbon mixing with water forms carbonic acid
4. The complex chemical effects that occur as a result of chelation is a biological
process where organisms produce organic substances known as chelates that have
the ability to decompose minerals and rocks by the removal of metallic cations
5. Organisms can influence influence the moisture regime in soils and therefore
enhance weathering shade from aeia; leaves and stems the presence of roots masses
and humus all act to increase the availability of water in the soil profile water is
anecessary component in several physical and chemical weathering processes
6. Organisms can influence the pH of the soil solution respiration from plant roots
refleases carbon dioxide if the carbon mixes with water carbonic acid is formed
which lowers soil pH cation exchange reactions by which plants absorb nutrients
from the soil can also cause PH changes the absorption processes often involves the
exchange of basic cations for hydrogen ions Generally the higher the concentration
of hydrogen ions the acidic a soil a soil becomes.
Like rock strength the degree of weathering qualitatively is used as important
criteria for rock classifications for engineering purposes as shown in the following
table.

Grade Description Lithology Degree of Excavatio Foundation

Change % n
VI Soil Same organic 100 Easy to Unsuitable
content no excavate
original with hoe
structure & shovel
V Completely Decomposed >75 scrap Asses by
weathered soil some soil testing
remnant
structure
IV Highly Partly 35-75 Scrap Variable
weathered changed to corestones and un
soil soil > reliable
rock
III Moderately Partiy 10-35 Rip Good for
weathered changed to most small
 soil soil>rock structures
II Slightly Increased 0-10 Blast Good for
weathered fractures, and anything
mineral except
staining large dams
I Fresh rock Clean rock 0 Blast Sound

Engineering Classification of Weathered rock

REFERENCES

1. ASTM (American society of Testing and Material

2. AASHTO (American Association of state high way and transport officials
3 BS (British standard)
4 Ethiopian Building code of practice
5 Asphalt pavement Engineering J. Rogers.