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Magnetism PDF
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Contents
Articles
Antiferromagnetism
BiotSavart law
Coercivity
13
Diamagnetism
16
Electromagnet
20
Ferrimagnetism
30
Ferromagnetism
31
37
Lorentz force
74
Magnet
85
Magnetic bearing
97
Magnetic circuit
102
Magnetic dipole
107
Magnetic domain
110
Magnetic field
116
Magnetic monopole
137
Magnetic refrigeration
150
Magnetic stirrer
158
Magnetic structure
160
Magnetism
161
Metamagnetism
171
Micromagnetics
172
Molecule-based magnets
175
Neodymium magnet
177
Paramagnetism
182
Plastic magnet
188
Rare-earth magnet
189
Single-molecule magnet
192
Spin glass
197
Spin wave
202
Spontaneous magnetization
205
Superparamagnetism
206
210
References
Article Sources and Contributors
211
215
Article Licenses
License
218
Antiferromagnetism
Antiferromagnetism
In materials that exhibit antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments
of atoms or molecules, usually related to the spins of electrons, align in
a regular pattern with neighboring spins (on different sublattices)
pointing in opposite directions. This is, like ferromagnetism and
ferrimagnetism, a manifestation of ordered magnetism. Generally,
antiferromagnetic order may exist at sufficiently low temperatures,
vanishing at and above a certain temperature, the Nel temperature
(named after Louis Nel, who had first identified this type of magnetic
ordering).[1] Above the Nel temperature, the material is typically paramagnetic.
Antiferromagnetic ordering
Measurement
When no external field is applied, the antiferromagnetic structure corresponds to a vanishing total magnetization. In
an external magnetic field, a kind of ferrimagnetic behavior may be displayed in the antiferromagnetic phase, with
the absolute value of one of the sublattice magnetizations differing from that of the other sublattice, resulting in a
nonzero net magnetization.
The magnetic susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic material typically shows a maximum at the Nel temperature. In
contrast, at the transition between the ferromagnetic to the paramagnetic phases the susceptibility will diverge. In the
antiferromagnetic case, a divergence is observed in the staggered susceptibility.
Various microscopic (exchange) interactions between the magnetic moments or spins may lead to antiferromagnetic
structures. In the simplest case, one may consider an Ising model on an bipartite lattice, e.g. the simple cubic lattice,
with couplings between spins at nearest neighbor sites. Depending on the sign of that interaction, ferromagnetic or
antiferromagnetic order will result. Geometrical frustration or competing ferro- and antiferromagnetic interactions
may lead to different and, perhaps, more complicated magnetic structures.
Antiferromagnetic materials
Antiferromagnetic materials occur commonly among transition metal compounds, especially oxides. An example is
the heavy-fermion superconductor URu2Si2. Better known examples include hematite, metals such as chromium,
alloys such as iron manganese (FeMn), and oxides such as nickel oxide (NiO). There are also numerous examples
among high nuclearity metal clusters. Organic molecules can also exhibit antiferromagnetic coupling under rare
circumstances, as seen in radicals such as 5-dehydro-m-xylylene.
Antiferromagnets can couple to ferromagnets, for instance, through a mechanism known as exchange bias, in which
the ferromagnetic film is either grown upon the antiferromagnet or annealed in an aligning magnetic field, causing
the surface atoms of the ferromagnet to align with the surface atoms of the antiferromagnet. This provides the ability
to "pin" the orientation of a ferromagnetic film, which provides one of the main uses in so-called spin valves, which
are the basis of magnetic sensors including modern hard drive read heads. The temperature at or above which an
antiferromagnetic layer loses its ability to "pin" the magnetization direction of an adjacent ferromagnetic layer is
called the blocking temperature of that layer and is usually lower than the Nel temperature.
Antiferromagnetism
Geometric frustration
Unlike ferromagnetism, anti-ferromagnetic interactions can lead to multiple optimal states (ground statesstates of
minimal energy). In one dimension, the anti-ferromagnetic ground state is an alternating series of spins: up, down,
up, down, etc. Yet in two dimensions, multiple ground states can occur.
Consider an equilateral triangle with three spins, one on each vertex. If each spin can take on only two values (up or
down), there are 23 = 8 possible states of the system, six of which are ground states. The two situations which are not
ground states are when all three spins are up or are all down. In any of the other six states, there will be two
favorable interactions and one unfavorable one. This illustrates frustration: the inability of the system to find a single
ground state. This type of magnetic behavior has been found in minerals that have a crystal stacking structure such as
a Kagome lattice or hexagonal lattice.
Other properties
Antiferromagnetism plays a crucial role in giant magnetoresistance, as had been discovered in 1988 by the Nobel
prize winners Albert Fert and Peter Grnberg (awarded in 2007).
There are also examples of disordered materials (such as iron phosphate glasses) that become antiferromagnetic
below their Nel temperature. These disordered networks 'frustrate' the antiparallelism of adjacent spins; i.e. it is not
possible to construct a network where each spin is surrounded by opposite neighbour spins. It can only be
determined that the average correlation of neighbour spins is antiferromagnetic. This type of magnetism is
sometimes called speromagnetism.
References
[1] L. Nel, Proprites magntiques des ferrites; Frrimagntisme et antiferromagntisme, Annales de Physique (Paris) 3, 137198 (1948).
BiotSavart law
BiotSavart law
In physics, particularly electromagnetism, the BiotSavart law (
/biosvr/ or /bjosvr/)[1] is an
equation that describes the magnetic field generated by an electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the
magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The law is valid in the magnetostatic
approximation, and is consistent with both Ampre's circuital law and Gauss's law for magnetism.[2]
Equation
Electric currents (along closed curve)
The BiotSavart law is used to compute the resultant magnetic field B at position r generated by a steady current I
(for example due to a wire): a continual flow of charges which is constant in time and the charge neither accumulates
nor depletes at any point. The law is a physical example of a line integral: evaluated over the path C the electric
currents flow. The equation in SI units is[3]
where r is the full displacement vector from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed and r
is the unit vector of r. Using this the equation can be equivalently written
where dl is a vector whose magnitude is the length of the differential element of the wire, in the direction of
conventional current, and 0 is the magnetic constant. The symbols in boldface denote vector quantities.
The integral is usually around a closed curve, since electric currents can only flow around closed paths. An infinitely
long wire (as used in the definition of the SI unit of electric current - the Ampere) is a counter-example.
To apply the equation, the point in space where the magnetic field is to be calculated is chosen. Holding that point
fixed, the line integral over the path of the electric currents is calculated to find the total magnetic field at that point.
The application of this law implicitly relies on the superposition principle for magnetic fields, i.e. the fact that the
magnetic field is a vector sum of the field created by each infinitesimal section of the wire individually.[4]
or equivalently
where dV is the differential element of volume and J is the current density vector in that volume.
In this case the integral is over the volume of the conductor.
The BiotSavart law is fundamental to magnetostatics, playing a similar role to Coulomb's law in electrostatics.
When magnetostatics does not apply, the BiotSavart law should be replaced by Jefimenko's equations.
BiotSavart law
where r is the vector pointing from the current (non-retarded) position of the particle to the point at which the field is
being measured, and is the angle between v and r.
When v2 c2, the electric field and magnetic field can be approximated as[5]
These equations are called the "BiotSavart law for a point charge"[6] due to its closely analogous form to the
"standard" BiotSavart law given previously. These equations were first derived by Oliver Heaviside in 1888.
Aerodynamics applications
The BiotSavart law is also used in aerodynamic theory to
calculate the velocity induced by vortex lines.
In the aerodynamic application, the roles of vorticity and current
are reversed as when compared to the magnetic application.
In Maxwell's 1861 paper 'On Physical Lines of Force',[7] magnetic
field strength H was directly equated with pure vorticity (spin),
whereas B was a weighted vorticity that was weighted for the
density of the vortex sea. Maxwell considered magnetic
permeability to be a measure of the density of the vortex sea.
Hence the relationship,
) induced at a
strength
) of
BiotSavart law
where is electric charge density. B was seen as a kind of magnetic current of vortices aligned in their axial
planes, with H being the circumferential velocity of the vortices.
The electric current equation can be viewed as a convective current of electric charge that involves linear motion. By
analogy, the magnetic equation is an inductive current involving spin. There is no linear motion in the inductive
current along the direction of the B vector. The magnetic inductive current represents lines of force. In particular, it
represents lines of inverse square law force.
In aerodynamics the induced air currents are forming solenoidal rings around a vortex axis that is playing the role
that electric current plays in magnetism. This puts the air currents of aerodynamics into the equivalent role of the
magnetic induction vector B in electromagnetism.
In electromagnetism the B lines form solenoidal rings around the source electric current, whereas in aerodynamics,
the air currents form solenoidal rings around the source vortex axis.
Hence in electromagnetism, the vortex plays the role of 'effect' whereas in aerodynamics, the vortex plays the role of
'cause'. Yet when we look at the B lines in isolation, we see exactly the aerodynamic scenario in so much as that B is
the vortex axis and H is the circumferential velocity as in Maxwell's 1861 paper.
For a vortex line of infinite length, the induced velocity at a point is given by
where is the strength of the vortex and r is the perpendicular distance between the point and the vortex line.
This is a limiting case of the formula for vortex segments of finite length:
where A and B are the (signed) angles between the line and the two ends of the segment.
The BiotSavart law, Ampre's circuital law, and Gauss's law for magnetism
The magnetic field B as calculated from the BiotSavart law will always satisfy Ampre's circuital law and Gauss's
law for magnetism.[8]
Outline of proof that a magnetic field calculated by the BiotSavart law will always satisfy Gauss's law for magnetism and Ampre's
[8]
law.
Starting with the BiotSavart law:
[8]
and using the product rule for curls, as well as the fact that J does not depend on the unprimed coordinates, this equation can be rewritten as
Since the divergence of a curl is always zero, this establishes Gauss's law for magnetism. Next, taking the curl of both sides, using the formula for
[8]
the curl of a curl, and again using the fact that J does not depend on the unprimed coordinates, we eventually get the result
[8]
BiotSavart law
(where is the Dirac delta function), using the fact that the divergence of J is zero (due to the assumption of magnetostatics), and performing an
[8]
integration by parts, the result turns out to be
Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
References
Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed. ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-805326-X.
Feynman, Richard (1966). The Feynman Lectures on Physics (2nd ed. ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-63-20717.
Further reading
Electricity and Modern Physics (2nd Edition), G.A.G. Bennet, Edward Arnold (UK), 1974, ISBN 0-7131-2459-8
Essential Principles of Physics, P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson, 2nd Edition, 1978, John Murray, ISBN
0-7195-3382-1
The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas, G. Woan, Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN
978-0-521-57507-2.
Physics for Scientists and Engineers - with Modern Physics (6th Edition), P. A. Tipler, G. Mosca, Freeman, 2008,
ISBN 0-7167-8964-7
Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, ISBN
(Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1, ISBN (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3
McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), C.B. Parker, 1994, ISBN 0-07-051400-3
External links
Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html), B. Crowell, Fullerton
College
MISN-0-125 The AmpreLaplaceBiotSavart Law (http://physnet2.pa.msu.edu/home/modules/pdf_modules/
m125.pdf) by Orilla McHarris and Peter Signell for Project PHYSNET (http://www.physnet.org).
. In these two frames moving at relative velocity v, the E-fields and B-fields
where
is called the Lorentz factor and c is the speed of light in free space. The inverse transformations are the same except
v v.
An equivalent, alternative expression is:[3]
A derivation for the transformation of the Lorentz force for the particular case u = 0 is given here.[5] A more general
one can be seen here.[6]
Component by component, for relative motion along the x-axis, this works out to be the following, in SI units:
where
The transformations in this form can be made more compact by introducing the electromagnetic tensor (defined
below), which is a covariant tensor.
gives
Analogously for E and B, the D and H form the electromagnetic displacement tensor.
where
is the parallel component of A to the direction of relative velocity between frames v, and
is the
perpendicular component. These transparently resemble the characteristic form of other Lorentz transformations
(like time-position and energy-momentum), while the transformations of E and B above are slightly more
complicated. The components can be collected together as:
Non-relativistic approximations
For speeds v c, the relativistic factor 1, which yields:
so that there is no need to distinguish between the spatial and temporal coordinates in Maxwell's equations.
10
[9]
Richard Feynman
In the context of special relativity, both of these transform according to the Lorentz transformation according to
,
is
where
the Lorentz transformation tensor for a change from one reference frame to another. The same tensor is
used twice in the summation.
The charge and current density, the sources of the fields, also combine into the four-vector
where the partial derivatives may be written in various ways, see 4-gradient. The first equation listed above
corresponds to both Gauss's Law (for = 0) and the Ampre-Maxwell Law (for = 1, 2, 3). The second equation
corresponds to the two remaining equations, Gauss's law for magnetism (for = 0) and Faraday's Law ( for = 1, 2,
3).
These tensor equations are manifestly-covariant, meaning the equations can be seen to be covariant by the index
positions. This short form of writing Maxwell's equations illustrates an idea shared amongst some physicists, namely
that the laws of physics take on a simpler form when written using tensors.
By lowering the indices on F to obtain F (see raising and lowering indices):
the second equation can be written in terms of F as:
where
is the contravariant Levi-Civita symbol. Notice the cyclic permutation of indices in this equation:
.
Another covariant electromagnetic object is the electromagnetic stress-energy tensor, a covariant rank-2 tensor which
includes the Poynting vector, Maxwell stress tensor, and electromagnetic energy density.
11
4-potential
The EM field tensor can also be written[16]
where
is the four-position.
Using the 4-potential in the Lorenz gauge, an alternative manifestly-covariant formulation can be found in a single
equation (a generalization of an equation due to Bernhard Riemann by Arnold Sommerfeld, known as the
RiemannSommerfeld equation,[17] or the covariant form of the Maxwell equations[18]):
Maxwell's equations (Covariant Lorenz gauge formulation)
where
is the d'Alembertian operator, or four-Laplacian. For a more comprehensive presentation of these topics,
Footnotes
[1] Questions remain about the treatment of accelerating charges: Haskell, " Special relativity and Maxwell's equations. (http:/ / www. cse. secs.
oakland. edu/ haskell/ SpecialRelativity. htm)"
[2] Tai L. Chow (2006). Electromagnetic theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dpnpMhw1zo8C& pg=PA153&
dq=isbn:0763738271#PPA368,M1). Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett. p.Chapter 10.21; p. 402403 ff. ISBN0-7637-3827-1. .
[3] Daniel, Herbert (1997), "4.5.1" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8vAC8YG41goC), Physik: Elektrodynamik, relativistische Physik,
Walter de Gruyter, pp.360361, ISBN3-11-015777-2, , Extract of pages 360-361 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8vAC8YG41goC&
pg=PA360)
[4] R.C.Tolman "Relativity Thermodynamics and Cosmology" pp25
[5] Force Laws and Maxwell's Equations http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s2-02/ 2-02. htm at MathPages
[6] http:/ / www. hep. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ EM/ ganley_ajp_31_510_62. pdf
[7] Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-30932-X
[8] The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas, G. Woan, Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-57507-2.
[9] Feynman Lectures vol. 2, ch. 1-1
[10] http:/ / www. cse. secs. oakland. edu/ haskell/ SpecialRelativity. htm
[11] E M Lifshitz, L D Landau (1980). The classical theory of fields (http:/ / worldcat. org/ isbn/ 0750627689). Course of Theoretical Physics.
Vol. 2 (Fourth Edition ed.). Oxford UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN0-7506-2768-9. .
[12] J H Field (2006) "Classical electromagnetism as a consequence of Coulomb's law, special relativity and Hamilton's principle and its
relationship to quantum electrodynamics". Phys. Scr. 74 702-717
[13] Tai L. Chow (2006). Electromagnetic theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dpnpMhw1zo8C& pg=PA153&
dq=isbn:0763738271#PPR6,M1). Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett. p.395. ISBN0-7637-3827-1. .
[14] David J Griffiths (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ isbn/ 013805326X) (Third Edition ed.). Prentice Hall.
pp.4789. ISBN0-13-805326-X. .
[15] Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p.557. ISBN0-13-805326-X.
[16] DJ Griffiths (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics. Saddle River NJ: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. p.541. ISBN0-13-805326-X.
[17] Carver A. Mead (2002-08-07). Collective Electrodynamics: Quantum Foundations of Electromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=GkDR4e2lo2MC& pg=PA37& dq=Riemann+ Summerfeld). MIT Press. pp.3738. ISBN978-0-262-63260-7. .
[18] Frederic V. Hartemann (2002). High-field electrodynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=tIkflVrfkG0C& pg=PA102&
dq=d'Alembertian+ covariant-form+ maxwell-lorentz). CRC Press. p.102. ISBN978-0-8493-2378-2. .
12
Coercivity
13
Coercivity
In materials science, the coercivity, also called the coercive field or
coercive force, of a ferromagnetic material is the intensity of the
applied magnetic field required to reduce the magnetization of that
material to zero after the magnetization of the sample has been driven
to saturation. Thus coercivity measures the resistance of a
ferromagnetic material to becoming demagnetized. Coercivity is
usually measured in oersted or ampere/meter units and is denoted HC.
It can be measured using a B-H Analyzer or magnetometer.
Experimental determination
Typically the coercivity of a magnetic material is determined by
measurement of the hysteresis loop, also called the magnetization
curve, as illustrated in the figure. The apparatus used to acquire the
data is typically a vibrating-sample or alternating-gradient
magnetometer. The applied field where the data line crosses zero is the
coercivity. If an antiferromagnet is present in the sample, the
coercivities measured in increasing and decreasing fields may be
unequal as a result of the exchange bias effect.
The coercivity is a horizontal intercept of the
hysteresis loop.
Coercivity
[Oe (A/m)]
[1]
[.1Mn:]6Fe:27Ni:Mo, Supermalloy
0.002
Fe:4Ni, Permalloy
0.01
.9995 ironfilings
0.05
0.40.9
.99 Nickel
0.7
[6]
(0.16)
[2]
[3]
[1]
470
[5]
(0.8-80)
[4]
(4-37,000)
(32-72)
(160)
[4]
290
[7]
(56-23,000)
Coercivity
14
ZnxFeNi1-xO3,
ferrite for magnetron
2Fe:Co
[9]
, Iron pole
15200
240
[4]
[8]
(1200-16,000)
(19,000)
[10]
>.99 cobalt
10
6Al:18Fe:8Co:Cu:6Ni
3Ti:8Al:20Fe:20Co:2Cu:8Ni,
alnico 59, fridge magnet and stronger
640
Cr:Co:Pt,
disk drive recording media
1700
2Nd:14Fe:B, neodymium-iron-boron
10,000
12Fe:13Pt, Fe48Pt52
12,300+
?(Dy,Nb,Ga,Co):2Nd:14Fe:B
25,600
900
[11]
[10]
2000
[13]
(800-72,000)
[12]
(51,000-1.6*105)
(1.4*105)
[14]
12,000
[16]
[17]
[15]
((8-9.5)*105)
(9.8*105)
26,300
[18]
(2*106)
40,000
[21]
(3.2*106)
The coercivity of a material depends on the time scale over which a magnetization curve is measured. The
magnetization of a material measured at an applied reversed field which is nominally smaller than the coercivity
may, over a long time scale, slowly relax to zero. Relaxation occurs when reversal of magnetization by domain wall
motion is thermally activated and is dominated by magnetic viscosity.[22] The increasing value of coercivity at high
frequencies is a serious obstacle to the increase of data rates in high-bandwidth magnetic recording, compounded by
the fact that increased storage density typically requires a higher coercivity in the media.
Theory
At the coercive field, the vector component of the magnetization of a ferromagnet measured along the applied field
direction is zero. There are two primary modes of magnetization reversal: single-domain rotation and domain wall
motion. When the magnetization of a material reverses by rotation, the magnetization component along the applied
field is zero because the vector points in a direction orthogonal to the applied field. When the magnetization reverses
by domain wall motion, the net magnetization is small in every vector direction because the moments of all the
individual domains sum to zero. Magnetization curves dominated by rotation and magnetocrystalline anisotropy are
found in relatively perfect magnetic materials used in fundamental research.[23] Domain wall motion is a more
important reversal mechanism in real engineering materials since defects like grain boundaries and impurities serve
as nucleation sites for reversed-magnetization domains. The role of domain walls in determining coercivity is
complex since defects may pin domain walls in addition to nucleating them. The dynamics of domain walls in
ferromagnets is similar to that of grain boundaries and plasticity in metallurgy since both domain walls and grain
boundaries are planar defects.
Significance
As with any hysteretic process, the area inside the magnetization curve during one cycle represents the work that is
performed on the material by the external field in reversing the magnetization, and is dissipated as heat. Common
dissipative processes in magnetic materials include magnetostriction and domain wall motion. The coercivity is a
measure of the degree of magnetic hysteresis and therefore characterizes the lossiness of soft magnetic materials for
their common applications.
Coercivity
The squareness (saturation remanence divided by saturation magnetization) and coercivity are figures of merit for
hard magnets although energy product (saturation magnetization times coercivity) is most commonly quoted. The
1980s saw the development of rare earth magnets with high energy products but undesirably low Curie temperatures.
Since the 1990s new exchange spring hard magnets with high coercivities have been developed.[24]
References
[1] http:/ / mysite. du. edu/ ~jcalvert/ phys/ iron. htm#Magn
[2] http:/ / www. science. upd. edu. ph/ nip/ images/ pdfs/
magnetism%20and%20magneto-impedance%20of%20electroplated%20ni-fe%20permalloy%20thin%20films. pdf
[3] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 365100
[4] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ tables/ magprop. html
[5] http:/ / cartech. ides. com/ datasheet. aspx?E=193~192~191~190~189& CK=1967748
[6] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=G0cOAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA133
[7] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 355560
[8] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 20. 619559
[9] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=y0FF19lud5YC& pg=PA142
[10] http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1021/ jp045554t
[11] http:/ / www. dextermag. com/ uploadedFiles/ Alnico_Data_Sheet. pdf
[12] http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ abs_free. jsp?arNumber=1066731
[13] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 20. 278737
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
Chen, Min; Nikles, David E. (2002). "Synthesis, self-assembly, and magnetic properties of FexCoyPt100-x-y
nanoparticles". Nano Letters 2 (3): 211214. doi:10.1021/nl015649w.
Gaunt, P. (1986). "Magnetic viscosity and thermal activation energy". Journal of Applied Physics 59 (12):
41294132. Bibcode1986JAP....59.4129G. doi:10.1063/1.336671.
Genish, Isaschar; Kats, Yevgeny; Klein, Lior; Reiner, James W.; Beasley, M. R. (2004). "Local measurements of
magnetization reversal in thin films of SrRbO3". physica status solidi (c) 1 (12): 34403442.
doi:10.1002/pssc.200405476.
Kneller, E. F.; Hawig, R. (1991). "The exchange-spring magnet: a new material principle for permanent
magnets". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 27 (4): 35883560. Bibcode1991ITM....27.3588K.
doi:10.1109/20.102931.
Livingston, J. D. (1981). "A review of coercivity mechanisms". Journal of Applied Physics 52 (3): 25412545.
Bibcode1981JAP....52.2544L. doi:10.1063/1.328996.
15
Coercivity
16
External links
Magnetization reversal applet (coherent rotation) (http://www.bama.ua.edu/~tmewes/Java/Reversal/reversal.
shtml)
For a table of coercivities of various magnetic recording media, see " Degaussing Data Storage Tape Magnetic
Media (http://www.fujifilmusa.com/shared/bin/Degauss_Data_Tape.pdf)" (PDF), at fujifilmusa.com.
ml-Coercivity
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is the property of an object or material which
causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition to an externally
applied magnetic field. Unlike a ferromagnet, a diamagnet is not a
permanent magnet. Diamagnetism is believed to be due to
quantum mechanics (and is understood in terms of Landau
levels[1]) and occurs because the external field alters the orbital
velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the
magnetic dipole moment. According to Lenz's law, the field of
these electrons will oppose the magnetic field changes provided by
the applied field. The magnetic permeability of diamagnets is less
than
(a relative permeability less than1). In most materials
diamagnetism is a weak effect, but in a superconductor a strong
quantum effect repels the magnetic field entirely, apart from a thin
layer at the surface.
Diamagnets were first discovered when Sebald Justinus Brugmans
observed in 1778 that bismuth and antimony were repelled by
Levitating pyrolytic carbon
magnetic fields. The term diamagnetism was coined by Michael
Faraday in September 1845, when he realized that every material responded (in either a diamagnetic or paramagnetic
way) to an applied magnetic field.
Diamagnetic materials
Notable diamagnetic materials[2]
Material
v (105)
Superconductor
105
Pyrolytic carbon
40.0
Bismuth
16.6
Mercury
2.9
Silver
2.6
1.8
Diamagnetism
17
Copper
1.0
Water
0.91
Diamagnetism, to a greater or lesser degree, is a property of all materials and will always make a weak contribution
to the material's response to a magnetic field. However, for materials that show some other form of magnetism (such
as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism), the diamagnetic contribution becomes negligible. Substances that mostly
display diamagnetic behaviour are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Materials that are said to be
diamagnetic are those that are usually considered by non-physicists to be non-magnetic, and include water, wood,
most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the
heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. The magnetic susceptibility of various
molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants.
Diamagnetic materials have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic
susceptibility which is less than 0 since susceptibility is defined as v=v1. This means that diamagnetic
materials are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property its effects are not
observable in everyday life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is v =
9.05106. The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, v = 1.66104, although pyrolytic carbon may
have a susceptibility of v = 4.00104 in one plane. Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitudes smaller
than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Note that because v is derived from the ratio of the
internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value.
All conductors exhibit an effective diamagnetism when they experience a changing magnetic field. The Lorentz
force on electrons causes them to circulate around forming eddy currents. The eddy currents then produce an induced
magnetic field which opposes the applied field, resisting the conductor's motion.
Superconductors may be considered to be perfect diamagnets (v =
1), since they expel all fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to
the Meissner effect. However this effect is not due to eddy currents, as
in ordinary diamagnetic materials (see the article on
superconductivity).
Demonstrations of diamagnetism
Curving water surfaces
Diamagnetism
18
Diamagnetic levitation
Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic
field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to
preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However,
Earnshaw's theorem only applies to objects with positive moments,
such as ferromagnets (which have a permanent positive moment)
and paramagnets (which induce a positive moment). These are
attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space.
Diamagnets (which induce a negative moment) are attracted to
field minima, and there can be a field minimum in free space.
Theory of diamagnetism
The Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem proves that there cannot be any diamagnetism or paramagnetism in a purely
classical system. Yet the classical theory for Langevin diamagnetism gives the same prediction as the quantum
theory.[11] The classical theory is given below.
Langevin diamagnetism
The Langevin theory of diamagnetism applies to materials containing atoms with closed shells (see dielectrics). A
field with intensity B, applied to an electron with charge e and mass m, gives rise to Larmor precession with
frequency = eB / 2m. The number of revolutions per unit time is / 2, so the current for an atom with Z
electrons is (in SI units)[11]
The magnetic moment of a current loop is equal to the current times the area of the loop. Suppose the field is aligned
with the z axis. The average loop area can be given as
, where
is the mean square distance of the
electrons perpendicular to the z axis. The magnetic moment is therefore
Diamagnetism
19
If the distribution of charge is spherically symmetric, we can suppose that the distribution of x,y,z coordinates are
independent and identically distributed. Then
, where
is the mean square distance
of the electrons from the nucleus. Therefore
. If
Diamagnetism in metals
The Langevin theory does not apply to metals because they have non-localized electrons. The theory for the
diamagnetism of a free electron gas is called Landau diamagnetism, and instead considers the weak counter-acting
field that forms when their trajectories are curved due to the Lorentz force. Landau diamagnetism, however, should
be contrasted with Pauli paramagnetism, an effect associated with the polarization of delocalized electrons' spins.[12]
References
[1] http:/ / physics. ucsc. edu/ ~peter/ 231/ magnetic_field/ node5. html
[2] Nave, Carl L.. "Magnetic Properties of Solids" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ tables/ magprop. html). Hyper Physics. .
Retrieved 2008-11-09.
[3] Beatty, Bill (2005). "Neodymium supermagnets: Some demonstrationsDiamagnetic water" (http:/ / amasci. com/ amateur/ neodymium.
html#water). Science Hobbyist. . Retrieved September 2011.
[4] Quit007 (2011). "Diamagnetism Gallery" (http:/ / quit007. deviantart. com/ gallery/ 23787987). DeviantART. . Retrieved September 2011.
[5] "The Frog That Learned to Fly" (http:/ / www. ru. nl/ hfml/ research/ levitation/ diamagnetic/ ). High Field Laboratory. Radboud University
Nijmegen. 2011. . Retrieved September 2011.
[6] "The Real Levitation" (http:/ / www. ru. nl/ hfml/ research/ levitation/ diamagnetic/ ). High Field Laboratory. Radboud University Nijmegen.
2011. . Retrieved September 2011.
[7] Liu, Yuanming; Zhu, Da-Ming; Strayer, Donald M.; Israelsson, Ulf E. (2010). "Magnetic levitation of large water droplets and mice".
Advances in Space Research 45 (1): 208213. Bibcode2010AdSpR..45..208L. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2009.08.033.
[8] Choi, Charles Q. (09-09-2009). "Mice levitated in lab" (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ animals/ 090909-mouse-levitation. html). Live
Science. . Retrieved September 2011.
[9] Kleiner, Kurt (08-10-2007). "Magnetic gravity trick grows perfect crystals" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/
dn12467-magnetic-gravity-trick-grows-perfect-crystals. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved September 2011.
[10] "Fun with diamagnetic levitation" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080212011654/ http:/ / www. fieldlines. com/ other/ diamag1. html).
ForceField. 02-12-2008. . Retrieved September 2011.
[11] Kittel, Charles (1986). Introduction to Solid State Physics (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp.299302. ISBN0-471-87474-4.
[12] Chang, M. C.. "Diamagnetism and paramagnetism" (http:/ / phy. ntnu. edu. tw/ ~changmc/ Teach/ SS/ SS_note/ chap11. pdf). NTNU lecture
notes. . Retrieved 2011-02-24.
External links
Video of a museum-style magnetic elevation train model which makes use of diamagnetism (http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=8tFsrGRwOOM)
Videos of frogs and other diamagnets levitated in a strong magnetic field (http://www.ru.nl/hfml/research/
levitation/diamagnetic/)
Video of levitating pyrolytic graphite (http://www.grand-illusions.com/images/articles/toyshop/
diamagnetic_levitation_2/diamagnetic_levitation_2.wmv)
Video of Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect involving liquid nitrogen (http://www.science.tv/watch/
e257e44aa9d5bade97ba/liquid-nitrogen-and-superconductor)
Video of a piece of neodymium magnet levitating between blocks of bismuth. (http://netti.nic.fi/~054028/
images/LevitorMK1.0-1.mpg)
Website about this device, with images (in Finnish). (http://netti.nic.fi/~054028/)
Electromagnet
20
Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current. The
magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other
electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments,
and magnetic separation equipment, as well as being employed as industrial lifting electromagnets for picking up and
moving heavy iron objects like scrap iron.
An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around
the wire (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an
electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil with many turns of wire
lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes
through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. A
coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid.
Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "core" of
ferromagnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside the coil. The
ferromagnetic core increases the magnetic field to thousands of times
the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic
permeability of the ferromagnetic material. This is called a
ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet.
The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found
from a form of the right-hand rule.[1][2][3][4][5][6] If the fingers of the
right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current flow
(conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings,
the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of
the magnet that the field lines emerge from is defined to be the north
pole.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is
that the magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range
by controlling the amount of electric current. However, a continuous
supply of electrical energy is required to maintain the field.
Electromagnet
21
Electromagnet
22
History
Danish scientist Hans Christian rsted discovered in 1820 that electric currents
create magnetic fields. British scientist William Sturgeon invented the
electromagnet in 1824.[7][8] His first electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece
of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire (insulated wire
didn't exist yet). The iron was varnished to insulate it from the windings. When a
current was passed through the coil, the iron became magnetized and attracted
other pieces of iron; when the current was stopped, it lost magnetization.
Sturgeon displayed its power by showing that although it only weighed seven
ounces (roughly 200 grams), it could lift nine pounds (roughly 4 kilos) when the
current of a single-cell battery was applied. However, Sturgeon's magnets were
weak because the uninsulated wire he used could only be wrapped in a single
spaced out layer around the core, limiting the number of turns. Beginning in
1827, US scientist Joseph Henry systematically improved and popularized the
Sturgeon's electromagnet, 1824
electromagnet.[9] By using wire insulated by silk thread he was able to wind
multiple layers of wire on cores, creating powerful magnets with thousands of turns of wire, including one that could
support 2063lb (unknown operator: u'strong'kg). The first major use for electromagnets was in telegraph
sounders.
The magnetic domain theory of how ferromagnetic cores work was first proposed in 1906 by French physicist
Pierre-Ernest Weiss, and the detailed modern quantum mechanical theory of ferromagnetism was worked out in the
1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Lev Landau, Felix Bloch and others.
Uses of electromagnets
Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and electromechanical devices,
including:
Motors and generators
Transformers
Relays, including reed relays originally used in telephone exchanges
Electric bells
Loudspeakers
Magnetic recording and data storage equipment: tape recorders, VCRs, hard
disks
Scientific instruments such as MRI machines and mass spectrometers
Particle accelerators
Magnetic locks
Magnetic separation of material
Electromagnet
23
which says that the integral of the magnetizing field H around any closed loop of the field is equal to the sum of the
current flowing through the loop. Another equation used, that gives the magnetic field due to each small segment of
current, is the Biot-Savart law. Computing the magnetic field and force exerted by ferromagnetic materials is
difficult for two reasons. First, because the strength of the field varies from point to point in a complicated way,
particularly outside the core and in air gaps, where fringing fields and leakage flux must be considered. Second,
because the magnetic field B and force are nonlinear functions of the current, depending on the nonlinear relation
between B and H for the particular core material used. For precise calculations, computer programs that can produce
a model of the magnetic field using the finite element method are employed.
Magnetic field (green) of a typical electromagnet, with the iron core C forming a
closed loop with two air gaps G in it. Most of the magnetic field B is concentrated in
the core. However some of the field lines BL, called the "leakage flux", do not follow
the full core circuit and so do not contribute to the force exerted by the
electromagnet. In the gaps G the field lines spread out beyond the boundaries of the
core in "fringing fields" BF. This increases the "resistance" (reluctance) of the
magnetic circuit, decreasing the total magnetic flux in the core. Both the leakage flux
and the fringing fields get larger as the gaps are increased, reducing the force exerted
by the magnet. Line L shows the average length of the magnetic circuit, used in
equation (1) below. It is the sum of the length Lcore in the iron core and the length
Lgap in the air gaps
Electromagnet
24
if any, between core sections. In the gaps the magnetic field lines are no longer confined by the core, so they 'bulge'
out beyond the outlines of the core before curving back to enter the next piece of core material, reducing the field
strength in the gap. The bulges (BF) are called fringing fields. However, as long as the length of the gap is smaller
than the cross section dimensions of the core, the field in the gap will be approximately the same as in the core. In
addition, some of the magnetic field lines (BL) will take 'short cuts' and not pass through the entire core circuit, and
thus will not contribute to the force exerted by the magnet. This also includes field lines that encircle the wire
windings but do not enter the core. This is called leakage flux. Therefore the equations in this section are valid for
electromagnets for which:
1. the magnetic circuit is a single loop of core material, possibly broken by a few air gaps
2. the core has roughly the same cross sectional area throughout its length.
3. any air gaps between sections of core material are not large compared with the cross sectional dimensions of the
core.
4. there is negligible leakage flux
The main nonlinear feature of ferromagnetic materials is that the B field saturates at a certain value, which is around
1.6 teslas (T) for most high permeability core steels. The B field increases quickly with increasing current up to that
value, but above that value the field levels off and becomes almost constant, regardless of how much current is sent
through the windings. So the strength of the magnetic field possible from an iron core electromagnet is limited to
around 1.6 to 2 T.
where
is the permeability of free space (or air); note that
in this definition is
amperes.
This is a nonlinear equation, because the permeability of the core, , varies with the magnetic field B. For an exact
solution, the value of at the B value used must be obtained from the core material hysteresis curve. If B is
unknown, the equation must be solved by numerical methods. However, if the magnetomotive force is well above
saturation, so the core material is in saturation, the magnetic field will be approximately the saturation value Bsat for
the material, and won't vary much with changes in NI. For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap) most core materials
saturate at a magnetomotive force of roughly 800 ampere-turns per meter of flux path.
For most core materials,
Therefore, in magnetic circuits with an air gap, the strength of the magnetic field B depends strongly on the length of
the air gap, and the length of the flux path in the core doesn't matter much.
Electromagnet
25
The 1.6 T limit on the field mentioned above sets a limit on the maximum force per unit core area, or pressure, an
iron-core electromagnet can exert; roughly:
In more intuitive units it's useful to remember that at 1T the magnetic pressure is approximately 4 atmospheres, or
kg/cm2.
Given a core geometry, the B field needed for a given force can be calculated from (2); if it comes out to much more
than 1.6 T, a larger core must be used.
It can be seen that to maximize the force, a core with a short flux path
L and a wide cross sectional area A is preferred. To achieve this, in
applications like lifting magnets (see photo above) and loudspeakers a
flat cylindrical design is often used. The winding is wrapped around a short wide cylindrical core that forms one
pole, and a thick metal housing that wraps around the outside of the windings forms the other part of the magnetic
circuit, bringing the magnetic field to the front to form the other pole.
This model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core, and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one
magnet gets too close to another magnet.
Electromagnet
26
Ohmic heating
The only power consumed in a DC electromagnet is due to the
resistance of the windings, and is dissipated as heat. Some large
electromagnets require cooling water circulating through pipes in the
windings to carry off the waste heat.
Since the magnetic field is proportional to the product NI, the number
of turns in the windings N and the current I can be chosen to minimize
heat losses, as long as their product is constant. Since the power
dissipation, P = I2R, increases with the square of the current but only
increases approximately linearly with the number of windings, the
power lost in the windings can be minimized by reducing I and
increasing the number of turns N proportionally. For example halving I
and doubling N halves the power loss. This is one reason most
electromagnets have windings with many turns of wire.
However, the limit to increasing N is that the larger number of
windings takes up more room between the magnet's core pieces. If the
area available for the windings is filled up, more turns require going to
a smaller diameter of wire, which has higher resistance, which cancels
the advantage of using more turns. So in large magnets there is a
minimum amount of heat loss that can't be reduced. This increases with
the square of the magnetic flux B2.
Electromagnet
Lorentz forces
In powerful electromagnets, the magnetic field exerts a force on each turn of the windings, due to the Lorentz force
acting on the moving charges within the wire. The Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the axis of the
wire and the magnetic field. It can be visualized as a pressure between the magnetic field lines, pushing them apart.
It has two effects on an electromagnet's windings:
The field lines within the axis of the coil exert a radial force on each turn of the windings, tending to push them
outward in all directions. This causes a tensile stress in the wire.
The leakage field lines between each turn of the coil exert a repulsive force between adjacent turns, tending to
push them apart.
The Lorentz forces increase with B2. In large electromagnets the windings must be firmly clamped in place, to
prevent motion on power-up and power-down from causing metal fatigue in the windings. In the Bitter design,
below, used in very high field research magnets, the windings are constructed as flat disks to resist the radial forces,
and clamped in an axial direction to resist the axial ones.
Core losses
In alternating current (AC) electromagnets, used in transformers, inductors, and AC motors and generators, the
magnetic field is constantly changing. This causes energy losses in their magnetic cores that are dissipated as heat in
the core. The losses stem from two processes:
Eddy currents: From Faraday's law of induction, the changing magnetic field induces circulating electric currents
inside nearby conductors, called eddy currents. The energy in these currents is dissipated as heat in the electrical
resistance of the conductor, so they are a cause of energy loss. Since the magnet's iron core is conductive, and
most of the magnetic field is concentrated there, eddy currents in the core are the major problem. Eddy currents
are closed loops of current that flow in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field. The energy dissipated is
proportional to the area enclosed by the loop. To prevent them, the cores of AC electromagnets are made of stacks
of thin steel sheets, or laminations, oriented parallel to the magnetic field, with an insulating coating on the
surface. The insulation layers prevent eddy current from flowing between the sheets. Any remaining eddy
currents must flow within the cross section of each individual lamination, which reduces losses greatly. Another
alternative is to use a ferrite core, which is a nonconductor.
Hysteresis losses: Reversing the direction of magnetization of the magnetic domains in the core material each
cycle causes energy loss, because of the coercivity of the material. These losses are called hysteresis. The energy
lost per cycle is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop in the BH graph. To minimize this loss, magnetic
cores used in transformers and other AC electromagnets are made of "soft" low coercivity materials, such as
silicon steel or soft ferrite.
The energy loss per cycle of the AC current is constant for each of these processes, so the power loss increases
linearly with frequency.
27
Electromagnet
28
Bitter electromagnets
Exploding electromagnets
The factor limiting the strength of electromagnets is the inability to dissipate the enormous waste heat, so more
powerful fields, up to 100 T,[12] have been obtained from resistive magnets by sending brief pulses of current
through them. The most powerful manmade magnetic fields have been created by using explosives to compress the
magnetic field inside an electromagnet as it is pulsed. The implosion compresses the magnetic field to values of
around 1000 T[13] for a few microseconds. While this method may seem very destructive there are methods to
control the blast so that neither the experiment nor the magnetic structure are harmed, by redirecting the brunt of the
force radially outwards. These devices are known as destructive pulsed electromagnets. They are used in physics and
materials science research to study the properties of materials at high magnetic fields.
Electromagnet
29
Definition of terms
square meter
tesla
newton
Magnetizing field
ampere
meter
meter
meter
ampere meter
meter
References
[1] Olson, Andrew (2008). "Right hand rules" (http:/ / www. ece. unb. ca/ Courses/ EE2683/ AW/ hand_rules. pdf). Science fair project
resources. Science Buddies. . Retrieved 2008-08-11.
[2] Wilson, Adam (2008). "Hand Rules" (http:/ / www. ece. unb. ca/ Courses/ EE2683/ AW/ hand_rules. pdf). Course outline, EE2683 Electric
Circuits and Machines. Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of New Brunswick. . Retrieved 2008-08-11.
[3] Gussow, Milton (1983). Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Basic Electricity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=T8t4MwtiLioC&
pg=PA166). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.166. ISBN978-0-07-025240-0. .
[4] Millikin, Robert; Edwin Bishop (1917). Elements of Electricity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dZM3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA125). Chicago:
American Technical Society. pp.125. .
[5] Fleming, John Ambrose (1892). Short Lectures to Electrical Artisans, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wzdHAAAAIAAJ&
pg=PA38). London: E.& F. N. Spon. pp.3840. .
[6] Fleming, John Ambrose (1902). Magnets and Electric Currents, 2nd Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ASUYAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA173). London: E.& F. N. Spon. pp.173174. .
[7] Sturgeon, W. (1825). "Improved Electro Magnetic Apparatus". Trans. Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures, & Commerce (London) 43:
3752. cited in Miller, T.J.E (2001). Electronic Control of Switched Reluctance Machines (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=E8VroIWyjB8C&
pg=PA7). Newnes. pp.7. ISBN0-7506-5073-7. .
[8] Windelspecht, Michael. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 19th Century (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=hX1jPbJVSu4C& pg=PR22& lpg=PR22& dq="William+ Sturgeon"+ electromagnet+ 1825& source=web& ots=BhXj3j9j4t&
sig=6gI6QNC-Yc5YMCY5RpEE43eIfgU& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=9& ct=result#PPR22,M1), xxii, Greenwood Publishing
Group, 2003, ISBN 0-313-31969-3.
[9] Sherman, Roger (2007). "Joseph Henry's contributions to the electromagnet and the electric motor" (http:/ / siarchives. si. edu/ history/ jhp/
joseph21. htm). The Joseph Henry Papers. The Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2008-08-27.
[10] Feynmann, Richard P. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol. 2. New York: Addison-Wesley. pp.369 to 3611. ISBN0-201-02117-XP., eq.
36-26
[11] Fitzgerald, A.; Charles Kingsley, Alexander Kusko (1971). Electric Machinery, 3rd Ed.. USA: McGraw-Hill. pp.35. ISBN07021140X.
[12] "Mag Lab World Records" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ mediacenter/ factsheets/ records. html). Media Center. National High Magnetic
Field Laboratory, USA. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-08-31.
[13] Coyne, Kristin (2008). "Magnets: from Mini to Mighty" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ magnetacademy/ magnets/
fullarticle. html). Magnet Lab U. National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-08-31.
Electromagnet
30
External links
Magnets from Mini to Mighty: Primer on electromagnets and other magnets (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/
education/tutorials/magnetacademy/magnets/) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Magnetic Fields and Forces (http://instruct.tri-c.edu/fgram/web/mdipole.htm) Cuyahoga Community College
Fundamental Relationships (http://geophysics.ou.edu/solid_earth/notes/mag_basic/mag_basic.html) School
of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma
Ferrimagnetism
Not to be confused with Ferromagnetism; for an overview see Magnetism
In physics, a ferrimagnetic material is one in which the magnetic
moments of the atoms on different sublattices are opposed, as in
antiferromagnetism; however, in ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing
moments are unequal and a spontaneous magnetization remains. This
happens when the sublattices consist of different materials or ions
(such as Fe2+ and Fe3+).
Ferrimagnetic ordering
Effects of temperature
Ferrimagnetic materials are like ferromagnets in that they hold a
spontaneous magnetization below the Curie temperature, and show no
magnetic order (are paramagnetic) above this temperature. However,
there is sometimes a temperature below the Curie temperature at
which the two sublattices have equal moments, resulting in a net
magnetic moment of zero; this is called the magnetization
compensation point. This compensation point is observed easily in
garnets and rare earth - transition metal alloys (RE-TM). Furthermore,
ferrimagnets may also exhibit an angular momentum compensation
point at which the angular momentum of the magnetic sublattices is
compensated. This compensation point is a crucial point for achieving
high speed magnetization reversal in magnetic memory devices.[2]
Properties
Ferrimagnetic materials have high resistivity and have anisotropic properties. The anisotropy is actually induced by
an external applied field. When this applied field aligns with the magnetic dipoles it causes a net magnetic dipole
moment and causes the magnetic dipoles to precess at a frequency controlled by the applied field, called Larmor or
precession frequency. As a particular example, a microwave signal circularly polarized in the same direction as this
precession strongly interacts with the magnetic dipole moments; when it is polarized in the opposite direction the
Ferrimagnetism
31
interaction is very low. When the interaction is strong, the microwave signal can pass through the material. This
directional property is used in the construction of microwave devices like isolators, circulators and gyrators.
Ferrimagnetic materials are also used to produce optical isolators and circulators.
Molecular ferrimagnets
Ferrimagnetism can also occur in molecular magnets. A classic example is a dodecanuclear Manganese molecule
with an effective spin of S = 10 derived from antiferromagnetic interaction on Mn(IV) metal centres with Mn(III)
and Mn(II) metal centres.[3]
References
[1] L. Nel, Proprites magntiques des ferrites; Frrimagntisme et antiferromagntisme, Annales de Physique (Paris) 3, 137-198 (1948).
[2] C. D. Stanciu, A. V. Kimel, F. Hansteen, A. Tsukamoto, A. Itoh, A. Kirilyuk, and Th. Rasing, Ultrafast spin dynamics across compensation
points in ferrimagnetic GdFeCo: The role of angular momentum compensation, Phys. Rev. B 73, 220402(R) (2006).
[3] Sessoli, Roberta; Tsai, Hui Lien ; Schake, Ann R. ; Wang, Sheyi; Vincent, John B.; Folting, Kirsten; Gatteschi, Dante; Christou, George;
Hendrickson, David N. (1993). "High-spin molecules: [Mn12O12(O2CR)16(H2O)4]". J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115 (5): 18041816.
doi:10.1021/ja00058a027.
Ferromagnetism
Not to be confused with Ferrimagnetism; for an overview see Magnetism
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials
(such as iron) form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In
physics, several different types of magnetism are distinguished.
Ferromagnetism (including ferrimagnetism)[1] is the strongest type; it
is the only type that creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is
responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism encountered in
everyday life. Other substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with
two other types of magnetism, paramagnetism and diamagnetism, but
the forces are so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive
instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of ferromagnetism is
a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The
attraction between a magnet and ferromagnetic material is "the quality
of magnetism first apparent to the ancient world, and to us today".[2]
Ferromagnetism
32
Ferromagnetic materials
Curie temperatures for some crystalline ferromagnetic (*=ferrimagnetic) materials[4]
Material
Curie
temp. (K)
Co
1388
Fe
1043
Fe2O3*
948
FeOFe2O3*
858
NiOFe2O3*
858
CuOFe2O3* 728
MgOFe2O3* 713
MnBi
630
Ni
627
MnSb
587
MnOFe2O3* 573
Y3Fe5O12*
560
CrO2
386
MnAs
318
Gd
292
Dy
88
EuO
69
The table on the right lists a selection of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic compounds, along with the temperature
above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see Curie temperature).
Ferromagnetism is a property not just of the chemical make-up of a material, but of its crystalline structure and
microscopic organization. There are ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves
Ferromagnetism
ferromagnetic, called Heusler alloys, named after Fritz Heusler. Conversely there are non-magnetic alloys, such as
types of stainless steel, composed almost exclusively of ferromagnetic metals.
One can also make amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys by very rapid quenching (cooling) of a
liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this
results in low coercivity, low hysteresis loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity. One such typical
material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a
metalloid component (B, C, Si, P, or Al) that lowers the melting point.
A relatively new class of exceptionally strong ferromagnetic materials are the rare-earth magnets. They contain
lanthanide elements that are known for their ability to carry large magnetic moments in well-localized f-orbitals.
Actinide ferromagnets
A number of actinide compounds are ferromagnets at room temperature or become ferromagnets below the Curie
temperature (TC). PuP is one actinide pnictide that is a paramagnet and has cubic symmetry at room temperature, but
upon cooling undergoes a lattice distortion to tetragonal when cooled to below its Tc = 125K. PuP has an easy axis
of <100>,[5] so that
at 5K.[6] The lattice distortion is presumably a consequence of strain induced by the magnetoelastic interactions as
the magnetic moments aligned parallel within magnetic domains.
In NpFe2 the easy axis is <111>.[7] Above TC ~500 K NpFe2 is also paramagnetic and cubic. Cooling below the
Curie temperature produces a rhombohedral distortion wherein the rhombohedral angle changes from 60 (cubic
phase) to 60.53. An alternate description of this distortion is to consider the length c along the unique trigonal axis
(after the distortion has begun) and a as the distance in the plane perpendicular to c. In the cubic phase this reduces to
= 1.00. Below the Curie temperature
which is the largest strain in any actinide compound.[6] NpNi2 undergoes a similar lattice distortion below TC = 32K,
with a strain of (435) 104.[6] NpCo2 is a ferrimagnet below 15K.
Lithium gas
In 2009, a team of MIT physicists demonstrated that a lithium gas cooled to less than one Kelvin can exhibit
ferromagnetism.[8] The team cooled fermionic lithium-6 to less than 150 billionths of one Kelvin above absolute
zero using infrared laser cooling. This demonstration is the first time that ferromagnetism has been demonstrated in a
gas.
Explanation
The Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem shows that magnetism cannot occur in purely classical solids. Without quantum
mechanics, there would be no diamagnetism, paramagnetism or ferromagnetism. The property of ferromagnetism is
due to the direct influence of two effects from quantum mechanics: spin and the Pauli exclusion principle.[9]
33
Ferromagnetism
Origin of magnetism
One of the fundamental properties of an electron (besides that it carries charge) is that it has a dipole moment, i.e. it
behaves itself as a tiny magnet. This dipole moment comes from the more fundamental property of the electron that
it has quantum mechanical spin. The quantum mechanical nature of this spin causes the electron to only be able to be
in two states, with the magnetic field either pointing "up" or "down" (for any choice of up and down). The spin of the
electrons in atoms is the main source of ferromagnetism, although there is also a contribution from the orbital
angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus. When these tiny magnetic dipoles are aligned in the same
direction, their individual magnetic fields add together to create a measurable macroscopic field.
However in materials with a filled electron shell, the total dipole moment of the electrons is zero because the spins
are in up/down pairs. Only atoms with partially filled shells (i.e., unpaired spins) can have a net magnetic moment,
so ferromagnetism only occurs in materials with partially filled shells. Because of Hund's rules, the first few
electrons in a shell tend to have the same spin, thereby increasing the total dipole moment.
These unpaired dipoles (often called simply "spins" even though they also generally include angular momentum)
tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field, an effect called paramagnetism. Ferromagnetism involves an
additional phenomenon, however: the dipoles tend to align spontaneously, giving rise to a spontaneous
magnetization, even when there is no applied field.
Exchange interaction
According to classical electromagnetism, two nearby magnetic dipoles will tend to align in opposite directions, so
their magnetic fields will oppose one another and cancel out. However, this effect is very weak, because the
magnetic fields generated by individual spins are small and the resulting alignment is easily destroyed by thermal
fluctuations. In a few materials, a much stronger interaction between spins arises because the change in the direction
of the spin leads to a change in electrostatic repulsion between neighboring electrons, due to a particular quantum
mechanical effect called the exchange interaction. At short distances, the exchange interaction is much stronger than
the dipole-dipole magnetic interaction. As a result, in a few materials, the ferromagnetic ones, nearby spins tend to
align in the same direction.
The exchange interaction is related to the Pauli exclusion principle, which says that two electrons with the same spin
cannot also have the same "position". Therefore, under certain conditions, when the orbitals of the unpaired outer
valence electrons from adjacent atoms overlap, the distributions of their electric charge in space are further apart
when the electrons have parallel spins than when they have opposite spins. This reduces the electrostatic energy of
the electrons when their spins are parallel compared to their energy when the spins are anti-parallel, so the
parallel-spin state is more stable. In simple terms, the electrons, which repel one another, can move "further apart" by
aligning their spins, so the spins of these electrons tend to line up. This difference in energy is called the exchange
energy.
The materials in which the exchange interaction is much stronger than the competing dipole-dipole interaction are
frequently called magnetic materials. For instance, in iron (Fe) the exchange force is about 1000 times stronger than
the dipole interaction. Therefore below the Curie temperature virtually all of the dipoles in a ferromagnetic material
will be aligned. The exchange interaction is also responsible for the other types of spontaneous ordering of atomic
magnetic moments occurring in magnetic solids, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism. There are different
exchange interaction mechanisms which create the magnetism in different ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and
antiferromagnetic substances. These mechanisms include direct exchange, RKKY exchange, double exchange, and
superexchange.
34
Ferromagnetism
Magnetic anisotropy
Although the exchange interaction keeps spins aligned, it does not align them in a particular direction. Without
magnetic anisotropy, the spins in a magnet randomly change direction in response to thermal fluctuations and the
magnet is superparamagnetic. There are several kinds of magnetic anisotropy, the most common of which is
magnetocrystalline anisotropy. This is a dependence of the energy on the direction of magnetization relative to the
crystallographic lattice. Another common source of anisotropy, inverse magnetostriction, is induced by internal
strains. Single-domain magnets also can have a shape anisotropy due to the magnetostatic effects of the particle
shape. As the temperature of a magnet increases, the anisotropy tends to decrease, and there is often a blocking
temperature at which a transition to superparamagnetism occurs.[10]
Magnetic domains
The above would seem to suggest that every piece of ferromagnetic material should have a strong magnetic field,
since all the spins are aligned, yet iron and other ferromagnets are often found in an "unmagnetized" state.
The reason for this is that a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material is
divided into tiny magnetic domains[11] (also known as Weiss domains).
Within each domain, the spins are aligned, but (if the bulk material is
in its lowest energy configuration, i.e. unmagnetized), the spins of
separate domains point in different directions and their magnetic fields
cancel out, so the object has no net large scale magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic materials spontaneously divide into magnetic domains
because the exchange interaction is a short-range force, so over long
distances of many atoms the tendency of the magnetic dipoles to
reduce their energy by orienting in opposite directions wins out. If all
the dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic material are aligned parallel, it
Weiss domains microstructure
creates a large magnetic field extending into the space around it. This
contains a lot of magnetostatic energy. The material can reduce this
energy by splitting into many domains pointing in different directions, so the magnetic field is confined to small
local fields in the material, reducing the volume of the field. The domains are separated by thin domain walls a
number of molecules thick, in which the direction of magnetization of the dipoles rotates smoothly from one
domain's direction to the other.
Thus, a piece of iron in its lowest energy state ("unmagnetized") generally has little or no net magnetic field.
However, if it is placed in a strong enough external magnetic field, the domain walls will move, reorienting the
domains so more of the dipoles are aligned with the external field. The domains will remain aligned when the
external field is removed, creating a magnetic field of their own extending into the space around the material, thus
creating a "permanent" magnet. The domains do not go back to their original minimum energy configuration when
the field is removed because the domain walls tend to become 'pinned' or 'snagged' on defects in the crystal lattice,
preserving their parallel orientation. This is shown by the Barkhausen effect: as the magnetizing field is changed, the
magnetization changes in thousands of tiny discontinuous jumps as the domain walls suddenly "snap" past defects.
This magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a hysteresis curve. Although this state of
aligned domains found in a piece of magnetized ferromagnetic material is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is
metastable, and can persist for long periods, as shown by samples of magnetite from the sea floor which have
maintained their magnetization for millions of years.
Alloys used for the strongest permanent magnets are "hard" alloys made with many defects in their crystal structure
where the domain walls "catch" and stabilize. The net magnetization can be destroyed by heating and then cooling
(annealing) the material without an external field, however. The thermal motion allows the domain boundaries to
35
Ferromagnetism
move, releasing them from any defects, to return to their low-energy unaligned state.
Curie temperature
As the temperature increases, thermal motion, or entropy, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to
align. When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the Curie temperature, there is a second-order
phase transition and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, although it still responds
paramagnetically to an external field. Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and random
domains form (in the absence of an external field). The Curie temperature itself is a critical point, where the
magnetic susceptibility is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin
correlations fluctuate at all length scales.
The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified Ising spin model, had an important impact
on the development of statistical physics. There, it was first clearly shown that mean field theory approaches failed
to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a universality class that includes
many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by renormalization group theory.
References
[1] Chikazumi 2009, p.118
[2] Richard M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, first published 1951, reprinted 1993 by IEEE Press, New York as a "Classic Reissue." ISBN
0-7803-1032-2.
[3] Herrera, J. M.; Bachschmidt, A, Villain, F, Bleuzen, A, Marvaud, V, Wernsdorfer, W, Verdaguer, M (13 January 2008). "Mixed valency and
magnetism in cyanometallates and Prussian blue analogues". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and
Engineering Sciences 366 (1862): 127138. doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2145.
[4] Kittel, Charles (1986). Introduction to Solid State Physics (sixth ed.). John Wiley and Sons. ISBN0-471-87474-4.
[5] Lander GH, Lam DJ (1976). "Neutron diffraction study of PuP: The electronic ground state". Phys Rev B. 14 (9): 40647.
Bibcode1976PhRvB..14.4064L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.14.4064.
[6] Mueller MH, Lander GH, Hoff HA, Knott HW, Reddy JF (Apr 1979). "Lattice distortions measured in actinide ferromagnets PuP, NpFe2, and
NpNi2" (http:/ / hal. archives-ouvertes. fr/ docs/ 00/ 21/ 88/ 17/ PDF/ ajp-jphyscol197940C421. pdf). J Phys Colloque C4, supplement 40 (4):
C468C469. .
[7] Aldred AT, Dunlap BD, Lam DJ, Lander GH, Mueller MH, Nowik I (1975). "Magnetic properties of neptunium Laves phases: NpMn2,
NpFe2, NpCo2, and NpNi2". Phys Rev B. 11 (1): 53044. Bibcode1975PhRvB..11..530A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.11.530.
[8] G-B Jo, Y-R Lee, J-H Choi, C. A. Christensen, T. H. Kim, J. H. Thywissen, D. E. Pritchard, and W. Ketterle (2009). "Itinerant
Ferromagnetism in a Fermi Gas of Ultracold Atoms". Science 325 (5947): 15211524. Bibcode2009Sci...325.1521J.
doi:10.1126/science.1177112. PMID19762638.
[9] Feynman, Richard P.; Robert Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.2. USA: Addison-Wesley. pp.Ch. 37.
ISBN0-201-02011-4H.
[10] Aharoni, Amikam (1996). Introduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism (http:/ / www. oup. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ Physics/
ElectricityMagnetism/ ?view=usa& ci=9780198508090). Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-851791-2. .
[11] Feynman, Richard P.; Robert B. Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=bDF-uoUmttUC& pg=SA4-PA4& dq="inclined+ plane"+ + "conservation+ of+ energy"& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=gQtdT6iLCanSiAK22tCsCw& ved=0CGwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q="inclined plane" "conservation of energy"& f=false). USA:
California Inst. of Technology. pp.37.5-37.6. ISBN0-201-02117-XP. .
36
Ferromagnetism
Bibliography
Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27. repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston. ISBN978-0-03-083993-1.
Chikazumi, Sshin (2009). Physics of ferromagnetism. English edition prepared with the assistance of C.D.
Graham, Jr (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780199564811.
Jackson, John David (1998). Classical electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN978-0-471-30932-1.
E. P. Wohlfarth, ed., Ferromagnetic Materials (North-Holland, 1980).
"Heusler alloy," Encyclopdia Britannica Online, retrieved Jan. 23, 2005.
F. Heusler, W. Stark, and E. Haupt, Verh. der Phys. Ges. 5, 219 (1903).
S. Vonsovsky Magnetism of elementary particles (Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1975).
Tyablikov S. V. (1995): Methods in the Quantum Theory of Magnetism. Springer; 1st edition. ISBN
0-306-30263-2.
External links
Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html) - a chapter from an
online textbook
Sandeman, Karl (January 2008). "Ferromagnetic Materials" (http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/doitpoms/tlplib/
ferromagnetic/printall.php). DoITPoMS. Dept. of Materials Sci. and Metallurgy, Univ. of Cambridge. Retrieved
2008-08-27. Detailed nonmathematical description of ferromagnetic materials with animated illustrations
37
38
39
40
bodies, due to the now well-known fact that moisture impaired the insulation of such bodies. He also noticed that
electrified substances attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron. The many
discoveries of this nature earned for Gilbert the title of founder of the electrical science.[13] By investigating the
forces on a light metallic needle, balanced on a point, he extended the list of electric bodies, and found also that
many substances, including metals and natural magnets, showed no attractive forces when rubbed. He noticed that
dry weather with north or east wind was the most favourable atmospheric condition for exhibiting electric
phenomenaan observation liable to misconception till the difference between conductor and insulator was
understood.[26]
Gilbert's work was followed up by Robert Boyle (16271691), the famous
natural philosopher who was once described as "father of Chemistry, and
uncle of the Earl of Cork." Boyle was one of the founders of the Royal
Society when it met privately in Oxford, and became a member of the
Council after the Society was incorporated by Charles II. in 1663. He worked
frequently at the new science of electricity, and added several substances to
Gilbert's list of electrics. He left a detailed account of his researches under the
title of Experiments on the Origin of Electricity.[26] Boyle, in 1675, stated that
electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum. One of his
important discoveries was that electrified bodies in a vacuum would attract
light substances, this indicating that the electrical effect did not depend upon
the air as a medium. He also added resin to the then known list of
electrics.[13][28][29][30]
Robert Boyle.
This was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented an early
electrostatic generator. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating
electricity by friction with an electrostatic generator, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in
earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of
electricity.
The first usage of the word electricity is ascribed to Sir Thomas Browne in his 1646 work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica.
41
18th century
Improving the electric machine
The electric machine was subsequently improved by Francis Hauksbee,
Litzendorf, and by Prof. Georg Matthias Bose, about 1750. Litzendorf
substituted a glass ball for the sulphur ball of Guericke. Boze was the first to
employ the "prime conductor" in such machines, this consisting of an iron rod
held in the hand of a person whose body was insulated by standing on a block
of resin. Ingenhousz, during 1746, invented electric machines made of plate
glass.[32] Experiments with the electric machine were largely aided by the
discovery of the property of a glass plate, when coated on both sides with
tinfoil, of accumulating a charge of electricity when connected with a source
of electromotive force. The electric machine was soon further improved by
Andrew Gordon, a Scotsman, Professor at Erfurt, who substituted a glass
cylinder in place of a glass globe; and by Giessing of Leipzig who added a
"rubber" consisting of a cushion of woollen material. The collector, consisting
of a series of metal points, was added to the machine by Benjamin Wilson
about 1746, and in 1762, John Canton of England (also the inventor of the
first pith-ball electroscope) improved the efficiency of electric machines by
sprinkling an amalgam of tin over the surface of the rubber.[13]
[31]
Leyden jar
The Leyden jar, a type of capacitor for electrical energy in large quantities,
was invented independently by Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1744
and by Pieter van Musschenbroek in 17451746 at Leiden University (the
latter location giving the device its name).[35] William Watson, when
experimenting with the Leyden jar, discovered in 1747 that a discharge of
static electricity was equivalent to an electric current. Capacitance was first
observed by Von Kleist of Leyden in 1754.[36] Von Kleist happened to hold,
near his electric machine, a small bottle, in the neck of which there was an
iron nail. Touching the iron nail accidentally with his other hand he received a
severe electric shock. In much the same way Musschenbroeck assisted by
Cunaens received a more severe shock from a somewhat similar glass bottle.
Sir William Watson of England greatly improved this device, by covering the
Pieter van Musschenbroek
bottle, or jar, outside and in with tinfoil. This piece of electrical apparatus will
be easily recognized as the well-known Leyden jar, so called by the Abbot Nollet of Paris, after the place of its
discovery.[13]
In 1741, John Ellicott "proposed to measure the strength of electrification by its power to raise a weight in one scale
of a balance while the other was held over the electrified body and pulled to it by its attractive power". The Sir
William Watson already mentioned conducted numerous experiments, about 1749, to ascertain the velocity of
electricity in a wire. These experiments, although perhaps not so intended, also demonstrated the possibility of
transmitting signals to a distance by electricity. In these experiments, the signal appeared to travel the 12,276-foot
length of the insulated wire instantaneously. Le Monnier in France had previously made somewhat similar
experiments, sending shocks through an iron wire 1,319 feet long.[13]
About 1750, first experiments in electrotherapeutics were made. Various experimenters made tests to ascertain the
physiological and therapeutical effects of electricity. Demainbray in Edinburgh examined the effects of electricity
upon plants and concluded that the growth of two myrtle trees was quickened by electrification. These myrtles were
electrified "during the whole month of October, 1746, and they put forth branches and blossoms sooner than other
shrubs of the same kind not electrified.".[37] Abb Mnon in France tried the effects of a continued application of
electricity upon men and birds and found that the subjects experimented on lost weight, thus apparently showing that
electricity quickened the excretions. The efficacy of electric shocks in cases of paralysis was tested in the county
hospital at Shrewsbury, England, with rather poor success.[38]
42
43
44
description of many of the experiments and discoveries of these early workers in the fields of electrical science and
art will be found in the scientific publications of the time; notably the 'Philosophical Transactions', 'Philosophical
Magazine', Cambridge Mathematical Journal, Young's Natural Philosophy,' Priestley's 'History of Electricity,' '
Franklin's 'Experiments and Observations on Electricity,' Cavalli's 'Treatise on Electricity,' De la Rive's 'Treatise on
Electricity.'[13]
Henry Elles was one of the first people to suggest links between electricity and magnetism. In 1757 he claimed that
he had written to the Royal Society in 1755 about the links between electricity and magnetism, asserting that "there
are some things in the power of magnetism very similar to those of electricity" but he did "not by any means think
them the same". In 1760 he similarly claimed that in 1750 he had been the first "to think how the electric fire may be
the cause of thunder".[46] Among the more important of the electrical experiments and researches at this period were
those of Franz Aepinus, a noted German scholar (17241802) and Henry Cavendish of London, England.[13]
To Aepinus is accorded the credit of having been the first to conceive the view of the reciprocal relationship of
electricity and magnetism. In his work 'Tentamen Theoria Electricitatis et Magnetism,'[47] published in Saint
Petersburg, 1759. he gives the following amplification of Franklin's theory, which in some of its features is
measurably in accord with present day views: "The particles of the electric fluid repel each other, attract and are
attracted by the particles of all bodies with a force that decreases in proportion as the distance increases; the
electric fluid exists in the pores of bodies; it moves unobstructedly through non-electric (conductors), but moves with
difficulty in insulators; the manifestations of electricity are due to the unequal distribution of the fluid in a body, or
to the approach of bodies unequally charged with the fluid." Aepinus formulated a corresponding theory of
magnetism excepting that in the case of magnetic phenomena the fluids only acted on the particles of iron. He also
made numerous electrical experiments, amongst others those apparently showing that in order to manifest electrical
effects tourmaline requires to be heated to a temperature between 37.5 and 100C. In fact, tourmaline remains
unelectrified when its temperature is uniform, but manifests electrical properties when its temperature is rising or
falling. Crystals which manifest electrical properties in this way are termed pyro-electrics, amongst which, besides
tourmaline, are sulphate of quinine and quartz.[13]
Cavendish independently conceived a theory of electricity nearly akin to that of Aepinus.[48] He also (1784) was
perhaps the first to utilize the electric spark to produce the explosion of hydrogen and oxygen in the proper
proportions to produce pure water. The same philosopher also discovered the inductive capacity of dielectrics
(insulators) and as early as 1778 measured the specific inductive capacity for beeswax and other substances by
comparison with an air condenser.
About 1784 C. A. Coulomb, after whom is named the electrical unit of
quantity, devised the torsion balance, by means of which he discovered what
is known as Coulomb's law; The force exerted between two small
electrified bodies varies inversely as the square of the distance; not as
Aepinus in his theory of electricity had assumed, merely inversely as the
distance. According to the theory advanced by Cavendish "the particles
attract and are attracted inversely as some less power of the distance than the
cube."[13] A large part of the domain of electricity became virtually annexed
by Coulomb's discovery of the law of inverse squares.
With the discovery, by the experiments of Watson and others, that electricity
could be transmitted to a distance, the idea of making practical use of this
phenomenon began, about 1753, to engross the minds of "inquisitive"
persons, and to this end suggestions looking to the employment of electricity
in the transmission of intelligence were made. The first of the methods
45
19th century
Early 19th century
In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed the first device to produce a large
electric current, later known as the electric battery. Napoleon, informed of his
works, summoned him in 1801 for a command performance of his
experiments. He received many medals and decorations, including the Lgion
d'honneur.
Davy in 1806, employing a voltaic pile of approximately 250 cells, or
couples, decomposed potash and soda, showing that these substances were
respectively the oxides of potassium and sodium, which metals previously
had been unknown. These experiments were the beginning of
Alessandro Volta
electrochemistry, the investigation of which Faraday took up, and concerning
which in 1833 he announced his important law of electrochemical
equivalents, viz.: "The same quantity of electricity that is, the same electric current decomposes chemically
equivalent quantities of all the bodies which it traverses; hence the weights of elements separated in these
electrolytes are to each other as their chemical equivalents." Employing a battery of 2,000 elements of a voltaic pile
Humphry Davy in 1809 gave the first public demonstration of the electric arc light, using for the purpose charcoal
enclosed in a vacuum.[13]
Somewhat important to note, it was not until many years after the discovery of the voltaic pile that the sameness of
annual and frictional electricity with voltaic electricity was clearly recognized and demonstrated. Thus as late as
January 1833 we find Faraday writing[53] in a paper on the electricity of the electric ray. "After an examination of the
experiments of Walsh,[54][55] Ingenhousz, Henry Cavendish, Sir H. Davy, and Dr. Davy, no doubt remains on my
mind as to the identity of the electricity of the torpedo with common (frictional) and voltaic electricity; and I presume
that so little will remain on the mind of others as to justify my refraining from entering at length into the
philosophical proof of that identity. The doubts raised by Sir Humphry Davy have been removed by his brother, Dr.
Davy; the results of the latter being the reverse of those of the former. ... The general conclusion which must, I think,
be drawn from this collection of facts (a table showing the similarity, of properties of the diversely named
electricities) is, that electricity, whatever may be its source, is identical in its nature."[13]
It is proper to state, however, that prior to Faraday's time the similarity of electricity derived from different sources
was more than suspected. Thus, William Hyde Wollaston,[56] wrote in 1801:[57] "This similarity in the means by
which both electricity and galvanism (voltaic electricity) appear to be excited in addition to the resemblance that has
been traced between their effects shows that they are both essentially the same and confirm an opinion that has
already been advanced by others, that all the differences discoverable in the effects of the latter may be owing to its
being less intense, but produced in much larger quantity." In the same paper Wollaston describes certain
experiments in which he uses very fine wire in a solution of sulphate of copper through which he passed electric
currents from an electric machine. This is interesting in connection with the later day use of almost similarly
arranged fine wires in electrolytic receivers in wireless, or radio-telegraphy.[13]
46
In the first half of the 19th century many very important additions were made
to the world's knowledge concerning electricity and magnetism. For example,
in 1819 Hans Christian rsted of Copenhagen discovered the deflecting effect
of an electric current traversing a wire upon- a suspended magnetic needle.[13]
This discovery gave a clue to the subsequently proved intimate relationship
between electricity and magnetism which was promptly followed up by
Ampre who shortly thereafter (1821) announced his celebrated theory of
electrodynamics, relating to the force that one current exerts upon another, by
its electro-magnetic effects, namely[13]
1. Two parallel portions of a circuit attract one another if the currents in them
are flowing in the same direction, and repel one another if the currents
flow in the opposite direction.
Hans Christian rsted
2. Two portions of circuits crossing one another obliquely attract one another
if both the currents flow either towards or from the point of crossing, and repel one another if one flows to and the
other from that point.
3. When an element of a circuit exerts a force on another element of a circuit, that force always tends to urge the
second one in a direction at right angles to its own direction.
Ampere brought a multitude of phenomena into theory by his investigations of the mechanical forces between
conductors supporting currents and magnets.
Professor Seebeck, of Berlin, in 1821 discovered that when heat is applied to the junction of two metals that had
been soldered together an electric current is set up. This is termed Thermo-Electricity. Seebeck's device consists of a
strip of copper bent at each end and soldered to a plate of bismuth. A magnetic needle is placed parallel with the
copper strip. When the heat of a lamp is applied to the junction of the copper and bismuth an electric current is set up
which deflects the needle.[13]
Around this time, Simon Denis Poisson attacked the difficult problem of induced magnetization, and his results,
though differently expressed, are still the theory, as a most important first approximation. It was in the application of
mathematics to physics that his services to science were performed. Perhaps the most original, and certainly the most
permanent in their influence, were his memoirs on the theory of electricity and magnetism, which virtually created a
new branch of mathematical physics.
George Green wrote An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and
Magnetism in 1828. The essay introduced several important concepts, among them a theorem similar to the modern
Green's theorem, the idea of potential functions as currently used in physics, and the concept of what are now called
Green's functions. George Green was the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism
and his theory formed the foundation for the work of other scientists such as James Clerk Maxwell, William
Thomson, and others.
Peltier in 1834 discovered an effect opposite to Thermo-Electricity, namely, that when a current is passed through a
couple of dissimilar metals the temperature is lowered or raised at the junction of the metals, depending on the
direction of the current. This is termed the Peltier "effect". The variations of temperature are found to be proportional
to the strength of the current and not to the square of the strength of the current as in the case of heat due to the
ordinary resistance of a conductor. This second law is the C^2R law,[58] discovered experimentally in 1841 by the
English physicist Joule. In other words, this important law is that the heat generated in any part of an electric circuit
is directly proportional to the product of the resistance of this part of the circuit and to the square of the strength of
current flowing in the circuit.[13]
In 1822 Johann Schweigger devised the first galvanometer. This instrument was subsequently much improved by
Wilhelm Weber (1833). In 1825 William Sturgeon of Woolwich, England, invented the horseshoe and straight bar
47
48
electromagnet, receiving therefor the silver medal of the Society of Arts.[59] In 1837 Gauss and Weber (both noted
workers of this period) jointly invented a reflecting galvanometer for telegraph purposes. This was the forerunner of
the Thomson reflecting and other exceedingly sensitive galvanometers once used in submarine signaling and still
widely employed in electrical measurements. Arago in 1824 made the important discovery that when a copper disc is
rotated in its own plane, and if a magnetic needle be freely suspended on a pivot over the disc, the needle will rotate
with the disc. If on the other hand the needle is fixed it will tend to retard the motion of the disc. This effect was
termed Arago's rotations.[13][60][61]
Futile attempts were made by Charles Babbage, Peter Barlow, John Herschel
and others to explain this phenomenon. The true explanation was reserved for
Faraday, namely, that electric currents are induced in the copper disc by the
cutting of the magnetic lines of force of the needle, which currents in turn
react on the needle. Georg Simon Ohm did his work on resistance in the years
1825 and 1826, and published his results in 1827 as the book Die galvanische
Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet.[62][63] He drew considerable inspiration from
Fourier's work on heat conduction in the theoretical explanation of his work.
For experiments, he initially used voltaic piles, but later used a thermocouple
as this provided a more stable voltage source in terms of internal resistance
and constant potential difference. He used a galvanometer to measure current,
and knew that the voltage between the thermocouple terminals was
proportional to the junction temperature. He then added test wires of varying
Georg Simon Ohm
length, diameter, and material to complete the circuit. He found that his data
could be modeled through a simple equation with variable composed of the reading from a galvanometer, the length
of the test conductor, thermocouple junction temperature, and a constant of the entire setup. From this, Ohm
determined his law of proportionality and published his results. In 1827, he announced the now famous law that
bears his name, that is:
Electromotive force = Current Resistance[64]
Ohm brought into order a host of puzzling facts connecting electromotive force and electric current in conductors,
which all previous electricians had only succeeded in loosely binding together qualitatively under some rather vague
statements. Ohm found that the results could be summed up in such a simple law and by Ohm's discovery a large
part of the domain of electricity became annexed to theory.
49
The discovery of electromagnetic induction was made almost simultaneously,
although independently, by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry. While
Faraday's early results preceded those of Henry, Henry was first in his use of
the transformer principle. Henry's discovery of self-induction and his work on
spiral conductors using a copper coil were made public in 1835, just before
those of Faraday.[65][66][67]
Joseph Henry
The experiment which led Faraday to the discovery of electric induction was
made as follows: He constructed what is now and was then termed an
induction coil, the primary and secondary wires of which were wound on a
Michael Faraday
wooden bobbin, side by side, and insulated from one another. In the circuit of
the primary wire he placed a battery of approximately 100 cells. In the
secondary wire he inserted a galvanometer. On making his first test he observed no results, the galvanometer
remaining quiescent, but on increasing the length of the wires he noticed a deflection of the galvanometer in the
secondary wire when the circuit of the primary wire was made and broken. This was the first observed instance of
the development of electromotive force by electromagnetic induction.[13]
He also discovered that induced currents are established in a second closed circuit when the current strength is varied
in the first wire, and that the direction of the current in the secondary circuit is opposite to that in the first circuit.
Also that a current is induced in a secondary circuit when another circuit carrying a current is moved to and from the
first circuit, and that the approach or withdrawal of a magnet to or from a closed circuit induces momentary currents
in the latter. In short, within the space of a few months Faraday discovered by experiment virtually all the laws and
facts now known concerning electro-magnetic induction and magneto-electric induction. Upon these discoveries,
with scarcely an exception, depends the operation of the telephone, the dynamo machine, and incidental to the
dynamo electric machine practically all the gigantic electrical industries of the world, including electric lighting,
electric traction, the operation of electric motors for power purposes, and electro-plating, electrotyping, etc.[13]
In his investigations of the peculiar manner in which iron filings arrange themselves on a cardboard or glass in
proximity to the poles of a magnet, Faraday conceived the idea of magnetic "lines of force" extending from pole to
pole of the magnet and along which the filings tend to place themselves. On the discovery being made that magnetic
50
effects accompany the passage of an electric current in a wire, it was also assumed that similar magnetic lines of
force whirled around the wire. For convenience and to account for induced electricity it was then assumed that when
these lines of force are "cut" by a wire in passing across them or when the lines of force in rising and falling cut the
wire, a current of electricity is developed, or to be more exact, an electromotive force is developed in the wire that
sets up a current in a closed circuit. Faraday advanced what has been termed the molecular theory of electricity[71]
which assumes that electricity is the manifestation of a peculiar condition of the molecule of the body rubbed or the
ether surrounding the body. Faraday also, by experiment, discovered paramagnetism and diamagnetism, namely, that
all solids and liquids are either attracted or repelled by a magnet. For example, iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese,
chromium, etc., are paramagnetic (attracted by magnetism), whilst other substances, such as bismuth, phosphorus,
antimony, zinc, etc., are repelled by magnetism or are diamagnetic.[13][72]
Brugans of Leyden in 1778 and Le Baillif and Becquerel in 1827[73] had previously discovered diamagnetism in the
case of bismuth and antimony. Faraday also rediscovered specific inductive capacity in 1837, the results of the
experiments by Cavendish not having been published at that time. He also predicted[74] the retardation of signals on
long submarine cables due to the inductive effect of the insulation of the cable, in other words, the static capacity of
the cable.[13]
The 25 years immediately following Faraday's discoveries of electric induction were fruitful in the promulgation of
laws and facts relating to induced currents and to magnetism. In 1834 Heinrich Lenz and Moritz von Jacobi
independently demonstrated the now familiar fact that the currents induced in a coil are proportional to the number
of turns in the coil. Lenz also announced at that time his important law that, in all cases of electromagnetic induction
the induced currents have such a direction that their reaction tends to stop the motion that produces them, a law that
was perhaps deducible from Faraday's explanation of Arago's rotations.[13][75]
The induction coil was first designed by Nicholas Callan in 1836. In 1845 Joseph Henry, the American physicist,
published an account of his valuable and interesting experiments with induced currents of a high order, showing that
currents could be induced from the secondary of an induction coil to the primary of a second coil, thence to its
secondary wire, and so on to the primary of a third coil, etc.[76] Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff further developes the
induction coil, the Ruhmkorff coil was patented in 1851,[77] and he utilized long windings of copper wire to achieve
a spark of approximately 2inches (50mm) in length. In 1857, after examining a greatly improved version made by
an American inventor, Edward Samuel Ritchie,[78][79] Ruhmkorff improved his design (as did other engineers), using
glass insulation and other innovations to allow the production of sparks more than 300 millimetres (unknown
operator: u'strong'in) long.[80]
[81]
Lord Kelvin
Up to the middle of the 19th century, indeed up to about 1870, electrical science was, it may be said, a sealed book to
the majority of electrical workers. Prior to this time a number of handbooks had been published on electricity and
magnetism, notably Auguste de La Rive's exhaustive ' Treatise on Electricity,'[82] in 1851 (French) and 1853
(English); August Beer's Einleitung in die Elektrostatik, die Lehre vom Magnetismus und die Elektrodynamik,[83]
Wiedemann's ' Galvanismus,' and Reiss'[84] 'Reibungsal-elektricitat.' But these works consisted in the main in details
of experiments with electricity and magnetism, and but little with the laws and facts of those phenomena. Henry
d'Abria[85][86] published the results of some researches into the laws of induced currents, but owing to their
complexity of the investigation it was not productive of very notable results.[87] Around the mid-19th century,
51
52
53
54
Maxwell, looking further than Faraday, reasoned that if light is an electromagnetic phenomenon and is transmissible
through dielectrics such as glass, the phenomenon must be in the nature of electromagnetic currents in the dielectrics.
He therefore contended that in the charging of a condenser, for instance, the action did not stop at the insulator, but
that some "displacement" currents are set up in the insulating medium, which currents continue until the resisting
force of the medium equals that of the charging force. In a closed conductor circuit, an electric current is also a
displacement of electricity.
The conductor offers a certain resistance, akin to friction, to the displacement of electricity, and heat is developed in
the conductor, proportional to the square of the current(as already stated herein), which current flows as long as the
impelling electric force continues. This resistance may be likened to that met with by a ship as it displaces in the
water in its progress. The resistance of the dielectric is of a different nature and has been compared to the
compression of multitudes of springs, which, under compression, yield with an increasing back pressure, up to a
point where the total back pressure equals the initial pressure. When the initial pressure is withdrawn the energy
expended in compressing the "springs" is returned to the circuit, concurrently with the return of the springs to their
original condition, this producing a reaction in the opposite direction. Consequently the current due to the
displacement of electricity in a conductor may be continuous, while the displacement currents in a dielectric are
momentary and, in a circuit or medium which contains but little resistance compared with capacity or inductance
reaction, the currents of discharge are of an oscillatory or alternating nature.[113]
Maxwell extended this view of displacement currents in dielectrics to the ether of free space. Assuming light to be
the manifestation of alterations of electric currents in the ether, and vibrating at the rate of light vibrations, these
vibrations by induction set up corresponding vibrations in adjoining portions of the ether, and in this way the
undulations corresponding to those of light are propagated as an electromagnetic effect in the ether. Maxwell's
electromagnetic theory of light obviously involved the existence of electric waves in free space, and his followers set
themselves the task of experimentally demonstrating the truth of the theory. By 1871, he presented the Remarks on
the mathematical classification of physical quantities.[114]
In 1887, Prof. Heinrich Hertz in a series of experiments proved the actual existence of such waves. The discovery of
electric waves in space naturally led to the discovery and introduction in the closing years of the 19th century of
wireless telegraphy, various systems of which are now in successful use on shipboard, lighthouses and shore and
inland stations throughout the world, by means of which intelligence is transmitted across the widest oceans and
large parts of continents.
In 1891, notable additions to our knowledge of the phenomena of
electromagnetic frequency and high potential current were contributed by
Nikola Tesla.[115] Amongst the novel experiments performed by Tesla was to
take in his hand a glass tube from which the air had been exhausted, then
bringing his body into contact with a wire carrying currents of high potential,
the tube was suffused with a pleasing bright glow. Another experiment was to
grasp a bulb that was suspended from a single wire attached to a high
potential, high frequency current circuit, when a platinum button within the
bulb was brought to vivid incandescence, the experimenter at this time
standing on an insulating platform. The frequency and potential involved in
the experiments made by Tesla at this time were of the order of one or more
million cycles and volts. For further information relative to these experiments
the reader may be referred to Tesla's Experiments with Alternate Currents of
High Potential and High Frequency.[13]
55
William Crookes
Oliver Heaviside
56
When, however, in 1918 one views the vast applications of electricity to electric light, electric railways, electric
power and other purposes (all it may be repeated made possible and practicable by the perfection of the dynamo
machine), it is difficult to believe that no longer ago than 1871 the author of a book published in that year, in
referring to the state of the art of applied electricity at that time, could have truthfully written: "The most important
57
58
20th century
Various units of electricity and magnetism have been adopted and named by representatives of the electrical
engineering institutes of the world, which units and names have been confirmed and legalized by the governments of
the United States and other countries. Thus the volt, from the Italian Volta, has been adopted as the practical unit of
electromotive force, the ohm, from the enunciator of Ohm's law, as the practical unit of resistance; the ampere, after
the eminent French scientist of that name, as the practical unit of current strength, the henry as the practical unit of
inductance, after Joseph Henry and in recognition of his early and important experimental work in mutual
induction.[143]
Dewar and John Ambrose Fleming predicted that at absolute zero, pure metals would become perfect
electromagnetic conductors (though, later, Dewar altered his opinion on the disappearance of resistance believing
that there would always be some resistance). Walther Hermann Nernst developed the third law of thermodynamics
and stated that absolute zero was unattainable. Carl von Linde and William Hampson, both commercial researchers,
nearly at the same time filed for patents on the Joule-Thomson effect. Linde's patent was the climax of 20 years of
systematic investigation of established facts, using a regenerative counterflow method. Hampson's design was also of
a regenerative method. The combined process became known as the Linde-Hampson liquefaction process. Heike
Kamerlingh Onnes purchased a Linde machine for his research. On March 21, 1900, Tesla was granted a US patent
for the means for increasing the intensity of electrical oscillations by lowering temperature, which was caused by
lowered resistance, a phenomenon previously observed by Olszewski and Wroblewski. Within this patent it
describes the increase intensity and duration of electric oscillations of a low temperature resonating circuit. It is
believed that Tesla had intended that Linde's machine would be used to attain the cooling agents. A milestone was
achieved on 10 July 1908 when Onnes at the Leiden University in Leiden produced, for the first time, liquified
helium and achieved superconductivity.
In 1900, William Du Bois Duddell develops the Singing Arc and produced melodic sounds, from a low to a
high-tones, from this arc lamp.
59
60
concepts like physical length contraction (1892) to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment, and the mathematical
concept of local time (1895) to explain the aberration of light and the Fizeau experiment. That resulted in the
formulation of the so called Lorentz transformation by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900) and Lorentz (1899,
1904).[144][145][146]
Continuing the work of Lorentz, Henri Poincar between 1895 and 1905
formulated on many occasions the Principle of Relativity and tried to
harmonize it with electrodynamics. He declared simultaneity only a
convenient convention which depends on the speed of light, whereby the
constancy of the speed of light would be a useful postulate for making the
laws of nature as simple as possible. In 1900 he interpreted Lorentz's local
time as the result of clock synchronization by light signals, and introduced the
electromagnetic momentum by ascribing to electromagnetic energy the
"fictitious" mass
. And finally in June and July 1905 he declared
the relativity principle a general law of nature, including gravitation. He
corrected some mistakes of Lorentz and proved the Lorentz covariance of the
electromagnetic equations. Poincar also found out that there exist
non-electrical forces to stabilize the electron configuration and asserted that
Henri Poincar
gravitation is a non-electrical force as well. So the electromagnetic world
view was shown by Poincar to be invalid. However, he remained the notion
of an ether and still distinguished between "apparent" and "real" time and therefore failed to invent what is now
called special relativity.[146][147][148][149][150][151]
His paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced the radical theory of special relativity, which
showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required
fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a
moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This
paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aetherone of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the
timewas superfluous. (Einstein 1905c)
In his paper on massenergy equivalence (previously considered to be distinct concepts), Einstein deduced from
his equations of special relativity what later became the well-known expression:
, suggesting that tiny
61
62
Electrodynamic tethers
Before the turn of the 20th to 21st century, the electrodynamic tether[202] being oriented at an angle to the local
vertical between the object and a planet with a magnetic field cut the Earth's magnetic field and generated a current;
thereby it converted some of the orbiting body's kinetic energy to electrical energy. The tether's far end can be left
bare, making electrical contact with the ionosphere, creating a generator. As part of a tether propulsion system, crafts
can use long, strong conductors[203] to change the orbits of spacecraft. It has the potential to make space travel
significantly cheaper. It is a simplified, very low-budget magnetic sail. It can be used either to accelerate or brake an
orbiting spacecraft. When direct current is pumped through the tether, it exerts a force against the magnetic field, and
the tether accelerates the spacecraft.
63
21st century
Electromagnetic technologies
There are a range of emerging energy technologies. By 2007, solid state micrometer-scale electric double-layer
capacitors based on advanced superionic conductors had been for low-voltage electronics such as deep-sub-voltage
nanoelectronics and related technologies (the 22nm technological node of CMOS and beyond). Also, the nanowire
battery, a lithium-ion battery, was invented by a team led by Dr. Yi Cui in 2007.
Magnetic resonance
Reflecting the fundamental importance and applicability of Magnetic resonance imaging[204] in medicine, Paul
Lauterbur of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Sir Peter Mansfield of the University of
Nottingham were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their "discoveries concerning
magnetic resonance imaging". The Nobel citation acknowledged Lauterbur's insight of using magnetic field
gradients to determine spatial localization, a discovery that allowed rapid acquisition of 2D images.
Wireless electricity
"Wireless electricity" describes a form of wireless energy transfer,[205] the ability to provide electrical energy to
remote objects without wires. The term WiTricity was coined in 2005 by Dave Gerding and later used for a project
led by Prof. Marin Soljai in 2007.[206][207] The MIT researchers successfully demonstrated the ability to power a
60 watt light bulb wirelessly, using two 5-turn copper coils of 60cm (24in) diameter, that were 2m (7ft) away, at
roughly 45% efficiency.[208] This technology can potentially be used in a large variety of applications, including
consumer, industrial, medical and military. Its aim is to reduce the dependence on batteries. Further applications for
this technology include transmission of informationit would not interfere with radio waves and thus could be used
as a cheap and efficient communication device without requiring a license or a government permit.
Unified Theories
As of 2010, there is still no hard evidence that nature is described by a Grand Unified Theory. Moreover, since the
Higgs particle has not yet been verified, the smaller electroweak unification is still pending.[209] The discovery of
neutrino oscillations indicates that the Standard Model is incomplete and has led to renewed interest toward certain
GUT such as
. One of the few possible experimental tests of certain GUT is proton decay and also fermion
masses. There are a few more special tests for supersymmetric GUT. The gauge coupling strengths of QCD, the
weak interaction and hypercharge seem to meet at a common length scale called the GUT scale and equal
approximately to
GeV, which is slightly suggestive. This interesting numerical observation is called the gauge
coupling unification, and it works particularly well if one assumes the existence of superpartners of the Standard
Model particles. Still it is possible to achieve the same by postulating, for instance, that ordinary (non
supersymmetric)
models break with an intermediate gauge scale, such as the one of Pati-Salam group.
The Theory of Everything (TOE) is a putative theory of theoretical physics that fully explains and links together all
known physical phenomena, and, ideally, has predictive power for the outcome of any experiment that could be
carried out in principle. M-Theory is not yet complete, but the underlying structure of the mathematics has been
established and is in agreement with not only all the string theories, but with all of our scientific observations of the
universe. Furthermore, it has passed many tests of internal mathematical consistency that many other attempts to
combine quantum mechanics and gravity had failed. Unfortunately, until we can find some way to observe higher
dimensions (impossible with our current level of technology) M-Theory has a very difficult time making predictions
which can be tested in a laboratory. Technologically, it may never be possible for it to be "proven". Physicist and
author Michio Kaku has remarked that M-Theory may present us with a "Theory of Everything" which is so concise
that its underlying formula would fit on a t-shirt.[210] Stephen Hawking originally believed that M-Theory may be
64
Open problems
The magnetic monopole[212] in the quantum theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul
A.M. Dirac in 1931.[213] The detection of magnetic monopoles is an open problem in experimental physics. In some
theoretical models, magnetic monopoles are unlikely to be observed, because they are too massive to be created in
particle accelerators, and also too rare in the Universe to enter a particle detector with much probability.
After more than twenty years of intensive research the origin of high-temperature superconductivity is still not clear,
but it seems that instead of electron-phonon attraction mechanisms, as in conventional superconductivity, one is
dealing with genuine electronic mechanisms (e.g. by antiferromagnetic correlations), and instead of s-wave pairing,
d-wave pairings[214] are substantial.[215] One goal of all this research is room-temperature superconductivity.[216]
References
Citations and notes
[1] Bruno Kolbe, Francis ed Legge, Joseph Skellon, tr., " An Introduction to Electricity (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?vid=0o90G64Z2FDIyKUsLs9& id=150IAAAAIAAJ)". Kegan Paul, Trench, Trbner, 1908. 429 pages. Page 391 (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=150IAAAAIAAJ& printsec=titlepage& cad=0#PPA391,M1). (cf., "[...] high poles covered with copper plates and
with gilded tops were erected 'to break the stones coming from on high'. J. Dmichen, Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels, Strassburg,
1877")
[2] Urbanitzky, A. v., & Wormell, R. (1886). Electricity in the service of man: a popular and practical treatise on the applications of electricity in
modern life (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rkgOAAAAYAAJ). London: Cassell &.
[3] Lyons, T. A. (1901). A treatise on electromagnetic phenomena, and on the compass and its deviations aboard ship. Mathematical, theoretical,
and practical. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.
[4] The Encyclopaedia Britannica; a dictionary of arts, sciences and general literature. (1890). New York: The Henry G. Allen Company.
[5] Whittaker, E. T. (1910). A history of the theories of aether and electricity from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century.
Dublin University Press series. London: Longmans, Green and Co.; [etc.].
[6] Carlson, John B. (1975) "Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy?: Multidisciplinary analysis of an Olmec hematite artifact from San
Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico", Science, 189 (4205 : 5 September), p. 753-760, doi:10.1126/science.189.4205.753. p. 753760
[7] Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy?: Multidisciplinary analysis of an Olmec hematite artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz,
Mexico - Carlson 189 (4205): 753 - Science (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 189/ 4205/ 753)
[8] Li Shu-hua, p. 175
[9] If there was another substance, having the same attractive quality as the amber, was known to the ancients, it was probably jet a species of
lignite resembling cannel coal, but harder and susceptible of a high polish. It does not seem possible, however, to resolve that doubt, owing to
the many kinds of coal and other fossil deposits which not only old writers but even modern commentators constantly confuse. Theophrastus
speaks of a material which is plainly anthracite coal and Pliny (xxxvi. 18), of the Gagates, his description of which answers generally to that of
jet; but neither author mentions any phenomenon similar to that of the amber as pertaining to it. Later writers apply the word "gagates" to
almost any black bituminous material, though they commonly mean "jet" by the term. Leonardus regards the gagate as another species of
amber "black amber" in contradistinction to yellow and he describes it as "black, light, dry and lucid, not transparent and if put into fire
has, as it were, the smell of pitch. Being heated with rubbing it attracts straws and chaff." Marbodeus gives almost the same account and states
that it is found in Britain, where it is still obtained in the tertiary clays along the Yorkshire coast. This unfortunate confusion of yellow amber
and jet, probably first due to Leonardus, has rendered it impossible to tell, from the references to amber attraction by the writers of the 16th
and even of the 17th century, which substance is meant. It appears not at all unlikely that the English were then much more familiar with the
attraction of jet than they were with that of amber.
[10] The Phoenicians have transmitted to us in their romantic language the story that the pieces of Amber sometimes washed up by the waves of
the ocean were the petrified tears of maidens, who, disappointed in love, had cast themselves into the arms of Mother Ocean and had after
years returned like Galatea to their original source.
[11] Barrett, J. P. (1894). Electricity at the Columbian Exposition, including an account of the exhibits in the Electricity Building, the power plant
in Machinery Hall, the arc and incandescent lighting of the grounds and buildings (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lF5KAAAAMAAJ)
... etc. Chicago: R.R. Donnelley. Page 4
[12] Benjamin, P. (1898). A history of electricity (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin. New York:
J. Wiley & Sons.
[13] Maver, William Jr.: "Electricity, its History and Progress", The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge, vol. X, pp.172ff
(http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ encyclopediaame21unkngoog#page/ n210/ mode/ 1up). (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana
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Bibliography
Bakewell, F. C. (1853). Electric science; its history, phenomena, and applications (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Lks1AAAAMAAJ). London: Ingram, Cooke.
Benjamin, P. (1898). A history of electricity (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of
Benjamin Franklin (http://books.google.com/books?id=VLsKAAAAIAAJ). New York: J. Wiley & Sons.
Darrigol, Olivier (2005), "The Genesis of the theory of relativity" (http://www.bourbaphy.fr/darrigol2.pdf)
(PDF), Sminaire Poincar 1: 122, retrieved 2009-06-21
Durgin, W. A. (1912). Electricity, its history and development (http://books.google.com/
books?id=hQtJAAAAIAAJ). Chicago: A.C. McClurg.
Einstein, Albert: "Ether and the Theory of Relativity" (1920), republished in Sidelights on Relativity (Dover, NY,
1922).
Einstein, Albert, The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields (http://www.worldscibooks.com/
phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf), 1895. (PDF format)
71
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73
Lorentz force
74
Lorentz force
In physics, particularly electromagnetism, the Lorentz
force is the force on a point charge due to
electromagnetic fields. If a particle of charge q moves
with velocity v in the presence of an electric field E
and a magnetic field B, then it will experience a force
where is the vector cross product. All boldface quantities are vectors. More explicitly stated:
in which r is the position vector of the charged particle, t is time, and the overdot is a time derivative.
A positively charged particle will be accelerated in the same linear orientation as the E field, but will curve
perpendicularly to both the instantaneous velocity vector v and the B field according to the right-hand rule (in detail,
if the thumb of the right hand points along v and the index finger along B, then the middle finger points along F).
The term qE is called the electric force, while the term qv B is called the magnetic force.[4] According to some
definitions, the term "Lorentz force" refers specifically to the formula for the magnetic force,[5] with the total
Lorentz force
electromagnetic force (including the electric force) given some other (nonstandard) name. This article will not follow
this nomenclature: In what follows, the term "Lorentz force" will refer only to the expression for the total force.
The magnetic force component of the Lorentz force manifests itself as the force that acts on a current-carrying wire
in a magnetic field. In that context, it is also called the Laplace force.
where dF is the force on a small piece of the charge distribution with charge dq. If both sides of this equation are
divided by the volume of this small piece of the charge distribution dV, the result is:
where f is the force density (force per unit volume) and is the charge density (charge per unit volume). Next, the
current density corresponding to the motion of the charge continuum is
so the continuous analogue to the equation is[6]
The total force is the volume integral over the charge distribution:
By eliminating and J, using Maxwell's equations, and manipulating using the theorems of vector calculus, this
form of the equation can be used to derive the Maxwell stress tensor T, used in General relativity.[6]
In terms of the tensor field T and the Poynting vector S, another way to write the Lorentz force (per unit volume)
is[6]
where c is the speed of light and denotes the divergence of a tensor field. Rather than the amount of charge and its
velocity in electric and magnetic fields, this equation relates the energy flux (flow of energy per unit time per unit
distance) in the fields to the force exerted on a charge distribution.
History
Early attempts to quantitatively describe the electromagnetic force were made in the mid-18th century. It was
proposed that the force on magnetic poles, by Johann Tobias Mayer and others in 1760, and electrically charged
objects, by Henry Cavendish in 1762, obeyed an inverse-square law. However, in both cases the experimental proof
was neither complete nor conclusive. It was not until 1784 when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, using a torsion
balance, was able to definitively show through experiment that this was true.[7] Soon after the discovery in 1820 by
H. C. rsted that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current, Andr-Marie Ampre that same year was able to
devise through experimentation the formula for the angular dependence of the force between two current
elements.[8][9] In all these descriptions, the force was always given in terms of the properties of the objects involved
and the distances between them rather than in terms of electric and magnetic fields.[10]
The modern concept of electric and magnetic fields first arose in the theories of Michael Faraday, particularly his
idea of lines of force, later to be given full mathematical description by Lord Kelvin and James Clerk Maxwell.[11]
From a modern perspective it is possible to identify in Maxwell's 1865 formulation of his field equations a form of
the Lorentz force equation in relation to electric currents,[2] however, in the time of Maxwell it was not evident how
75
Lorentz force
his equations related to the forces on moving charged objects. J. J. Thomson was the first to attempt to derive from
Maxwell's field equations the electromagnetic forces on a moving charged object in terms of the object's properties
and external fields. Interested in determining the electromagnetic behavior of the charged particles in cathode rays,
Thomson published a paper in 1881 wherein he gave the force on the particles due to an external magnetic field as[1]
Thomson derived the correct basic form of the formula, but, because of some miscalculations and an incomplete
description of the displacement current, included an incorrect scale-factor of a half in front of the formula. It was
Oliver Heaviside, who had invented the modern vector notation and applied them to Maxwell's field equations, that
in 1885 and 1889 fixed the mistakes of Thomson's derivation and arrived at the correct form of the magnetic force on
a moving charged object.[1][12][13] Finally, in 1892, Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern day form of the formula for
the electromagnetic force which includes the contributions to the total force from both the electric and the magnetic
fields. Lorentz began by abandoning the Maxwellian descriptions of the ether and conduction. Instead, Lorentz made
a distinction between matter and the luminiferous aether and sought to apply the Maxwell equations at a microscopic
scale. Using the Heaviside's version of the Maxwell equations for a stationary ether and applying Lagrangian
mechanics (see below), Lorentz arrived at the correct and complete form of the force law that now bears his
name.[14][15]
76
Lorentz force
77
In real materials the Lorentz force is inadequate to describe the behavior of charged particles, both in principle and as
a matter of computation. The charged particles in a material medium both respond to the E and B fields and generate
these fields. Complex transport equations must be solved to determine the time and spatial response of charges, for
example, the Boltzmann equation or the FokkerPlanck equation or the NavierStokes equations. For example, see
magnetohydrodynamics, fluid dynamics, electrohydrodynamics, superconductivity, stellar evolution. An entire
physical apparatus for dealing with these matters has developed. See for example, GreenKubo relations and Green's
function (many-body theory).
If this empirical statement is valid (countless experiments have shown that it is), then two vector fields E and B are
thereby defined throughout space and time, and these are called the "electric field" and "magnetic field". Note that
the fields are defined everywhere in space and time with respect to what force a test charge would receive regardless
of whether a charge is present to experience the force.
Note also that as a definition of E and B, the Lorentz force is only a definition in principle because a real particle (as
opposed to the hypothetical "test charge" of infinitesimally-small mass and charge) would generate its own finite E
and B fields, which would alter the electromagnetic force that it experiences. In addition, if the charge experiences
acceleration, as if forced into a curved trajectory by some external agency, it emits radiation that causes braking of
its motion. See for example Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron light. These effects occur through both a direct effect
(called the radiation reaction force) and indirectly (by affecting the motion of nearby charges and currents).
Moreover, net force must include gravity, electroweak, and any other forces aside from electromagnetic force.
Lorentz force
This is the net force. In addition, there will usually be torque, plus other effects if the wire is not perfectly rigid.
One application of this is Ampre's force law, which describes how two current-carrying wires can attract or repel
each other, since each experiences a Lorentz force from the other's magnetic field. For more information, see the
article: Ampre's force law.
EMF
The magnetic force (q v B) component of the Lorentz force is responsible for motional electromotive force (or
motional EMF), the phenomenon underlying many electrical generators. When a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field, the magnetic force tries to push electrons through the wire, and this creates the EMF. The term
"motional EMF" is applied to this phenomenon, since the EMF is due to the motion of the wire.
In other electrical generators, the magnets move, while the conductors do not. In this case, the EMF is due to the
electric force (qE) term in the Lorentz Force equation. The electric field in question is created by the changing
magnetic field, resulting in an induced EMF, as described by the Maxwell-Faraday equation (one of the four modern
Maxwell's equations).[18]
Both of these EMF's, despite their different origins, can be described by the same equation, namely, the EMF is the
rate of change of magnetic flux through the wire. (This is Faraday's law of induction, see above.) Einstein's theory of
special relativity was partially motivated by the desire to better understand this link between the two effects.[18] In
fact, the electric and magnetic fields are different faces of the same electromagnetic field, and in moving from one
inertial frame to another, the solenoidal vector field portion of the E-field can change in whole or in part to a B-field
or vice versa.[19]
where
is the magnetic flux through the loop, B is the magnetic field, (t) is a surface bounded by the closed contour (t),
at all at time t, dA is an infinitesimal vector area element of (t) (magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal patch of
surface, direction is orthogonal to that surface patch).
The sign of the EMF is determined by Lenz's law. Note that this is valid for not only a stationary wire but also for
a moving wire.
From Faraday's law of induction (that is valid for a moving wire, for instance in a motor) and the Maxwell
Equations, the Lorentz Force can be deduced. The reverse is also true, the Lorentz force and the Maxwell Equations
can be used to derive the Faraday Law.
Let (t) be the moving wire, moving together without rotation and with constant velocity v and (t) be the internal
surface of the wire. The EMF around the closed path (t) is given by:[20]
where
is the electric field and d is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour (t).
78
Lorentz force
NB: Both d and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right-hand rule is used, as explained in the
article Kelvin-Stokes theorem.
The above result can be compared with the version of Faraday's law of induction that appears in the modern
Maxwell's equations, called here the Maxwell-Faraday equation:
The Maxwell-Faraday equation also can be written in an integral form using the Kelvin-Stokes theorem:.[21]
So we have, the Maxwell Faraday equation:
The two are equivalent if the wire is not moving. Using the Leibniz integral rule and that div B = 0, results in,
Faraday's law of induction holds whether the loop of wire is rigid and stationary, or in motion or in process of
deformation, and it holds whether the magnetic field is constant in time or changing. However, there are cases where
Faraday's law is either inadequate or difficult to use, and application of the underlying Lorentz force law is
necessary. See inapplicability of Faraday's law.
If the magnetic field is fixed in time and the conducting loop moves through the field, the magnetic flux B linking
the loop can change in several ways. For example, if the B-field varies with position, and the loop moves to a
location with different B-field, B will change. Alternatively, if the loop changes orientation with respect to the
B-field, the B dA differential element will change because of the different angle between B and dA, also changing
B. As a third example, if a portion of the circuit is swept through a uniform, time-independent B-field, and another
portion of the circuit is held stationary, the flux linking the entire closed circuit can change due to the shift in relative
position of the circuit's component parts with time (surface (t) time-dependent). In all three cases, Faraday's law
of induction then predicts the EMF generated by the change in B.
Note that the Maxwell Faraday's equation implies that the Electric Field E is non conservative when the Magnetic
Field B varies in time, and is not expressible as the gradient of a scalar field, and not subject to the gradient theorem
since its rotational is not zero. See also.[20][22]
79
Lorentz force
80
where A and are the potential fields as above. Using Lagrange's equations, the equation for the Lorentz force can
be obtained.
Derivation of Lorentz force (SI units)
For an A field, a particle moving with velocity v = has potential momentum
particle's potential energy is
Lorentz force
81
and similarly for the y and z directions. Hence the force equation is:
The potential energy depends on the velocity of the particle, so the force is velocity dependent, so it is not
conservative.
where c is the speed of light. Although this equation looks slightly different, it is completely equivalent, since one
has the following relations:
where 0 is the vacuum permittivity and 0 the vacuum permeability. In practice, the subscripts "cgs" and "SI" are
always omitted, and the unit system has to be assessed from context.
and
is a space-time plane (bivector), which has six degrees of freedom corresponding to boosts (rotations in
space-time planes) and rotations (rotations in space-space planes). The dot product with the vector
pulls a vector
from the translational part, while the wedge-product creates a space-time trivector, whose dot product with the
volume element (the dual above) creates the magnetic field vector from the spatial rotation part. Only the parts of the
above two formulas perpendicular to gamma are relevant. The relativistic velocity is given by the (time-like) changes
in a time-position vector , where
Lorentz force
82
(which shows our choice for the metric) and the velocity is
Then the Lorentz force law is simply (note that the order is important)
where
The fields are transformed to a frame moving with constant relative velocity by:
where is the Lorentz transformation tensor.
The calculation for = 2, 3 (force components in the y and z directions) yields similar results, so collecting the 3
equations into one:
Lorentz force
83
Applications
The Lorentz force occurs in many devices, including:
In its manifestation as the Laplace force on an electric current in a conductor, this force occurs in many devices
including:
Electric motors
Railguns
Linear motors
Loudspeakers
Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters
Electrical generators
Homopolar generators
Linear alternators
Footnotes
[1] Oliver Heaviside By Paul J. Nahin, p120 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=e9wEntQmA0IC& pg=PA120)
[2] Huray, Paul G. (2009). Maxwell's Equations (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0QsDgdd0MhMC& pg=PA22#v=onepage& q& f=false).
Wiley-IEEE. p.22. ISBN0-470-54276-4. .
[3] See Jackson page 2. The book lists the four modern Maxwell's equations, and then states, "Also essential for consideration of charged particle
motion is the Lorentz force equation, F = q ( E+ v B ), which gives the force acting on a point charge q in the presence of electromagnetic
fields."
[4] See Griffiths page 204.
[5] For example, see the website of the "Lorentz Institute": \ (http:/ / ilorentz. org/ history/ lorentz/ lorentz. html), or Griffiths.
[6] Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics. reprint. with corr. (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ [u.a.]: Prentice Hall.
ISBN9780138053260.
[7] Meyer, Herbert W. (1972). A History of Electricity and Magnetism. Norwalk, CT: Burndy Library. pp.3031. ISBN0-262-13070-X.
[8] Verschuur, Gerrit L. (1993). Hidden Attraction : The History And Mystery Of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.7879.
ISBN0-19-506488-7.
[9] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp.9, 25.
ISBN0-19-850593-0
[10] Verschuur, Gerrit L. (1993). Hidden Attraction : The History And Mystery Of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University Press. p.76.
ISBN0-19-506488-7.
[11] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp.126131, 139144.
ISBN0-19-850593-0
[12] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp.200, 429430.
ISBN0-19-850593-0
[13] Heaviside, Oliver. "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/
wiki/ Motion_of_Electrification_through_a_Dielectric). Philosophical Magazine, April 1889, p. 324. .
[14] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. p.327.
ISBN0-19-850593-0
[15] Whittaker, E. T. (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: From the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth
Century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CGJDAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false). Longmans, Green and
Co.. pp.420423. ISBN1-143-01208-9. .
[16] See Griffiths page 326, which states that Maxwell's equations, "together with the [Lorentz] force law...summarize the entire theoretical
content of classical electrodynamics".
[17] See, for example, Jackson p777-8.
[18] See Griffiths pages 3013.
[19] Tai L. Chow (2006). Electromagnetic theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dpnpMhw1zo8C& pg=PA153& dq=isbn=0763738271).
Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett. p.395. ISBN0-7637-3827-1. .
[20] Landau, L. D., Lifshits, E. M., & Pitaevski, L. P. (1984). Electrodynamics of continuous media; Volume 8 [[Course of Theoretical
Physics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ search?q=0750626348& qt=owc_search)]] (Second ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p.63 (49 pp.
205207 in 1960 edition). ISBN0-7506-2634-8. .
Lorentz force
[21] Roger F Harrington (2003). Introduction to electromagnetic engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZlC2EV8zvX8C& pg=PA57&
dq="faraday's+ law+ of+ induction"). Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. p.56. ISBN0-486-43241-6. .
[22] M N O Sadiku (2007). Elements of elctromagnetics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=w2ITHQAACAAJ& dq=isbn:0-19-530048-3) (Fourth
ed.). NY/Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.391. ISBN0-19-530048-3. .
[23] Classical Mechanics (2nd Edition), T.W.B. Kibble, European Physics Series, Mc Graw Hill (UK), 1973, ISBN 07-084018-0.
[24] Hestenes, David. "SpaceTime Calculus" (http:/ / geocalc. clas. asu. edu/ html/ STC. html). .
References
The numbered references refer in part to the list immediately below.
Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew L. (2006). The Feynman lectures on physics (3
vol.). Pearson / Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-8053-9047-2: volume 2.
Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, [NJ.]: Prentice-Hall.
ISBN0-13-805326-X
Jackson, John David (1999). Classical electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York, [NY.]: Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X
Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W., Jr. (2004). Physics for scientists and engineers, with modern physics.
Belmont, [CA.]: Thomson Brooks/Cole. ISBN0-534-40846-X
Srednicki, Mark A. (2007). Quantum field theory (http://books.google.com/?id=5OepxIG42B4C&
pg=PA315&dq=isbn=9780521864497). Cambridge, [England] ; New York [NY.]: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN978-0-521-86449-7
External links
Interactive Java tutorial on the Lorentz force (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/
lorentzforce/index.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Lorentz force (demonstration) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxMMqNrm598)
Faraday's law: Tankersley and Mosca (http://www.nadn.navy.mil/Users/physics/tank/Public/FaradaysLaw.
pdf)
Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.
gsu.edu/HBASE/hframe.html); see also home page (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/hframe.
html)
Interactive Java applet on the magnetic deflection of a particle beam in a homogeneous magnetic field (http://
chair.pa.msu.edu/applets/Lorentz/a.htm) by Wolfgang Bauer
84
Magnet
85
Magnet
A magnet (from Greek magntis lthos, "Magnesian
stone") is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This
magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable
property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic
materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.
A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is
magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday
example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator
door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are
strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or
ferrimagnetic). These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare
earth metals, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone.
Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones
attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered
magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by
one of several other types of magnetism.
Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft"
materials like annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend
to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which do.
Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such
as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special processing in a
powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal
microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To
demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be
applied, and this threshold depends on coercivity of the respective
material. "Hard" materials have high coercivity, whereas "soft"
materials have low coercivity.
Magnet
86
Magnetic moment
A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment and
usually denoted ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall
magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic
moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north pole,[7] and the
magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In
SI units, the magnetic moment is specified in terms of Am2.
A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and responds to magnetic fields. The strength of the magnetic field it
produces is at any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the magnet is
put into an external magnetic field, produced by a different source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the
magnetic moment parallel to the field.[8] The amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and
the external field. A magnet may also be subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the
positions and orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space, the magnet is subject to no net
force, although it is subject to a torque.[9]
A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a magnet, with a magnetic moment of magnitude
equal to IA.
Magnetization
The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume, usually
denoted M, with units A/m.[10] It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment), because
different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different directions and strengths (for example, because of
domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1Am2 and a volume of
1cm3, or 1106m3, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000A/m. Iron can have a
magnetization of around a million amperes per meter. Such a large value explains why iron magnets are so effective
at producing magnetic fields.
Magnet
Modelling magnets
Two different models exist for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic
currents.
Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as
having distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles
should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two
different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct north or
south particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet is broken into two
pieces, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the result
will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and south
Field of a cylindrical bar magnet calculated with
pole. However, a version of the magnetic-pole approach is used by
Ampre's model
professional magneticians to design permanent magnets. In this
approach, the divergence of the magnetization M inside a magnet and the surface normal component Mn are
treated as a distribution of magnetic monopoles. This is a mathematical convenience and does not imply that there
are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-pole distribution is known, then the pole model gives the
magnetic field H. Outside the magnet, the field B is proportional to H, while inside the magnetization must be added
to H. An extension of this method that allows for internal magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism.
Another model is the Ampre model, where all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular
bound currents, also called Amprian currents, throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized cylindrical bar
magnet, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic
sheet of electric current flowing around the surface, with local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis.[11]
Microscopic currents in atoms inside the material are generally canceled by currents in neighboring atoms, so only
the surface makes a net contribution; shaving off the outer layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, but
will leave a new surface of uncancelled currents from the circular currents throughout the material.[12] The
right-hand rule tells which direction the current flows.
Magnetic materials
The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent magnetic field even in the
absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of materials can do this. Most materials, however, produce
a magnetic field in response to an applied magnetic field; a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several
types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them.
The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, particularly
on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials,
including:
Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic; they are attracted to a
magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are the only ones that can retain
87
Magnet
88
magnetization and become magnets; a common example is a traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic
materials, which include ferrites and the oldest magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar to but
weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their
microscopic structure, as explained in Magnetism.
Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen, are weakly attracted to either pole of a
magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of ferromagnetic materials, so it can
only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although
they are made of tiny ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since
they cannot be magnetized.
Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances,
diamagnetic substances, such as carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet.
The permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of a vacuum. All substances not
possessing one of the other types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on
a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting
magnets, diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even mice[17] can be levitated, so they float in mid-air.
Superconductors repel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly diamagnetic.
There are various other types of magnetism, such as spin glass, superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and
metamagnetism.
Magnet
Electric guitars use magnetic pickups to transduce the vibration of guitar strings into electric current that can then
be amplified. This is different from the principle behind the speaker and dynamic microphone because the
vibrations are sensed directly by the magnet, and a diaphragm is not employed. The Hammond organ used a
similar principle, with rotating tonewheels instead of strings.
Electric motors and generators: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an electromagnet and a
permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert electric energy into mechanical energy. A generator
is the reverse: it converts mechanical energy into electric energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field.
Medicine: Hospitals use magnetic resonance imaging to spot problems in a patient's organs without invasive
surgery.
Chucks are used in the metalworking field to hold objects. Magnets are also used in other types of fastening
devices, such as the magnetic base, the magnetic clamp and the refrigerator magnet.
Compasses: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself with a magnetic field,
most commonly Earth's magnetic field.
Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other ornamental articles, allowing them
to be attached to refrigerators and other metal surfaces. Objects and paint can be applied directly to the magnet
surface to create collage pieces of art. Magnetic art is portable, inexpensive and easy to create. Vinyl magnetic art
is not for the refrigerator anymore. Colorful metal magnetic boards, strips, doors, microwave ovens, dishwashers,
cars, metal I beams, and any metal surface can be receptive of magnetic vinyl art. Being a relatively new media
for art, the creative uses for this material is just beginning.
Science projects: Many topic questions are based on magnets. For example: how is the strength of a magnet
affected by glass, plastic, and cardboard?
Toys: Given their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close
range, magnets are often employed in children's toys, such as the
Magnet Space Wheel and Levitron, to amusing effect.
Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can
have a magnetic clasp, or may be constructed entirely from a linked
series of magnets and ferrous beads.
Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks,
paper clips) that are either too small, too hard to reach, or too thin
for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for this
purpose.
Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate
Magnets have many uses in toys. M-tic uses
magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals
magnetic rods connected to metal spheres for
(aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in
construction. Note the geodesic pyramid
the so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with
a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty.
Magnetic levitation transport, or maglev, is a form of transportation that suspends, guides and propels vehicles
(especially trains) through electromagnetic force. The maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is 581
kilometers per hour (unknown operator: u'strong'mph).
Magnets may be used to serve as a fail-safe device for some cable connections. For example, the power cords of
some laptops are magnetic to prevent accidental damage to the port when tripped over. The MagSafe power
connection to the Apple MacBook is one such example.
89
Magnet
Magnetizing ferromagnets
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:
Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field and hammering it as it
cools. This is the most effective method and is similar to the industrial processes used to create permanent
magnets.
Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the magnetism on removal.
Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the Earth's magnetic field that are
subject to vibration (e.g., frame of a conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism.
Stroking: An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly in the same direction.
Demagnetizing ferromagnets
Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:
Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the alignment of the magnetic
domains. This always removes all magnetization.
Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the material's coercivity and then either
slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in
commercial demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks and degaussing coils used
to demagnetize CRTs.
Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the magnet is subjected to a reverse field
above the magnetic material's coercivity.
Demagnetisation progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields sufficient to move the magnet
away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B-H curve of the magnetic material (the demagnetisation
curve).
Hammering or jarring: the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic domains. This will leave
some residual magnetization.
90
Magnet
Composites
Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium
carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or
non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic components such as radio antennas, for example) of
various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but brittle and must be treated
like other ceramics.
Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small
amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical
characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico
magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a
metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax, and Ticonal.[23]
Injection-molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders, allowing parts of
complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the product
depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble plastics in their physical
properties.
Flexible magnets are similar to injection-molded magnets, using a flexible resin or binder such as vinyl, and
produced in flat strips, shapes or sheets. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible,
depending on the binder used. Flexible magnets can be used in industrial printers.
91
Magnet
Rare-earth magnets
Rare earth (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f electron shell (which can accommodate up to 14
electrons). The spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields, and therefore, these
elements are used in compact high-strength magnets where their higher price is not a concern. The most common
types of rare-earth magnets are samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets.
Nano-structured magnets
Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves, called magnons, that coalesce into a common ground state in
the manner of a Bose-Einstein condensate.[24][25]
Costs
The current cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are flexible and ceramic magnets, but these
are also among the weakest types. The ferrite magnets are mainly low-cost magnets since they are made from cheap
raw materials- iron oxide and Ba- or Sr-carbonate. However, a new low cost magnet- Mn-Al alloy has been
developed and is now dominating the low-cost magnets field. It has a higher saturation magnetization than the ferrite
magnets. It also has more favorable temperature coefficients, although it can be thermally unstable.
Neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest. These cost more per kilogram than most other
magnetic materials but, owing to their intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many applications.[26]
Temperature
Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature known as the Curie point, it loses all of
its magnetism, even after cooling below that temperature. The magnets can often be remagnetized, however.
Additionally, some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures.
The maximum usable temperature is highest for alnico magnets at over 540 C (unknown operator: u'strong'F),
around 300 C (unknown operator: u'strong'F) for ferrite and SmCo, about 140 C (unknown operator:
u'strong'F) for NIB and lower for flexible ceramics, but the exact numbers depend on the grade of material.
92
Magnet
Electromagnets
An electromagnet, in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more loops, known as a solenoid.
When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near (and especially
inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those of a magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is
determined by the right hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are
proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through the
wire.[27]
If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to
generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then
the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength.
Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors, junkyard cranes, and magnetic resonance
imaging machines. Some applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic dipole; for example,
quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used to focus particle beams.
93
Magnet
94
m for magnetic moment. For pole strength, we will employ qm. For a bar magnet of cross-section A with uniform
magnetization M along its axis, the pole strength is given by qm= MA, so that M can be thought of as a pole strength
per unit area.
Fields of a magnet
Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost always described (to a good
approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true regardless of the shape of
the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of
the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet's center.
Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and
magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a
quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc.
At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at
one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the
distance from that pole.
where
F is force (SI unit: newton)
qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere-meter)
is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: tesla meter per ampere, henry per meter or newton
per ampere squared)
r is the separation (SI unit: meter).
The pole description is useful to the engineers designing real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole
distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In
some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will be more useful.
Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A
The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following equation. The
equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the volume of the air gap is much
smaller than that of the magnetized material:[29][30]
where:
A is the area of each surface, in m2
H is their magnetizing field, in A/m
0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4107Tm/A
B is the flux density, in T.
Magnet
95
where:
B0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T,
A is the area of each pole, in m2,
L is the length of each magnet, in m,
R is the radius of each magnet, in m, and
x is the separation between the two magnets, in m.
relates the flux density at the pole to the magnetization of the magnet.
Note that all these formulations are based on Gilbert's model, which is usable in relatively great distances. In other
models (e.g., Ampre's model), a more complicated formulation is used that sometimes cannot be solved
analytically. In these cases, numerical methods must be used.
Force between two cylindrical magnets
For two cylindrical magnets with radius
and height
where
[31]
) by,
statement in the previous section, a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet
to
is related
by the formula
Where
When
which matches the expression of the force between two magnetic dipoles.
Notes
[1] Fowler, Michael (1997). "Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" (http:/ / galileoandeinstein. physics. virginia. edu/
more_stuff/ E& M_Hist. html). . Retrieved 2008-04-02.
[2] Vowles, Hugh P. (1932). "Early Evolution of Power Engineering". Isis 17 (2): 412420 [41920]. doi:10.1086/346662.
[3] Li Shu-hua (1954). "Origine de la Boussole II. Aimant et Boussole". Isis 45 (2): 175. JSTOR227361.
[4] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS., CHAP. 42.THE METAL CALLED
LIVE IRON (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 02. 0137:book=34:chapter=42& highlight=magnet).
Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved on 2011-05-17.
[5] Schmidl, Petra G. (19961997). "Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass" (http:/ / www. lancs. ac. uk/ jais/ volume/ docs/
vol1/ 1_081-132schmidl2. pdf). Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies 1: 81132. .
[6] Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp.2558. ISBN0-13-805326-X. OCLC40251748.
[7] Knight, Jones, & Field, "College Physics" (2007) p. 815
Magnet
[8] B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC& pg=PA103) (2
ed.). Wiley-IEEE Press. p.103. ISBN0-471-47741-9. .
[9] Boyer, Timothy H. (1988). "The Force on a Magnetic Dipole". American Journal of Physics 56 (8): 688692.
Bibcode1988AmJPh..56..688B. doi:10.1119/1.15501.
[10] "Units for Magnetic Properties" (http:/ / www. magneticmicrosphere. com/ resources/ Units_for_Magnetic_Properties. pdf). Lake Shore
Cryotronics, Inc.. . Retrieved 2009-10-24.
[11] Zachariah Allen (1852). Philosophy of the Mechanics of Nature, and the Source and Modes of Action of Natural Motive-Power (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=EpUIAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA252). D. Appleton and Company. p.252. .
[12] Wayne M. Saslow (2002). Electricity, Magnetism, and Light (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4liwlxqt9NIC& pg=PA426) (3rd ed.).
Academic Press. p.426. ISBN978-0-12-619455-5. .
[13] Serway, Raymond A.; Chris Vuille (2006). Essentials of college physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8n4NCyRgUMEC&
pg=PA493). USA: Cengage Learning. p.493. ISBN0-495-10619-4. .
[14] Emiliani, Cesare (1992). Planet Earth: Cosmology, Geology, and the Evolution of Life and Environment (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MfAGpVq8gpQC& pg=PA228). UK: Cambridge University Press. p.228. ISBN0-521-40949-7. .
[15] Manners, Joy (2000). Static Fields and Potentials (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vJyqbRPsXYQC& pg=PA148). USA: CRC Press.
p.148. ISBN0-7503-0718-8. .
[16] Nave, Carl R. (2010). "Bar Magnet" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ hframe. html). Hyperphysics. Dept. of Physics and
Astronomy, Georgia State Univ.. . Retrieved 2011-04-10.
[17] Mice levitated in NASA lab (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ animals/ 090909-mouse-levitation. html). Livescience.com (2009-09-09).
Retrieved on 2011-10-08.
[18] Mallinson, John C. (1987). The foundations of magnetic recording (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN0-12-466626-4.
[19] "The stripe on a credit card" (http:/ / money. howstuffworks. com/ personal-finance/ debt-management/ credit-card2. htm). How Stuff Works.
. Retrieved July 2011.
[20] "Electromagnetic deflection in a cathode ray tube, I" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ cathoderaytube/ index.
html). National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. . Retrieved July 2011.
[21] Schenck JF (2000). "Safety of strong, static magnetic fields". J Magn Reson Imaging 12 (1): 219.
doi:10.1002/1522-2586(200007)12:1<2::AID-JMRI2>3.0.CO;2-V. PMID10931560.
[22] Oestreich AE (2008). "Worldwide survey of damage from swallowing multiple magnets". Pediatr Radiol 39 (2): 142.
doi:10.1007/s00247-008-1059-7. PMID19020871.
[23] Brady, George Stuart; Henry R. Clauser & John A. Vaccari (2002). Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC& pg=PA577). McGraw-Hill Professional. p.577. ISBN0-07-136076-X. .
[24] "Nanomagnets Bend The Rules" (http:/ / www. spacedaily. com/ news/ nanotech-05zm. html). . Retrieved November 14, 2005.
[25] Della Torre, E.; Bennett, L.; Watson, R. (2005). "Extension of the Bloch T3/2 Law to Magnetic Nanostructures: Bose-Einstein
Condensation". Physical Review Letters 94 (14): 147210. Bibcode2005PhRvL..94n7210D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.147210.
[26] Frequently Asked Questions (http:/ / www. magnetsales. com/ Design/ FAQs_frames/ FAQs_3. htm#howrated). Magnet sales. Retrieved on
2011-10-08.
[27] Ruskell, Todd; Tipler, Paul A. ; Mosca, Gene (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6 ed.). Macmillan. ISBN1-4292-0410-9.
[28] "Basic Relationships" (http:/ / geophysics. ou. edu/ solid_earth/ notes/ mag_basic/ mag_basic. html). Geophysics.ou.edu. . Retrieved
2009-10-19.
[29] "Magnetic Fields and Forces" (http:/ / instruct. tri-c. edu/ fgram/ web/ Mdipole. htm). . Retrieved 2009-12-24.
[30] "The force produced by a magnetic field" (http:/ / info. ee. surrey. ac. uk/ Workshop/ advice/ coils/ force. html). . Retrieved 2010-03-09.
[31] David Vokoun, Marco Beleggia, Ludek Heller, Petr Sittner (2009). "Magnetostatic interactions and forces between cylindrical permanent
magnets". Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 321 (22): 37583763. Bibcode2009JMMM..321.3758V.
doi:10.1016/j.jmmm.2009.07.030.
References
"positive pole n". The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford
University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
Wayne M. Saslow, Electricity, Magnetism, and Light, Academic (2002). ISBN 0-12-619455-6. Chapter 9
discusses magnets and their magnetic fields using the concept of magnetic poles, but it also gives evidence that
magnetic poles do not really exist in ordinary matter. Chapters 10 and 11, following what appears to be a
19th-century approach, use the pole concept to obtain the laws describing the magnetism of electric currents.
Edward P. Furlani, Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices:Materials, Analysis and Applications,
Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism (2001). ISBN 0-12-269951-3.
96
Magnet
97
External links
HyperPhysics E/M (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html), good complete tree diagram of
electromagnetic relationships with magnets
Maxwell's Equations and some history
Detailed Theory on Designing a Solenoid (http://www.coilgun.info) or a coil gun
Video: The physicist Richard Feynman answers the question, Why do bar magnets attract or repel each other?
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM)
Articles, tutorials and other educational information about magnets (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/
tutorials/electricitymagnetism.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Answers to several questions from curious kids about magnets (http://static.scribd.com/docs/ghnvi6g2fepvm.
swf)
Magnetic units discussed (http://www.magnets.bham.ac.uk/magneticmaterials/units.shtml)
EU requires warning on toys containing magnets (http://newsletter.sgs.com/eNewsletterPro/uploadedimages/
000006/SafeGuardS_03608_EU_requires_warning_on_toys_containing_magnets_v2.pdf)
Information on Permanent Magnets (http://www.stanfordmagnets.com/magnet.html#ref)
About Magnets (http://www.thomasnet.com/about/magnets-49490402.html)
International Magnetics Association (http://www.intl-magnetics.org/)
Online magnetic pull force calculator (http://www.kjmagnetics.com/calculator.asp)
Magnet (How Products Are Made Volume 2) (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Magnet.html)
Why are all metals not attracted to a magnet? (http://wiki.answers.com/Q/
Why_are_all_metals_not_attracted_to_a_magnet)
Magnetic bearing
A magnetic bearing is a bearing which supports a load using magnetic
levitation. Magnetic bearings support moving machinery without
physical contact; for example, they can levitate a rotating shaft and
permit relative motion with very low friction and no mechanical wear.
Magnetic bearings are in service in such industrial applications as
electric power generation, petroleum refining, machine tool operation,
and natural gas pipelines. They are also used in the Zippe-type
centrifuge[1] used for uranium enrichment. Magnetic bearings are used
in turbomolecular pumps, where oil-lubricated bearings would be a
source of contamination. Magnetic bearings support the highest speeds
of any kind of bearing; they have no known maximum relative speed.
A magnetic bearing
Description
It is difficult to build a magnetic bearing using permanent magnets due to the limitations described by Earnshaw's
theorem, and techniques using diamagnetic materials are relatively undeveloped. As a result, most magnetic bearings
require continuous power input and an active control system to hold the load stable. Many bearings can use
permanent magnets to carry the static load, and then only use power when the levitated object deviates from its
optimum position. Magnetic bearings also typically require some kind of back-up bearing in case of power or control
system failure and during initial start-up conditions.
Two sorts of instabilities are very typically present with magnetic bearings. Firstly, attractive magnets give an
unstable static force that decreases with greater distance and increases at close distances. Secondly since magnetism
Magnetic bearing
98
is a conservative force, in and of itself it gives little if any damping, and oscillations may cause loss of successful
suspension if any driving forces are present, which they very typically are.
With the use of an induction-based levitation system present in maglev technologies such as the Inductrack system,
magnetic bearings could do away with complex control systems by using Halbach Arrays and simple closed loop
coils. These systems gain in simplicity, but are less advantageous when it comes to eddy current losses. For rotating
systems it is possible to use homopolar magnet designs instead of multipole Halbach structures, which reduces losses
considerably. An example of this - that has bypassed the Earnshaw's theorem issues - is the homopolar
electrodynamic bearings invented by Dr Torbjrn Lembke.[2][3][4]
History
The evolution of active magnetic bearings may be traced through the patents issued in this field. The table below
lists several early patents for active magnetic bearings. Earlier patents for magnetic suspensions can be found but are
excluded here because they consist of assemblies of permanent magnets of problematic stability per Earnshaw's
Theorem.
Early active magnetic bearing patents were assigned to Jesse Beams[5][6] at the University of Virginia during World
War II and are concerned with ultracentrifuges for purification of the isotopes of various elements for the
manufacture of the first nuclear bombs, but the technology did not mature until the advances of solid-state
electronics and modern computer-based control technology with the work of Habermann[7] and Schweitzer.[8]
Extensive modern work in magnetic bearings has continued at the University of Virginia in the Rotating Machinery
and Controls Industrial Research Program. The first international symposium for active magnetic bearing technology
was held in 1988 with the founding of the International Society of Magnetic Bearings by Prof. Schweitzer (ETHZ),
Prof. Allaire (University of Virginia), and Prof. Okada (Ibaraki University).
In 1987 further improved AMB designs were created in Australia by E.Croot [9] (see reference below as well) but
these designs were not manufactured due to expensive costs of production. However, some of those designs have
since been used by Japanese electronics companies, they remain a specialty item: where extremely high RPM is
required.
Magnetic bearing
99
Since then there have been nine succeeding symposia. Kasarda[10] reviews the history of AMB in depth. She notes
that the first commercial application of AMBs was with turbomachinery. The AMB allowed the elimination of oil
reservoirs on compressors for the NOVA Gas Transmission Ltd. (NGTL) gas pipelines in Alberta, Canada. This
reduced the fire hazard allowing a substantial reduction in insurance costs. The success of these magnetic bearing
installations led NGTL to pioneer the research and development of a digital magnetic bearing control system as a
replacement for the analog control systems supplied by the American company Magnetic Bearings Inc. (MBI). In
1992, NGTL's magnetic bearing research group formed the company Revolve Technologies Inc [11]. to
commercialize the digital magnetic bearing technology. This firm was later purchased by SKF of Sweden. The
French company S2M, founded in 1976, was the first to commercially market AMBs. Extensive research on
magnetic bearings continues at the University of Virginia in the Rotating Machinery and Controls Industrial
Research Program [12].
Starting from 1996 the Dutch oil and gas company NAM installed over a period of 10 years 20 large E-motor driven
(with variable speed drive) gas compressors of 23 MW fully equipped with AMB's on both the E-motor and the
compressor. These compressors are used in the Groningen gas field to deplete the remaining gas from this large gas
field and to increase the field capacity. The motor - compressor design is done by Siemens and the AMB are
delivered by Waukesha (owned by Dover). (Originally these bearings were designed by Glacier, this company was
later on taken over by Federal Mogul and now part of Waukesha) By using AMB's and a direct drive between motor
and compressor (so no the gearbox in between) and applying dry gas seals a full so called dry-dry system (=fully oil
free) has been installed. A few of the main advantages by applying AMB's in the driver as well as in the compressor
(compared to the traditional configuration with a gearbox, plain bearings and a gasturbine-driver) is a relative simple
system with a very wide operating envelope, high efficiencies (particularly at partial load) and also, as done in the
Groningen field, to install the full installation outdoors (no large compressor building needed).
Year
Patent
No.
Invention Title
Beams, Holmes
1941
Beams
1954
Beams
1962
Beams
1965
Wolf
1967
Lyman
1971
Habermann
1973
3,731,984 Magnetic Bearing Block Device for Supporting a Vertical Shaft Adapted for Rotating at High
Speed
1974
Habermann, Brunet
1977
1978
Magnetic bearing
Electrodynamic bearing
Electrodynamic bearings (EDB) are a novel type of bearing that is a
passive magnetic technology. EDBs do not require any control
electronics to operate. They work by the electrical currents generated
by motion causing a restoring force.
Applications
Magnetic bearing advantages include very low and predictable friction,
ability to run without lubrication and in a vacuum. Magnetic bearings
are increasingly used in industrial machines such as compressors,
turbines, pumps, motors and generators. Magnetic bearings are
An axial homopolar electrodynamic bearing
commonly used in watt-hour meters by electric utilities to measure
home power consumption. Magnetic bearings are also used in high-precision instruments and to support equipment
in a vacuum, for example in flywheel energy storage systems. A flywheel in a vacuum has very low windage losses,
but conventional bearings usually fail quickly in a vacuum due to poor lubrication. Magnetic bearings are also used
to support maglev trains in order to get low noise and smooth ride by eliminating physical contact surfaces.
Disadvantages include high cost, and relatively large size.
A new application of magnetic bearings is their use in artificial hearts. The use of magnetic suspension in ventricular
assist devices was pioneered by Prof. Paul Allaire and Prof. Houston Wood at the University of Virginia culminating
in the first magnetically suspended ventricular assist centrifugal pump (VAD) in 1999.
References
[1] Charles, D., Spinning a Nuclear Comeback, Science, Vol. 315, (30 March 2007)
[2] "Design and Analysis of a Novel Low Loss Homopolar Electrodynamic Bearing." (http:/ / www. magnetal. se/ Dokument/ PhDThesis. pdf)
Lembke, Torbjrn. PhD Thesis. Stockholm: Universitetsservice US AB, 2005. ISBN 91-7178-032-7
[3] "3D-FEM Analysis of a Low Loss Homopolar Induction Bearing" (http:/ / www. kth. se/ ees/ forskning/ publikationer/ modules/
publications_polopoly/ reports/ 2004/ IR-EE-EME_2004_015. pdf?l=en_UK) Lembke, Torbjrn. 9th International Symposium on Magnetic
Bearings (ISMB9). Aug. 2004.
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Seminar at KTH the Royal Institute of Technology (http:/ / www. kth. se/ ees/ kalender/ seminarier/ 1. 54496) Stockholm. Feb 24. 2010
Beams, J. , Production and Use of High Centrifugal Fields, Science, Vol. 120, (1954)
Beams, J. , Magnetic Bearings, Paper 810A, Automotive Engineering Conference, Detroit, Michigan, USA, SAE (Jan. 1964)
Habermann,H. , Liard, G. Practical Magnetic Bearings , IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 16, No. 9, (September 1979)
Schweitzer, G. , Characteristics of a Magnetic Rotor Bearing for Active Vibration Control, Paper C239/76, First International Conference on
Vibrations in Rotating Machinery, (1976)
[9] E. Croot, Australian Inventors Weekly, NSW Inventors Association, Vol. 3, (April 1987)
[10] Kasarda, M. An Overview of Active Magnetic Bearing Technology and Applications, The Shock and Vibration Digest, Vol.32, No. 2: A
Publication of the Shock and Vibration Information Center, Naval Research Laboratory, (March 2000)
[11] http:/ / www. skfmagneticbearings. com
[12] http:/ / www. virginia. edu/ romac/
100
Magnetic bearing
Further reading
Schweitzer, G (2002). Active Magnetic Bearings Chances and Limitations (http://www.mcgs.ch/
web-content/AMB-chances_and_limit.pdf).
Chiba, A., Fukao, T., Ichikawa, O., Oshima, M., Takemoto, M., Dorrel, D. (2005). Magnetic Bearings and
Bearingless Drives. Newnes.
Schweitzer, G., Maslen, H. (2009). Magnetic Bearings, Theory, Design,and Application to Rotating Machinery.
Springer.
Maslen, E. H. (1999). Course notes on Magnetic Bearings (http://www.people.virginia.edu/~ehm7s/courses/
magnetic_bearings/home.html).
Jim Wilson (1999-September). "Beating Demon Friction" (http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/
research/1281766.html). Popular Mechanics.
E. Croot (1987 - 1995). Improved Magnetic Bearings (http://pericles.ipaustralia.gov.au/ols/auspat/
quickSearch.do?queryString=Croot&resultsPerPage=). IPAustralia [Australian Patent Office database entries].
T. Lembke (2005). PhD Thesis "Design and Analysis of a Novel Low Loss Homopolar Electrodynamic Bearing"
(http://www.magnetal.se/Dokument/PhDThesis.pdf). Stockholm: Universitetsservice US AB.
ISBN91-7178-032-7.
External links
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/index.php) Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an
e-book library (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/e-books.php) of classic texts on mechanical design and
engineering.
MADYN2000, Rotordynamics Software (http://www.delta-js.ch/english/software/
madyn-2000-for-rotordynamics/magnetic-bearings/) supports computer-aided design of Magnetic Bearing
controllers and provides multiple analytic reports of design quality.
101
Magnetic circuit
102
Magnetic circuit
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux. The flux is usually
generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by magnetic cores consisting of
ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are
employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers,
relays, lifting electromagnets, SQUIDs, galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads.
The concept of a "magnetic circuit" exploits a one-to-one correspondence between the equations of the magnetic
field in an unsaturated ferromagnetic material to that of an electrical circuit. Using this concept the magnetic fields of
complex devices such as transformers can be quickly solved using the methods and techniques developed for
electrical circuits.
Some examples of magnetic circuits are:
horseshoe magnet with iron keeper (low-reluctance circuit)
horseshoe magnet with no keeper (high-reluctance circuit)
electric motor (variable-reluctance circuit)
The MMF represents the potential that a hypothetical magnetic charge would gain by completing the loop. The
magnetic flux that is driven is not a current of magnetic charge; it merely has the same relationship to MMF that
electric current has to EMF. (See microscopic origins of reluctance below for a further description.)
The unit of magnetomotive force is the ampere-turn (At), represented by a steady, direct electric current of one
ampere flowing in a single-turn loop of electrically conducting material in a vacuum. The gilbert (Gi), established by
the IEC in 1930 [1], is the CGS unit of magnetomotive force and is a slightly smaller unit than the ampere-turn. The
unit is named after William Gilbert (15441603) English physician and natural philosopher.
The magnetomotive force can often be quickly calculated using Ampre's law. For example, the magnetomotive
force
of long coil is:
,
where N is the number of turns and I is the current in the coil. In practice this equation is used for the MMF of real
inductors with N being the winding number of the inducting coil.
Magnetic flux
An applied MMF 'drives' magnetic flux through the magnetic components of the system. The magnetic flux through
a magnetic component is proportional to the number of magnetic field lines that pass through the cross sectional area
of that component. This is the net number, i.e. the number passing through in one direction, minus the number
passing through in the other direction. The direction of the magnetic field vector B is by definition from the south to
the north pole of a magnet inside the magnet; outside the field lines go from north to south.
Magnetic circuit
103
The flux through an element of area perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field is given by the product of the
magnetic field and the area element. More generally, magnetic flux is defined by a scalar product of the magnetic
field and the area element vector. Quantitatively, the magnetic flux through a surface S is defined as the integral of
the magnetic field over the area of the surface
For a magnetic component the area S used to calculate the magnetic flux is usually chosen to be the
cross-sectional area of the component.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the unit of magnetic field is the weber
per square meter, or tesla.
where R is the electrical resistance of that material. Hopkinson's law is a counterpart to Ohm's law used in magnetic
circuits. The law is named after the British electrical engineer, John Hopkinson. It states that[2][3]
where
Reluctance
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit (although it does not
dissipate magnetic energy). In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric current to follow the path of
least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to follow the path of least magnetic reluctance. It is a scalar,
extensive quantity, akin to electrical resistance.
The total reluctance is equal to the ratio of the (MMF) in a passive magnetic circuit and the magnetic flux in this
circuit. In an AC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the amplitude values for a sinusoidal MMF and magnetic flux.
(see phasors)
The definition can be expressed as:
where
is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to turns per henry).
Magnetic flux always forms a closed loop, as described by Maxwell's equations, but the path of the loop depends on
the reluctance of the surrounding materials. It is concentrated around the path of least reluctance. Air and vacuum
have high reluctance, while easily magnetized materials such as soft iron have low reluctance. The concentration of
flux in low-reluctance materials forms strong temporary poles and causes mechanical forces that tend to move the
materials towards regions of higher flux so it is always an attractive force(pull).
The inverse of reluctance is called permeance.
Magnetic circuit
104
Its SI derived unit is the henry (the same as the unit of inductance, although the two concepts are distinct).
where
l is the length of the element in metres
is the permeability of the material (
(dimensionless), and
Symbol
Units
ampere-turn
Electric equivalent
Symbol
Definition of EMF
Magnetic field
Magnetic flux
weber
Electric current
Ohm's law
Reluctance
1/henry
Electrical resistance
Permeance
henry
Electric conductance
G = 1/R
tesla
Current density
permeability
henry/meter
Electrical conductivity
Magnetic circuit
105
Circuit Laws
Magnetic circuits obey other laws that are similar to electrical circuit
laws. For example, the total reluctance
of reluctances
in series is:
Magnetic circuit
Together, the three laws above form a complete system for analysing magnetic circuits, in a manner similar to
electric circuits. Comparing the two types of circuits shows that:
The equivalent to resistance R is the reluctance Rm
The equivalent to current I is the magnetic flux
The equivalent to voltage V is the magnetomotive Force F
Magnetic circuits can be solved for the flux in each branch by application of the magnetic equivalent of Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law (KVL) for pure source/resistance circuits. Specifically, whereas KVL states that the voltage excitation
applied to a loop is equal to the sum of the voltage drops (resistance times current) around the loop, the magnetic
analogue states that the magnetomotive force (achieved from ampere-turn excitation) is equal to the sum of MMF
drops (product of flux and reluctance) across the rest of the loop. (If there are multiple loops, the current in each
branch can be solved through a matrix equationmuch as a matrix solution for mesh circuit branch currents is
obtained in loop analysisafter which the individual branch currents are obtained by adding and/or subtracting the
constituent loop currents as indicated by the adopted sign convention and loop orientations.) Per Ampre's law, the
excitation is the product of the current and the number of complete loops made and is measured in ampere-turns.
Stated more generally:
Magnetic circuit
(Note that, per Stokes's theorem, the closed line integral of H dot dl around a contour is equal to the open surface
integral of curl H dot dA across the surface bounded by the closed contour. Since, from Maxwell's equations, curl H
= J, the closed line integral of H dot dl evaluates to the total current passing through the surface. This is equal to the
excitation, NI, which also measures current passing through the surface, thereby verifying that the net current flow
through a surface is zero ampere-turns in a closed system that conserves energy.)
More complex magnetic systems, where the flux is not confined to a simple loop, must be analysed from first
principles by using Maxwell's equations.
History
The term reluctance was coined in May 1888 by Oliver Heaviside.[4] The notion of magnetic resistance was first
mentioned by James Joule [5] and the term "magnetomotive force (MMF) was first named by Bosanquet.[6] The idea
for a magnetic flux law, similar to Ohm's law for closed electric circuits, is attributed to H. Rowland.[7]
Applications
Air gaps can be created in the cores of certain transformers to reduce the effects of saturation. This increases the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit, and enables it to store more energy before core saturation. This effect is also
used in the flyback transformer.
Variation of reluctance is the principle behind the reluctance motor (or the variable reluctance generator) and the
Alexanderson alternator.
Multimedia loudspeakers are typically shielded magnetically, in order to reduce magnetic interference caused to
televisions and other CRTs. The speaker magnet is covered with a material such as soft iron to minimize the stray
magnetic field.
Reluctance can also be applied to:
Reluctance motors
Variable reluctance (magnetic) pickups
References
[1] http:/ / www. iec. ch/ about/ history/
[2] Magnetism (flash) (http:/ / www. ginerdelosrios. org/ pizarra/ electronica/ nemesio/ pizarra_neme/ simuladores/ parametros_magneticos. swf)
[3] Tesche, Fredrick; Michel Ianoz, Torbjrn Karlsson (1997). EMC Analysis Methods and Computational Models. Wiley-IEEE. pp.513.
ISBN0-471-15573-X.
[4] Heaviside O., Electrical Papers. Vol.2. L.; N.Y.: Macmillan, 1892, p. 166.
[5] Joule J., Scientific Papers, vol. 1. 1884, p. 36.
[6] Bosanquet, Phil. Mag., vol. 15, 1883, p. 205.
[7] Rowland H., Phil. Mag. (4), vol. 46, 1873, p. 140.
External links
Magnetic-Electric Analogs (http://www.analogzone.com/col_0909.pdf) by Dennis L. Feucht, Innovatia
Laboratories (PDF)
Interactive Java Tutorial on Magnetic Shunts (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/
magneticshunt/) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
106
Magnetic dipole
107
Magnetic dipole
Dipole moment m.
Electric current I.
A magnetic dipole is the limit of either a closed loop of electric current or a pair of poles as the dimensions of the
source are reduced to zero while keeping the magnetic moment constant. It is a magnetic analogue of the electric
dipole, but the analogy is not complete. In particular, a magnetic monopole, the magnetic analogue of an electric
charge, has never been observed. Moreover, one form of magnetic dipole moment is associated with a fundamental
quantum property, the spin of elementary particles.
The magnetic field around any magnetic source looks increasingly like the field of a magnetic dipole as the distance
from the source increases.
Magnetic dipole
108
Alternatively one can obtain the scalar potential first from the magnetic pole limit,
and hence the magnetic field strength (or strength of the H-field) in ampere-turns per meter is
The magnetic field is symmetric under rotations about the axis of the magnetic moment.
Magnetic dipole
is the magnetization.
where r is the distance between dipoles. The force acting on m1 is in the opposite direction.
The torque can be obtained from the formula
Notes
[1] Chow 2006, pp.146150
[2] Furlani 2001
References
Chow, Tai L. (2006). Introduction to electromagnetic theory: a modern perspective. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
ISBN978-0-7637-3827-3.
Jackson, John D. (1999). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X. OCLC224523909.
Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis, and
Applications (http://books.google.com/?id=irsdLnC5SrsC&dq=permanent+magnet+and+
electromechanical+devices&printsec=frontcover&q=3.130). Academic Press. p.140. ISBN0-12-269951-3.
Schill, R. A. (2003). "General relation for the vector magnetic field of a circular current loop: A closer look".
IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 39 (2): 961967. Bibcode2003ITM....39..961S.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2003.808597.
109
Magnetic domain
110
Magnetic domain
A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material which has
uniform magnetization. This means that the individual magnetic
moments of the atoms are aligned with one another and they point in
the same direction. When cooled below a temperature called the Curie
temperature, the magnetization of a piece of ferromagnetic material
spontaneously divides into many small regions called magnetic
domains. The magnetization within each domain points in a uniform
direction, but the magnetization of different domains may point in
different directions. Magnetic domain structure is responsible for the
magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, cobalt
and their alloys, ferrites etc. such as the formation of permanent
magnets. The regions separating magnetic domains are called domain
walls, where the magnetization rotates coherently from the direction in
one domain to that in the next domain. The study of magnetic domains
is called micromagnetics.
where
is the mean field constant. However this is not applicable to ferromagnets due to the variation of
magnetization from domain to domain. In this case, the interaction field is
Where
Later, the quantum theory made it possible to understand the microscopic origin of the Weiss field. The exchange
interaction between localized spins favored a parallel (in ferromagnets) or an anti-parallel (in anti-ferromagnets) state
of neighboring magnetic moments.
Magnetic domain
Domain structure
Why domains form
The reason a piece of magnetic material such as
iron spontaneously divides into separate domains,
rather than exist in a state with magnetization in
the same direction throughout the material, is to
minimize its internal energy.[3] A large region of
ferromagnetic
material
with
a
constant
magnetization throughout will create a large
How dividing a ferromagnetic material into magnetic domains reduces the
magnetic field extending into the space outside
magnetostatic energy
itself (diagram a, right). This requires a lot of
magnetostatic energy stored in the field. To reduce this energy, the sample can split into two domains, with the
magnetization in opposite directions in each domain (diagram b right). The magnetic field lines pass in loops in
opposite directions through each domain, reducing the field outside the material. To reduce the field energy further,
each of these domains can split also, resulting in smaller parallel domains with magnetization in alternating
directions, with smaller amounts of field outside the material.
The domain structure of actual magnetic materials does not usually form by the process of large domains splitting
into smaller ones as described here. When a sample is cooled below the Curie temperature, for example, the
equilibrium domain configuration simply appears. But the description of domains splitting is often used to reveal the
energy tradeoffs in domain formation.
Size of domains
So a domain which is too big is unstable, and will divide into smaller domains. But a small enough domain will be
stable and will not split, and this determines the size of the domains created in a material. This size depends on the
balance of several energies within the material.[3] Each time a region of magnetization splits into two domains, it
creates a "domain wall" between the domains, where magnetic dipoles (molecules) with magnetization pointing in
different directions are adjacent. The exchange interaction which creates the magnetization is a force which tends to
align nearby dipoles so they point in the same direction. So forcing adjacent dipoles to point in different directions
requires energy. Therefore creating a domain wall requires extra energy, called the "exchange energy", which is
proportional to the area of the wall.
So the net amount that the energy is reduced when a domain splits is equal to the difference between the magnetic
field energy saved, and the additional energy of the domain wall created. The field energy saved is proportional to
the cube of the domain size, while the domain wall energy is proportional to the square of the domain size. So as the
domains get smaller, the net energy saved by splitting decreases. The domains keep dividing into smaller domains
until the energy cost of creating an additional domain wall is just equal to the field energy saved. Then the domains
of this size are stable. In most materials the domains are microscopic in size, around 10-4 - 10-6 m.
111
Magnetic domain
112
Magnetic anisotropy
An additional way for the material to further reduce its magnetostatic
energy is to form domains with magnetization at right angles to the
other domains (diagram c, right), instead of just in opposing parallel
directions.[3] These domains, called flux closure domains, allow the
field lines to turn 180 within the material, forming closed loops
entirely within the material, reducing the magnetostatic energy to zero.
However, forming these domains incurs two additional energy costs.
First, the crystal lattice of most magnetic materials has magnetic
anisotropy, which means it has an "easy" direction of magnetization,
parallel to one of the crystal axes. Changing the magnetization of the
material to any other direction takes additional energy, called the
"magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy".
Magnetostriction
Grain structure
The above describes magnetic domain structure in a perfect crystal lattice, such as would be found in a single crystal
of iron. However most magnetic materials are polycrystalline, composed of microscopic crystalline grains. These
grains are not the same as domains. Each grain is a little crystal, with the crystal lattices of separate grains oriented in
random directions. In most materials, each grain is big enough to contain several domains. Each crystal has an "easy"
axis of magnetization, and is divided into domains with the axis of magnetization parallel to this axis, in alternate
directions.
Magnetic domain
113
"Magnetized" states
It can be seen that, although on a microscopic scale almost all the magnetic dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic
material are lined up parallel to their neighbors in domains, creating strong local magnetic fields, energy
minimization results in a domain structure that minimizes the large-scale magnetic field. The domains point in
different directions, confining the field lines to microscopic loops between neighboring domains, so the combined
fields cancel at a distance. Therefore a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material in its lowest energy state has little or no
external magnetic field. The material is said to be "unmagnetized". However, the domains can also exist in other
configurations in which their magnetization mostly points in the same direction, creating an external magnetic field.
Although these are not minimum energy configurations, due to a phenomenon where the domain walls become
"pinned" to defects in the crystal lattice they can be local minimums of the energy, and therefore can be very stable.
This is what happens when a piece of magnetic material is "magnetized" and becomes a permanent magnet.
where
ED is magnetostatic energy: This is a self-energy, due to the interaction of the magnetic field created by the
magnetization in some part of the sample on other parts of the same sample. It is dependent on the volume
occupied by the magnetic field extending outside the domain. This energy is reduced by minimizing the length of
the loops of magnetic field lines outside the domain. For example, this tends to encourage the magnetization to be
parallel to the surfaces of the sample, so the field lines won't pass outside the sample. Reducing this energy is the
main reason for the creation of magnetic domains.
E is magnetoelastic anisotropy energy: This energy is due to the effect of magnetostriction, a slight change in
the dimensions of the crystal when magnetized. This causes elastic strains in the lattice, and the direction of
magnetization that minimizes these strain energies will be favored. This energy tends to be minimized when the
axis of magnetization of the domains in a crystal are all parallel.
Ek is magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy: Due to its magnetic anisotropy, the crystal lattice is "easy" to
magnetize in one direction, and "hard" to magnetize in others. This energy is minimized when the magnetization
is along the "easy" crystal axis, so the magnetization of most of the domains in a crystal grain tend to be in either
direction along the "easy" axis. Since the crystal lattice in separate grains of the material is usually oriented in
different random directions, this causes the dominant domain magnetization in different grains to be pointed in
Magnetic domain
114
different directions.
EH is Zeeman energy: This is energy which is added to or subtracted from the magnetostatic energy, due to the
interaction between the magnetic material and an externally applied magnetic field. It is proportional to the
negative of the cosine of the angle between the field and magnetization vectors. Domains with their magnetic
field oriented parallel to the applied field reduce this energy, while domains with their magnetic field oriented
opposite to the applied field increase this energy. So applying a magnetic field to a ferromagnetic material
generally causes the domain walls to move so as to increase the size of domains lying mostly parallel to the field,
at the cost of decreasing the size of domains opposing the field. This is what happens when ferromagnetic
materials are "magnetized". With a strong enough external field, the domains opposing the field will be
swallowed up and disappear; this is called saturation.
Some sources define a wall energy EW
equal to the sum of the exchange
energy and the magnetocrystalline
anisotropy energy, which replaces Eex
and Ek in the above equation.
Rotation of orientation and increase in size of magnetic to an externally applied field
Observing domains
There are a number of microscopy methods which can make the magnetization at a surface of a magnetic material
visible, revealing the magnetic domains. Each method has a different application because not all domains are the
same. In magnetic materials, domains can be circular, square, irregular, elongated, and striped, all of which have
varied sizes and dimensions. Large domains, within the range of 25-100 micrometers can be easily seen by Kerr
microscopy, which uses the magneto-optic Kerr effect, which is the rotation of the polarization of light reflected
from a magnetized surface. Smaller domains, down to the scale of a few nanometers, can be viewed by the use of
magnetic force microscopy.
Magnetic domain
115
References
[1] P. Weiss (1906) La variation du ferromagnetisme du temperature, Comptes Rendus, 143, p.1136-1149, cited in Cullity, 2008 (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC& pg=PA116& lpg=PA116), p.116
[2] Cullity; C. D. Graham. Introduction to Magnetic Materials, 2nd ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC& pg=PA116&
lpg=PA116). New York: Wiley-IEte=2008. pp.116. ISBN0-471-47741-9. .
[3] Feynman, Richard P.; Robert B. Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=bDF-uoUmttUC& pg=SA4-PA4& dq="inclined+ plane"+ + "conservation+ of+ energy"& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=gQtdT6iLCanSiAK22tCsCw& ved=0CGwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q="inclined plane" "conservation of energy"& f=false). USA:
California Inst. of Technology. pp.37.5-37.6. ISBN0-201-02117-XP. .
[4] Carey R., Isaac E.D., Magnetic domains and techniques for their observation, The English University Press Ltd, London, (1966).
Jiles, David (1998). Introduction to magnetism and magnetic materials. London: Chapman & Hall.
ISBN0-412-79860-3.
Magnetic domain
External links
Interactive Java tutorial on magnetic domains (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/domains/
index.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Magnetismus und Magnetooptik (http://schulzeundschultze.anphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/veroff/Diplome/
Volker.Solinus/node3.phtml) a German text about magnetism and magneto-optics
Magnetic field
A magnetic field may be represented by a
mathematical description of the magnetic influence of
electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic
field at any given point is specified by both a direction
and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector
field.[1] The magnetic field is most commonly defined
in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving
electric charges. There are two separate but closely
related fields to which the name "magnetic field" can
refer: a magnetic B field and a magnetic H field.
Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric
charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of
Magnetic field of an ideal cylindrical magnet with its axis of
elementary particles associated with a fundamental
symmetry inside the image plane.
quantum property, their spin. In special relativity,
electric and magnetic fields are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called the electromagnetic tensor; the split
of this tensor into electric and magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity of the observer and charge. In
quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of
photons.
Magnetic fields have had many uses in ancient and modern society. The Earth produces its own magnetic field,
which is important in navigation. Rotating magnetic fields are utilized in both electric motors and generators.
Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of
magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits.
116
Magnetic field
History
Although magnets and magnetism were
known much earlier, the study of the
magnetic field began in 1269 when French
scholar Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt
mapped out the magnetic field on the
surface of a spherical magnet using iron
needles.[2] Noting that the resulting field
lines crossed at two points he named those
points 'poles' in analogy to Earth's poles.
Almost three centuries later, William Gilbert
of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus'
work and was the first to state explicitly that
Earth is a magnet.[3] Published in 1600,
Gilbert's work, De Magnete, helped to
establish magnetism as a science.
In 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic
One of the first drawings of a magnetic field, by Ren Descartes, 1644. It
illustrated his theory that magnetism was caused by the circulation of tiny helical
poles attract and repel in accordance with an
particles, "threaded parts", through threaded pores in magnets.
inverse square law.[4] Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb experimentally verified this in
1785 and stated explicitly that the North and South poles cannot be separated.[5] Building on this force between
poles, Simon-Denis Poisson (17811840) created the first successful model of the magnetic field which he
presented in 1824.[6] In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by 'magnetic poles' and magnetism is due to small
pairs of north/south magnetic poles.
Three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Oersted
discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it. Then in 1820, Andr-Marie Ampre
showed that parallel wires having currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and
Flix Savart discovered the BiotSavart law in 1820 which correctly predicts the magnetic field around any
current-carrying wire.
Extending these experiments, Ampre published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. In it, he showed
the equivalence of electrical currents to magnets[7] and proposed that magnetism is due to perpetually flowing loops
of current instead of the dipoles of magnetic charge in Poisson's model.[8] This has the additional benefit of
explaining why magnetic charge can not be isolated. Further, Ampre derived both Ampre's force law describing
the force between two currents and Ampre's law which, like the BiotSavart law, correctly described the magnetic
field generated by a steady current. Also in this work, Ampre introduced the term electrodynamics to describe the
relationship between electricity and magnetism.
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field
generates an encircling electric field. He described this phenomenon in what is known as Faraday's law of induction.
Later, Franz Ernst Neumann proved that, for a moving conductor in a magnetic field, induction is a consequence of
Ampre's force law .[9] In the process he introduced the magnetic vector potential which was later shown to be
equivalent to the underlying mechanism proposed by Faraday.
In 1850, Lord Kelvin, then known as William Thomson, distinguished between two magnetic fields now denoted H
and B. The former applied to Poisson's model and the latter to Ampre's model and induction.[10] Further, he derived
how H and B relate to each other.
117
Magnetic field
Between 1861 and 1865, James Clerk Maxwell developed and published Maxwell's equations which explained and
united all of classical electricity and magnetism. The first set of these equations was published in a paper entitled On
Physical Lines of Force in 1861. These equations were valid although incomplete. He completed Maxwell's set of
equations in his later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrated the fact that
light is an electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hertz experimentally confirmed this fact in 1887.
Although implicit in Ampre's force law the force due to a magnetic field on a moving electric charge was not
correctly and explicitly stated until 1892 by Hendrik Lorentz who theoretically derived it from Maxwell's
equations.[11] With this last piece of the puzzle, the classical theory of electrodynamics was essentially complete.
The twentieth century extended electrodynamics to include relativity and quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, in his
paper of 1905 that established relativity, showed that both the electric and magnetic fields are part of the same
phenomena viewed from different reference frames. (See moving magnet and conductor problem for details about
the thought experiment that eventually helped Albert Einstein to develop special relativity.) Finally, the emergent
field of quantum mechanics was merged with electrodynamics to form quantum electrodynamics (QED).
Here v is the particle's velocity and denotes the cross product. The vector B is termed the magnetic field, and it is
defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz force law correctly describe the motion of a charged
particle. This definition allows one to determine B in the following way, as described by Purcell:[12]
[T]he command, "Measure the direction of magnitude of the vector B at such and such a place," calls for the
following operations: Take a particle of known charge q. Measure the force on q at rest, to determine E. Then
measure the force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v in some other direction. Now find a B
that will make [the Lorentz force law] fit all these results; that is the magnetic field at the place in question.
Alternatively, the magnetic field can be defined in terms of the torque it produces on a magnetic dipole (see
magnetic torque on permanent magnets below).
Devices used to measure the local magnetic field are called magnetometers. Important classes of magnetometers
include using a rotating coil, Hall effect magnetometers, NMR magnetometers, SQUID magnetometers, and fluxgate
magnetometers. The magnetic fields of distant astronomical objects are measured through their effects on local
charged particles. For instance, electrons spiraling around a field line produce synchrotron radiation which is
detectable in radio waves.
118
Magnetic field
119
[13]
There are two magnetic fields, H and B. In a vacuum they are indistinguishable, differing only by a multiplicative
constant that depends on the physical units. Inside a material they are different (see H and B inside and outside of
magnetic materials). The term magnetic field is historically reserved for H while using other terms for B. Informally,
though, and formally for some recent textbooks mostly in physics, the term 'magnetic field' is used to describe B as
well as or in place of H.[15] There are many alternative names for both (see sidebar).
In SI units, the B-field (magnetic flux density) is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and correspondingly B (magnetic
flux) is measured in weber (Wb) so that a flux density of one Wb/m2 is one tesla. In Gaussian-cgs units, the B-field
is measured in gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) The SI unit of tesla is equivalent to
(newtonsecond)/(coulombmetre).[16] The H-field is measured in ampere per metre (A/m) in SI units, and in oersteds
(Oe) in cgs units.[17]
The smallest precision level for a magnetic field measurement[18] is on the order of attoteslas (1018 tesla); the
largest magnetic field produced in a laboratory is 2.8kT (VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998).[19] The magnetic field of
some astronomical objects such as magnetars are much higher; magnetars range from 0.1 to 100GT (108 to
1011T).[20] See orders of magnitude (magnetic field).
Magnetic field lines are like the contour lines (constant altitude) on a topographic
map in that a different mapping scale would show more or fewer lines. An
advantage of using magnetic field lines, though, is that many laws of magnetism
(and electromagnetism) can be stated completely and concisely using simple
concepts such as the 'number' of field lines through a surface. These concepts can
be quickly 'translated' to their mathematical form. For example, the number of field
lines through a given surface is the surface integral of the magnetic field.
Magnetic field
120
Magnetic field
121
Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other; all magnets have north/south pairs which cannot be separated
without creating two magnets each having a north/south pair. The magnetic pole model does not account for
magnetism that is produced by electric currents, nor the force that a magnetic field applies to moving electric
charges.
Magnetic field
where the integral is a surface integral over the closed surface S (a closed surface is one that completely surrounds a
region with no holes to let any field lines escape). Since dA points outward, the dot product in the integral is positive
for B-field pointing out and negative for B-field pointing in.
There is also a corresponding differential form of this equation covered in Maxwell's equations below.
where the gradient is the change of the quantity mB per unit distance and the direction is that of maximum
increase of mB. To understand this equation, note that the dot product mB = mBcos(), where m and B represent
the magnitude of the m and B vectors and is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then the dot
product is positive and the gradient points 'uphill' pulling the magnet into regions of higher B-field (more strictly
larger mB). This equation is strictly only valid for magnets of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not
too large magnets. The magnetic force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions having
their own m then summing up the forces on each of these regions.
122
Magnetic field
123
As is the case for the force between magnets, the magnetic pole model
leads more readily to the correct equation. Here, two equal and
opposite magnetic charges experiencing the same H also experience
equal and opposite forces. Since these equal and opposite forces are in
different locations, this produces a torque proportional to the distance
(perpendicular to the force) between them. With the definition of m as
the pole strength times the distance between the poles, this leads to =
0mHsin, where 0 is a constant called the magnetic constant and is
the angle between H and m.
The Amperian loop model also predicts the same magnetic torque. Here, it is the B field interacting with the
Amperian current loop through a Lorentz force described below. Again, the results are the same although the models
are completely different.
Mathematically, the torque on a small magnet is proportional both to
the applied magnetic field and to the magnetic moment m of the
magnet:
where represents the vector cross product. Note that this equation
includes all of the qualitative information included above. There is no
torque on a magnet if m is in the same direction as the magnetic field.
(The cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the same
direction.) Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them
toward the direction of magnetic field.
Magnetic field
124
Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field inside the loop while
weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely spaced loops to form a coil or "solenoid"
enhances this effect. A device so formed around an iron core may act as an electromagnet,
generating a strong, well-controlled magnetic field. An infinitely long cylindrical electromagnet has
a uniform magnetic field inside, and no magnetic field outside. A finite length electromagnet
produces a magnetic field that looks similar to that produced by a uniform permanent magnet, with
its strength and polarity determined by the current flowing through the coil.
The magnetic field generated by a steady current
charge is neither accumulating nor depleting at any point)[29] is described by the BiotSavart law:
Solenoid
where the integral sums over the wire length where vector d is the direction of the current, 0 is the magnetic
constant, r is the distance between the location of d and the location at which the magnetic field is being calculated,
and r is a unit vector in the direction of r.
A slightly more general[30][31] way of relating the current
enc
always valid for steady currents and can be used to calculate the B-field for certain highly symmetric situations such
as an infinite wire or an infinite solenoid.
In a modified form that accounts for time varying electric fields, Ampre's law is one of four Maxwell's equations
that describe electricity and magnetism.
Magnetic field
125
Magnetic field
126
Direction of force
The direction of force on a charge or a current can be
determined by a mnemonic known as the right-hand
rule (see the figure). Using the right hand and pointing
the thumb in the direction of the moving positive
charge or positive current and the fingers in the
direction of the magnetic field the resulting force on the
charge points outwards from the palm. The force on a
negatively charged particle is in the opposite direction.
The right-hand rule: Pointing the thumb of the right hand in the
If both the speed and the charge are reversed then the
direction of the conventional current and the fingers in the direction
direction of the force remains the same. For that reason
of the B-field the force on the current points out of the palm. The
force is reversed for a negative charge.
a magnetic field measurement (by itself) cannot
distinguish whether there is a positive charge moving to
the right or a negative charge moving to the left. (Both of these cases produce the same current.) On the other hand, a
magnetic field combined with an electric field can distinguish between these, see Hall effect below.
An alternative mnemonic to the right hand rule is Fleming's left hand rule.
Magnetization
The magnetization vector field M represents how strongly a region of material is magnetized. It is defined as the net
magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of that region. The magnetization of a uniform magnet, therefore, is a
constant in the material equal to its magnetic moment, m, divided by its volume. Since the SI unit of magnetic
moment is ampere meter2, the SI unit of magnetization M is ampere per meter, identical to that of the H-field.
The magnetization M field of a region points in the direction of the average magnetic dipole moment in that region.
Magnetization field lines, therefore, begin near the magnetic south pole and ends near the magnetic north pole.
(Magnetization does not exist outside of the magnet.)
In the Amperian loop model, the magnetization is due to combining many tiny Amperian loops to form a resultant
current called bound current. This bound current, then, is the source of the magnetic B field due to the magnet. (See
Magnetic dipoles below and magnetic poles vs. atomic currents for more information.) Given the definition of the
magnetic dipole, the magnetization field follows a similar law to that of Ampere's law:[33]
where the integral is a line integral over any closed loop and Ib is the 'bound current' enclosed by that closed loop.
In the magnetic pole model, magnetization begins at and ends at magnetic poles. If a given region, therefore, has a
net positive 'magnetic pole strength' (corresponding to a north pole) then it will have more magnetization field lines
entering it than leaving it. Mathematically this is equivalent to:
,
Magnetic field
127
where the integral is a closed surface integral over the closed surface S and qM is the 'magnetic charge' (in units of
magnetic flux) enclosed by S. (A closed surface completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines
escape.) The negative sign occurs because the magnetization field moves from south to north.
where If represents the 'free current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of H does not depend at all on the
bound currents.[34] For the differential equivalent of this equation see Maxwell's equations. Ampere's law leads to the
boundary condition
where Kf is the surface free current density.[35]
Similarly, a surface integral of H over any closed surface is independent of the free currents and picks out the
'magnetic charges' within that closed surface:
where H0 is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and Hd is the demagnetizing field due only to the
bound currents.
The magnetic H-field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of 'magnetic charges'. The H field lines loop
only around 'free current' and, unlike the magnetic B field, begins and ends near magnetic poles as well.
Magnetism
Most materials respond to an applied B-field by producing their own magnetization M and therefore their own
B-field. Typically, the response is very weak and exists only when the magnetic field is applied. The term magnetism
describes how materials respond on the microscopic level to an applied magnetic field and is used to categorize the
magnetic phase of a material. Materials are divided into groups based upon their magnetic behavior:
Diamagnetic materials[37] produce a magnetization that opposes the magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials[37] produce a magnetization in the same direction as the applied magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic materials and the closely related ferrimagnetic materials and antiferromagnetic materials[38][39] can
have a magnetization independent of an applied B-field with a complex relationship between the two fields.
Superconductors (and ferromagnetic superconductors)[40][41] are materials that are characterized by perfect
conductivity below a critical temperature and magnetic field. They also are highly magnetic and can be perfect
diamagnets below a lower critical magnetic field. Superconductors often have a broad range of temperatures and
magnetic fields (the so named mixed state) for which they exhibit a complex hysteretic dependence of M on B.
In the case of paramagnetism and diamagnetism, the magnetization M is often proportional to the applied magnetic
field such that:
Magnetic field
where is a material dependent parameter called the permeability. In some cases the permeability may be a second
rank tensor so that H may not point in the same direction as B. These relations between B and H are examples of
constitutive equations. However, superconductors and ferromagnets have a more complex B to H relation; see
magnetic hysteresis.
If there are no magnetic materials around then can be replaced by 0. The above equation cannot be used for
nonlinear materials, though; a more general expression given below must be used.
In general, the incremental amount of work per unit volume W needed to cause a small change of magnetic field B
is:
Once the relationship between H and B is known this equation is used to determine the work needed to reach a given
magnetic state. For hysteretic materials such as ferromagnets and superconductors the work needed will also depend
on how the magnetic field is created. For linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general equation leads directly
to the simpler energy density equation given above.
where is the electromotive force (or EMF, the voltage generated around a closed loop) and m is the magnetic
fluxthe product of the area times the magnetic field normal to that area. (This definition of magnetic flux is why B
is often referred to as magnetic flux density.)
The negative sign is necessary and represents the fact that any current generated by a changing magnetic field in a
coil produces a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic field that induced it. This phenomenon is
known as Lenz's Law.
This integral formulation of Faraday's law can be converted[42] into a differential form, which applies under slightly
different conditions. This form is covered as one of Maxwell's equations below.
128
Magnetic field
Maxwell's correction to Ampre's Law: The magnetic field due to a changing electric field
Similar to the way that a changing magnetic field generates an electric field, a changing electric field generates a
magnetic field. This fact is known as Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law. Maxwell's correction to Ampre's Law
bootstrap together with Faraday's law of induction to form electromagnetic waves, such as light. Thus, a changing
electric field generates a changing magnetic field which generates a changing electric field again.
Maxwell's correction to Ampre law is applied as an additive term to Ampere's law given above. This additive term
is proportional to the time rate of change of the electric flux and is similar to Faraday's law above but with a different
and positive constant out front. (The electric flux through an area is proportional to the area times the perpendicular
part of the electric field.)
This full Ampre law including the correction term is known as the MaxwellAmpre equation. It is not commonly
given in integral form because the effect is so small that it can typically be ignored in most cases where the integral
form is used. The Maxwell term is critically important in the creation and propagation of electromagnetic waves.
These, though, are usually described using the differential form of this equation given below.
Maxwell's equations
Like all vector fields, magnetic field has two important mathematical properties that relates it to its sources. (For the
B-field the sources are currents and changing electric fields.) These two properties, along with the two
corresponding properties of the electric field, make up Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell's Equations together with the
Lorentz force law form a complete description of classical electrodynamics including both electricity and
magnetism.
The first property is the divergence of a vector field A, A which represents how A 'flows' outward from a given
point. As discussed above, a B-field line never starts or ends at a point but instead forms a complete loop. This is
mathematically equivalent to saying that the divergence of B is zero. (Such vector fields are called solenoidal vector
fields.) This property is called Gauss's law for magnetism and is equivalent to the statement that there are no isolated
magnetic poles or magnetic monopoles. The electric field on the other hand begins and ends at electric charges so
that its divergence is non-zero and proportional to the charge density (See Gauss's law).
The second mathematical property is called the curl, such that A represents how A curls or 'circulates' around a
given point. The result of the curl is called a 'circulation source'. The equations for the curl of B and of E are called
the AmpreMaxwell equation and Faraday's law respectively. They represent the differential forms of the integral
equations given above.
The complete set of Maxwell's equations then are:
129
Magnetic field
130
These equations are not any more general than the original equations (if the 'bound' charges and currents in the
material are known). They also need to be supplemented by the relationship between B and H as well as that
between E and D. On the other hand, for simple relationships between these quantities this form of Maxwell's
equations can circumvent the need to calculate the bound charges and currents.
The vector potential A may be interpreted as a generalized potential momentum per unit charge[44] just as is
interpreted as a generalized potential energy per unit charge.
Maxwell's equations when expressed in terms of the potentials can be cast into a form that agrees with special
relativity with little effort.[45] In relativity A together with forms the four-potential analogous to the
four-momentum which combines the momentum and energy of a particle. Using the four potential instead of the
electromagnetic tensor has the advantage of being much simpler; further it can be easily modified to work with
quantum mechanics.
Magnetic field
131
Quantum electrodynamics
In modern physics, the electromagnetic field is understood to be not a classical field, but rather a quantum field; it is
represented not as a vector of three numbers at each point, but as a vector of three quantum operators at each point.
The most accurate modern description of the electromagnetic interaction (and much else) is Quantum
electrodynamics (QED),[46] which is incorporated into a more complete theory known as the Standard Model of
particle physics.
In QED, the magnitude of the electromagnetic interactions between charged particles (and their antiparticles) is
computed using perturbation theory; these rather complex formulas have a remarkable pictorial representation as
Feynman diagrams in which virtual photons are exchanged.
Predictions of QED agree with experiments to an extremely high degree of accuracy: currently about 1012 (and
limited by experimental errors); for details see precision tests of QED. This makes QED one of the most accurate
physical theories constructed thus far.
All equations in this article are in the classical approximation, which is less accurate than the quantum description
mentioned here. However, under most everyday circumstances, the difference between the two theories is negligible.
The figure is a sketch of Earth's magnetic field represented by field lines. For most locations, the magnetic field has a
significant up/down component in addition to the North/South component. (There is also an East/West component;
Earth's magnetic poles do not coincide exactly with Earth's geological pole.) The magnetic field can be visualised as
a bar magnet buried deep in Earth's interior.
Earth's magnetic field is not constantthe strength of the field and the location of its poles vary. Moreover, the poles
periodically reverse their orientation in a process called geomagnetic reversal. The most recent reversal occurred
Magnetic field
132
Hall effect
The charge carriers of a current carrying conductor placed in a transverse magnetic field experience a sideways
Lorentz force; this results in a charge separation in a direction perpendicular to the current and to the magnetic field.
The resultant voltage in that direction is proportional to the applied magnetic field. This is known as the Hall effect.
The Hall effect is often used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. It is used as well to find the sign of the
dominant charge carriers in materials such as semiconductors (negative electrons or positive holes).
Magnetic circuits
An important use of H is in magnetic circuits where B= H inside a linear material. Here, is the magnetic
permeability of the material. This result is similar in form to Ohm's law J= E, where J is the current density, is
the conductance and E is the electric field. Extending this analogy, the counterpart to the macroscopic Ohm's law
(I= VR) is:
where
the circuit, and Rm is the reluctance of the circuit. Here the reluctance Rm is a quantity similar in nature to resistance
for the flux.
Using this analogy it is straightforward to calculate the magnetic flux of complicated magnetic field geometries, by
using all the available techniques of circuit theory.
Magnetic field
133
Magnetic dipoles
The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole is depicted in the figure. From
outside, the ideal magnetic dipole is identical to that of an ideal electric
dipole of the same strength. Unlike the electric dipole, a magnetic
dipole is properly modeled as a current loop having a current I and an
area a. Such a current loop has a magnetic moment of:
Magnetic field
Notes
[1] Technically, a magnetic field is a pseudo vector; pseudo-vectors, which also include torque and rotational velocity, are similar to vectors
except that they remain unchanged when the coordinates are inverted.
[2] His Epistola Petri Peregrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucaucourt Militem de Magnete, which is often shortened to Epistola de magnete,
is dated 1269 C.E.
[3] Whittaker 1951, p.34
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
134
Magnetic field
135
[25] As discussed above, magnetic field lines are primarily a conceptual tool used to represent the mathematics behind magnetic fields. The total
'number' of field lines is dependent on how the field lines are drawn. In practice, integral equations such as the one that follows in the main
text are used instead.
[26] Either B or H may be used for the magnetic field outside of the magnet.
[27] See Eq. 11.42 in E. Richard Cohen, David R. Lide, George L. Trigg (2003). AIP physics desk reference (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=JStYf6WlXpgC& pg=PA381) (3 ed.). Birkhuser. p.381. ISBN0-387-98973-0. .
[28] Griffiths 1999, p.438
[29] In practice, the BiotSavart law and other laws of magnetostatics are often used even when the currents are changing in time as long as it is
not changing too quickly. It is often used, for instance, for standard household currents which oscillate sixty times per second.
[30] Griffiths 1999, pp.222225
[31] The BiotSavart law contains the additional restriction (boundary condition) that the B-field must go to zero fast enough at infinity. It also
depends on the divergence of B being zero, which is always valid. (There are no magnetic charges.)
[32] Deissler, R.J. (2008). "Dipole in a magnetic field, work, and quantum spin" (http:/ / academic. csuohio. edu/ deissler/
PhysRevE_77_036609. pdf). Physical Review E 77 (3, pt 2): 036609. Bibcode2008PhRvE..77c6609D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.77.036609.
PMID18517545. .
[33] Griffiths 1999, pp.266268
[34] John Clarke Slater, Nathaniel Herman Frank (1969). Electromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=GYsphnFwUuUC& pg=PA69)
(first published in 1947 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p.69. ISBN0-486-62263-0. .
[35] Griffiths 1999, p.332
[36] A third term is needed for changing electric fields and polarization currents; this displacement current term is covered in Maxwell's
equations below.
[37] RJD Tilley (2004). Understanding Solids (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZVgOLCXNoMoC& pg=PA368). Wiley. p.368.
ISBN0-470-85275-5. .
[38] Sshin Chikazumi, Chad D. Graham (1997). Physics of ferromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=AZVfuxXF2GsC&
printsec=frontcover) (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p.118. ISBN0-19-851776-9. .
[39] Amikam Aharoni (2000). Introduction to the theory of ferromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=9RvNuIDh0qMC& pg=PA27) (2
ed.). Oxford University Press. p.27. ISBN0-19-850808-5. .
[40] M Brian Maple et al. (2008). "Unconventional superconductivity in novel materials" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=PguAgEQTiQwC&
pg=PA640). In K. H. Bennemann, John B. Ketterson. Superconductivity. Springer. p.640. ISBN3-540-73252-7. .
[41] Naoum Karchev (2003). "Itinerant ferromagnetism and superconductivity" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=3AFo_yxBkD0C& pg=PA169).
In Paul S. Lewis, D. Di (CON) Castro. Superconductivity research at the leading edge. Nova Publishers. p.169. ISBN1-59033-861-8. .
[42] A complete expression for Faraday's law of induction in terms of the electric E and magnetic fields can be written as:
where (t) is the moving closed path
bounding the moving surface (t), and dA is an element of surface area of (t). The first integral calculates the work done moving a charge a
distance d based upon the Lorentz force law. In the case where the bounding surface is stationary, the KelvinStokes theorem can be used to
show this equation is equivalent to the MaxwellFaraday equation.
[43] C. Doran and A. Lasenby (2003) Geometric Algebra for Physicists, Cambridge University Press, p.233
[44] E. J. Konopinski (1978). "What the electromagnetic vector potential describes". Am. J. Phys. 46 (5): 499502.
Bibcode1978AmJPh..46..499K. doi:10.1119/1.11298.
[45] Griffiths 1999, p.422
[46] For a good qualitative introduction see: Feynman, Richard (2006). QED: the strange theory of light and matter. Princeton University Press.
ISBN0-691-12575-9.
[47] Herbert, Yahreas (June 1954). "What makes the earth Wobble" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=NiEDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA96&
dq=What+ makes+ the+ earth+ wobble& q=What makes the earth wobble). Popular Science (New York: Godfrey Hammond): 266. .
[48] Serway, Raymond A.; Chris Vuille, Jerry S. Faughn (2009). College physics (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
p.628. ISBN978-0-495-38693-3.
[49] Kurtus, Ron (2004). "Magnets" (http:/ / www. school-for-champions. com/ science/ magnets. htm). School for champions: Physics topics. .
Retrieved 17 July 2010.
[50] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=381968
[51] The Solar Dynamo (http:/ / www. cora. nwra. com/ ~werne/ eos/ text/ dynamo. html), retrieved September 15, 2007.
[52] I. S. Falconer and M. I. Large (edited by I. M. Sefton), " Magnetism: Fields and Forces (http:/ / www. physics. usyd. edu. au/ super/
life_sciences/ electricity. html)" Lecture E6, The University of Sydney, retrieved 3 October 2008
[53] Robert Sanders, " Astronomers find magnetic Slinky in Orion (http:/ / berkeley. edu/ news/ media/ releases/ 2006/ 01/ 12_helical. shtml)",
12 January 2006 at UC Berkeley. Retrieved 3 October 2008
[54] (See magnetic moment for further information.)
B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103) (2 ed.). Wiley-IEEE. p.103. ISBN0-471-47741-9. .
Magnetic field
[55] Two experiments produced candidate events that were initially interpreted as monopoles, but these are now regarded to be inconclusive. For
details and references, see magnetic monopole.
References
Further reading
Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C. (1969). Introduction to modern electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN0-07-018388-0.
Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and
Applications. Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism. ISBN0-12-269951-3. OCLC162129430.
Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p.438. ISBN0-13-805326-X.
OCLC40251748.
Jiles, David (1994). Introduction to Electronic Properties of Materials (1st ed ed.). Springer.
ISBN0-412-49580-5.
Kraftmakher, Yaakov (2001). "Two experiments with rotating magnetic field" (http://www.iop.org/EJ/
abstract/0143-0807/22/5/302). Eur. J. Phys. 22: 477482.
Melle, Sonia; Rubio, Miguel A.; Fuller, Gerald G. (2000). "Structure and dynamics of magnetorheological fluids
in rotating magnetic fields" (http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRE/v61/i4/p4111_1). Phys. Rev. E 61:
41114117. Bibcode2000PhRvE..61.4111M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.61.4111.
Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994). Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.
ISBN0-13-948746-8. OCLC221993786.
Mielnik, Bogdan (1989). "An electron trapped in a rotating magnetic field" (http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/
servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JMAPAQ000030000002000537000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes).
Journal of Mathematical Physics 30 (2): 537549. Bibcode1989JMP....30..537M. doi:10.1063/1.528419.
Thalmann, Julia K. (2010). Evolution of Coronal Magnetic Fields. uni-edition. ISBN978-3-942171-41-0.
Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern
Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0810-8. OCLC51095685.
Whittaker, E. T. (1951). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (http://www.archive.org/details/
historyoftheorie00whitrich). Dover Publications. p.34. ISBN0-486-26126-3.
136
Magnetic field
137
External links
Information
Field density
Diagrams
Magnetic monopole
A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle in particle physics
that is an isolated magnet with only one magnetic pole (a north
pole without a south pole or vice-versa).[1][2] In more technical
terms, a magnetic monopole would have a net "magnetic charge".
Modern interest in the concept stems from particle theories,
notably the grand unified and superstring theories, which predict
their existence.[3][4]
Magnetism in bar magnets and electromagnets does not arise from
magnetic monopoles, and in fact there is no conclusive
experimental evidence that magnetic monopoles exist at all in the
universe.
Effective (non-isolated) magnetic monopole quasi-particles exist
in some condensed matter systems.
Historical background
Pre-twentieth century
Magnetic monopole
not exist: One of Maxwell's equations, now called Gauss's law for magnetism, is the mathematical statement that
there are no magnetic monopoles. Nevertheless, it was pointed out by Pierre Curie in 1894[7] that magnetic
monopoles could conceivably exist, despite not having been seen so far.
Twentieth century
The quantum theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul A.M. Dirac in 1931.[8] In this
paper, Dirac showed that if any magnetic monopoles exist in the universe, then all electric charge in the universe
must be quantized.[9] The electric charge is, in fact, quantized, which is consistent with (but does not prove) the
existence of monopoles.[9]
Since Dirac's paper, several systematic monopole searches have been performed. Experiments in 1975[10] and
1982[11] produced candidate events that were initially interpreted as monopoles, but are now regarded as
inconclusive.[12] Therefore, it remains an open question whether or not monopoles exist.
Further advances in theoretical particle physics, particularly developments in grand unified theories and quantum
gravity, have led to more compelling arguments that monopoles do exist. Joseph Polchinski, a string-theorist,
described the existence of monopoles as "one of the safest bets that one can make about physics not yet seen".[13]
These theories are not necessarily inconsistent with the experimental evidence. In some theoretical models, magnetic
monopoles are unlikely to be observed, because they are too massive to be created in particle accelerators, and also
too rare in the Universe to enter a particle detector with much probability.[13]
Some condensed matter systems propose a structure superficially similar to a magnetic monopole, known as a flux
tube. The ends of a flux tube form a magnetic dipole, but since they move independently, they can be treated for
many purposes as independent magnetic monopole quasiparticles. Since 2009, numerous news reports from the
popular media have incorrectly described these systems as the long-awaited discovery of the magnetic monopoles,
but the two phenomena are only superficially related to one another.[14] These condensed-matter systems continue to
be an area of active research. (See "Monopoles" in condensed-matter systems below.)
138
Magnetic monopole
139
and the negative charge is made of electrons, but a magnetic dipole does not have different types of matter creating
the north pole and south pole. Instead, the two magnetic poles arise simultaneously from the aggregate effect of all
the currents and intrinsic moments throughout the magnet. Because of this, the two poles of a magnetic dipole must
always have equal and opposite strength, and the two poles cannot be separated from each other.
Maxwell's equations
Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism relate the electric and magnetic fields to each other and to the motions of
electric charges. The standard equations provide for electric charges, but they posit no magnetic charges. Except for
this difference, the equations are symmetric under the interchange of the electric and magnetic fields.[15] In fact,
symmetric Maxwell's equations can be written when all charges (and hence electric currents) are zero, and this is
how the electromagnetic wave equation is derived.
Fully symmetric Maxwell's equations can also be written if one allows for the possibility of "magnetic charges"
analogous to electric charges.[16] With the inclusion of a variable for the density of these magnetic charges, say m,
there will also be a "magnetic current density" variable in the equations, jm.
If magnetic charges do not exist or if they do exist but are not present in a region of space then the new terms in
Maxwell's equations are all zero, and the extended equations reduce to the conventional equations of
electromagnetism such as B=0 (where is divergence and B is the magnetic B field).
Maxwell's equations and Lorentz force equation with magnetic monopoles: Gaussian cgs
units
Name
Gauss's law
Gauss's law for magnetism
Faraday's law of induction
Ampre's law (with Maxwell's extension)
[17][18]
In these equations m is the magnetic charge density, jm is the magnetic current density, and qm is the magnetic
charge of a test particle, all defined analogously to the related quantities of electric charge and current; v is the
particle's velocity and c is the speed of light. For all other definitions and details, see Maxwell's equations. For the
equations in nondimensionalized form, remove the factors ofc.
Magnetic monopole
140
In SI units
In SI units, there are two conflicting units in use for magnetic charge qm: webers (Wb) and amperemeters (Am).
The conversion between them is qm(Wb) = 0qm(Am), since the units are 1 Wb = 1 HA = (1 Hm1)(1 Am) by
dimensional analysis (H is the Henry the SI unit of inductance).
Maxwell's equations then take the following forms (using the same notation above):[19]
Maxwell's equations and Lorentz force equation with magnetic monopoles: SI units
Name
Weber convention
Amperemeter convention
Gauss's Law
Gauss's Law for magnetism
Faraday's Law of induction
Ampre's Law (with Maxwell's extension)
Lorentz force equation
Dirac's quantization
One of the defining advances in quantum theory was Paul Dirac's work on developing a relativistic quantum
electromagnetism. Before his formulation, the presence of electric charge was simply "inserted" into the equations of
quantum mechanics (QM), but in 1931 Dirac showed that a discrete charge naturally "falls out" of QM. That is to
say, we can maintain the form of Maxwell's equations and still have magnetic charges.
Consider a system consisting of a single stationary electric monopole (an electron, say) and a single stationary
magnetic monopole. Classically, the electromagnetic field surrounding them has a momentum density given by the
Poynting vector, and it also has a total angular momentum, which is proportional to the product qeqm, and
independent of the distance between them.
Quantum mechanics dictates, however, that angular momentum is quantized in units of , so therefore the product
qeqm must also be quantized. This means that if even a single magnetic monopole existed in the universe, and the
form of Maxwell's equations is valid, all electric charges would then be quantized.
What are the units in which magnetic charge would be quantized? Although it would be possible simply to integrate
over all space to find the total angular momentum in the above example, Dirac took a different approach. This led
him to new ideas. He considered a point-like magnetic charge whose magnetic field behaves as qm/r2 and is
directed in the radial direction, located at the origin. Because the divergence of B is equal to zero almost everywhere,
except for the locus of the magnetic monopole at r=0, one can locally define the vector potential such that the curl
of the vector potential A equals the magnetic field B.
However, the vector potential cannot be defined globally precisely because the divergence of the magnetic field is
proportional to the Dirac delta function at the origin. We must define one set of functions for the vector potential on
the "northern hemisphere" (the half-space z > 0 above the particle), and another set of functions for the "southern
hemisphere". These two vector potentials are matched at the "equator" (the plane z = 0 through the particle), and they
differ by a gauge transformation. The wave function of an electrically-charged particle (a "probe charge") that orbits
the "equator" generally changes by a phase, much like in the AharonovBohm effect. This phase is proportional to
the electric charge qe of the probe, as well as to the magnetic charge qm of the source. Dirac was originally
considering an electron whose wave function is described by the Dirac equation.
Magnetic monopole
141
Because the electron returns to the same point after the full trip around the equator, the phase of its wave function
exp(i) must be unchanged, which implies that the phase added to the wave function must be a multiple of 2:
Units
Condition
Gaussian-cgs units
[20]
where 0 is the vacuum permittivity, = h/2 is the reduced Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, and is the set
of integers.
This is known as the Dirac quantization condition. The hypothetical existence of a magnetic monopole would
imply that the electric charge must be quantized in certain units; also, the existence of the electric charges implies
that the magnetic charges of the hypothetical magnetic monopoles, if they exist, must be quantized in units inversely
proportional to the elementary electric charge.
At the time it was not clear if such a thing existed, or even had to. After all, another theory could come along that
would explain charge quantization without need for the monopole. The concept remained something of a curiosity.
However, in the time since the publication of this seminal work, no other widely accepted explanation of charge
quantization has appeared. (The concept of local gauge invariancesee gauge theory belowprovides a natural
explanation of charge quantization, without invoking the need for magnetic monopoles; but only if the U(1) gauge
group is compact, in which case we will have magnetic monopoles anyway.)
If we maximally extend the definition of the vector potential for the southern hemisphere, it will be defined
everywhere except for a semi-infinite line stretched from the origin in the direction towards the northern pole. This
semi-infinite line is called the Dirac string and its effect on the wave function is analogous to the effect of the
solenoid in the AharonovBohm effect. The quantization condition comes from the requirement that the phases
around the Dirac string are trivial, which means that the Dirac string must be unphysical. The Dirac string is merely
an artifact of the coordinate chart used and should not be taken seriously.
The Dirac monopole is a singular solution of Maxwell's equation (because it requires removing the worldline from
spacetime); in more complicated theories, it is superseded by a smooth solution such as the 't HooftPolyakov
monopole.
Topological interpretation
Dirac string
A gauge theory like electromagnetism is defined by a gauge field, which associates a group element to each path in
space time. For infinitesimal paths, the group element is close to the identity, while for longer paths the group
element is the successive product of the infinitesimal group elements along the way.
In electrodynamics, the group is U(1), unit complex numbers under multiplication. For infinitesimal paths, the group
element is 1+iAdx which implies that for finite paths parametrized by s, the group element is:
The map from paths to group elements is called the Wilson loop or the holonomy, and for a U(1) gauge group it is
the phase factor which the wavefunction of a charged particle acquires as it traverses the path. For a loop:
Magnetic monopole
So that the phase a charged particle gets when going in a loop is the magnetic flux through the loop. When a small
solenoid has a magnetic flux, there are interference fringes for charged particles which go around the solenoid, or
around different sides of the solenoid, which reveal its presence.
But if all particle charges are integer multiples of e, solenoids with a flux of 2/e have no interference fringes,
because the phase factor for any charged particle is e2i=1. Such a solenoid, if thin enough, is
quantum-mechanically invisible. If such a solenoid were to carry a flux of 2/e, when the flux leaked out from one
of its ends it would be indistinguishable from a monopole.
Dirac's monopole solution in fact describes an infinitesimal line solenoid ending at a point, and the location of the
solenoid is the singular part of the solution, the Dirac string. Dirac strings link monopoles and antimonopoles of
opposite magnetic charge, although in Dirac's version, the string just goes off to infinity. The string is unobservable,
so you can put it anywhere, and by using two coordinate patches, the field in each patch can be made nonsingular by
sliding the string to where it cannot be seen.
142
Magnetic monopole
so that any cycle in the group can be moved around so that it starts at the identity, then its lift to the covering
group ends at P, which is a lift of the identity. Going around the loop twice gets you to P2, three times to P3, all
lifts of the identity. But there are only finitely many lifts of the identity, because the lifts can't accumulate. This
number of times one has to traverse the loop to make it contractible is small, for example if the GUT group is
SO(3), the covering group is SU(2), and going around any loop twice is enough.
7. This means that there is a continuous gauge-field configuration in the GUT group allows the U(1) monopole
configuration to unwind itself at short distances, at the cost of not staying in the U(1). In order to do this with as
little energy as possible, you should leave only the U(1) gauge group in the neighborhood of one point, which is
called the core of the monopole. Outside the core, the monopole has only magnetic field energy.
Hence, the Dirac monopole is a topological defect in a compact U(1) gauge theory. When there is no GUT, the
defect is a singularity the core shrinks to a point. But when there is some sort of short-distance regulator on space
time, the monopoles have a finite mass. Monopoles occur in lattice U(1), and there the core size is the lattice size. In
general, they are expected to occur whenever there is a short-distance regulator.
String theory
In our universe, quantum gravity provides the regulator. When gravity is included, the monopole singularity can be a
black hole, and for large magnetic charge and mass, the black hole mass is equal to the black hole charge, so that the
mass of the magnetic black hole is not infinite. If the black hole can decay completely by Hawking radiation, the
lightest charged particles cannot be too heavy. The lightest monopole should have a mass less than or comparable to
its charge in natural units.
So in a consistent holographic theory, of which string theory is the only known example, there are always finite-mass
monopoles. For ordinary electromagnetism, the mass bound is not very useful because it is about same size as the
Planck mass.
Mathematical formulation
In mathematics, a gauge field is defined as a connection over a principal G-bundle over spacetime. G is the gauge
group, and it acts on each fiber of the bundle separately.
A connection on a G bundle tells you how to glue F's together at nearby points of M. It starts with a continuous
symmetry group G which acts on F, and then it associates a group element with each infinitesimal path. Group
multiplication along any path tells you how to move from one point on the bundle to another, by acting the G
element of a path on the fiber F.
In mathematics, the definition of bundle is designed to emphasize topology, so the notion of connection is added on
as an afterthought. In physics, the connection is the fundamental physical object. One of the fundamental
observations in the theory of characteristic classes in algebraic topology is that many homotopical structures of
nontrivial principal bundles may be expressed as an integral of some polynomial over any connection over it. Note
that any connection over a trivial bundle can never give us a nontrivial principal bundle.
If space time has no topology, if it is R4 the space of all possible connections of the G-bundle is connected. But
consider what happens when we remove a timelike worldline from spacetime. The resulting spacetime is
homotopically equivalent to the topological sphere S2.
A principal G-bundle over S2 is defined by covering S2 by two charts, each homeomorphic to the open 2-ball such
that their intersection is homeomorphic to the strip S1I. 2-balls are homotopically trivial and the strip is
homotopically equivalent to the circle S1. So a topological classification of the possible connections is reduced to
classifying the transition functions. The transition function maps the strip to G, and the different ways of mapping a
strip into G are given by the first homotopy group of G.
143
Magnetic monopole
So in the G-bundle formulation, a gauge theory admits Dirac monopoles provided G is not simply connected,
whenever there are paths that go around the group that cannot be deformed to nothing. U(1), which has quantized
charges, is not simply connected and can have Dirac monopoles while R, its universal covering group, is simply
connected, doesn't have quantized charges and does not admit Dirac monopoles. The mathematical definition is
equivalent to the physics definition provided that, following Dirac, gauge fields are allowed which are defined only
patch-wise and the gauge field on different patches are glued after a gauge transformation.
The total magnetic flux is none other than the first Chern number of the principal bundle, and depends only upon the
choice of the principal bundle, and not the specific connection over it. In other words, it's a topological invariant.
This argument for monopoles is a restatement of the lasso argument for a pure U(1) theory. It generalizes to d+1
dimensions with d2 in several ways. One way is to extend everything into the extra dimensions, so that U(1)
monopoles become sheets of dimension d3. Another way is to examine the type of topological singularity at a
point with the homotopy group d2(G).
144
Magnetic monopole
145
Magnetic monopole
Another example is a paper in the February 11, 2011 issue of Nature Physics which describes creation and
measurement of long-lived magnetic monopole quasiparticle currents in spin ice. By applying a magnetic-field pulse
to crystal of dysprosium titanate at 0.36 K, the authors created a relaxing magnetic current that lasted for several
minutes. They measured the current by means of the electromotive force it induced in a solenoid coupled to a
sensitive amplifier, and quantitatively described it using a chemical kinetic model of point-like charges obeying the
OnsagerWien mechanism of carrier dissociation and recombination. They thus derived the microscopic parameters
of monopole motion in spin ice and identified the distinct roles of free and bound magnetic charges.[30] This research
went onto win the 2012 Europhysics Prize for condensed matter physics
Appendix
In physics the phrase "magnetic monopole" usually denoted a YangMills potential A and Higgs field whose
equations of motion are determined by the YangMills action
In mathematics, the phrase custumarily refers to a static solution to these equation in the
BogomolnyParasadSommerfeld limit which realizes, within topological class, the absolutes minimum of
the functional
This means that it in a connection A on a principal G-bundle over R3 (c.f. also Connections on a manifold; principal
G-object) and a section of the associated adjoint bundle of Lie algebras such that the curvature FA and covariant
derivative DA satisfy the Bogomolny equations
and the boundary conditions.
Pure mathematical advances in the theory of monopoles from the 1980's onwards have often proceeded on the basis
of physically motived questions.
The equations themselves are invariant under gauge transformation and orientation-preserving symmetries. When
is large, /|||| defines a mapping from a 2-sphere of radius in R3 to an adjoint orbit G/k and the homotopy class of
this mapping is called the magnetic charge. Most work has been done in the case G = SU(2), where the charge is a
positive integer k. The absolute minimum value of the functional is then 8k and the coefficient m in the asymptotic
expansion of /|||| is k/2.
The first SU(2) solution was found by E. B. Bogomolny, J. K. Parasad and C. M. Sommerfield in 1975. It is
spherically symmetric of charge 1 and has the form
In 1980, C.H.Taubes[31] showed by a gluing construction that there exist solutions for all large k and soon after
explicit axially-symmetric solutions were found. The first exact solution in the general case was given in 1981 by
R.S.Ward for
in terms of elliptic function.
There are two ways of solving the Bogomolny equations. The first is by twistor methods. In the formulation of
N.J.Hitchin[32], an arbitrary solution corresponds to a holomorphic vector bundle over the complex surface TP1, the
tangent bundle of the projective line. This is naturally isomorphic to the space of oriented straight lines in R3.
146
Magnetic monopole
147
The boundary condition show that the holomorphic bundle is an extension of line bundles determined by a compact
algebraic curve of genus (k1)2 (the spectral curve) in TP1, satisfying certain constraints.
The second method, due to W.Nahm[33], involves solving an eigen value problem for the coupled Dirac operator and
transforming the equations with their boundary conditions into a system of ordinary differential equations, the Nahm
equations.
, where
is the space of
strongly centred monopoles. This space features in an application of S-duality in theoretical physics, and in [45]
G.B.Segal and A.Selby studied its topology and the L2 harmonic forms defined on it, partially confirming the
physical prediction.
Magnetic monopole on hyperbolic three-space were investigated from the twistor point of view b M.F.Atiyah [46]
(replacing the complex surface TP1 by the comoplement of the anti-diagonal in P1 P1) and in terms of discrete
Nahm equations by Murray and M.A.Singer [47].
Magnetic monopole
Notes
[1] Dark Cosmos: In Search of Our Universe's Missing Mass and Energy, by Dan Hooper, p192 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=tGBUvLpgmUMC& pg=PA192)
[2] Particle Data Group summary of magnetic monopole search (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2004/ listings/ s028. pdf)
[3] Wen, Xiao-Gang; Witten, Edward, Electric and magnetic charges in superstring models,Nuclear Physics B, Volume 261, p. 651677
[4] S. Coleman, The Magnetic Monopole 50 years Later, reprinted in Aspects of Symmetry
[5] The encyclopdia britannica, Volume 17, p352 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=N1YEAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA352)
[6] Principles of Physics by William Francis Magie, p424 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6rYXAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA424)
[7] Pierre Curie, Sur la possibilit d'existence de la conductibilit magntique et du magntisme libre (On the possible existence of magnetic
conductivity and free magnetism), Sances de la Socit Franaise de Physique (Paris), p76 (1894). (French) Free access online copy (http:/
/ www. archive. org/ stream/ sancesdelasocit19physgoog).
[8] Paul Dirac, "Quantised Singularities in the Electromagnetic Field". Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A 133, 60 (1931). Free web link (http:/ / users.
physik. fu-berlin. de/ ~kleinert/ files/ dirac1931. pdf).
[9] Lecture notes by Robert Littlejohn (http:/ / bohr. physics. berkeley. edu/ classes/ 221/ 0708/ lectures/ Lecture. 2007. 10. 11. pdf), University
of California, Berkeley, 20078
[10] P. B. Price; E. K. Shirk; W. Z. Osborne; L. S. Pinsky (25 August 1975). "Evidence for Detection of a Moving Magnetic Monopole".
Physical Review Letters (American Physical Society) 35 (8): 487490. Bibcode1975PhRvL..35..487P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.487.
[11] Blas Cabrera (17 May 1982). "First Results from a Superconductive Detector for Moving Magnetic Monopoles". Physical Review Letters
(American Physical Society) 48 (20): 13781381. Bibcode1982PhRvL..48.1378C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.48.1378.
[12] Milton p.60
[13] Polchinski, arXiv 2003 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0304042)
[14] Magnetic monopoles spotted in spin ices (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ news/ 40302), 3 September 2009. "Oleg Tchernyshyov at
Johns Hopkins University [a researcher in this field] cautions that the theory and experiments are specific to spin ices, and are not likely to
shed light on magnetic monopoles as predicted by Dirac."
[15] The fact that the electric and magnetic fields can be written in a symmetric way is specific to the fact that space is three-dimensional. When
the equations of electromagnetism are extrapolated to other dimensions, the magnetic field is described as being a rank-two antisymmetric
tensor, whereas the electric field remains a true vector. In dimensions other than three, these two mathematical objects do not have the same
number of components.
[16] http:/ / www. ieeeghn. org/ wiki/ index. php/ STARS:Maxwell%27s_Equations
[17] F. Moulin (2001). "Magnetic monopoles and Lorentz force". Nuovo Cimento B 116 (8): 869877. arXiv:math-ph/0203043.
Bibcode2001NCimB.116..869M.
[18] Wolfgang Rindler (November 1989). "Relativity and electromagnetism: The force on a magnetic monopole". American Journal of Physics
(American Journal of Physics) 57 (11): 993994. Bibcode1989AmJPh..57..993R. doi:10.1119/1.15782.
[19] For the convention where magnetic charge has units of webers, see Jackson 1999. In particular, for Maxwell's equations, see section 6.11,
equation (6.150), page 273, and for the Lorentz force law, see page 290, exercise 6.17(a). For the convention where magnetic charge has units
of ampere-meters, see (for example) arXiv:physics/0508099v1 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0508099v1), eqn (4).
[20] Jackson 1999, section 6.11, equation (6.153), page 275
[21] http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v429/ n6987/ full/ 429010a. html
[22] Alvarez, Luis W. "Analysis of a Reported Magnetic Monopole" (http:/ / usparc. ihep. su/ spires/ find/ hep/ www?key=93726). In ed. Kirk,
W. T.. Proceedings of the 1975 international symposium on lepton and photon interactions at high energies. International symposium on
lepton and photon interactions at high energies, 21 Aug 1975. pp.967. .
[23] Zhong, Fang; Naoto Nagosa, Mei S. Takahashi, Atsushi Asamitsu, Roland Mathieu, Takeshi Ogasawara, Hiroyuki Yamada, Masashi
Kawasaki, Yoshinori Tokura, Kiyoyuki Terakura (October 3, 2003). "The Anomalous Hall Effect and Magnetic Monopoles in Momentum
Space". Science 302 (5642): 9295. doi:10.1126/science.1089408. ISSN 1095-9203. http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/
302/ 5642/ 92. Retrieved on 2 August 2007.
[24] Making magnetic monopoles, and other exotica, in the lab (http:/ / www. symmetrymagazine. org/ breaking/ 2009/ 01/ 29/
making-magnetic-monopoles-and-other-exotica-in-the-lab/ ), Symmetry Breaking, 29 January 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
[25] Inducing a Magnetic Monopole with Topological Surface States (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 1167747), American
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Science Express magazine, Xiao-Liang Qi, Rundong Li, Jiadong Zang, Shou-Cheng
Zhang, 29 January 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
[26] Magnetic monopoles in spin ice (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature06433), C. Castelnovo, R. Moessner and S. L. Sondhi, Nature 451,
4245 (3 January 2008)
[27] Nature 461, 956959 (15 October 2009); (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v461/ n7266/ abs/ nature08500. html)
doi:10.1038/nature08500, Steven Bramwell et al
[28] "Magnetic Monopoles Detected In A Real Magnet For The First Time" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 09/ 090903163725.
htm). Science Daily. 4 September 2009. . Retrieved 4 September 2009.
[29] D.J.P. Morris, D.A. Tennant, S.A. Grigera, B. Klemke, C. Castelnovo, R. Moessner, C. Czter-nasty, M. Meissner, K.C. Rule, J.-U.
Hoffmann, K. Kiefer, S. Gerischer, D. Slobinsky, and R.S. Perry (3 September 2009). "Dirac Strings and Magnetic Monopoles in Spin Ice
148
Magnetic monopole
Dy2Ti2O7". Science. arXiv:1011.1174. Bibcode2009Sci...326..411M. doi:10.1126/science.1178868. PMID19729617.
[30] S. R. Giblin, S. T. Bramwell, P. C. W. Holdsworth, D. Prabhakaran & I. Terry (13 February 2011). Creation and measurement of long-lived
magnetic monopole currents in spin ice (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nphys/ journal/ v7/ n3/ full/ nphys1896. html). Nature Physics.
Bibcode2011NatPh...7..252G. doi:10.1038/nphys1896. . Retrieved 28 February 2011.
[31] A.Jaffe, C.H.Taubes (1980). Vortices and monopoles.
[32] N.J.Hitchin (1982). Monopoles and geodesics.
[33] W.Nahm (1982). The construction of all self-dual monopoles by the ADHM mothod.
[34] N.J.Hitchin (1983). On the construction of monopoles.
[35] N.J.Hitchin (1999). Integrable sustems in Riemannian geometry (K.Uhlenbeck ed.). C-L.Terng (ed.).
[36] N.J.Hitchin, N.S.Manton, M.K.Murray (1995). Symmetric Monopoles.
[37] M.K.Murray (1983). Monopoles and spectral curves for arbitrary Lie groups.
[38] J.Hurtubise, M.K.Murray (1989). On the construction of Monopoles for the classical groups.
[39] C.H.Taubes (1983). Stability in YangMills theories.
[40] M.F.Atiyah, N.J.Hitchin (1988). The geometry and dynamics of magnetic monopoles. Princeton Univ.Press.
[41] S.K.Donaldson (1984). Nahms equations and the classification of monopoles.
[42] M.F.Atiyah, N.J.Hitchin (1988). The geometry and dynamics of magnetic monopoles. Princeton Univ.Press.
[43] N.J.Hitchin (1999). Integrable sustems in Riemannian geometry (K.Uhlenbeck ed.). C-L.Terng (ed.).
[44] M.F.Atiyah, N.J.Hitchin (1988). The geometry and dynamics of magnetic monopoles. Princeton Univ.Press.
[45] G.B.Segal, A.Selby (1996). The cohomology of the space of magnetic monopoles.
[46] M.F.Atiyah (1987). Magnetic monopoles in hyperbolic space, Vector bundles on algebraic varieties. Oxford Univ.Press.
[47] M.K.Murray (2000). On the complete integrability of the discrete Nahm equations.
[4] N.J.Hitchin, M.K.Murray (1988). Spectral curves and the ADHM method.
[15] P.M.Sutcliffe (1997). BPS monopoles.
References
Brau, Charles A. (2004). Modern Problems in Classical Electrodynamics. Oxford University Press.
ISBN0-19-514665-4.
Jackson, John David (1999). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X.
Milton, Kimball A. (June 2006). "Theoretical and experimental status of magnetic monopoles". Reports on
Progress in Physics 69 (6): 16371711. arXiv:hep-ex/0602040. Bibcode2006RPPh...69.1637M.
doi:10.1088/0034-4885/69/6/R02.
Shnir, Yakov M. (2005). Magnetic Monopoles. Springer-Verlag. ISBN3-540-25277-0.
External links
Magnetic Monopole Searches (lecture notes) (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0302011)
Particle Data Group summary of magnetic monopole search (http://pdg.lbl.gov/2004/listings/s028.pdf)
'Race for the Pole' Dr David Milstead (http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/56) Freeview 'Snapshot'
video by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU.
Interview with Jonathan Morris (http://www.drillingsraum.com/magnetic_monopole/magnetic_monopole.
html) about magnetic monopoles and magnetic monopole quasiparticles. Drillingsraum, 16 April 2010
This article incorporates material from N. Hitchin (2001), "Magnetic Monopole" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.
org/ index. php?title=magnetic_monopole), in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer,
ISBN978-1-55608-010-4, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License and GNU
Free Documentation License.
149
Magnetic refrigeration
Magnetic refrigeration
Magnetic refrigeration is a cooling
technology
based
on
the
magnetocaloric effect. This technique
can be used to attain extremely low
temperatures, as well as the ranges
used
in
common
refrigerators,
depending on the design of the system.
The effect was first observed by the
German physicist Emil Warburg
(1880) and the fundamental principle
was suggested by Debye (1926) and
Giauque (1927).[1] The first working
magnetic
refrigerators
were
constructed
by
several
groups
Gadolinium alloy heats up inside the magnetic field and loses thermal energy to the
beginning
in
1933.
Magnetic
environment, so it exits the field cooler than when it entered.
refrigeration was the first method
developed for cooling below about
0.3K (a temperature attainable by 3He refrigeration, that is pumping on the 3He vapors).
150
Magnetic refrigeration
151
Thermodynamic cycle
The cycle is performed as a
refrigeration cycle, analogous to the
Carnot cycle, and can be described at a
starting point whereby the chosen
working substance is introduced into a
magnetic field, i.e., the magnetic flux
density is increased. The working
material is the refrigerant, and starts in
thermal
equilibrium
with
the
refrigerated environment.
Adiabatic magnetization: A
magnetocaloric substance is placed
in an insulated environment. The
increasing external magnetic field
(+H) causes the magnetic dipoles of
the atoms to align, thereby
decreasing the material's magnetic
entropy and heat capacity. Since
overall energy is not lost (yet) and
therefore total entropy is not
reduced (according to
thermodynamic laws), the net result
is that the item heats up (T + Tad).
Isomagnetic enthalpic transfer: This added heat can then be removed (-Q) by a fluid or gas gaseous or liquid
helium, for example. The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the dipoles from reabsorbing the heat. Once
sufficiently cooled, the magnetocaloric substance and the coolant are separated (H=0).
Adiabatic demagnetization: The substance is returned to another adiabatic (insulated) condition so the total
entropy remains constant. However, this time the magnetic field is decreased, the thermal energy causes the
magnetic moments to overcome the field, and thus the sample cools, i.e., an adiabatic temperature change. Energy
(and entropy) transfers from thermal entropy to magnetic entropy (disorder of the magnetic dipoles).
Isomagnetic entropic transfer: The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the material from heating back up.
The material is placed in thermal contact with the environment being refrigerated. Because the working material
is cooler than the refrigerated environment (by design), heat energy migrates into the working material (+Q).
Once the refrigerant and refrigerated environment are in thermal equilibrium, the cycle begins again.
Applied technique
The basic operating principle of an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator (ADR) is the use of a strong magnetic
field to control the entropy of a sample of material, often called the "refrigerant". Magnetic field constrains the
orientation of magnetic dipoles in the refrigerant. The stronger the magnetic field, the more aligned the dipoles are,
and this corresponds to lower entropy and heat capacity because the material has (effectively) lost some of its
internal degrees of freedom. If the refrigerant is kept at a constant temperature through thermal contact with a heat
sink (usually liquid helium) while the magnetic field is switched on, the refrigerant must lose some energy because it
is equilibrated with the heat sink. When the magnetic field is subsequently switched off, the heat capacity of the
refrigerant rises again because the degrees of freedom associated with orientation of the dipoles are once again
Magnetic refrigeration
liberated, pulling their share of equipartitioned energy from the motion of the molecules, thereby lowering the
overall temperature of a system with decreased energy. Since the system is now insulated when the magnetic field is
switched off, the process is adiabatic, i.e., the system can no longer exchange energy with its surroundings (the heat
sink), and its temperature decreases below its initial value, that of the heat sink.
The operation of a standard ADR proceeds roughly as follows. First, a strong magnetic field is applied to the
refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a
state of lowered entropy. The heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy.
Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched
off, increasing the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the
helium heat sink. In practice, the magnetic field is decreased slowly in order to provide continuous cooling and keep
the sample at an approximately constant low temperature. Once the field falls to zero or to some low limiting value
determined by the properties of the refrigerant, the cooling power of the ADR vanishes, and heat leaks will cause the
refrigerant to warm up.
Working materials
The magnetocaloric effect is an intrinsic property of a magnetic solid. This thermal response of a solid to the
application or removal of magnetic fields is maximized when the solid is near its magnetic ordering temperature.
The magnitudes of the magnetic entropy and the adiabatic temperature changes are strongly dependent upon the
magnetic order process: the magnitude is generally small in antiferromagnets, ferrimagnets and spin glass systems; it
can be substantial for normal ferromagnets which undergo a second order magnetic transition; and it is generally the
largest for a ferromagnet which undergoes a first order magnetic transition.
Also, crystalline electric fields and pressure can have a substantial influence on magnetic entropy and adiabatic
temperature changes.
Currently, alloys of gadolinium producing 3 - 4 K per tesla [K/T] of change in a magnetic field can be used for
magnetic refrigeration.
Recent research on materials that exhibit a giant entropy change showed that Gd5(SixGe1x)4, La(FexSi1x)13Hx and
MnFeP1xAsx alloys, for example, are some of the most promising substitutes for gadolinium and its alloys
GdDy, GdTb, etc. These materials are called giant magnetocaloric effect (GMCE) materials.
Gadolinium and its alloys are the best material available today for magnetic refrigeration near room temperature
since they undergo second-order phase transitions which have no magnetic or thermal hysteresis involved.
Paramagnetic salts
The originally suggested refrigerant was a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium nitrate. The active magnetic
dipoles in this case are those of the electron shells of the paramagnetic atoms.
In a paramagnetic salt ADR, the heat sink is usually provided by a pumped 4He (about 1.2K) or 3He (about 0.3K)
cryostat. An easily attainable 1T magnetic field is generally required for the initial magnetization. The minimum
temperature attainable is determined by the self-magnetization tendencies of the chosen refrigerant salt, but
temperatures from 1 to 100 mK are accessible. Dilution refrigerators had for many years supplanted paramagnetic
salt ADRs, but interest in space-based and simple to use lab-ADRs has remained, due to the complexity and
unreliability of the dilution refrigerator
Eventually paramagnetic salts become either diamagnetic or ferromagnetic, limiting the lowest temperature which
can be reached using this method.
152
Magnetic refrigeration
Nuclear demagnetization
One variant of adiabatic demagnetization that continues to find substantial research application is nuclear
demagnetization refrigeration (NDR). NDR follows the same principle described above, but in this case the cooling
power arises from the magnetic dipoles of the nuclei of the refrigerant atoms, rather than their electron
configurations. Since these dipoles are of much smaller magnitude, they are less prone to self-alignment and have
lower intrinsic minimum fields. This allows NDR to cool the nuclear spin system to very low temperatures, often 1
K or below. Unfortunately, the small magnitudes of nuclear magnetic dipoles also makes them less inclined to align
to external fields. Magnetic fields of 3 teslas or greater are often needed for the initial magnetization step of NDR.
In NDR systems, the initial heat sink must sit at very low temperatures (10100 mK). This precooling is often
provided by the mixing chamber of a dilution refrigerator or a paramagnetic salt.
Commercial development
This refrigeration, once proven viable, could be used in any possible application where cooling, heating or power
generation is used today. Since it is only at an early stage of development, there are several technical and efficiency
issues that should be analyzed. The magnetocaloric refrigeration system is composed of pumps, electric motors,
secondary fluids, heat exchangers of different types, magnets and magnetic materials. These processes are greatly
affected by irreversibilities and should be adequately considered.
Appliances using this method could have a smaller environmental impact if the method is perfected and replaces
hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs) refrigerators (some refrigerators still use HFCs which have considerable effect on the
ozone layer. At present, however, the superconducting magnets that are used in the process have to themselves be
cooled down to the temperature of liquid nitrogen, or with even colder, and relatively expensive, liquid helium.
Considering these fluids have boiling points of 77.36K and 4.22K respectively, the technology is clearly not costand energy-efficient for home appliances, but for experimental, laboratory, and industrial use only.
Recent research on materials that exhibit a large entropy change showed that alloys are some of the most promising
substitutes of gadolinium and its alloys GdDy, GdTb, etc. Gadolinium and its alloys are the best material
available today for magnetic refrigeration near room temperature. There are still some thermal and magnetic
hysteresis problems to be solved for them to become truly useful [V. Provenzano, A.J. Shapiro, and R.D. Shull,
Nature 429, 853 (2004)] and scientists are working hard to achieve this goal. Thermal hysteresis problems is solved
therefore in adding ferrite (5:4).
Research and a demonstration proof of concept in 2001 succeeded in applying commercial-grade materials and
permanent magnets at room temperatures to construct a magnetocaloric refrigerator which promises wide use.[4]
This technique has been used for many years in cryogenic systems for producing further cooling in systems already
cooled to temperatures of 4K and lower. In England, a company called Cambridge Magnetic Refrigeration [5]
produces cryogenic systems based on the magnetocaloric effect.
On August 20, 2007, the Ris National Laboratory (Denmark) at the Technical University of Denmark, claimed to
have reached a milestone in their magnetic cooling research when they reported a temperature span of 8.7 C.[6] They
hope to introduce the first commercial applications of the technology by 2010.
153
Magnetic refrigeration
154
the entropy. Moving that object out of the field allows the object to increase its entropy by absorbing heat from the
environment and disordering the spins. In this way, heat can be taken from one area to another. Should materials be
found to display this effect near room temperature, refrigeration without the need for compression may be possible,
increasing energy efficiency.
The use of this technology to replace larger vapor-compression refrigeration units, which typically achieve
performance coefficients of 60% of that of a theoretical ideal Carnot cycle is unlikely in the near term. Small
domestic refrigerators are however much less efficient. [8]
This technology could eventually compete with other cryogenic heat pumps for gas liquefaction purposes.
Gschneidner stated in 1999 that: "large-scale applications using magnetic refrigeration, such as commercial air
conditioning and supermarket refrigeration systems, could be available within 510 years. Within 1015 years, the
technology could be available in home refrigerators and air conditioners."[9]
History
The effect was discovered in pure iron in 1880 by German physicist Emil Warburg. Originally, the cooling effect
varied between 0.5 to 2K/T.
Major advances first appeared in the late 1920s when cooling via adiabatic demagnetization was independently
proposed by two scientists, Peter Debye in 1926 and William Giauque in 1927.
This cooling technology was first demonstrated experimentally by chemist Nobel Laureate William F. Giauque and
his colleague D. P. MacDougall in 1933 for cryogenic purposes when they reached 0.25K.[10] Between 1933 and
1997, a number of advances in utilization of the MCE for cooling occurred.[11][12][13][14]
In 1997, the first near room temperature proof of concept magnetic refrigerator was demonstrated by Karl A.
Gschneidner, Jr. by the Iowa State University at Ames Laboratory. This event attracted interest from scientists and
companies worldwide who started developing new kinds of room temperature materials and magnetic refrigerator
designs.[2] A major breakthrough came 2002 when a group at the University of Amsterdam demonstrated the giant
magnetocaloric effect in MnFe(P,As) alloys that are based on earth abundant materials.[15]
Refrigerators based on the magnetocaloric effect have been demonstrated in laboratories, using magnetic fields
starting at 0.6T up to 10T. Magnetic fields above 2T are difficult to produce with permanent magnets and are
produced by a superconducting magnet (1T is about 20,000 times the Earth's magnetic field).
Location
Announcement
date
Ames,
February 20,
Ames
[16] Iowa/Madison, 1997
Laboratory/Astronautics
Wisconsin,
USA
Mater. Science Institute
[17]
Barcelona
Barcelona,
Spain
May 2000
Type
Solid refrigerant
Reciprocating 600
10
5 (S)
Gd spheres
Rotary
0.95 (P)
Gd foil
Quantity
(kg)
Magnetic refrigeration
155
[18] Yokohama,
Chubu Electric/Toshiba
Summer 2000
Reciprocating 100
21
4 (S)
Gd spheres
Victoria,
British
Columbia
Canada
July 2001
Reciprocating 2
14
2 (S)
Madison,
Wisconsin,
USA
September 18,
2001
Rotary
25
1.5 (P)
Gd spheres
23 April 2002
Reciprocating ?
23
1.4 (P)
Gd spheres and
Gd5Si1.985Ge1.985Ga0.03
powder
27
0.6 (P)
Gd1xDyx L.B.
March 4, 2003
Rotary
10
0.76 (P)
Gd 1xDyx L.B.
Grenoble,
France
April 2003
Reciprocating 8.8
0.8 (P)
Gd foil
USA
July 2004
Reciprocating ?
2 (P)
Gd foil
Madison,
Wisconsin,
USA
2004
Rotary
95
25
1.5 (P)
Victoria,
British
Columbia
Canada
2006
Reciprocating 15
50
2 (S)
Japan
University of
[19][20][21]
Victoria
[22]
Astronautics
Chubu Electric/Toshiba
Japan
[24] Yokohama,
Chubu Electric/Toshiba
Lab. dElectrotechnique
[25]
Grenoble
George Washington
[26]
University
[27]
Astronautics
[28]
University of Victoria
95
60
Japan
0.12
maximum cooling power at zero temperature difference (T=0); 2maximum temperature span at zero cooling capacity (W=0); L.B.
= layered bed; P = permanent magnet; S = superconducting magnet
In one example, Prof. Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. unveiled a proof of concept magnetic refrigerator near room
temperature on February 20, 1997. He also announced the discovery of the GMCE in Gd5Si2Ge2 on June 9, 1997 [29]
(see below). Since then, hundreds of peer-reviewed articles have been written describing materials exhibiting
magnetocaloric effects.
References
[1] Zemansky, Mark W. (1981). Temperatures very low and very high. New York: Dover. p.50. ISBN0-486-24072-X.
[2] Karl Gschneidner, Jr. and Kerry Gibson (December 7, 2001). "Magnetic Refrigerator Successfully Tested" (http:/ / www. external. ameslab.
gov/ news/ release/ 01magneticrefrig. htm). Ames Laboratory News Release. Ames Laboratory. . Retrieved 2006-12-17.
[3] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford University Press. p.342. ISBN0-19-850341-5.
[4] Gibson, Kerry (November 2001). "Magnetic Refrigerator Successfully Tested: Ames Laboratory develoments help push boundaries of new
refrigeration technology" (http:/ / www. ameslab. gov/ news/ ins01-11Magnetic. htm). INSIDER Newsletter for employees of Ames
Laboratory. .(Vol. 112, No.10 )
[5] http:/ / www. cmr. uk. com/
[6] Milestone in magnetic cooling, Ris News, August 20, 2007 (http:/ / www. risoe. dk/ News_archives/ News/ 2007/ 0820_magnetisk_koeling.
aspx). Retrieved August 28, 2007.
[7] Gschneidner, Karl A., Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. and Tsokol1, A.O. Recent developments in magnetocaloric materials (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/
abstract/ 0034-4885/ 68/ 6/ R04/ ) Report on Progress in Physics. (2005) Volume 68, pages 14791539.
[8] http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ purl. cover. jsp?purl=/ 40784-UgOxYh/ webviewable/ 40784. pdf
[9] http:/ / www. ameslab. gov/ final/ News/ 1999rel/ 99crada. html
Magnetic refrigeration
[10] Giauque, W. F.; MacDougall, D. P. (1933). "Attainment of Temperatures Below 1 Absolute by Demagnetization of Gd2(SO4)38H2O".
Phys. Rev. 43 (9): 768. Bibcode1933PhRv...43..768G. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.43.768.
[11] Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (1997). Bautista, R. G.; et al.. eds. Rare Earths: Science, Technology and Applications III.
Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. p.209.
[12] Pecharsky, V. K.; Gschneidner, K. A. Jr. (1999). "Magnetocaloric Effect and Magnetic Refrigeration". J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 200 (13):
4456. Bibcode1999JMMM..200...44P. doi:10.1016/S0304-8853(99)00397-2.
[13] Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (2000). "Magnetocaloric Materials". Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 30 (1): 387429.
Bibcode2000AnRMS..30..387G. doi:10.1146/annurev.matsci.30.1.387.
[14] Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (2002). Chandra, D.; Bautista, R. G.. eds. Fundamentals of Advanced Materials for Energy
Conversion. Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. p.9.
[15] Tegus, O.; Brck, E.; de Boer, F. R.; Buschow, K. H. J. (2002). "Transition-metal-based magnetic refrigerants for room-temperature
applications". Nature 415 (6868): 150152. Bibcode2002Natur.415..150T. doi:10.1038/415150a.
[16] Zimm C, Jastrab A., Sternberg A., Pecharsky V.K., Gschneidner K.A. Jr., Osborne M. and Anderson I., Adv. Cryog. Eng. 43, 1759 (1998).
[17] Bohigas X., Molins E., Roig A., Tejada J. and Zhang X.X., IEEE Trans. Magn. 36 538 (2000).
[18] Hirano N., Nagaya S., Takahashi M., Kuriyama T., Ito K. and Nomura S. 2002 Adv. Cryog. Eng. 47 1027
[19] Rowe A.M. and Barclay J.A., Adv. Cryog. Eng. 47 995 (2002).
[20] Rowe A.M. and Barclay J.A., Adv. Cryog. Eng. 47 1003 (2002).
[21] Richard M.A., Rowe A.M. and Chahine R., J. Appl. Phys. 95 2146 (2004).
[22] Zimm C, Paper No K7.003 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003) (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK.
html)
[23] Wu W., Paper No. K7.004 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003) (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK.
html)
[24] Hirano N., Paper No. K7.002 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting March 4, Austin, Texas, (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK. html)
[25] Clot P., Viallet D., Allab F., Kedous-LeBouc A., Fournier J.M. and Yonnet J.P., IEEE Trans. Magn. 30 3349 (2003).
[26] F. Shir, C. Mavriplis, L.H. Bennett, E. Della Torre, "Analysis of room temperature magnetic regenerative refrigeration," International
Journal of Refrigeration, 28, 4 (2005) 616.
[27] Zimm C, Paper No. K7.003 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003) (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK.
html)
[28] Rowe A.M. and Tura A., International Journal of Refrigeration 29 12861293 (2006).
[29] http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v78/ i23/ p4494_1
Further reading
Lounasmaa, Experimental Principles and Methods Below 1K, Academic Press (1974).
Richardson and Smith, Experimental Techniques in Condensed Matter Physics at Low Temperatures, Addison
Wesley (1988).
Lucia, U. General approach to obtain the magnetic refrigeretion ideal Coefficient of Performance COP, Physica
A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 387/14 (2008) 34773479, doi:10.1016/j.physa.2008.02.026; see
also http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.1684
External links
NASA How does an Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator Work ? (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/
teachers/lessons/xray_spectra/background-adr.html)
What is magnetocaloric effect and what materials exhibit this effect the most? (http://www.physlink.com/
Education/AskExperts/ae488.cfm)
Magnetocaloric materials keep fridges cool by C. Wu (http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/3_28_98/
fob3.htm)
Ames Laboratory news release, May 25, 1999, Work begins on prototype magnetic-refrigeration unit (http://
www.ameslab.gov/News/release/crada.html).
Magnetic refrigerator successfully tested (http://www.eurekalert.org/features/doe/2001-11/dl-mrs062802.
php)
Refrigeration Systems (http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/cleantech/refrigeration.htm) Terry Heppenstall's notes,
University of Newcastle upon Tyne (November 2000)
156
Magnetic refrigeration
XRS Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (http://www.universe.nasa.gov/xrays/programs/astroe/eng/
adr.html)
Executive Summary: A Continuous Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~dfinkel/
Sponsor/PH1.doc) (.doc format) ( Google cache (http://google.com/search?q=cache:www.cs.wpi.edu/
~dfinkel/Sponsor/PH1.doc))
Origin and tuning of the magnetocaloric effect in the magnetic refrigerant Mn1.1Fe0.9(P0.8Ge0.2) (http://link.
aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.79.014435)
Magnetic technology revolutionizes refrigeration (http://www.basf.com/group/pressrelease/P-09-348)
Evaluation of thermodynamic quantities in magnetic refrigeration (http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.1684)
157
Magnetic stirrer
158
Magnetic stirrer
Magnetic stirrer
A stir bar mixing a solution on a combined hot-plate magnetic-stirrer device. The left knob controls the stirring rate and the right knob controls
heating.
Other names
Magnetic mixer
Uses
Liquid mixing
Inventor
Arthur Rosinger
Related items
Stir bar
Vortex mixer
Static mixer
A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir
bar (also called "flea") immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created
either by a rotating magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel with the liquid. Magnetic
stirrers often include a hot plate or some other means for heating the liquid.
Magnetic stirrers are often used in chemistry and biology. They are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers
because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out (other than the
simple bar magnet itself). Due to its small size, a stirring bar is more easily cleaned and sterilized than other stirring
devices. They do not require lubricants which could contaminate the reaction vessel and the product. They can be
used inside hermetically closed vessels or systems, without the need for complicated rotary seals.
On the other hand, the limited size of the bar means that magnetic stirrers can only be used for relatively small
(under 4 liters) experiments. They also have difficulty dealing with viscous liquids or thick suspensions.
Magnetic stirrer
159
History
Arthur Rosinger of Newark, New Jersey, U.S.A. obtained US Patent
2,350,534, titled Magnetic Stirrer on 6 June 1944, having filed an
application therefor on 5 October 1942.[1] Mr. Rosinger's patent
includes a description of a coated bar magnet placed in a vessel, which
is driven by a rotating magnet in a base below the vessel. Mr. Rosinger
also explains in his patent that coating the magnet in plastic or
covering it with glass or porcelain makes it chemically inert.
fast.
An even earlier patent for a magnetic mixer is US 1,242,493, issued 9 October 1917 to Richard H. Stringham of
Bountiful, Utah, U.S.A. Mr. Stringman's mixer used stationary electromagnets in the base, rather than a rotating
permanent magnet, to rotate the stirrer.
The first multipoint magnetic stirrer was developed and patented by Salvador Bonet of SBS Company in 1977. He
also introduced the practice of noting the denomination of stirring power in "liters of water", which is a market
standard today.
Heating elements may range from 120 W or lower to 500 W or more. The maximum reachable fluid temperature
depends on the size of the flask, the quantity of solution to be heated, and the power of the heating element.
References
[1] "MAGNETIC STIRRER Arthur Rosinger" (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents/ about?id=3CxTAAAAEBAJ& dq=US+ Patent+ 2,350,534).
Google patents. .
External links
DIY Stir plate (http://brewiki.org/StirPlate) Make your own stir plate from an old computer fan.
Short video of a home made stir plate. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tdhXESny0II)
(http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=3CxTAAAAEBAJ&dq=US+Patent+2,350,534) Arthur
Rosinger's patent on "Magnetic Stirrer"
Magnetic structure
160
Magnetic structure
The term magnetic structure of a material pertains to the ordered arrangement of magnetic spins, typically within
an ordered crystallographic lattice. Its study is a branch of solid-state chemistry.
Magnetic structures
Most solid materials are Pauli-paramagnetic. These materials either do
not have electron spins or these spins are not ordered unless an external
field induces some non-random orientation. Such materials are not
considered to 'have' a magnetic structure. This is different for ferro-,
ferri- and antiferromagnetic materials. They differ in the relative
ordering of their spins within the lattice. In some ferromagnetic cases
A very simple ferromagnetic structure
the structure may be relatively simple in that all spins point in the same
direction, or at least that would be the case at very low temperatures.
Towards higher temperatures there will be more and more 'rebellious' spins defying the order of the magnetic
structure and at a certain temperature the order will break down and the spins will point in random directions. In
some materials the pattern in which the spins order is much more complicated[1]. In antiferromagnetic materials
spins point in opposite directions so that the overall magnetic moment is zero. However, this is not necessarily
achieved by a simple up and down pattern. Much more complicated structures can arise. At times one can recognize
layers in which all spins point in one direction (as in a ferromagnet) but in the next layer they point in the opposite
direction giving an overall antiferromagnetic arrangement. The possible number of arrangements is very large and
can include spirals, clusters, tetrahedra etc.
Magnetic structure
that of the crystallographic structure. This is a form of superstructure formation. Thus the symmetry of the total
structure may well differ from the crystallographic substructure. It needs to be described by one of the 1651
magnetic (Shubnikov) groups[4] rather than one of the non-magnetic space groups.
Although ordinary X-ray diffraction is 'blind' to the arrangement of the spins, it has become possible to use a special
form of X-ray diffraction to study magnetic structure. If a wavelength is selected that is close to an absorption edge
of one of elements contained in the materials the scattering becomes anomalous and this component to the scattering
is (somewhat) sensitive to the non-spherical shape of the outer electrons of an atom with an unpaired spin. This
means that this type of anomalous X-ray diffraction does contain information of the desired type.
References
[1] an example (http:/ / www. ftj. agh. edu. pl/ ~Pytlik/ msdb/ magngif. htm)
[2] Neutron diffraction of magnetic materials / Yu. A. Izyumov, V.E. Naish, and R.P. Ozerov ; translated from Russian by Joachim Bchner.
New York : Consultants Bureau, c1991.ISBN 030611030X
[3] A demonstration by Brian Toby (http:/ / www. aps. anl. gov/ Xray_Science_Division/ Powder_Diffraction_Crystallography/
2006ACNSmagnetGSAS/ YBAFEOexampleMovie/ YBAFEOexample. html)
[4] p.428 Group Theoretical Methods and Applications to Molecules and Crystals. By Shoon Kyung Kim.1999. Cambridge University.
Press.ISBN 0521640628
Magnetism
Magnetism is a property of materials that respond to an applied magnetic field. Permanent magnets have persistent
magnetic fields caused by ferromagnetism. That is the strongest and most familiar type of magnetism. However, all
materials are influenced varyingly by the presence of a magnetic field. Some are attracted to a magnetic field
(paramagnetism); others are repulsed by a magnetic field (diamagnetism); others have a much more complex
relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin glass behavior and antiferromagnetism). Substances that are
negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as non-magnetic substances. They include copper, aluminium,
gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to a liquid state.
The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables such as pressure and applied
magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism depending on its temperature, etc.
History
Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales of Miletus, who
lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC.[1] Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon, Sushruta,
was the first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.[2]
In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book named after its author,
The Master of Demon Valley ( ): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."[3] The earliest mention
of the attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between AD 20 and 100 (Louen-heng): "A lodestone
attracts a needle."[4] The ancient Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (10311095) was the first person to write of the
magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of
true north (Dream Pool Essays, AD 1088), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone
compass for navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon
always pointed south.
Alexander Neckham, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269,
Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, the first extant treatise describing the properties of
magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist,
astronomer, and geographer.[5]
161
Magnetism
Sources of magnetism
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:
1. Electric currents or more generally, moving electric charges create magnetic fields (see Maxwell's Equations).
2. Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin") magnetic moments. Just as each particle, by its nature, has a
certain mass and charge, each has a certain magnetic moment, possibly zero.
It was found hundreds of years ago that certain materials have a tendency to orient in a particular direction. For
example ancient people knew that "lodestones," when suspended from a string and allowed to freely rotate, come to
rest horizontally in the North-South direction. Ancient Mariners used lodestones for navigational purposes.
In magnetic materials, sources of magnetization are the electrons' orbital angular motion around the nucleus, and the
electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment (see electron magnetic dipole moment). The other sources of magnetism are the
nuclear magnetic moments of the nuclei in the material which are typically thousands of times smaller than the
electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials. Nuclear
magnetic moments are important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI).
Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both
orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic
magnetic moments as a result of the Pauli exclusion principle (see electron configuration), or combining into filled
subshells with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic
moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such that there are unpaired
electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute
162
Magnetism
163
magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic.
However, sometimes either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field each of the electron
magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can
potentially be quite strong.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons
mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult
for the electrons to maintain alignment.
Topics
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism appears in all materials,
and is the tendency of a material to
oppose an applied magnetic field, and
therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic
field. However, in a material with
paramagnetic properties (that is, with a
tendency to enhance an external
magnetic field), the paramagnetic
behavior dominates.[8] Thus, despite its
universal occurrence, diamagnetic
behavior is observed only in a purely
[7]
Hierarchy of types of magnetism.
diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic
material, there are no unpaired
electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the
magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows:
When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to
their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which
direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the electrons, pulling them in
towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect
systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the
ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This results in a small bulk magnetic
moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field.
Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper understanding requires a quantum-mechanical
description.
Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the
diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons.
Paramagnetism
In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in
them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic
moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to
align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments
will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.
Magnetism
164
Ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired
electrons. However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic
moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field, there is also
in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient
parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus,
even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the
material maintain a parallel orientation.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature,
called the Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses
its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency
to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic
order.
Some well-known ferromagnetic materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties (to form magnets) are
nickel, iron, cobalt, gadolinium and their alloys.
Magnetic domains
The magnetic moment of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to
behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align
themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called
magnetic domains or Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed
with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that
resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many scientific experiments that
can physically show magnetic fields.
Magnetism
165
agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties they cause cease.
When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous
to how a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid.
Antiferromagnetism
In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the
intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point
in opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so
that each neighbor is 'anti-aligned', the substance is
antiferromagnetic. Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic
moment, meaning no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are
less common compared to the other types of behaviors, and are mostly
observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures,
antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferrimagnetic properties.
Antiferromagnetic ordering
In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical
arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a spin glass, and is an example of
geometrical frustration.
Ferrimagnetism
Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the
absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs
of electron spins like to point in opposite directions. These two
properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical
arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of
electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points
in the opposite direction.
Ferrimagnetic ordering
Magnetism
166
Superparamagnetism
When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to
Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much
larger.
Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetism is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic
field disappears when the current ceases.
Molecular magnet
Metamagnetism
Molecule-based magnet
Spin glass
In a hard magnet such as a ferromagnet, M is not proportional to the field and is generally nonzero even when H is
zero (see Remanence).
Magnetism
167
The same situations that create magnetic fields charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic
dipoles are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula
for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole.
When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field B, it feels a Lorentz force F given by the cross product:[10]
where
is the electric charge of the particle, and
v is the velocity vector of the particle
Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It
follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement,
but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is
where
One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force
exerted is labeling the index finger "V", the middle finger "B", and the thumb "F" with your right hand. When
making a gun-like configuration, with the middle finger crossing under the index finger, the fingers represent the
velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also right hand rule.
Magnetic dipoles
A very common source of magnetic field shown in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole", terms
dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and
South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south
pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is
physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass.
A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When
diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that
field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the
magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains.
Magnetism
168
Magnetic monopoles
Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet
is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole
and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole if such a thing exists
would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not
attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge.
Despite systematic searches since 1931, as of 2010, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.[11]
Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac
observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts
that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or
North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist,
then one could explain the quantization of electric charge---that is, why the observed elementary particles carry
charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.
Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are solitons
(localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in
the big bang contradicted cosmological observations the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive
that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for which this
problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles
existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations.[12]
Here the last product means that a first electron, r1, is in an atomic hydrogen-orbital centered at the second nucleus,
whereas the second electron runs around the first nucleus. This "exchange" phenomenon is an expression for the
quantum-mechanical property that particles with identical properties cannot be distinguished. It is specific not only
for the formation of chemical bonds, but as we will see, also for magnetism, i.e. in this connection the term exchange
interaction arises, a term which is essential for the origin of magnetism, and which is stronger, roughly by factors
100 and even by 1000, than the energies arising from the electrodynamic dipole-dipole interaction.
As for the spin function
, which is responsible for the magnetism, we have the already mentioned Pauli's
principle, namely that a symmetric orbital (i.e. with the + sign as above) must be multiplied with an antisymmetric
spin function (i.e. with a - sign), and vice versa. Thus:
,
I.e., not only
and
must be substituted by and , respectively (the first entity means "spin up", the second
one "spin down"), but also the sign + by the sign, and finally ri by the discrete values si (=); thereby we have
and
. The "singlet state", i.e. the - sign, means: the
Magnetism
169
spins are antiparallel, i.e. for the solid we have antiferromagnetism, and for two-atomic molecules one has
diamagnetism. The tendency to form a (homoeopolar) chemical bond (this means: the formation of a symmetric
molecular orbital, i.e. with the + sign) results through the Pauli principle automatically in an antisymmetric spin state
(i.e. with the - sign). In contrast, the Coulomb repulsion of the electrons, i.e. the tendency that they try to avoid each
other by this repulsion, would lead to an antisymmetric orbital function (i.e. with the - sign) of these two particles,
and complementary to a symmetric spin function (i.e. with the + sign, one of the so-called "triplet functions"). Thus,
now the spins would be parallel (ferromagnetism in a solid, paramagnetism in two-atomic gases).
The last-mentioned tendency dominates in the metals iron, cobalt and nickel, and in some rare earths, which are
ferromagnetic. Most of the other metals, where the first-mentioned tendency dominates, are nonmagnetic (e.g.
sodium, aluminium, and magnesium) or antiferromagnetic (e.g. manganese). Diatomic gases are also almost
exclusively diamagnetic, and not paramagnetic. However, the oxygen molecule, because of the involvement of
-orbitals, is an exception important for the life-sciences.
The Heitler-London considerations can be generalized to the Heisenberg model of magnetism (Heisenberg 1928).
The explanation of the phenomena is thus essentially based on all subtleties of quantum mechanics, whereas the
electrodynamics covers mainly the phenomenology.
Units of electromagnetism
SI units related to magnetism
SI electromagnetism units
[13]
Name of Quantity
Symbol
Derived Units
Electric current
Electric charge
coulomb
volt
ohm metre
Electric power
watt
Capacitance
farad
Permittivity
Electric susceptibility
Dimensionless
siemens
Conductivity
weber
Inductance
henry
Permeability
Magnetic susceptibility
Dimensionless
Magnetism
Other units
gauss The gauss is the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) unit of magnetic field (denoted B).
oersted The oersted is the CGS unit of magnetizing field (denoted H).
maxwell The maxwell is the CGS unit for magnetic flux.
gamma is a unit of magnetic flux density that was commonly used before the tesla came into use (1.0 gamma
= 1.0 nanotesla)
0 common symbol for the permeability of free space (4107 newton/(ampere-turn)2).
Living things
Some organisms can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as magnetoception. Magnetobiology studies
magnetic fields as a medical treatment; fields naturally produced by an organism are known as biomagnetism.
References
[1] Fowler, Michael (1997). "Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" (http:/ / galileoandeinstein. physics. virginia. edu/
more_stuff/ E& M_Hist. html). . Retrieved 2008-04-02.
[2] Vowles, Hugh P. (1932). "Early Evolution of Power Engineering". Isis (University of Chicago Press) 17 (2): 412420 [41920].
doi:10.1086/346662.
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Li Shu-hua, Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole, Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175
Li Shu-hua, Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole, Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.176
Schmidl, Petra G. (19961997). "Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass". Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies 1: 81132.
A. Einstein: "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/ www/ ), June 30, 1905.
HP Meyers (1997). Introductory solid state physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Uc1pCo5TrYUC& pg=PA322) (2 ed.). CRC Press.
p.362; Figure 11.1. ISBN0-7484-0660-3. .
[8] Catherine Westbrook, Carolyn Kaut, Carolyn Kaut-Roth (1998). MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) in practice (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=Qq1SHDtS2G8C& pg=PA217) (2 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p.217. ISBN0-632-04205-2. .
[9] Griffiths 1998, chapter 12
[10] Jackson, John David (1999). Classical electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York, [NY.]: Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X
[11] Milton mentions some inconclusive events (p.60) and still concludes that "no evidence at all of magnetic monopoles has survived" (p.3).
Milton, Kimball A. (June 2006). "Theoretical and experimental status of magnetic monopoles". Reports on Progress in Physics 69 (6):
16371711. arXiv:hep-ex/0602040. Bibcode2006RPPh...69.1637M. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/69/6/R02..
[12] Guth, Alan (1997). The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins. Perseus. ISBN0-201-32840-2.
OCLC38941224..
[13] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford:
Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. pp.1415. Electronic version. (http:/ / old. iupac. org/ publications/ books/ gbook/ green_book_2ed.
pdf)
Further reading
Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and
Applications. Academic Press. ISBN0-12-269951-3. OCLC162129430.
Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-805326-X.
OCLC40251748.
Kronmller, Helmut. (2007). Handbook of Magnetism and Advanced Magnetic Materials, 5 Volume Set. John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-470-02217-7. OCLC124165851.
Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern
Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0810-8. OCLC51095685.
David K. Cheng (1992). Field and Wave Electromagnetics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc..
ISBN0-201-12819-5.
170
Magnetism
External links
Magnetism (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9dd) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http://
www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p003k9dd/In_Our_Time_Magnetism))
The Exploratorium Science Snacks Snacks about Magnetism (http://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/
iconmagnetism.html)
Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html) - a chapter from an
online textbook
Video: The physicist Richard Feynman answers the question, Why do bar magnets attract or repel each other?
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM)
On the Magnet, 1600 (http://www.antiquebooks.net/readpage.html#gilbert) First scientific book on magnetism
by the father of electrical engineering. Full English text, full text search.
Metamagnetism
Metamagnetism is a blanket term used loosely in physics to describe a sudden (often, dramatic) increase in the
magnetization of a material with a small change in an externally applied magnetic field. The metamagnetic behavior
may have quite different physical causes for different types of metamagnets. Some examples of physical
mechanisms leading to metamagnetic behavior are:
1. Itinerant Metamagnetism - Exchange splitting of the Fermi surface in a paramagnetic system of itinerant electrons
causes an energetically favorable transition to bulk magnetization near the transition to a ferromagnet or other
magnetically ordered state.[1][2]
2. Antiferromagnetic Transition - Field-induced spin flips in antiferromagnets cascade at a critical energy
determined by the applied magnetic field.[3]
Depending on the material and experimental conditions, metamagnetism may be associated with a first-order phase
transition, a continuous phase transition at a critical point (classical or quantum), or crossovers beyond a critical
point that do not involve a phase transition at all. These wildly different physical explanations sometimes lead to
confusion as to what the term "metamagnetic" is referring in specific cases.
References
[1] EP. Wohlfarth and P. Rhodes. "Collective Electron Metamagnetism" Philos Mag 7, 1817 (1962).
[2] R. Z. Levitin and A. S. Markosyan. "Itinerant Metamagnetism" Usp. Fiz. Nauk 155, 623-657 (1988)
[3] E. Stryjewski and N. Giordano. "Metamagnetism" Advances in Physics 26, 487-650 (1977).
171
Micromagnetics
172
Micromagnetics
Micromagnetics deals with the interactions between magnetic moments on sub-micrometre length scales. These are
governed by several competing energy terms. Dipolar energy is the energy which causes magnets to align north to
south pole. Exchange energy will attempt to make the magnetic moments in the immediately surrounding space lie
parallel to one another (if the material is ferromagnetic) or antiparallel to one another (if antiferromagnetic).
Anisotropy energy is low when the magnetic moments are aligned along a particular crystal direction. Zeeman
energy is at its lowest when magnetic moments lie parallel to an external magnetic field.
Since the most efficient magnetic alignment (also known as a configuration) is the one in which the energy is lowest,
the sum of these four energy terms will attempt to become as small as possible at the expense of the others, yielding
complex physical interactions.
The competition of these interactions under different conditions is responsible for the overall behavior of a magnetic
system.
History
Micromagnetics as a field (i.e. that which deals specifically with the behaviour of (ferro)magnetic materials at
sub-micrometer length scales) was introduced in 1963 when William Fuller Brown, Jr. published a paper on
antiparallel domain wall structures. Until comparatively recently computation micromagnetics has been prohibitively
expensive in terms of computational power, but smaller problems are now solveable on a modern desktop PC.
Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation
Generally, a form[1]of the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation:
is the electron
Originally, in 1935, Landau and Lifshitz used this expression without the denominator
, which arose
Landau-Lifshitz equation
If in (1) we put the Gilbert damping parameter
equation (LLE)
Micromagnetics
173
field").
The answer is somewhat involved: let the energies corresponding to (i) and (ii) be given by
and
Then we have:
[2][3][4]
Here the third term on the r.h.s. is the internal field produced at the position by the dipole-dipole interaction,
whereas the fourth term is the external field, also called "Zeeman field". Usually the first and the third term play the
dominating role, usually a competing one, in this complicated sum. In particular: due to the third term the effective
field is a nonlocal function of the magnetization, i.e. although the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation looks relatively
harmless, one is actually dealing with a complicated nonlinear set of integro-differential equations.
Applications
Apart from "conventional" magnetic domains and domain-walls, the theory also treats the statics and dynamics of
topological "line" and "point" configurations, e.g. magnetic vortex and antivortex states[5] or even 3d-"Bloch
points"[6][7], where, for example, the magnetization leads radially into all directions from the origin, or into
topologically equivalent configurations. Thus in space, and also in time, nano- (and even pico-)scales are used.
The corresponding topological quantum numbers[7] are thought to be used as information carriers, to apply the most
recent, and already studied, propositions in information technology.
appears.
are always allowed, e.g. one can add any modification parallel to
not change
[5] S. Komineas, N. Papanicolaou: Dynamics of vortex-antivortex pairs in ferromagnets, in: arXiv:0712.3684v1, (2007)
[6] A. Thiaville et al., Micromagnetic study of Bloch-point-mediated vortex core reversal, in: Phys. Rev. B, vol. 67 (9), 094410 (2003),
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.67.094410
[7] W. Dring, Point singularities in micromagnetism, J. Appl. Phys. 39, 1006 (1968), (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/
GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=JAPIAU000039000002001006000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)
Micromagnetics
Literature
Brown, William Fuller, Jr. (1963). Micromagnetics. New York: Wiley. ISBN0-88275-665-6.
Gilbert, Thomas L. (2004). "A Phenomenological Theory of Damping in Ferromagnetic Materials". IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics 40 (6): 34433449. Bibcode2004ITM....40.3443G.
doi:10.1109/TMAG.2004.836740. ISSN0018-9464.
External links
MAG -- Micromagnetic Modeling Activity Group (http://www.ctcms.nist.gov/mumag/mumag.org.html).
Magnetization dynamics applet (http://www.bama.ua.edu/~tmewes/Java/dynamics/MagnetizationDynamics.
shtml).
OOMMF - The Object-Oriented Micromagnetic Framework (http://math.nist.gov/oommf/) - a popular free
micromagnetic simulation tool using finite difference lattice discretisations of space and FFT.
MuMax a GPU-based, open-source micromagnetic simulation code. (http://arxiv.org/pdf/1102.3069)
Magpar (http://www.cwscholz.net/Main/MagparProject) - a parallelizable, finite element based, free
micromagnetic simulation package.
Nmag (http://nmag.soton.ac.uk/) - a parallelizable, finite element based, free micromagnetic simulator that is
scriptable in Python.
FEMME -- [[Finite element (http://www.suessco.com/simulations)] based micromagnetic package,
commercial].
LLGMicromagnetics -- [[Finite difference (http://llgmicro.home.mindspring.com/)] based micromagnetic
package, commercial].
Magsimus Deluxe -- [[Finite difference (http://www.magoasis.com/)], Multiphysics based micromagnetic
package, commercial].
174
Molecule-based magnets
Molecule-based magnets
Molecule-based magnets are a class of materials capable of displaying ferromagnetism. This class expands the
materials properties typically associated with magnets to include low density, transparency, electrical insulation, and
low-temperature fabrication, as well as combine magnetic ordering with other properties such as
photoresponsiveness. Essentially all of the common magnetic phenomena associated with conventional
transition-metal and rare-earth-based magnets can be found in molecule-based magnets.[1]
Background
Molecule-based magnets comprise a class of materials which differ from conventional magnets in one of several
ways. Most traditional magnetic materials are comprised purely of metals (Fe, Co, Ni) or metal oxides (CrO2) in
which the unpaired electrons spins that contribute to the net magnetic moment reside only on metal atoms in d- or
f-type orbitals.
In molecule-based magnets, the structural building blocks are molecular in nature. These building blocks are either
purely organic molecules, coordination compounds or a combination of both. In this case, the unpaired electrons may
reside in d or f orbitals on isolated metal atoms, but may also reside in highly localized s and p orbitals as well on the
purely organic species. Like conventional magnets, they may be classified as hard or soft, depending on the
magnitude of the coercive field.
Another distinguishing feature is that molecule-based magnets are prepared via low-temperature solution-based
techniques, versus high-temperature metallurgical processing or electroplating (in the case of magnetic thin films).
This enables a chemical tailoring of the molecular building blocks to tune the magnetic properties.
Specific materials include purely organic magnets made of organic radicals for example p-nitrophenyl nitronyl
nitroxides [2], decamethylferrocenium tetracyanoethenide[3], mixed coordination compounds with bridging organic
radicals [4], Prussian blue related compounds [5], and charge transfer complexes [6].
Molecule-based magnets derive their net moment from the cooperative effect of the spin-bearing molecular entities,
and can display bulk ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic behavior with a true critical temperature. In this regard, they
are contrasted with single-molecule magnets, which are essentially superparamagnets (displaying a blocking
temperature versus a true critical temperature). This critical temperature represents the point at which the materials
switches from a simple paramagnet to a bulk magnet, and can be detected by ac susceptibility and specific heat
measurements.
History
The first synthesis and characterization of molecule-based magnets was accomplished by Wickman and co-workers.
This was a diethyldithiocarbamate-Fe(III) chloride compound.[7][8]
Theory
The mechanism by which molecule-based magnets stabilize and display a net magnetic moment is quite different
than that present in traditional metal- and ceramic-based magnets. For metallic magnets, the unpaired electrons align
through quantum mechanical effects (termed exchange) by virtue of the way in which the electrons fill the orbitals of
the conductive band. For most oxide-based ceramic magnets, the unpaired electrons on the metal centers align via
the intervening diamagnetic bridging oxide (termed superexchange). The magnetic moment in molecule-based
magnets is typically stabilized by one or more of three main mechanisms:
Through space or dipolar coupling
Exchange between orthogonal (non-overlapping) orbitals in the same spatial region
175
Molecule-based magnets
Net moment via antiferromagnetic coupling of non-equal spin centers (ferrimagnetism)
In general, molecule-based magnets tend to be of low dimensionality. Classic magnetic alloys based on iron and
other ferromangetic materials feature metallic bonding, with all atoms essentially bonded to all nearest neighbors in
the crystal lattice. Thus, critical temperatures at which point these classical magnets cross over to the ordered
magnetic state tend to be high, since interactions between spin centers is strong. Molecule-based magnets, however,
have spin bearing units on molecular entities, often with highly directional bonding. In some cases, chemical
bonding is restricted to one dimension (chains). Thus, interactions between spin centers are also limited to
one-dimension, and ordering temperatures are much lower than metal/alloy-type magnets. Also, large parts of the
magnetic material are essentially diamagnetic, and contribute nothing to the net magnetic moment.
These aspects of molecule-based magnets present significant challenges toward reaching the ultimate goal of "room
temperature" molecule-based magnets. Low-dimensional materials, however, can provide valuable experimental data
for validating physics models of magnetism (which are often of low dimension, to simplify calculations).
Applications
Molecule-based magnets currently remain laboratory curiosities with no real world applications. As indicated, this is
largely due to the very low critical temperature at which these materials become magnetic. This is related to the
magnitude of the magnetic coupling, which is very weak in these materials. In this regard, they are similar to
superconductors, which require cooling for use.
References
[1] Molecule-Based Magnets Materials Research Society (http:/ / www. mrs. org/ s_mrs/ doc. asp?CID=9554& DID=200481) Retrieved on 20
December 2007
[2] Bulk ferromagnetism in the -phase crystal of the p-nitrophenyl nitronyl nitroxide radical Chemical Physics Letters, Volume 186, Issues 4-5,
15 November 1991, Pages 401-404 Masafumi Tamura, Yasuhiro Nakazawa, Daisuke Shiomi, Kiyokazu Nozawa, Yuko Hosokoshi, Masayasu
Ishikawa, Minuro Takahashi, Minoru Kinoshita doi:10.1016/0009-2614(91)90198-I
[3] Sailesh Chittipeddi K. R. Cromack Joel S. Miller A. J. Epstein Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 26952698 (1987) Ferromagnetism in molecular
decamethylferrocenium tetracyanoethenide (DMeFc TCNE)
[4] Caneschi A., et al. Acc. Chem. Res. 22, 392 (1989)
[5] S. Ferlay, et al. Nature 378, 701 (1995)
[6] Miller J.S., et al. Chem. Rev. 88, 201 (1988)
[7] Wickman, H.H., et al. Phys. Rev. 155, 563 (1967).
[8] Wickman, H.H., et al. Phys. Rev. 163, 526 (1967).
176
Neodymium magnet
177
Neodymium magnet
A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB, or Neo magnet),
the most widely-used type of rare-earth magnet, is a permanent magnet
made from an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron to form the
Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed in 1982 by
General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium magnets
are the strongest type of permanent magnet made. They have replaced
other types of magnet in the many applications in modern products that
require strong permanent magnets, such as motors in cordless tools,
hard disk drives, and magnetic fasteners.
Description
The tetragonal Nd2Fe14B crystal structure has exceptionally high
uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy (HA~7 teslas). This gives the
compound the potential to have high coercivity (i.e., resistance to being
demagnetized). The compound also has a high saturation
magnetization (Js ~1.6 T or 16kG) and typically 1.3 tesla. Therefore,
as the maximum energy density is proportional to Js2, this magnetic
phase has the potential for storing large amounts of magnetic energy
(BHmax~ 512kJ/m3 or 64MGOe), considerably more than samarium
cobalt (SmCo) magnets, which were the first type of rare earth magnet
to be commercialized. In practice, the magnetic properties of
neodymium magnets depend on the alloy composition, microstructure,
and manufacturing technique employed.
Neodymium magnet
178
Production
There are two principal neodymium magnet manufacturing routes:
The classical powder metallurgy or sintered magnet process
The rapid solidification or bonded magnet process
Sintered Nd-magnets are prepared by the raw materials being melted in a furnace, cast into a mold and cooled to
form ingots. The ingots are pulverized and milled to tiny particles. This undergoes a process of liquid-phase sintering
whereby the powder is magnetically aligned into dense blocks which are then heat-treated, cut to shape, surface
treated and magnetized. Currently, between 45,000 and 50,000 tons of sintered neodymium magnets are produced
each year, mainly in China and Japan. As of 2011, China produces more than 95% of rare earth elements, and
produces 76% of the world's total rare earth magnets.[1]
Bonded Nd-magnets are prepared by melt spinning a thin ribbon of the Nd-Fe-B alloy. The ribbon contains
randomly oriented Nd2Fe14B nano-scale grains. This ribbon is then pulverized into particles, mixed with a polymer
and either compression or injection molded into bonded magnets. Bonded magnets offer less flux than sintered
magnets but can be net-shape formed into intricately shaped parts and do not suffer significant eddy current losses.
There are approximately 5,500 tons of Neo bonded magnets produced each year. In addition, it is possible to
hot-press the melt spun nanocrystalline particles into fully dense isotropic magnets, and then
upset-forge/back-extrude these into high-energy anisotropic magnets.
Properties
Magnetic properties
Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are: remanence (Mr), which measures the strength of
the magnetic field; coercivity (Hci), the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized; energy product (BHmax), the
density of magnetic energy; and Curie temperature (TC), the temperature at which the material loses its magnetism.
Neodymium magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energy product, but often lower Curie
temperature than other types. Neodymium is alloyed with terbium and dysprosium in order to preserve its magnetic
properties at high temperatures.[3] The table below compares the magnetic performance of neodymium magnets with
other types of permanent magnets.
Magnet
Mr (T)
Hci (kA/m) BH
(kJ/m3) TC (C)
max
Nd2Fe14B (sintered)
1.01.4
7502000
200440
310400
Nd2Fe14B (bonded)
0.60.7
6001200
60100
310400
SmCo5 (sintered)
0.81.1
6002000
120200
720
150240
800
Alnico (sintered)
0.61.4
275
1088
700860
Sr-ferrite (sintered)
0.20.4
100300
1040
450
Neodymium magnet
179
Neodymium
Sm-Co
Remanence (T)
11.3
0.821.16
Coercivity (MA/m)
0.8751.99
0.4931.59
Relative permeability
1.05
1.05
0.03
0.55..0.65
0.15..0.30
320
800
Density (g/cm3)
7.37.5
8.28.4
5.2106
5.2106
0.8106
11106
250
150
1100
800
75
35
550650
500550
(110170)106 86106
Hazards
The greater force exerted by rare earth magnets creates hazards that are not seen with other types of magnet.
Neodymium magnets larger than a few cubic centimeters are strong enough to cause injuries to body parts pinched
between two magnets, or a magnet and a metal surface, even causing broken bones.[5]
Magnets allowed to get too near each other can strike each other with enough force to chip and shatter the brittle
material, and the flying chips can cause injuries. There have even been cases where young children who have
swallowed several magnets have had a fold of the digestive tract pinched between the magnets, causing injury or
death.[6] The stronger magnetic fields can be hazardous to mechanical and electronic devices, as they can erase
magnetic media such as floppy disks and credit cards, and magnetize watches and other clockwork mechanisms and
the shadow masks of CRT type monitors at a significant distance.
Neodymium magnet
180
Applications
In technology
Neodymium magnets have replaced alnico and ferrite magnets in many
of the myriad applications in modern technology where strong
permanent magnets are required, because their greater strength allows
the use of smaller, lighter magnets for a given application. Some
examples are:
Head actuators for computer hard disks
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Magnetic guitar pickups
Ring magnets
Actuators
Electric generators for wind turbines; up to 600 kg of PM material per megawatt (Neodymium content is
estimated to be 31% of magnet weight).[1]
Demand for neodymium in electric vehicles is estimated to be 5 times larger than that in wind turbines.[1]
Other applications
In addition, the greater strength of neodymium magnets has inspired new applications in areas where magnets were
not used before, such as magnetic jewelry clasps, children's magnetic building sets (and other neodymium magnet
toys) and as part of the closing mechanism of modern sport parachute equipment.[7] The strength and magnetic field
homogeneity on neodymium magnets has also opened new applications in the medical field with the introduction of
open magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners used to image the body in radiology departments as an alternative
to superconducting magnets that use a coil of superconducting wire to produce the magnetic field. As with most
solid-based magnets, the magnetic field gradient of neodymium magnets decreases towards the centers of their
surfaces, thus there is a force that attracts metallic objects to the edges.
Neodymium magnet
References
[1] Chu, Steven. Critical Materials Strategy (http:/ / energy. gov/ sites/ prod/ files/ DOE_CMS_2011. pdf) United States Department of Energy,
December 2011. Accessed: 23 December 2011.
[2] Drak, M.; Dobrzanski, L.A. (2007). "Corrosion of Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets" (http:/ / www. journalamme. org/ papers_vol20/ 1369S. pdf).
Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering 20 (12). .
[3] As hybrid cars gobble rare metals, shortage looms (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ newsOne/ idUSTRE57U02B20090831), Reuters,
August 31, 2009.
[4] Juha Pyrhnen, Tapani Jokinen, Valria Hrabovcov (2009). Design of Rotating Electrical Machines (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=_y3LSh1XTJYC& pg=PT232). John Wiley and Sons. p.232. ISBN0-470-69516-1. .
[5] Swain, Frank (March 6, 2009). "How to remove a finger with two super magnets" (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ sciencepunk/ 2009/ 03/
how_to_remove_a_finger_with_tw. php). The Sciencepunk Blog. Seed Media Group LLC. . Retrieved 2009-06-28.
[6] "Magnet Safety Alert" (http:/ / www. cpsc. gov/ CPSCPUB/ PUBS/ magnet. pdf). U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. . Retrieved 7
August 2009.
[7] United Parachute Technologies Options Guide: http:/ / www. unitedparachutetechnologies. com/ index. php?option=com_content&
task=view& id=22
Further reading
MMPA 0100-00, Standard Specifications for Permanent Magnet Materials (http://www.intl-magnetics.org/
pdfs/0100-00.pdf)
K.H.J. Buschow (1998) Permanent-Magnet Materials and their Applications, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.,
Switzerland, ISBN 0-87849-796-X
Campbell, Peter (1994). Permanent Magnet Materials and their Application. New York: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN0-521-24996-1.
Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and
Applications. London: Academic Press. ISBN0-12-269951-3.
Brown, D (2002). "Developments in the processing and properties of NdFeB-type permanent magnets". Journal
of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 248 (3): 432440. Bibcode2002JMMM..248..432B.
doi:10.1016/S0304-8853(02)00334-7.
The Dependence of Magnetic Properties and Hot Workability of Rare Earth-Iron-Boride Magnets Upon
Composition (http://www.magnequench.com/assets/content/magnequench/mag_ref/mag_pps/pps_040701/
IEEE2004_vMAG40.pdf/).
External links
Magnet Man (http://www.coolmagnetman.com/magindex.htm) Cool experiments with magnets
Geeky Rare-Earth Magnets Repel Sharks, Genevieve Rajewski, 05.15.07 , wired.com (http://www.wired.com/
gadgets/miscellaneous/news/2007/05/sharkmagnets)
Concern as China clamps down on rare earth exports, Cahal Milmo, 01.02.10, independent.co.uk (http://www.
independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/concern-as-china-clamps-down-on-rare-earth-exports-1855387.html)
181
Paramagnetism
182
Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby the paramagnetic
material is only attracted when in the presence of an externally applied
magnetic field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials
are repelled by magnetic fields.[1] Paramagnetic materials have a
relative magnetic permeability greater or equal to unity (i.e., a positive
magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The
magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field
strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical
balance to detect the effect and modern measurements on paramagnetic
materials are often conducted with a SQUID magnetometer.
Paramagnetism
183
In general paramagnetic effects are quite small: the magnetic susceptibility is of the order of 103 to 105 for most
paramagnets, but may be as high as 101 for synthetic paramagnets such as ferrofluids.
Delocalization
Selected Pauli-paramagnetic metals[2]
Material
Tungsten
6.8
Cesium
5.1
Aluminium 2.2
Lithium
1.4
Magnesium 1.2
Sodium
0.72
In many metallic materials the electrons are itinerant, i.e. they travel through the solid more or less as an electron
gas. This behavior results from strong interactions (good orbital overlap in a chemist's vocabulary) between the wave
functions of neighboring atoms in the extended lattice structure. The wave functions of the valence electrons thus
form a band with equal numbers of spins up and down. When exposed to an external field only those electrons close
to the Fermi level will respond and a small surplus of one type of spins will result. This effect is a weak form of
paramagnetism known as Pauli-paramagnetism. The effect always competes with a diamagnetic response of opposite
sign due to all the core electrons of the atoms. Stronger forms of magnetism usually require localized rather than
itinerant electrons. However in some cases a bandstructure can result in which there are two delocalized sub-bands
with states of opposite spins that have different energies. If one subband is preferentially filled over the other, one
can have itinerant ferromagnetic order. This situation usually only occurs in relatively narrow (d-)bands, which are
poorly delocalized.
s and p electrons
Generally, strong delocalization in a solid due to large overlap with neighboring wave functions tends to lead to
pairing of spins (quenching) and thus weak magnetism. This is why s- and p-type metals are typically either
Pauli-paramagnetic or as in the case of gold even diamagnetic. In the latter case the diamagnetic contribution from
the closed shell inner electrons simply wins from the weak paramagnetic term of the almost free electrons.
d and f electrons
Stronger magnetic effects are typically only observed when d- or f-electrons are involved. Particularly the latter are
usually strongly localized. Moreover the size of the magnetic moment on a lanthanide atom can be quite large as it
can carry up to 7 unpaired electrons in the case of gadolinium(III) (hence its use in MRI). This high magnetic
moments associated with lanthanides is one reason why superstrong magnets are typically based on elements like
neodymium or samarium.
Molecular localization
Of course the above picture is a generalization as it pertains to materials with an extended lattice rather than a
molecular structure. Molecular structure can also lead to localization of electrons. Although there are usually
energetic reasons why a molecular structure results such that it does not exhibit partly filled orbitals (i.e. unpaired
spins), some non-closed shell moieties do occur in nature. Molecular oxygen is a good example. Even in the frozen
solid it contains di-radical molecules resulting in paramagnetic behavior. The unpaired spins reside in orbitals
Paramagnetism
184
derived from oxygen p wave functions, but the overlap is limited to the one neighbor in the O2 molecules. The
distances to other oxygen atoms in the lattice remain too large to lead to delocalization and the magnetic moments
remain unpaired.
Curie's law
For low levels of magnetization, the magnetization of paramagnets follows what is known as Curie's law, at least
approximately. This law indicates that the susceptibility of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to
their temperature, i.e. that materials become more magnetic at lower temperatures. The mathematical expression is:
where:
is the resulting magnetization
is the magnetic susceptibility
is the auxiliary magnetic field, measured in amperes/meter
is absolute temperature, measured in kelvins
is a material-specific Curie constant
Curie's law is valid under the commonly encountered conditions of low magnetization (BH kBT), but does not
apply in the high-field/low-temperature regime where saturation of magnetization occurs (BH kBT) and magnetic
dipoles are all aligned with the applied field. When the dipoles are aligned, increasing the external field will not
increase the total magnetization since there can be no further alignment.
For a paramagnetic ion with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum J, the Curie constant is
related the individual ions' magnetic moments,
.
The parameter eff is interpreted as the effective magnetic moment per paramagnetic ion. If one uses a classical
treatment with molecular magnetic moments represented as discrete magnetic dipoles, , a Curie Law expression of
the same form will emerge with appearing in place of eff.
Click "show" to see a derivation of this law:
Curie's Law can be derived by considering a substance with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular
momentum J. If orbital contributions to the magnetic moment are negligible (a common case), then in what follows J
= S. If we apply a magnetic field along what we choose to call the z-axis, the energy levels of each paramagnetic
center will experience Zeeman splitting of its energy levels, each with a z-component labeled by MJ (or just MS for
the spin-only magnetic case). Applying semiclassical Boltzmann statistics, the molar magnetization of such a
substance is
Where
B is
called the Bohr Magneton and gJ is the Land g-factor, which reduces to the free-electron g-factor, gS when J = S. (in
this treatment, we assume that the x- and y-components of the magnetization, averaged over all molecules, cancel
out because the field applied along the z-axis leave them randomly oriented.) The energy of each Zeeman level is
. For temperatures over a few K,
, and we can apply the
approximation
Paramagnetism
185
which yields:
.
The
molar
bulk
magnetization
is
then
,
and the molar susceptibility is given by
.
When orbital angular momentum contributions to the magnetic moment are small, as occurs for most organic
radicals or for octahedral transition metal complexes with d3 or high-spin d5 configurations, the effective magnetic
moment takes the form (ge = 2.0023... 2),
, where n is the number of unpaired electrons. In other
transition metal complexes this yields a useful, if somewhat cruder, estimate.
Examples of paramagnets
Materials that are called 'paramagnets' are most often those that exhibit, at least over an appreciable temperature
range, magnetic susceptibilities that adhere to the Curie or CurieWeiss laws. In principle any system that contains
atoms, ions, or molecules with unpaired spins can be called a paramagnet, but the interactions between them need to
be carefully considered.
Paramagnetism
186
eff/B
[Cr(NH3)6]Br3
3.77
K3[Cr(CN)6]
3.87
K3[MoCl6]
3.79
K4[V(CN)6]
3.78
[Mn(NH3)6]Cl2
5.92
(NH4)2[Mn(SO4)2]6H2O 5.92
NH4[Fe(SO4)2]12H2O
5.89
Thus, condensed phase paramagnets are only possible if the interactions of the spins that lead either to quenching or
to ordering are kept at bay by structural isolation of the magnetic centers. There are two classes of materials for
which this holds:
Molecular materials with a (isolated) paramagnetic center.
Good examples are coordination complexes of d- or f-metals or proteins with such centers, e.g. myoglobin. In
such materials the organic part of the molecule acts as an envelope shielding the spins from their neighbors.
Small molecules can be stable in radical form, oxygen O2 is a good example. Such systems are quite rare
because they tend to be rather reactive.
Dilute systems.
Dissolving a paramagnetic species in a diamagnetic lattice at small concentrations, e.g. Nd3+ in CaCl2 will
separate the neodymium ions at large enough distances that they do not interact. Such systems are of prime
importance for what can be considered the most sensitive method to study paramagnetic systems: EPR.
Paramagnetism
This amended law includes a term that describes the exchange interaction that is present albeit overcome by
thermal motion. The sign of depends on whether ferro- or antiferromagnetic interactions dominate and it is seldom
exactly zero, except in the dilute, isolated cases mentioned above.
Obviously, the paramagnetic CurieWeiss description above TN or TC is a rather different interpretation of the word
'paramagnet' as it does not imply the absence of interactions, but rather that the magnetic structure is random in the
absence of an external field at these sufficiently high temperatures. Even if is close to zero this does not mean that
there are no interactions, just that the aligning ferro- and the anti-aligning antiferromagnetic ones cancel. An
additional complication is that the interactions are often different in different directions of the crystalline lattice
(anisotropy), leading to complicated magnetic structures once ordered.
Randomness of the structure also applies to the many metals that show a net paramagnetic response over a broad
temperature range. They do not follow a Curie type law as function of temperature however, often they are more or
less temperature independent. This type of behavior is of an itinerant nature and better called Pauli-paramagnetism,
but it is not unusual to see e.g. the metal aluminium called a 'paramagnet', even though interactions are strong
enough to give this element very good electrical conductivity.
Superparamagnets
Some materials show induced magnetic behavior that follows a Curie type law but with exceptionally large values
for the Curie constants. These materials are known as superparamagnets. They are characterized by a strong
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic type of coupling into domains of a limited size that behave independently from one
another. The bulk properties of such a system resembles that of a paramagnet, but on a microscopic level they are
ordered. The materials do show an ordering temperature above which the behavior reverts to ordinary
paramagnetism (with interaction). Ferrofluids are a good example, but the phenomenon can also occur inside solids,
e.g., when dilute paramagnetic centers are introduced in a strong itinerant medium of ferromagnetic coupling such as
when Fe is substituted in TlCu2Se2 or the alloy AuFe. Such systems contain ferromagnetically coupled clusters that
freeze out at lower temperatures. They are also called mictomagnets.
References
[1] G. L. Miessler and D. A. Tarr Inorganic Chemistry 3rd Ed, Pearson/Prentice Hall publisher, ISBN 0-13-035471-6.
[2] Nave, Carl L. "Magnetic Properties of Solids" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ tables/ magprop. html). HyperPhysics. .
Retrieved 2008-11-09.
[3] J. Jensen and A. R. MacKintosh, "Rare Earth Magnetism" (http:/ / www2. nbi. ku. dk/ page40667. htm). . Retrieved 2009-07-12., (Clarendon
Press, Oxford: 1991).
[4] A. F. Orchard, Magnetochemistry, (Oxford University Press: 2003).
187
Paramagnetism
External links
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/MagParticle/Physics/MagneticMatls.htm
Plastic magnet
A plastic magnet is a non-metallic magnet made from an organic polymer. One example is PANiCNQ, which is a
combination of emeraldine-based polyaniline (PANi) and tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ). When it was created
by researchers Dr. Naveed Zaidi, at the University of Durham in 2004 it was the first magnetic polymer to function
at room temperature.[1]
PANi is a conductive polymer that is stable in air. When combined with the free radical-forming TCNQ as an
acceptor molecule, it can mimic the mechanism of metallic magnets. The magnetic properties arise from the fully
pi-conjugated nitrogen-containing backbone combined with molecular charge transfer side groups. These properties
cause the molecule to have a high density of localized spins that can give rise to coupling of their magnetic fields.
When this polymer magnet is synthesized, the polymer chains need 3 months to line up before displaying any
notable magnetism.
Plastic magnets could have uses in computer hardware, for example as disc drives and in medical devices such as
pacemakers and cochlear implants where the organic material is more likely to be biocompatible than its metallic
counterpart.
In February 2002, researchers from Ohio State University & University of Utah developed the world's first
light-tunable plastic magnet.[2] The plastic material became 1.5 times more magnetic when blue light shines on it.
Green laser light reversed the effect somewhat, by decreasing the material's magnetism to 60 percent of its normal
level. The plastic magnet was made from a polymer made of tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) combined with manganese
(Mn) ions -- atoms of the metal manganese with electrons removed. The magnet functioned up to a temperature of
75 K (about -200C, or -325F).
Notes
[1] Naveed A. Zaidi; S.R. Giblin; I. Terry; A.P. Monkman (2004). "Room temperature magnetic order in an organic magnet derived from
polyaniline" (https:/ / www. dur. ac. uk/ ian. terry/ teaching/ Level4Projects/ Polymer_45_5683. pdf). Polymer 45 (16): 5683-5689. . Retrieved
2012-04-02.
[2] Pam Frost Gorder (Feb 1, 2002). "Researchers Develop World's First Light-tunable 'Plastic' Magnet" (http:/ / researchnews. osu. edu/ archive/
magnetun. htm). Ohio State University. . Retrieved 2012-04-02.
External links
Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004). "First practical plastic magnets created" (http://www.newscientist.com/
article.ns?id=dn6326). New Scientist. Retrieved 2012-04-02.
Duan A. Pejakovi; Chitoshi Kitamura; Joel S. Miller; Arthur J. Epstein (2002). "Photoinduced Magnetization in
the Organic-Based Magnet Mn(TCNE)xy(CH2Cl2)". Physical Review Letters 88 (5): 057202.
Bibcode2002PhRvL..88e7202P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.057202.
188
Rare-earth magnet
189
Rare-earth magnet
Rare-earth magnets are strong permanent magnets
made from alloys of rare earth elements. Developed in
the 1970s and 80s, rare-earth magnets are the strongest
type of permanent magnets made, producing
significantly stronger magnetic fields than other types
such as ferrite or alnico magnets. The magnetic field
typically produced by rare-earth magnets can be in
excess of 1.4 teslas, whereas ferrite or ceramic magnets
typically exhibit fields of 0.5 to 1 tesla. There are two
types: neodymium magnets and samarium-cobalt
magnets. Rare earth magnets are extremely brittle and
also vulnerable to corrosion, so they are usually plated
or coated to protect them from breaking and chipping.
The term "rare earth" can be misleading as these metals are not particularly rare or precious;[1][2] they are about as
abundant as tin or lead.[3] The development of rare earth magnets began around 1966, when K. J. Strnat and G.
Hoffer of the US Air Force Materials Laboratory discovered that an alloy of yttrium and cobalt, YCo5, had by far the
largest magnetic anisotropy constant of any material then known.[4][5]
Explanation of strength
The rare earth (lanthanide) elements are metals that are ferromagnetic, meaning that like iron they can be
magnetized, but their Curie temperatures are below room temperature, so in pure form their magnetism only appears
at low temperatures. However, they form compounds with the transition metals such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and
some of these have Curie temperatures well above room temperature. Rare earth magnets are made from these
compounds.
The advantage of the rare earth compounds over other magnets is that their crystalline structures have very high
magnetic anisotropy. This means that a crystal of the material is easy to magnetize in one particular direction, but
resists being magnetized in any other direction.
Atoms of rare earth elements can retain high magnetic moments in the solid state. This is a consequence of
incomplete filling of the f-shell, which can contain up to 7 unpaired electrons with aligned spins. Electrons in such
orbitals are strongly localized and therefore easily retain their magnetic moments and function as paramagnetic
centers. Magnetic moments in other orbitals are often lost due to strong overlap with the neighbors; for example,
electrons participating in covalent bonds form pairs with zero net spin.
High magnetic moments at the atomic level in combination with a stable alignment (high anisotropy) results in high
strength.
Magnetic properties
Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are: remanence (Br), which measures the strength of
the magnetic field; coercivity (Hci), the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized; energy product (BHmax), the
density of magnetic energy; and Curie temperature (Tc), the temperature at which the material loses its magnetism.
Rare earth magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energy product, but (for neodymium) lower
Curie temperature than other types. The table below compares the magnetic performance of the two types of rare
earth magnet, neodymium (Nd2Fe14B) and samarium-cobalt (SmCo5), with other types of permanent magnets.
Rare-earth magnet
190
Magnet
Br (T)
Tc (C)
Nd2Fe14B (sintered)
1.01.4
7502000
200440
310400
Nd2Fe14B (bonded)
0.60.7
6001200
60100
310400
SmCo5 (sintered)
0.81.1
6002000
120200
720
150240
800
Alnico (sintered)
0.61.4
275
1088
700860
Sr-ferrite (sintered)
0.20.4
100300
1040
450
Types
Samarium-cobalt
Samarium-cobalt magnets (chemical formula: SmCo5), the first family of rare earth magnets invented, are less used
than neodymium magnets because of their higher cost and weaker magnetic field strength. However,
samarium-cobalt has a higher Curie temperature, creating a niche for these magnets in applications where high field
strength is needed at high operating temperatures. They are highly resistant to oxidation, but sintered
samarium-cobalt magnets are brittle and prone to chipping and cracking and may fracture when subjected to thermal
shock.
Neodymium
Neodymium magnets, invented in the 1980s, are the strongest and most
affordable type of rare-earth magnet. They are made of an alloy of
neodymium, iron and boron: (Nd2Fe14B) Neodymium magnets are
used in numerous applications requiring strong, compact permanent
magnets, such as electric motors for cordless tools, hard drives, and
magnetic holddowns and jewelry clasps. They have the highest
magnetic field strength and have a higher coercivity (which makes
them magnetically stable), but have lower Curie temperature and are
more vulnerable to oxidation than samarium-cobalt magnets. Use of
protective surface treatments such as gold, nickel, zinc and tin plating
and epoxy resin coating can provide corrosion protection where
required.
Originally, the high cost of these magnets limited their use to applications requiring compactness together with high
field strength. Both raw materials and patent licenses were expensive. Beginning in the 1990s, NIB magnets have
become steadily less expensive, and the low cost has inspired new uses such as magnetic building toys.
Hazards
The greater force exerted by rare earth magnets creates hazards that are not seen with other types of magnet. Magnets
larger than a few centimeters are strong enough to cause injuries to body parts pinched between two magnets, or a
magnet and a metal surface, even causing broken bones.[6] Magnets allowed to get too near each other can strike
each other with enough force to chip and shatter the brittle material, and the flying chips can cause injuries. There
have even been cases where young children who have swallowed several magnets have had a fold of the digestive
tract pinched between the magnets, causing injury and in one case intestines perforations, sepsis and death.[7]
Rare-earth magnet
Applications
Since their prices became competitive in the 1990s, neodymium magnets have been replacing Alnico and ferrite
magnets in the many applications in modern technology requiring powerful magnets. Their greater strength allows
smaller and lighter magnets to be used for a given application.
Common applications
Common applications of rare-earth magnets include:
Other applications
Other applications of rare-earth magnets include:
References
[1] McCaig, Malcolm (1977). Permanent Magnets in Theory and Practice. USA: Wiley. pp.123. ISBN0-7273-1604-4.
[2] Sigel, Astrid; Helmut Sigel (2003). The lanthanides and their interrelations with biosystems. USA: CRC Press. pp.v. ISBN0-8247-4245-1.
[3] Bobber, Robert J. (1981). "New types of transducers". Underwater acoustics and signal processing: proceedings of the NATO Advanced
Study Institute held at Kollekolle, Copenhagen, Denmark, August 1829, 1980. USA: Springer. pp.251252.
[4] Cullity, B. D.; C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&
pg=PA489). Wiley-IEEE. pp.489. ISBN0-471-47741-9. .
[5] Lovelace, Alan M. (March-April 1971). "More Mileage Than Programmed From Military R&D" (http:/ / www. airpower. au. af. mil/
airchronicles/ aureview/ 1971/ mar-apr/ Lovelace. html). Air University Review (US Air Force) 22 (3): 14-23. . Retrieved July 4, 2012.
[6] Swain, Frank (March 6, 2009). "How to remove a finger with two super magnets" (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ sciencepunk/ 2009/ 03/
how_to_remove_a_finger_with_tw. php). The Sciencepunk Blog. Seed Media Group LLC. . Retrieved 2009-06-28.
[7] "Magnet Safety Alert" (http:/ / www. cpsc. gov/ CPSCPUB/ PUBS/ magnet. pdf). U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. . Retrieved 7
August 2009.
191
Rare-earth magnet
192
Further reading
Edward P. Furlani, "Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications",
Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism (2001). ISBN 0-12-269951-3.
Peter Campbell, "Permanent Magnet Materials and their Application" (Cambridge Studies in Magnetism)(1996).
ISBN 978-0-521-56688-9.
Brown, D.N.; B. Smith, B.M. Ma, P. Campbell (2004). "The Dependence of Magnetic Properties and Hot
Workability of Rare Earth-Iron-Boride Magnets Upon Composition" (http://www.magnequench.com/assets/
content/magnequench/mag_ref/mag_pps/pps_040701/IEEE2004_vMAG40.pdf). IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics 40 (4): 28952897. Bibcode2004ITM....40.2895B. doi:10.1109/TMAG.2004.832240.
ISSN0018-9464.
External links
MMPA 0100-00, Standard Specifications for Permanent Magnet Materials (http://www.intl-magnetics.org/
pdfs/0100-00.pdf)
Edwards, Lin (22 March 2010). "Iron-nitrogen compound forms strongest magnet known" (http://www.physorg.
com/news188458077.html). PhysOrg.
Single-molecule magnet
Single-molecule magnets or SMMs are a class of metalorganic compounds, that show superparamagnetic behavior
below a certain blocking temperature at the molecular scale. In this temperature range, SMMs exhibit magnetic
hysteresis of purely molecular origin.[1] Contrary to conventional bulk magnets and molecule-based magnets,
collective long-range magnetic ordering of magnetic moments is not necessary.[1]
Intramolecular coupling
The magnetic coupling between the spins of the metal ions is mediated via superexchange interactions and can be
described by the following isotropic Heisenberg Hamiltonian:
where
coupling is called ferromagnetic (parallel alignment of spins) and for negative J the coupling is called
antiferromagnetic (antiparallel alignment of spins).
a high spin ground state,
a high zero-field-splitting (due to high magnetic anisotropy), and
negligible magnetic interaction between molecules.
The combination of these properties can lead to an energy barrier so that, at low temperatures, the system can be
trapped in one of the high-spin energy wells.[1]
"These molecules contain a finite number of interacting spin centers (e.g. paramagnetic ions) and thus provide ideal
opportunities to study basic concepts of magnetism. Some of them possess magnetic ground states and give rise to
hysteresis effects and metastable magnetic phases. They may show quantum tunneling of the magnetization which
raises the question of coherent dynamics in such systems. Other types of molecules exhibit pronounced frustration
effects[2], whereas so-called spin crossover substances can switch their magnetic ground state and related properties
such as color under irradiation of laser light, pressure or heat. Scientists from various fields chemistry, physics;
theory and experiment have joined the research on molecular magnetism in order to explore the unprecedented
Single-molecule magnet
properties of these new compounds."[3]
"Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) have many important advantages over conventional nanoscale magnetic particles
composed of metals, metal alloys or metal oxides. These advantages include uniform size, solubility in organic
solvents, and readily alterable peripheral ligands, among others."[4]
"A single molecule magnet is an example of a macroscopic quantum system. [...] If we could detect spin flips in a
single atom or molecule, we could use the spin to store information. This would enable us to increase the storage
capacity of computer hard disks. [...] A good starting point for trying to detect spin flips is to find a molecule with a
spin of several Bohr magnetons. [An electron has an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of approximately one Bohr
magneton.] There is a very well studied molecular magnet, Mn12-acetate, which has a spin S = 10 (Figure 3). This
molecule is a disc-shaped organic molecule in which twelve Mn ions are embedded. Eight of these form a ring, each
having a charge of +3 and a spin S = 2. The other four form a tetrahedron, each having a charge of +4 and a spin S =
3/2. The exchange interactions within the molecule are such that the spins of the ring align themselves in opposition
to the spins of the tetrahedron, giving the molecule a total net spin S = 10."[5]
Blocking temperature
Measurements take place at very low temperatures. The so-called blocking temperature is defined as the temperature
below which the relaxation of the magnetisation becomes slow compared to the time scale of a particular
investigation technique.[6] A molecule magnetised at 2 K will keep 40% of its magnetisation after 2 months and by
lowering the temperature to 1.5 K this will take 40 years.[6]
Future applications
As of 2008 there are many discovered types and potential uses. "Single molecule magnets (SMM) are a class of
molecules exhibiting magnetic properties similar to those observed in conventional bulk magnets, but of molecular
origin. SMMs have been proposed as potential candidates for several technological applications that require highly
controlled thin films and patterns."[7]
"The ability of a single molecule to behave like a tiny magnet (single molecular magnets, SMMs) has seen a rapid
growth in research over the last few years. SMMs represent the smallest possible magnetic devices and are a
controllable, bottom-up approach to nanoscale magnetism. Potential applications of SMMs include quantum
computing, high-density information storage and magnetic refrigeration."[8]
"A single molecule magnet is an example of a macroscopic quantum
system. [...] If we could detect spin flips in a single atom or molecule,
we could use the spin to store information. This would enable us to
increase the storage capacity of computer hard disks. [...] A good
starting point for trying to detect spin flips is to find a molecule with a
spin of several Bohr magnetons. [An electron has an intrinsic magnetic
dipole moment of approximately one Bohr magneton.] There is a very
well studied molecular magnet, Mn12-acetate, which has a spin S = 10
(Figure 3). This molecule is a disc-shaped organic molecule in which
One possible use of SMMs is superior magnetic
twelve Mn ions are embedded. Eight of these form a ring, each having
thin films to coat hard disks.
a charge of +3 and a spin S = 2. The other four form a tetrahedron,
each having a charge of +4 and a spin S = 3/2. The exchange
interactions within the molecule are such that the spins of the ring align themselves in opposition to the spins of the
tetrahedron, giving the molecule a total net spin S = 10."[9]
193
Single-molecule magnet
194
Types
The archetype of single-molecule magnets is called "Mn12". It is a
polymetallic manganese (Mn) complex having the formula
[Mn12O12(OAc)16(H2O)4], where OAc stands for acetate. It has the
remarkable property of showing an extremely slow relaxation of their
magnetization
below
a
blocking
temperature.[10]
[Mn12O12(OAc)16(H2O)4]4H2O2AcOH
which
is
called
"Mn12-acetate" is a common form of this used in research.
"Mn4" is another researched type single-molecule magnet. Three of
these are:[11]
[Mn4(hmp)6(NO3)2(MeCN)2](ClO4)22MeCN
[Mn4(hmp)6(NO3)4](MeCN)
[Mn4(hmp)4(acac)2(MeO)2](ClO4)22MeOH
Ferritin
History
Although the term "single-molecule magnet" was first employed by David Hendrickson, a chemist at the University
of California, San Diego and George Christou (Indiana University) in 1996,[12] the first single-molecule magnet
reported dates back to 1991.[13] The European researchers discovered that a Mn12O12(MeCO2)16(H2O)4 complex
(Mn12Ac16) first synthesized in 1980[14] exhibits slow relaxation of the magnetization at low temperatures. This
manganese oxide compound is composed of a central Mn(IV)4O4 cube surrounded by a ring of 8 Mn(III) units
connected through bridging oxo ligands. In addition, it has 16 acetate and 4 water ligands.[15]
It was known in 2006 that the "deliberate structural distortion of a Mn6 compound via the use of a bulky
salicylaldoxime derivative switches the intra-triangular magnetic exchange from antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic
resulting in an S = 12 ground state.[16]
A record magnetization was reported in 2007 for a compound related to MnAc12 ([Mn(III)
O (sao)6(O2CPh)2(EtOH)4]) with S = 12, D = -0.43cm1 and hence U = 62cm1 or 86 K[17] at a blocking
6 2
temperature of 4.3 K. This was accomplished by replacing acetate ligands by the bulkier salicylaldoxime thus
distorting the manganese ligand sphere. It is prepared by mixing the perchlorate of manganese, the sodium salt of
benzoic acid, a salicylaldoxime derivate and tetramethylammonium hydroxide in water and collecting the filtrate.
Single-molecule magnet
Detailed behavior
Molecular magnets exhibit an increasing product (magnetic susceptibility times temperature) with decreasing
temperature, and can be characterized by a shift both in position and intensity of the a.c. magnetic susceptibility.
Single-molecule magnets represent a molecular approach to nanomagnets (nanoscale magnetic particles). In
addition, single-molecule magnets have provided physicists with useful test-beds for the study of quantum
mechanics. Macroscopic quantum tunneling of the magnetization was first observed in Mn12O12, characterized by
evenly-spaced steps in the hysteresis curve. The periodic quenching of this tunneling rate in the compound Fe8 has
been observed and explained with geometric phases.
Due to the typically large, bi-stable spin anisotropy, single-molecule magnets promise the realization of perhaps the
smallest practical unit for magnetic memory, and thus are possible building blocks for a quantum computer.
Consequently, many groups have devoted great efforts into synthesis of additional single molecule magnets;
however, the Mn12O12 complex and analogous complexes remain the canonical single molecule magnet with a
50cm1 spin anisotropy.
The spin anisotropy manifests itself as an energy barrier that spins must overcome when they switch from parallel
alignment to antiparallel alignment. This barrier (U) is defined as:
where S is the dimensionless total spin state and D the zero-field splitting parameter (in cm1); D can be negative but
only its absolute value is considered in the equation. The barrier U is generally reported in cm1 units or in units of
Kelvin (see: electronvolt). The higher the barrier the longer a material remains magnetized and a high barrier is
obtained when the molecule contains many unpaired electrons and when its zero field splitting value is large. For
example, the MnAc12 cluster the spin state is 10 (involving 20 unpaired electrons) and D = -0.5cm1 resulting in a
barrier of 50cm1 (equivalent to 60 K).[18]
The effect is also observed by hysteresis experienced when magnetization is measured in a magnetic field sweep: on
lowering the magnetic field again after reaching the maximum magnetization the magnetization remains at high
levels and it requires a reversed field to bring magnetization back to zero.
Recently, it has been reported that the energy barrier, U, is slightly dependent on Mn12 crystal size/morphology, as
well as the magnetization relaxation times, which varies as function of particle size and size distributions .[19]
References
[1] Introduction to Molecular Magnetism by Dr. Joris van Slageren (http:/ / obelix. physik. uni-bielefeld. de/ ~schnack/ molmag/ material/ 123.
pdf)
[2] Frustrated Magnets (http:/ / www. ifw-dresden. de/ institutes/ iff/ research/ TMO/ frustrated-magnets), Leibniz Institute for Solid State and
Materials Research, Dresden, Germany
[3] Molecular Magnetism Web (http:/ / obelix. physik. uni-bielefeld. de/ ~schnack/ molmag/ introduction. html) Introduction page
[4] ScienceDaily (Mar. 27, 2000) (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2000/ 03/ 000327084104. htm) article Several New Single-Molecule
Magnets Discovered
[5] National Physical Laboratory (UK) (http:/ / www. npl. co. uk/ server. php?show=ConWebDoc. 1175) Home > Science + Technology >
Quantum Phenomena > Nanophysics > Research article Molecular Magnets
[6] Single-molecule magnets based on iron(III) oxo clusters Dante Gatteschi, Roberta Sessoli and Andrea Cornia Chem. Commun., 2000, 725
732, doi:10.1039/a908254i
[7] Cavallini, Massimiliano; Facchini, Massimo; Albonetti, Cristiano; Biscarini, Fabio (2008). "Single molecule magnets: from thin films to
nano-patterns". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 10 (6): 784. Bibcode2008PCCP...10..784C. doi:10.1039/b711677b. PMID18231680.
[8] Beautiful new single molecule magnets (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ Publishing/ Journals/ dt/ News/ b716355jpersp. asp), 26 March 2008
summary of the article Milios, Constantinos J.; Piligkos, Stergios; Brechin, Euan K. (2008). "Ground state spin-switching via targeted
structural distortion: twisted single-molecule magnets from derivatised salicylaldoximes". Dalton Transactions (14): 1809.
doi:10.1039/b716355j.
[9] National Physical Laboratory (UK) (http:/ / www. npl. co. uk/ server. php?show=ConWebDoc. 1175) Home > Science + Technology >
Quantum Phenomena > Nanophysics > Research article Molecular Magnets
195
Single-molecule magnet
[10] IPCMS Liquid-crystalline Single Molecule Magnets (http:/ / www-ipcms. u-strasbg. fr/ spip. php?article1341) summary of the article
Terazzi, Emmanuel; Bourgogne, Cyril; Welter, Richard; Gallani, Jean-Louis; Guillon, Daniel; Rogez, Guillaume; Donnio, Bertrand (2008).
"Single-Molecule Magnets with Mesomorphic Lamellar Ordering". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47 (3): 490495. doi:10.1002/anie.200704460.
[11] Yang, E (2003). "Mn4 single-molecule magnets with a planar diamond core and S=9". Polyhedron 22 (1417): 1857.
doi:10.1016/S0277-5387(03)00173-6.
[12] Aubin, Sheila M. J.; Wemple, Michael W.; Adams, David M.; Tsai, Hui-Lien; Christou, George; Hendrickson, David N. (1996). "Distorted
MnIVMnIII3Cubane Complexes as Single-Molecule Magnets". Journal of the American Chemical Society 118 (33): 7746.
doi:10.1021/ja960970f.
[13] Caneschi, Andrea; Gatteschi, Dante; Sessoli, Roberta; Barra, Anne Laure; Brunel, Louis Claude; Guillot, Maurice (1991). "Alternating
current susceptibility, high field magnetization, and millimeter band EPR evidence for a ground S = 10 state in
[Mn12O12(Ch3COO)16(H2O)4].2CH3COOH.4H2O". Journal of the American Chemical Society 113 (15): 5873. doi:10.1021/ja00015a057.
[14] Lis, T. (1980). "Preparation, structure, and magnetic properties of a dodecanuclear mixed-valence manganese carboxylate". Acta
Crystallographica Section B Structural Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry 36 (9): 2042. doi:10.1107/S0567740880007893.
[15] Chemistry of Nanostructured Materials; Yang, P., Ed.; World Scientific Publishing: Hong Kong, 2003.
[16] Milios, Constantinos J.; Vinslava, Alina; Wood, Peter A.; Parsons, Simon; Wernsdorfer, Wolfgang; Christou, George; Perlepes, Spyros P.;
Brechin, Euan K. (2007). "A Single-Molecule Magnet with a Twist". Journal of the American Chemical Society 129 (1): 8.
doi:10.1021/ja0666755. PMID17199262.
[17] Milios, Constantinos J.; Vinslava, Alina; Wernsdorfer, Wolfgang; Moggach, Stephen; Parsons, Simon; Perlepes, Spyros P.; Christou,
George; Brechin, Euan K. (2007). "A Record Anisotropy Barrier for a Single-Molecule Magnet". Journal of the American Chemical Society
129 (10): 2754. doi:10.1021/ja068961m. PMID17309264.
[18] del Barco, E.; Kent, A. D.; Hill, S.; North, J. M.; Dalal, N. S.; Rumberger, E. M.; Hendrickson, D. N.; Chakov, N. et al. (2005). "Magnetic
Quantum Tunneling in the Single-Molecule Magnet Mn12-Acetate". Journal of Low Temperature Physics 140 (1/2): 119.
Bibcode2005JLTP..140..119B. doi:10.1007/s10909-005-6016-3.
[19] Munt, Mara; Gmez-Segura, Jordi; Campo, Javier; Nakano, Motohiro; Ventosa, Nora; Ruiz-Molina, Daniel; Veciana, Jaume (2006).
"Controlled crystallization of Mn12 single-molecule magnets by compressed CO2 and its influence on the magnetization relaxation". Journal of
Materials Chemistry 16 (26): 2612. doi:10.1039/b603497g.
External links
European Institute of Molecular Magnetism EIMM (http://www.eimm.eu/)
MAGMANet (Molecular Approach to Nanomagnets and Multifunctional Materials) (http://www.unizar.es/
magmanet/magmanet-eu/), a Network of centres of Excellence, coordinated by the INSTM Consorzio
Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Scienza e la Tecnologia dei Materiali
Molecular Magnetism Web (http://www.molmag.de/), Jrgen Schnack
196
Spin glass
197
Spin glass
A spin glass is a disordered magnet with frustrated interactions, augmented by stochastic positions of the spins,
where conflicting interactions, namely both ferromagnetic and also antiferromagnetic bonds, are randomly
distributed with comparable frequency. The term "glass" in the bold-printed title name refers to the fact that its
magnetic disorder brings to mind the positional disorder of a conventional, chemical glass, e.g., a window glass.
Whereas, however, these are typically nonmagnetic, here the "glass property" refers essentially to the magnetic
properties only, i.e. to the spin structure only.
Spin glasses display many metastable structures leading to a plenitude of time scales which are difficult to explore
experimentally or in simulations.
Spin glass
198
Magnetic behavior
It is the time dependence which distinguishes spin glasses from other magnetic systems.
Above the spin glass transition temperature, Tc,[1] the spin glass exhibits typical magnetic behaviour (such as
paramagnetism).
If a magnetic field is applied as the sample is cooled to the transition temperature, magnetization of the sample
increases as described by the Curie law. Upon reaching Tc, the sample becomes a spin glass and further cooling
results in little change in magnetization. This is referred to as the field-cooled magnetization.
When the external magnetic field is removed, the magnetization of the spin glass falls rapidly to a lower value
known as the remanent magnetization.
Magnetization then decays slowly as it approaches zero (or some small fraction of the original valuethis remains
unknown). This decay is non-exponential and no simple function can fit the curve of magnetization versus time
adequately. This slow decay is particular to spin glasses. Experimental measurements on the order of days have
shown continual changes above the noise level of instrumentation.
Spin glasses differ from ferromagnetic materials by the fact that after the external magnetic field is removed from a
ferromagnetic substance, the magnetization remains indefinitely at the remanent value. Paramagnetic materials differ
from spin glasses by the fact that, after the external magnetic field is removed, the magnetization rapidly falls to
zero, with no remanent magnetization. In each case the decay is rapid and exponential.
If the sample is cooled below Tc in the absence of an external magnetic field and a magnetic field is applied after the
transition to the spin glass phase, there is a rapid initial increase to a value called the zero-field-cooled
magnetization. A slow upward drift then occurs toward the field-cooled magnetization.
Surprisingly, the sum of the two complex functions of time (the zero-field-cooled and remanent magnetizations) is a
constant, namely the field-cooled value, and thus both share identical functional forms with time (Nordblad et al.), at
least in the limit of very small external fields.
EdwardsAnderson model
In this model, we have spins arranged on a
the Ising model. This model can be solved exactly for the critical temperatures and a glassy phase is observed to
exist at low temperatures.[2] The Hamiltonian for this spin system is given by:
where
refers to the Pauli spin matrix for the spin-half particle at lattice point
and
. A negative value of
denotes
bond or link variables. In order to determine the partition function for this system, one needs to average the free
energy
distribution of values of
where
and a variance
. The
Solving for the free energy using the replica method, below a certain temperature, a new magnetic phase called the
spin glass phase (or glassy phase) of the system is found to exist which is characterized by a vanishing magnetization
along with a non-vanishing value of the two point correlation function between spins at the same lattice
point but at two different replicas:
, where
Spin glass
199
the new set of order parameters describing the three magnetic phases constitutes of both
and
. Hence
system can be found, both under assumptions of replica symmetry as well as considering replica symmetry breaking.
Under the assumption of replica symmetry, the free energy is given by the expression:
where
have same meanings as in the EA model. The equilibrium solution of the model, after some
initial attempts by Sherrington, Kirkpatrick and others, was found by Giorgio Parisi in 1979 within the replica
method. The subsequent work of interpretation of the Parisi solutionby M. Mezard, G. Parisi, M.A. Virasoro and
many othersrevealed the complex nature of a glassy low temperature phase characterized by ergodicity breaking,
ultrametricity and non-selfaverageness. Further developments led to the creation of the cavity method, which
allowed study of the low temperature phase without replicas. A rigorous proof of the Parisi solution has been
provided in the work of Francesco Guerra and Michel Talagrand.
The formalism of replica mean field theory has also been applied in the study of neural networks, where it has
enabled calculations of properties such as the storage capacity of simple neural network architectures without
requiring a training algorithm (such as backpropagation) to be designed or implemented.
More realistic spin glass models with short range frustrated interactions and disorder, like the Gaussian model where
the couplings between neighboring spins follow a Gaussian distribution, have been studied extensively as well,
especially using Monte Carlo simulations. These models display spin glass phases bordered by sharp phase
transitions.
Besides its relevance in condensed matter physics, spin glass theory has acquired a strongly interdisciplinary
character, with applications to neural network theory, computer science, theoretical biology, econophysics etc.
Spin glass
200
Infinite-range model
The infinite-range model is a generalization of the SherringtonKirkpatrik model where we not only consider two
spin interactions but -spin interactions, where
and
is the total number of spins. Unlike the
EdwardsAnderson model, similar to the SK model, the interaction range is still infinite. The Hamiltonian for this
model is described by:
where
as the Random energy model. In this limit, it can be seen that the probability of the spin glass existing in a particular
state, depends only on the energy of that state and not on the individual spin configurations in it. A gaussian
distribution of magnetic bonds across the lattice is assumed usually to solve this model. Any other distribution is
expected to give the same result, as a consequence of the central limit theorem. The gaussian distribution function,
with mean
and variance
, is given as:
The order parameters for this system are given by the magnetization
and the two point spin correlation between
spins at the same site , in two different replicas, which are the same as for the SK model. This infinite range
model can be solved explicitly for the free energy[2] in terms of
and
[2]
temperature the system cannot escape from the ultradeep minima of the hierarchically-disordered energy
landscape.[3] Although the freezing temperature is typically as low as 30 kelvin (240 degrees Celsius), so that the
spin glass magnetism appears to be practically without applications in daily life, there are applications in different
contexts, e.g. in the already mentioned theory of neural networks, i.e. in theoretical brain research, and in the
mathematical-economical theory of optimization.
Notes
[1]
is identical with the so-called "freezing temperature"
[2] Nishimori, Hidetoshi (2001). Statistical Physics of Spin Glasses and Information Processing: An Introduction (http:/ / preterhuman. net/ texts/
science_and_technology/ physics/ Statistical_physics/ Statistical physics of spin glasses and information processing an introduction Nishimori H. . pdf). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.243. ISBN0-19-850940-5, 9780198509400. .
[3] The hierarchical disorder of the energy landscape may be verbally characterized by a single sentence: in this landscape there are "(random)
valleys within still deeper (random) valleys within still deeper (random) valleys, ..., etc,"
Spin glass
References
Literature
Sherrington, David; Kirkpatrick, Scott (1975), "Solvable model of a spin-glass", Physics Review Letters 35 (26):
17921796, Bibcode1975PhRvL..35.1792S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1792. Papercore Summary http://
papercore.org/Sherrington1975 (http://papercore.org/Sherrington1975)
Nordblad, P.; Lundgren, L.; Sandlund, L. (1986), "A link between the relaxation of the zero field cooled and the
thermoremanent magnetizations in spin glasses", Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 54: 185186,
Bibcode1986JMMM...54..185N, doi:10.1016/0304-8853(86)90543-3.
Binder, K.; Young, A. P. (1986), "Spin glasses: Experimental facts, theoretical concepts, and open questions",
Reviews of Modern Physics 58: 801976, Bibcode1986RvMP...58..801B, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.58.801.
Bryngelson, Joseph D.; Wolynes, Peter G. (1987), "Spin glasses and the statistical mechanics of protein folding",
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 84: 75247528, Bibcode1987PNAS...84.7524B,
doi:10.1073/pnas.84.21.7524.
Fischer, K. H.; Hertz, J. A. (1991), Spin Glasses, Cambridge University Press.
Mezard, Marc; Parisi, Giorgio; Virasoro, Miguel Angel (1987), Spin glass theory and beyond, Singapore: World
Scientific, ISBN9971-5-0115-5.
Mydosh, J. A. (1995), Spin Glasses, Taylor & Francis.
Parisi, G. (1980), "The order parameter for spin glasses: a function on the interval 0-1", J. Phys. A: Math. Gen.
13: 1101-1112, Bibcode1980JPhA...13.1101P, doi:10.1088/0305-4470/13/3/042 Papercore Summary http://
papercore.org/Parisi1980 (http://papercore.org/Parisi1980).
Talagrand, Michel (2000), "Replica symmetry breaking and exponential inequalities for the
SherringtonKirkpatrick model", Annals of Probability 28 (3): 10181062, JSTOR2652978.
Guerra, F.; Toninelli, F. L. (2002), "The thermodynamic limit in mean field spin glass models", Communications
in Mathematical Physics 230 (1): 7179, arXiv:cond-mat/0204280, Bibcode2002CMaPh.230...71G,
doi:10.1007/s00220-002-0699-y.
External links
Papercore summary of seminal Sherrington/Kirkpatrick paper (http://papercore.org/summaries/
solvable-model-of-a-spin-glass)
Statistics of frequency of the term "Spin glass" in arxiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.
py?level=2&index1=125728)
201
Spin wave
202
Spin wave
Spin waves are propagating disturbances in the ordering of magnetic materials. These low-lying collective
excitations occur in magnetic lattices with continuous symmetry. From the equivalent quasiparticle point of view,
spin waves are known as magnons, which are boson modes of the spin lattice that correspond roughly to the phonon
excitations of the nuclear lattice. As temperature is increased, the thermal excitation of spin waves reduces a
ferromagnet's spontaneous magnetization. The energies of spin waves are typically only eV in keeping with typical
Curie points at room temperature and below. The discussion of spin waves in antiferromagnets is presently beyond
the scope of this article.
Theory
The simplest way of understanding spin
waves is to consider the Hamiltonian
for
the Heisenberg ferromagnet:
where
operators
lattice points,
is the internal
. That
is an eigenstate of
where
has been taken as the direction of the magnetic field. The spin-lowering operator
with minimum projection of spin along the z-axis, while the spin-raising operator
with maximum spin projection along the
-axis. Since
Spin wave
203
where N is the total number of Bravais lattice sites. The proposition that the ground state is an eigenstate of the
Hamiltonian is confirmed.
One might guess that the first excited state of the Hamiltonian has one randomly selected spin at position
so that
, but in fact this arrangement of spins is not an eigenstate. The reason is that such a
state is transformed by the spin raising and lowering operators. The operator
spin at position
position
rotated
. The combined effect of the two operators is therefore to propagate the rotated spin to a new position,
which is a hint that the correct eigenstate is a spin wave, namely a superposition of states with one reduced spin. The
exchange energy penalty associated with changing the orientation of one spin is reduced by spreading the
disturbance over a long wavelength. The degree of misorientation of any two near-neighbor spins is thereby
minimized. From this explanation one can see why the Ising model magnet with discrete symmetry has no spin
waves: the notion of spreading a disturbance in the spin lattice over a long wavelength makes no sense when spins
have only two possible orientations. The existence of low-energy excitations is related to the fact that in the absence
of an external field, the spin system has an infinite number of degenerate ground states with infinitesimally different
spin orientations. That these ground states exist can be seen from the fact that the state
rotational symmetry of the Hamiltonian
In this model the magnetization
where
equation show that the propagation of spin waves is governed by the torques generated by internal and external
fields. (An equivalent form is the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation, which replaces the final term by a more "simply
looking" equivalent one.)
The first term on the r.h.s. describes the precession of the magnetization under the influence of the applied field,
while the above-mentioned final term describes how the magnetization vector "spirals in" towards the field direction
as time progresses. In metals the damping forces described by the constant are in many cases dominated by the
eddy currents.
One important difference between phonons and magnons lies in their dispersion relations. The dispersion relation for
phonons is to first order linear in wavevector :
, where is frequency, and is the velocity of sound.
Magnons have a parabolic dispersion relation:
form is the third term of a Taylor expansion of a cosine term in the energy expression originating from the
dot-product.The underlying reason for the difference in dispersion relation is that ferromagnets violate
time-reversal symmetry. Two adjacent spins in a solid with lattice constant
wavevector
Experimental observation
Spin waves are observed through four experimental methods: inelastic neutron scattering, inelastic light scattering
(Brillouin scattering, Raman scattering and inelastic X-ray scattering), inelastic electron scattering (spin-resolved
electron energy loss spectroscopy), and spin-wave resonance (ferromagnetic resonance). In the first method the
energy loss of a beam of neutrons that excite a magnon is measured, typically as a function of scattering vector (or
equivalently momentum transfer), temperature and external magnetic field. Inelastic neutron scattering
measurements can determine the dispersion curve for magnons just as they can for phonons. Important inelastic
neutron scattering facilities are present at the ISIS neutron source in Oxfordshire, UK, the Institut Laue-Langevin in
Grenoble, France, the High Flux Isotope Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA, and at the
Spin wave
National Institute of Standards and Technology in Maryland, USA. Brillouin scattering similarly measures the
energy loss of photons (usually at a convenient visible wavelength) reflected from or transmitted through a magnetic
material. Brillouin spectroscopy is similar to the more widely known Raman scattering but probes a lower energy
and has a higher energy resolution in order to be able to detect the meV energy of magnons. Ferromagnetic (or
antiferromagnetic) resonance instead measures the absorption of microwaves, incident on a magnetic material, by
spin waves, typically as a function of angle, temperature and applied field. Ferromagnetic resonance is a convenient
laboratory method for determining the effect of magnetocrystalline anisotropy on the dispersion of spin waves. Very
recently, one group in Max Planck Institute for Microstructure Physics in Halle Germany proved that by using spin
polarized electron energy loss spectroscopy (SPEELS), very high energy surface magnons can be exited. This
technique allows people first time to probe the magnons and its dispersion in the ultrathin magnetical system. The
first experiment was successful done in 5 ML Fe film by SPEELS, the signature of magnons were revealed. Later,
with momentum resolution, magnon dispersion and full peak was explored in 8 ML fcc Co film on Cu(001) and 8
ML hcp Co on W(110), respectively. Those magnons are obtained up to the SBZ at the energy range about few
hundreds meV.
Practical significance
When magnetoelectronic devices are operated at high frequencies, the generation of spin waves can be an important
energy loss mechanism. Spin wave generation limits the linewidths and therefore the quality factors Q of ferrite
components used in microwave devices. The reciprocal of the lowest frequency of the characteristic spin waves of a
magnetic material gives a time scale for the switching of a device based on that material.
References
List of labs (http://www.icmm.csic.es/brillouin/BrillouinEN.htm) performing Brillouin scattering
measurements.
P.W. Anderson, Concepts in Solids, ISBN 981-02-3231-4; Basic Notions of *Condensed Matter Physics, ISBN
0-201-32830-5
N.W. Ashcroft and N.D. Mermin, Solid-State Physics, ISBN 0-03-083993-9.
S. Chikazumi and S.H. Charap, Physics of Magnetism, ASIN B0007DODNA (out of print).
M.Plihal, D.L.Mills, and J.Kirschner, " Spin wave signature in the spin polarized electron energy loss spectrum in
ultrathin Fe film: theory and experiment"
Phys. Rev. Lett., 82, 2579,(1999)
Phys. Rev. Lett., 91, 147201,(2003)
R.Vollmer, M.Etzkorn, P.S.Anil Kumar, H.lbach, and J.Kirschner, "Spin polarized electron energy loss
spectroscopy of high energy, large wave vector spin waves in fcc Co films on Cu(001)"
A.T.Costa, R. B. Muniz and D. L. Mills, "Theory of spin waves in ultrathin ferromagnetic films: the case of Co
on Cu(100)", Phys. Rev. B 69, 064413 (2004)
A.T.Costa, R. B. Muniz and D. L. Mills, "Theory of large wave-vector spin waves in ferromagnetic films:
sensitivity to electronic structure", Phys. Rev. B 70, 54406 (2004)
204
Spontaneous magnetization
205
Spontaneous magnetization
Spontaneous magnetization is the appearance of an ordered spin state (magnetization) at zero applied magnetic
field in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material below a critical point called the Curie temperature or TC.
Overview
Heated to temperatures above TC, ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic and their magnetic behavior is
dominated by spin waves or magnons, which are boson collective excitations with energies in the meV range. The
magnetization that occurs below TC is a famous example of the "spontaneous" breaking of a global symmetry, a
phenomenon that is described by Goldstone's theorem. The term "symmetry breaking" refers to the choice of a
magnetization direction by the spins, which have spherical symmetry above TC, but a preferred axis (the
magnetization direction) below TC.
Temperature dependence
To first order, the temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization at low temperatures is given by Bloch's
Law: [1]
where M(0) is the spontaneous magnetization at absolute zero. The decrease in spontaneous magnetization at higher
temperatures is caused by the increasing excitation of spin waves. In a particle description, the spin waves
correspond to magnons, which are the massless Goldstone bosons corresponding to the broken symmetry. This is
exactly true for an isotropic magnet.
Magnetic anisotropy, that is the existence of a easy direction along which the moments align spontaneously in the
crystal, corresponds however to "massive" magnons. This is a way of saying that they cost a minimum amount of
energy to excite, hence they are very unlikely to be excited as
. Hence the magnetization of an anisotropic
magnet is harder to destroy at low temperature and the temperature dependence of the magnetization deviates
accordingly from the Bloch's law. All real magnets are anisotropic to some extent.
Near the Curie temperature,
where is a critical exponent that depends on composition. The exponent is 0.34 for Fe and 0.51 for Ni.[2]
An empirical interpolation of the two regimes is given by
it is easy to check two limits of this interpolation that follow laws similar to the Bloch law, for
critical behavior, for
, respectively.
, and the
Spontaneous magnetization
206
Further reading
Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1976). Solid State Physics. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
ISBN0-03-083993-9.
Chikazumi, Sshin (1997). Physics of Ferromagnetism. Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-851776-9.
Superparamagnetism
Superparamagnetism is a form of magnetism, which appears in small ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic nanoparticles.
In sufficiently small nanoparticles, magnetization can randomly flip direction under the influence of temperature.
The typical time between two flips is called the Nel relaxation time. In the absence of external magnetic field, when
the time used to measure the magnetization of the nanoparticles is much longer than the Nel relaxation time, their
magnetization appears to be in average zero: they are said to be in the superparamagnetic state. In this state, an
external magnetic field is able to magnetize the nanoparticles, similarly to a paramagnet. However, their magnetic
susceptibility is much larger than the one of paramagnets.
is thus the average length of time that it takes for the nanoparticles magnetization to randomly flip as a result
of thermal fluctuations.
is a length of time, characteristic of the material, called the attempt time or attempt period (its reciprocal is
called the attempt frequency); its typical value is 1091010 second.
K is the nanoparticles magnetic anisotropy energy density and V its volume. KV is therefore the energy barrier
associated with the magnetization moving from its initial easy axis direction, through a hard plane, to the other
easy axis direction.
kB is the Boltzmann constant.
Superparamagnetism
207
T is the temperature.
This length of time can be anywhere from a few nanoseconds to years or much longer. In particular, it can be seen
that the Nel relaxation time is an exponential function of the grain volume, which explains why the flipping
probability becomes rapidly negligible for bulk materials or large nanoparticles.
Blocking temperature
Let us imagine that the magnetization of a single superparamagnetic nanoparticle is measured and let us define
as the measurement time. If
, the nanoparticle magnetization will flip several times during the
measurement, then the measured magnetization will average to zero. If
during the measurement, so the measured magnetization will be what the instantaneous magnetization was at the
beginning of the measurement. In the former case, the nanoparticle will appear to be in the superparamagnetic state
whereas in the latter case it will appear to be blocked in its initial state. The state of the nanoparticle
(superparamagnetic or blocked) depends on the measurement time. A transition between superparamagnetism
and blocked state occurs when
. In several experiments, the measurement time is kept constant but the
temperature is varied, so the transition between superparamagnetism and blocked state is seen as a function of the
temperature. The temperature for which
is called the blocking temperature:
For typical laboratory measurements, the value of the logarithm in the previous equation is in the order of 2025.
(blue line).
.
2. If all the particles are identical and the temperature is high enough (TKV/kB), then, irrespective of the
orientations of the easy axes:
Superparamagnetism
208
oriented.
It can be seen from these equations that large nanoparticles have a larger and so a larger susceptibility. This
explains why superparamagnetic nanoparticles have a much larger susceptibility than standard paramagnets: they
behave exactly as a paramagnet with a huge magnetic moment.
where the
measurement time and the relaxation time have comparable magnitude. In this case, a frequency-dependence of the
susceptibility can be observed. For a randomly-oriented sample, the complex susceptibility[2] is:
where
From this frequency-dependent susceptibility, the time-dependence of the magnetization for low-fields can be
derived:
Measurements
A superparamagnetic system can be measured with AC susceptibility measurements, where an applied magnetic
field varies in time, and the magnetic response of the system is measured. A superparamagnetic system will show a
characteristic frequency dependence: When the frequency is much higher than 1/N, there will be a different
magnetic response than when the frequency is much lower than 1/N, since in the latter case, but not the former, the
ferromagnetic clusters will have time to respond to the field by flipping their magnetization.[3] The precise
dependence can be calculated from the Nel-Arrhenius equation, assuming that the neighboring clusters behave
independently of one another (if clusters interact, their behavior becomes more complicated).
Superparamagnetism
Applications of superparamagnetism
General Applications
Ferrofluid: tunable viscosity
Data analysis: superparamagnetic clustering [7] (SPC) and its extension global SPC [8] (gSPC)
Biomedical applications
Imaging: Contrast agents in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Magnetic separation: cell-, DNA-, protein- separation, RNA fishing
Treatments: targeted drug delivery, magnetic hyperthermia, magnetofection
References
[1] Nel, L. (1949). "Thorie du tranage magntique des ferromagntiques en grains fins avec applications aux terres cuites". Ann. Gophys 5:
pp.99136. (in French; an English translation is available in "Selected Works of Louis Nel". Gordon and Breach. 1988. pp.407427.
ISBN2-88124-300-2.).
[2] Gittleman, J. I.; Abeles, B.; Bozowski, S. (1974). "Superparamagnetism and relaxation effects in granular Ni-SiO2 and Ni-Al2O3 films" (http:/
/ link. aps. org/ doi/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevB. 9. 3891). Physical Review B 9: 38913897. Bibcode1974PhRvB...9.3891G.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.9.3891. .
[3] Martien, Dinesh. "Introduction to: AC susceptibility" (http:/ / www. qdusa. com/ resources/ pdf/ 1078-201. pdf) (pdf). Quantum Design. .
Retrieved September 2011.
[4] Kryder, M. H.. "Magnetic recording beyond the superparamagnetic limit". pp.575. doi:10.1109/INTMAG.2000.872350.
[5] "Hitachi achieves nanotechnology milestone for quadrupling terabyte hard drive" (http:/ / www. hitachi. com/ New/ cnews/ 071015a. html)
(Press release). Hitachi. October 15, 2007. . Retrieved September 2011.
[6] Murray, Matthew (2010-08-19). "Will Toshiba's Bit-Patterned Drives Change the HDD Landscape?" (http:/ / www. pcmag. com/ article2/
0,2817,2368023,00. asp). PC Magazine. . Retrieved 2010-08-21.
[7] http:/ / ctwc. weizmann. ac. il/ spc. html
[8] http:/ / vcclab. org/ lab/ spc
Nel, L. (1949). "Thorie du tranage magntique des ferromagntiques en grains fins avec applications aux terres
cuites" (in French). Ann. Gophys. 5: 99136. An English translation is available in Kurti, N., ed. (1988). Selected
Works of Louis Nel. New York: Gordon and Breach. pp.407427. ISBN2-88124-300-2.
Weller, D.; Moser, A. (1999). "Thermal Effect Limits in Ultrahigh Density Magnetic Recording" (http://dx.doi.
org/10.1109/20.809134). IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 35: 44234439. Bibcode1999ITM....35.4423W.
doi:10.1109/20.809134.
209
Superparamagnetism
210
External links
Superparamagnetism of Co-Ferrite Nanoparticles (http://www.mff.cuni.cz/veda/konference/wds/contents/
pdf05/WDS05_090_f3_Vejpravova.pdf)
Powerpoint presentation on Superparamagnetism in pdf (http://lmis1.epfl.ch/webdav/site/lmis1/shared/Files/
Lectures/Nanotechnology for engineers/Archives/2004_05/Superparamagnetism.pdf)
References
[1] .Foner, S. "Versatile and Sensitive Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer". Rev. Sci. Instrum 30 (7): 548557.
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License
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