Introduction

Electronic circuits range from quite simple arrangements of a few

connected components to vast and very complex networks. This
module provides a basic introduction to circuits and their properties.

Fig.1.0.2 The Raspberry Pi

Simplified!

Simple Circuit

However even a complex circuit, such as the Raspberry Pi Shown in

Fig. 1.0.1 can for some analysis purposes be illustrated by a simple
diagram such as that shown in Fig. 1.0.2. This is because all of the
complexity of a circuit can be replaced (in theory) by a single resistor.
The Raspberry Pi can be powered by a 3.3V DC supply, from which it
draws around 330mA of current (depending on what mode it is
operating in). This means that theoretically the Pi could be replaced by
a resistor whose value would be:
3.3V divided by 330mA = 10 ohms.
Why? Admittedly the resistor would not do as much as the Raspberry
Pi, but it will make circuit calculations much simpler!
Any electrical or electronic circuit, however complex, supplied with a
driving voltage from some sort of power supply, will pass a certain
amount of current, and that is the same action as if a power supply

(mains/line, battery, radio signal or whatever) were supplying a single

resistor having a particular value of resistance.
Using just the basic properties of simple circuits containing only power
supplies, conductors, insulators and resistors can greatly simplify the
understanding of more complex circuits. This initial module will
therefore study the basic properties of conductors and insulators and
show you how to calculate their important values. Later modules in this
series will introduce resistors, both as single components and as part
of more complex networks.
Resistor Construction

What youll learn in Module 2.0

After studying this section, you should be able to:

Describe common types of resistor construction.

Surface Mount Technology(SMT).

Carbon Film Resistors.

Carbon Composition Resistor.

Wire-wound resistors.

Metal film resistors.

Thermal Fuse Resistors

Fixed Resistors

Fig 2.0.1 Resistor Symbols

Resistors are components used to resist the flow of electric current

and have a stated value of RESISTANCE. Many types of resistors are
used having different uses and construction. The most common types
have a fixed value of resistance so are often called fixed resistors.
They are shown on circuit schematic diagrams (theoretical diagrams
that show how the circuit components are connected electrically, rather
than what a circuit looks like physically) using one of the symbols
shown in Fig 2.0.1.
Various types of fixed resistors are used in circuits, they are the most
numerous of all electronic components and their most common job is
to reduce voltages and currents around a circuit so that active
components, transistors and integrated circuits for example, that carry
out tasks such as producing or amplifying signals within the circuit are
supplied with the correct voltages and currents to work properly.
Resistors are also used in conjunction with other components such as
inductors and capacitors to process signals in many ways.
Because resistors are passive components they cannot amplify or
increase voltages currents or signals, they can only reduce them.
Nevertheless they are a most essential part of any electronic circuit.

Fig 2.0.2 Fixed Resistor Types

SMT (Surface Mount Technology)

Many modern circuits use SMT resistors. Their manufacture involves
depositing a film of resistive material such as tin oxide on a tiny
ceramic chip. The edges of the resistor are then accurately ground, or
cut with a laser to give a precise resistance (which depends on the
width of the resistor film), across the ends of the device. Tolerances
may be as low as 0.02%. Contacts at each end are soldered directly
onto the conductive print on the circuit board, usually by automatic
assembly methods. SMT resistors normally have a very low power
dissipation. Their main advantage is that very high component density
can be achieved.

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Carbon Film Resistors

Similar construction to Metal film resistors but generally with wider
tolerance (typically +/- 5%), shown in Fig. 2.0.2 mounted on paper
strips for machine insertion into printed circuit boards. Small resistors
are extremely inexpensive components and are also often sold in
batches of 10s or 100s in this form for easier handling.
Back to picture

Carbon Composition Resistor

Carbon composition is the oldest design and usually the cheapest of

the resistors. Carbon granules are mixed with a filler material and
inserted into a tubular casing. In earlier types vulcanised rubber was
used but in modern designs the carbon is mixed with a ceramic filler.
The value of resistance is determined by the amount of carbon added
to the filler mixture. Carbon composition resistors do not have the
close tolerances of either carbon or metal film types. Typical tolerances
are +/-10% or 20%. One advantage however is that they are better
suited to applications involving large voltage pulses than the more
modern types.
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Google Ads

1Watt resistor

Carbon composition, carbon and metal film resistors are available in a

range of power ratings, from 0.125W to 5W. In a resistor, the power
that the resistor must dissipate (get rid of as heat) depends on the
voltage difference (V) across the resistor, and the current (I) flowing
through it. These are multiplied together to obtain the amount of power
(P) that must be dissipated using the formula P = IV. For any particular
type or value of resistor, the greater the power rating, the larger the
physical size of the resistor.
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Wire-wound resistors

Wirewound resistors are very variable in construction and physical

appearance. Their resistive elements are commonly lengths of wire,
usually an alloy such as Nichrome (Nickel/Chromium) or Manganin
(Copper/Nickel/Manganese) wrapped around a ceramic or glass fibre
rod or tube and coated in an insulating flameproof cement film. They
are normally available in quite low values of resistance (single ohms to
a few Kilohms) but can dissipate large amounts of power. In use they
may get very hot.

For this reason high power wirewound resistors may be housed in a

finned metal case that can be bolted to a metal chassis to dissipate the
heat generated as effectively as possible. With all types of wirewound

resistor, fire protection is important and flame proof cases or coatings

are vital. Lead-out wires are normally welded rather than soldered to
the resistor.
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Metal film resistors.

These resistors are made from small rods of ceramic coated with metal
such as a nickel alloy or a metal oxide such as tin oxide. The value of
resistance is controlled firstly by the thickness of the coating layer; the
thicker the layer, the lower the value of resistance. Also by a fine spiral
groove cut along the rod using a laser or diamond cutter to cut the
carbon or metal coating effectively into a long spiral strip, which forms
the resistor. Metal film resistors can be obtained in a wide range of
resistance values from a few Ohms to tens of millions of Ohms with a
very small TOLERANCE. For example a typical value might be 100K
1% or less i.e. for a stated value of 100K the actual value will be
between 99K and 101K. Note that although the body colour (the
colour of the laquer coating) on metal film resistors is often grey, this is
not a reliable guide. Small carbon, metal and oxide resistors may be
made in various body colours such as dark red, brown, blue, green,
grey, cream or white.
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5 Watt Wirewound Resistor

A wirewound resistor can have a smaller physical size for a given
power rating than carbon composition or film resistors, compare this
5W resistor with the 1W resistor (labelled 3 in Fig.2.0.2). Wirewound

resistors however, do not not have the close tolerance of composition

or film types. This 4R7 resistor has a tolerance of 10%.
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PCB Mounting Wirewound Resistor

Wirewound resistors usually have a resistance range from around 1
to about 50K. Because they use a coil of wire as their resistive
element they tend to act as inductors to some degree. This limits their
use to low frequency circuits up to around a few tens of kiloHertz
(kHz). This example, available in power ratings up to 25W, is for
mounting on a printed circuit board and to prevent heat damage to the
board, the specially shaped legs ensure an air gap between the
resistor and the board. The whole resistor is enclosed in a flameproof
ceramic layer.
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High Power Metal Film

Metal film resistors are also available in high power types with power
ratings less than wirewound types (typically less than 5W) but having
closer tolerances.
Back to main picture

Fusible Wirewound Resistor

In this fusible resistor, the current flowing through the resistor first flows
through a spring loaded connection that is positioned close to the body
of the resistor. The heat generated by the wirewound resistor under
normal conditions would not be sufficient to melt the blob of solder
holding a spring wire in place. If too much current flows through the
resistor it overheats, the solder melts and the wire springs up, opening
the connection and stopping the current. This then requires a service
technician to find the cause of the over-current before re-soldering the

spring connection to restore normal operation. It is important to use the

correct type of solder (usually stated in the service manual for the
equipment) when re-soldering, since this will affect the temperature at
which the spring opens.
Ohms Law

What youll learn in Module 3.1

After studying this section, you should be able to:

Describe Ohms Law involving metalic conductors:

Resistance, Voltage & Current.

Define:

The Ohm, Ampere & Volt.

Ohms, Volts & Amperes.

The resistance of a conductor is measured in Ohms and the Ohm is a

unit named after the German physicist George Simon Ohm (17871854) who was the first to show the relationship between resistance,
current and voltage. In doing so he devised his law which shows the
inter-relationship between the three basic electrical properties of
resistance, voltage and current. It demonstrates one of the most
important relationships in electrical and electronic engineering.
Ohms Law states that: "In metallic conductors at a constant
temperature and in a zero magnetic field, the current flowing is
proportional to the voltage across the ends of the conductor, and
is inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor."
In simple terms, provided that the temperature is constant and the
electrical circuit is not influenced by magnetic fields, then:

 With a circuit of constant resistance, the greater the voltage applied

to a circuit, the more current will flow.
With a constant voltage applied, the greater the resistance of the
circuit, the less current will flow.
Notice that Ohms law states "In metallic conductors" This means that
the law holds good for most materials that are metal, but not all.
Tungsten for example, used for the glowing filaments of light bulbs has
a resistance that changes with the temperature of the filament, hence
the reference in Ohms Law to at a constant temperature. There are
also components used in electronics that have a non-linear
relationship between the three electrical properties of voltage, current
and resistance, but these can be described by different formulae. For
the majority of circuits or components, which can be described by Ohm
s Law:
Rather than trying to remember the whole of Ohms law, the three
electrical properties of voltage, current and resistance by single letters:
Resistance is indicated by the letter R and is measured in units of
Ohms, which have the symbol (Greek capital O).
Voltage is indicated by the letter V (or sometimes E, an abbreviation
for Electromotive Force) and is measured in units of Volts, which have
the symbol V.
Current is given the letter I (not C as this is used for Capacitance) and
is measured in units of Amperes (often shortened to Amps), which
have the symbol A.
By using the letters V, I and R to express the relationships defined in
Ohms Law gives three simple formulae:

Each of which shows how to find the value of any one of these
quantities in a circuit, provided the other two are known. For example,
to find the voltage V (in Volts) across a resistor, simply multiply the
current I (in Amperes) through the resistor by the value of the resistor
R (in Ohms).

Note that when using these formulae the values of V I and R

written into the formula must be in its BASIC UNIT i.e. VOLTS (not
millivolts) Ohms (not kilohms) and AMPERES (not micro Amperes )etc.
Briefly 15K (kilohms) is entered as 15 EXP 03 and 25mA
(milliAmperes) is entered as 25 EXP -03 etc. This is easiest to do using
a scientific calculator.
How to use your calculator with the engineering notation used
extensively in electronics is explained in our free booklet entitled
"Maths Tips" Download it from ourDownload page.
Defining The Ohm, Ampere & Volt

1 OHM
Can be defined as "The amount of resistance that will produce a
potential difference (p.d.) or voltage of 1 Volt across it when a current
of 1 Ampere is flowing through it."

1 AMPERE
Can be defined as "The amount of current which, when flowing through
a resistance of 1 Ohm will produce a potential difference of 1 Volt
across the resistance."
(Although more useful definitions of an ampere are available)

1 VOLT
Can be defined as "The difference in potential (voltage) produced
across a resistance of 1 Ohm through which a current of 1 Ampere is
flowing."
These definitions relate Volts, Amperes and Ohms within the quantities
described in Ohms Law, but alternative definitions using other
quantities can also be used.
Current & Voltage in Resistor Networks

Finding the Unknown

In addition to working out the resistance, Ohms law can be used to
work out voltages and currents in resistor networks. Before trying this it
would be a good idea to look at some basic facts about resistor
networks.

Fig.4.0.1 A Simple Series Circuit

Fig.4.0.2 A Simple Parallel Circuit

In the simple SERIES CIRCUIT shown in Fig. 4.0.1 the same current
flows through all components. Each component however, will have a
different VOLTAGE (p.d.) across it. The sum of these individual
voltages (VR1+VR2+VR3 etc) in a series circuit is equal to the supply
voltage (EMF).
In the simple PARALLEL CIRCUIT shown in Fig 4.0.2 however, the
same voltage is present across all components but a different
CURRENT can flow through each component. The sum of these
individual component currents in a parallel circuit is equal to the supply
current. (IS = IR1+ IR2+ IR3 etc.)

The Potential Divider Rule

Fig. 4.0.3 A Potential Divider

If two or more resistors are connected in series across a potential (e.g.

A supply voltage), the voltage across each resistor will be proportional
to the resistance of that resistor. VR1 R1 and VR2 R2 etc.
To calculate the voltage across any resistor in the potential divider,
multiply the supply voltage (E) by the proportion of that resistor to the
total resistance of all the resistors.
For example if R2 is double the value of R1 there will be twice the
voltage across R2 than across R1. It follows therefore, that the voltage
across R1 will be one third of the supply voltage (E) and the voltage
across R2 will be two thirds of the supply voltage (E). So, if the supply
voltage and the resistor values are known, then the voltage across
each resistor can be worked out by PROPORTION, and once the
voltage across each resistor is known the voltage at any point in the
circuit can be calculated.
Using these few facts it is possible to work out an amazing amount of
information about the currents and voltages in a circuit, once the
values of the circuit resistances are known. Try it out for yourself with
our Quiz in the Resistors & Circuits Module 4.6 Network
Calculations page.

urrent, Voltage & E.M.F.

Electric Current

Electric current is the flow of electrons in a conductor. A conductor can

be any material (usually a metal) that has an atomic structure that
allows electrons to be easily detached from their parent atom by an
electric force (called a voltage or an electric potential). These "free
electrons", which are naturally negatively charged are attracted
towards a positive electric charge. This movement is called
ELECTRON FLOW and is also called an electric current. So current
flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal in an electrical
circuit.
Looking at this a different way, the atoms that are now short of the
negatively charged electrons that have been attracted away by the
electric potential, must be positively charged. In this state they are
called positive ions and they will be attracted towards a negative
electric charge. Therefore current (in the form of positive ions) can also
be considered to be flowing from positive to negative.
Therefore it depends whether current is considered to be due to the
movement of electrons or to the movement of positive ions. Both are
correct and both ways of considering current can be used in practice.

Fig. 4.1.1 Current Flow (US Method)

Fig. 4.1.2 Current Flow (EU Method)

To clarify which current flow is being referred to, the two directions of
flow are called:
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT Flows from positive to negative.
ELECTRON FLOW Flows from negative to positive.
Whether current is considered as flowing from negative to positive or
from positive to negative depends in many cases on where you live. In
the USA some text books and diagrams may show current flowing from
negative to positive (Electron Flow) although Conventional Current
Flow is also used. In Europe Conventional Current flow is the preferred
direction, unles specifically relating to the flow of electrons. Which
system is used doesnt really matter, so long as you know which
system you are using! For most purposes at www.learnaboutelectronics.org CONVENTIONAL CURRENT will be used for our
explanations of how circuits work, only using electron flow when the
flow of current is entirely, or mostly made up of moving electrons. (As
in devices such as transistors). Therefore, unless specifically stated
otherwise you can assume that current flows from positive to negative.
This flow is normally shown in diagrams by a small arrow head placed
on the conductor and labelled I1, I2 etc. as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.3.
Indicating Current Flow in a Simple circuit

Current is measured in Amperes, (often abbreviated as Amps) or

commonly in milliAmperes or microAmperes in electronic circuits.

An Ampere can be defined as;

The amount of electric charge, measured in Coulombs, which passes
a given point in a circuit, per second.
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb per second.
1 Coulomb is the amount of charge carried by approximately
6.24150948 x 1018 electrons, or to be a little more exact:
6,241,509,479,607,717,888 electrons!
The measurement of the Ampere is not made, believe it or not, by
sitting there and counting electrons! It is actually defined by calculating
the force exerted between the magnetic fields around two parallel
wires. If you are really keen to get into the numbers and method of
defining the Ampere try this link to NIST, the National Institute for
Standards and Technology at the U.S. Department of Commerce.
Voltage and E.M.F.

Fig. 4.1.3 Labelling Voltages and Currents.

Whenever a current is flowing, a voltage must be present. Voltage is

sometimes described as an electrical pressure, the force that drives
current through the circuit, just as water pressure drives water around
a circulating pipe. In electrical terms, a voltage is actually the
difference in electric charge at two points in a circuit. This difference in
charge at two points will always try and equalise by causing the
electrons to flow around the circuit. With no potential difference
between different points in a circuit there will be no current flow.

Equally if there are potential differences, but the circuit is incomplete

(i.e. there is a break in the circuit) there will be no current.
What causes the charge difference is therefore the force that drives a
circuit. This may be a device such as a CELL or a BATTERY (a battery
is just several interconnected cells) or alternatively the source of
electric potential may be derived from the mains (line) supply.
Whatever the source of energy used the driving force for the circuit
current can be called the ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE or E.M.F.
The term E.M.F. is only used to describe that difference in charge or
difference in voltage that is the actual source of power for our circuit.
Differences in voltage between any other points in the circuit are called
"potential differences" (abbreviated to p.d). Both EMF and potential
difference are measured in Volts, and so are often both (inaccurately)
called "voltages". In addition voltages may each sometimes be labelled
E just to add to the confusion.
Strictly speaking the Electrical potential that drives the circuit is called
an EMF (measured in volts) and is labelled E.
The difference in electric potential between any other two points in the
circuit is called a POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE or p.d. (also measured in
Volts) and labelled V.
A voltage in a circuit (either EMF or potential difference) may be shown
by an arrow alongside the two points in the circuit (often the two ends
of a component) where the potential difference or EMF exists.
Conventionally the arrow head is at the more positive potential.
Multiple voltages and currents may be labelled V 1, V2, I1, I2 etc. as
shown in Fig.4.1.3.