SPE-184327-MS

Modelling Wellbore Stability by Chemical Method in Niger Delta: A Review

I. S. Okafor, and O. F. Joel, World Bank Africa Centre of Excellence; S. E. Iyuke, University of WITS;
C. E. Ndubuisi, University of Port Harcourt

Copyright 2016, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition held in Lagos, Nigeria, 2 4 August 2016.
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Abstract
Drilling through shale formation can be challenging and sometimes results in wellbore instability
problems due to the reaction between hydrophilic shale and drilling fluids. The typical low permeability
of shale, the presence of ions and charged surface of the constituent clay are factors which makes the
problem of wellbore instability very complex despite efforts dedicated to the study by researchers. The
study of wellbore stability in shale is quite important because 75% of all formation drilled worldwide are
shale formations and 90% of all wellbore instability problems occur in shale formations costing the
industry more than $1 billion USD/year (Chenevert, 2002; Zeynali, 2012); the lost time due to this
challenge also account for over 40% of all drilling related non-productive time (Zhang et al, 2009) and
these instabilities are responsible for 10-20% of the total drilling cost. A solution through this challenge
is critical to the sustenance of the investment made by operating companies in the oil and gas industry.
This will drastically reduce drilling cost, completion and workover cost as well as the accompanying
downtime involved. It will also improve the net present value of operating company in the industry.
Basically wellbore instability occurs when the mechanical stress induced by drilling into the formation
exceeds the formation rock strength. Chemical interactions between the drilling mud and the in-situ shale
affect the in-situ stress state of the formation hence the stability of the formation. Geo-mechanical models
have been designed to tackle mechanical wellbore instability in the Niger Delta the challenge therefore is
a chemical solution to the wellbore instability problems of the region. Oil-based muds have been known
to overcome wellbore stability problems, but disposal challenges and environmental concerns have led to
infrequent use. The challenge therefore is to formulate an environmentally friendly drilling mud having
the inhibitive properties to tackle the wellbore instability challenges. This paper presents a review of
studies carried out to characterize the mineralogy of shales and the salinity distribution of formation water
in the Niger Delta depobelts with a view of designing a balanced-activity drilling fluid to help stabilize
the formation during drilling. Results obtained from the reviewed researches showed that shale mineralogy characterization and formation water salinity distribution is critical in designing a balanced-activity
drilling mud that can effectively tackle the problems of wellbore instability.
Keywords: Wellbore stability Balanced activity drilling Mud Shale characterization Mineralogy

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Introduction
Wellbore instability in shale formations has been a significant problem in the petroleum industry for over
a century. It is estimated that this problem costs the oil industry about 1 billion US dollars each year
(Chenevert, 2002) and its also responsible for about 10 to 20% of the total drilling cost of well. This
challenge is of great interest to the oil industry because 75% of all formation drilled are shale formation
and 90% of all wellbore instability issues are attributed to shale formations (Osisanya and Chenevert,
1994).
Shales have been defined as low-permeability sedimentary rocks with small pore radii that characterized by low permeability, medium to high clay content, and medium porosity (Zhang, 2005), in addition
to other minerals, such as quartz, feldspar, and calcite (Osisanya, 1991). Shale types range from soft
Gumbo shale in offshore Louisiana, Gulf of Mexico to hard brittle shale in South Louisiana with each type
presenting its own set of problems. The distinguishing features of shale are its clay content and low
permeability, which results in poor connectivity through narrow pore throats. Shales are also fairly porous
and are normally saturated with formation water, with several factors affecting their properties, such as
burial depth, water activity, and the amount and type of minerals present (Joel, et al. 2012). They are
susceptible to different phenomena including swelling, shrinkage, hydration and mechanical failure.
When a well is drilled, the formation around the wellbore is expected to sustain the load that the
removed formation previously carried. As expected, there will be a resultant increase in stress concentration and the stress around the wellbore. If the formation is not strong enough to sustain the increased
stresses around the wellbore, the wellbore will fail. Wellbore instability is recognized when the diameter
of the hole is markedly different from the bit size and the hole does not main structural integrity (Osisanya,
2012). Instability wellbore problems are generated from rock variation during the drilling process as a
consequence of the stress experienced due to their varied and complex mineral composition, as well as the
composition of the drilling fluids utilized in the operation (variations are caused not only by physical but
also by chemical media). There are many factors causing instability problems and most of them are related
to shale formations and their physicochemical interaction with the drilling mud, such as chemical osmosis
due to the membrane behavior exhibited by shale rocks (Perez, 2002).
Wellbore instability is usually caused by a combination of factors which may be broadly classified as
being either controllable or uncontrollable (natural) in origin (Borivoje, et al, 2007). Osisanya (2012)
stated that the cause of wellbore instability is grouped under three interrelated headings, namely
mechanical, rock-chemical interaction (shale) and man-made (drilling practices) as shown in Fig. 1.
Understanding the complexity of these causes is critical in the maintenance and control of wellbore
stability.

Figure 1Causes of Wellbore Instability (after Osisanya 2012).

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It is also believed that the main cause of shale instability stems from unfavourable interactions between
the drilling muds and shale formations (Chenevert, 1970; Bol, 1992; Van Oort, 2003). Shale instability is
generally caused by pore pressure changes and mechanical property alterations around the wellbore,
induced by both chemical and hydraulic effects. All of these alterations are caused by water and ion
movement into or out of the shale formations. Chenevert (1970) showed that differences in water activity
could cause an Osmotic flux of water into or out of the shale. Ballard et al (1992) developed an
experimental technique using radioactive tracers to monitor water and ion movement in shales and found
it to be a diffusion-dominated process under zero applied pressure. Concentration gradients are the driving
force for the transfer of ions into or out of shales.
According to Simpson (1979), drilling performance around the world has displayed the effectiveness
of oil-based muds in combating drilling problems caused by shale hydration, differential pressure sticking,
corrosion and high formation temperatures. The most important of these characteristics is the capability
of oil-base muds to prevent shale swelling caused by hydration after the wellbore has been exposed. When
using a water base-mud with an aqueous potential higher than that of the drilled shale, water movement
from the mud to the shale develops swelling stresses and pore pressure increases and leads to rock failure.
Oil-base muds according to Growcock et al (1994) are water-in-oil emulsions that contain organophilic
clay and a weighting mineral. The water phase is usually a calcium chloride salt solution with a water
activity that resembles the water activity of the formation. This minimizes water transfer to or from the
water-sensitive zones and thereby maintains a stable wellbore. The water in oil emulsion is stabilized with
a primary emulsifier often a fatty acid salt, while the weighting mineral and the drilled solids are made
oil-wet and dispersed in the mud with a secondary emulsifier.
Models based on chemical potential and hydraulic pressure developed by Osisanya (1991), Mody and
Hale (1993), Osisanya and Chenevert (1996) and further expanded on by Van Oort et al. (1996) have
indicated the complexity of theoretical analysis of driving forces and mechanisms that govern shale
stability in the borehole.
Chenevert et al. (1991) noted that if ions are added to a water-base drilling fluid; the total water activity
is lowered and water movement into the shale is reduced due to osmotic effects. This effect is not long
lasting because ions are not completely restricted to the wellbore fluid by semi-permeable membrane. But
for oil-base muds, a very efficient membrane exists; thus, very little ion transfer occurs.
Basically this research seeks to prevent the occurrence of wellbore instability through the design of an
effective drilling mud system that will enhance balance-activity between the drilling fluid and the shale
formation. This will be achieved through the review of researches undertaken to characterize the Niger
Delta shale formations, the mineralogy of the shale, as well as its formation water salinity distribution.
Knowledge of these properties will immensely enhance our ability to design a drilling fluid to prevent
wellbore instability problems in the Niger Delta region.

Brief Geology of the Study Area - Niger Delta

The study area for this research is the Niger Delta basin or province. The Niger delta province is found
in the Gulf of Guinea. It covers a total area extent of 300,000km2, a subaerial area of about 75,000km2,
a sediment fill of 500,000km3, and a sediment fill depth between 9-12km (Steele, et al., 2009; Tuttle, et
al., 1999) making it one of the worlds largest regressive deltas. This basin is very complex, and it carries
high economic value as it contains a very productive petroleum system. The delta system occupies the
Benue Trough, the failed rift arm of a triple junction associated with late Aptian to Albian opening of the
South Atlantic Ocean. The rift system linked the Tethys to the South Atlantic through the Sirte, Chad,
Anambra, and Niger basins. The Cretaceous delta was deposited in the Anambra Basin until a final
Paleocene phase of inversion reactivated the Abakaliki and Onitsha highs (Unomah and Ekweozor, 1993)
and shifted sedimentation to the Niger basin.

SPE-184327-MS

Short and Stauble (1967) defined three lithostratigraphic units in the Tertiary of the Niger Delta (Fig.
2). The basal Akata Formation is predominantly a marine shale sequence with silty and sandy horizons
laid down in front of the advancing delta. The shales of the Akata Formation probably extend over the
whole delta area and have been deposited from the Paleocene to the Recent.

Figure 2Logs of three wells in the Niger Delta showing the stratigraphic succession (after Short and Stauble, 1967)

The Agbada Formation consists of alternating sandstones and shales deposited at the interface between
the lower deltaic plain and marine sediments of the continental shelf fronting the delta. The alternations
of sandy and argillaceous sediments are the result of differential subsidence, variation in the sediment
supply and shifts in the depositional lobes of the delta. Generally, the upper part of this formation is
sandier than the lower part, indicating a general seaward advance of the delta. The age of the formation
varies progressively from Eocene in the north to Recent in the south at the present delta surface.
Virtually all the hydrocarbon accumulations in the Niger delta occur in the sandstones of the Agbada
Formation trapped in rollover anticlines fronting growth faults which were generated contemporaneously
with the deposition of the sediments. The shales of the formation form impermeable barriers against
further upward migration of the hydrocarbons. The same shales are also the most obvious source rocks
for the hydrocarbons.

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The Benin Formation is predominantly a sandstone sequence with a few shale intercalations which
become more abundant towards the base. The sands of the formation are largely deposits of the continental
upper deltaic plain environment ranging in age from the Oligocene in the north to their Recent equivalents
in the modern delta.

The Niger Delta Depobelts

The Niger Delta sedimentary wedge consists of series of discrete depo-centres or depobelts each
characterized by individual proximal distal facies trend within the Agbada formation. Deposition of the
three formations (Akata, Agbada and Benin) occurred in each of the five offlapping siliciclastic sedimentation cycles that comprise the Niger Delta. These cycles (depobelts) are 30-60 kilometers wide,
prograde southwestward 250 kilometers over oceanic crust into the Gulf of Guinea (Stacher, 1995), and
are defined by synsedimentary faulting that occurred in response to variable rates of subsidence and
sediment supply (Doust and Omatsola, 1990). The interplay of subsidence and supply rates resulted in
deposition of discrete depobelts when further crustal subsidence of the basin could no longer be
accommodated, the focus of sediment deposition shifted seaward, forming a new depobelt (Doust and
Omatsola, 1990). Each depobelt is a separate unit that corresponds to a break in regional dip of the delta
and is bounded landward by growth faults and seaward by large counter-regional faults or the growth fault
of the next seaward belt (Evamy et al, 1978; Doust and Omatsola, 1990). Five major depobelts are
generally recognized, each with its own sedimentation, deformation, and petroleum history.
Doust and Omatsola (1990) describe three depobelts provinces based on structure. The northern delta
province, which overlies relatively shallow basement, has the oldest growth faults that are generally
rotational, evenly spaced, and increases their steepness seaward. The central delta province has depobelts
with well-defined structures such as successively deeper rollover crests that shift seaward for any given
growth fault. Last, the distal delta province is the most structurally complex due to internal gravity
tectonics on the modern continental slope. Classic integrated geological studies has shown that the
depositional nature of Niger Delta is extensional and stretches from Onshore to shallow offshore forming
(7) stratigraphically distinct sub-basins termed depobelts. The Niger Delta Depobelts include

Northern Delta
Greater Ughelli
Central Swamp 1
Central Swamp 2
Coastal Swamp
Shallow Offshore.
Deep Offshore.

Formation/Produced Water Characterization

In the subsurface, reservoir rocks are generally believed to be permeated with fluids including water, oil
and or gas. Actually most reservoirs are formed in water through the deposition of sediments and the
hydrocarbon forming organic matter. Continuous deposition and compaction of sediments over geologic
time and the interplays that led to the formation of the reservoir, and the migration of reservoir fluids into
water zone leads to the outflow of some of the native water (now replaced by less dense oil and gas) that
initially existed.
Sources of this water may include flow from above or below the hydrocarbon zone, flow from within
the hydrocarbon zone, or flow from injected fluids and additives resulting from production activities. This
water is frequently referred to as connate water or formation water and becomes produced water when the
reservoir is produced and these fluids are brought to the surface.

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Connate water is defined as the water that remains in the reservoir pore spaces as sediment compacts
and binds together, similarly formation water is defined as the water that exist in the reservoir at the time
it is penetrated by a drill bit, while produced water is defined as the water production and collected at the
wellhead or separating tanks alongside crude oil.
The composition of this produced fluid is dependent on whether crude oil or natural gas is being
produced and generally includes a mixture of either liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons, produced water,
dissolved or suspended solids, produced solids such as sand or silt, and injected fluids and additives that
may have been placed in the formation as a result of exploration and production activities (Joel et al,
2010).
The physio-chemical properties of formation and produced water vary widely, depending on the
geographic location of the field, the geological formation with which the produced water has been in
contact for thousands of years, and the type of hydrocarbon product being produced and also the
depositional environment of the field. Formation water has also been known to vary between reservoirs
and even within reservoirs. Produced water properties and volume can even vary throughout the lifetime
of a reservoir. If water-flooding operations are conducted, these properties and volumes may vary even
more dramatically as additional water is injected into the formation.
Knowledge of the constituents of specific produced waters is needed for regulatory compliance and for
selecting management/disposal options such as secondary recovery and disposal. Oil and grease are the
constituents of produced water that receive the most attention in both onshore and offshore operations,
while salt content (expressed as salinity, conductivity, or TDS) is a primary constituent of concern in
onshore operations (Joel et al, 2010).
Formation water is embedded with information about the rock in which it is resident; it can provide
critical information about the reservoir rock at every stage in the life of the reservoir. Early in the life of
a field, analysis of formation water can provide relevant details of the waters salinity and resistivity that
is necessary for petrophysical evaluation of the field.
Similarly before casing and production tubings are selected, it is necessary to evaluate the corrosivity
of the fluids that will be produced. This becomes critical when gases such as H2S, CO2 and other corrosive
gases are present and are dissolved both in the oil and the formation water, more so when the quantity of
these gases are expected to exceed acceptable limits. In such cases, having an idea of the peculiar
characteristic of the formation water gives the operator an edge in the design and selection of suitable
casing to withstand the expected corrosive fluids, therefore saving cost that could have been incurred by
workover activities and the accompanying downtime. Furthermore, pipelines and surface handling
facilities will be designed to effectively handle the expected corrosive fluids.
Reviewed works on properties of formation water in the Niger Delta showed that salinity and TDS
(total dissolved solids) range for formation water is between 400ppm to 140ppm. Major cations include
sodium (Na), calcium (Ca2), potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg2) ions were observed to be the
predominant cations (sodium is the most dominant), while the major anions are Cl, HCO3, SO42(chloride is the most dominant). Formation water properties of some Niger Delta fields are presented in
Table 3 and 4.
The analysis of formation water is also critical in the design and optimization of drilling fluid especially
in the aspect of managing wellbore instability caused due to unfavorable reactions between drilling fluids
and shales contained in the formation rocks. Knowledge of the physio-chemical properties of the
formation water and the minerals it contain, as well as the knowledge of shale properties is therefore
necessary in the design of an optimized cost effective drilling mud that can adequately control wellbore
instability with minimal environmental concerns.

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Characterizing Niger Delta Shales

The characterization of selected Niger Delta shale for the purpose off wellbore stability study involves
finding certain properties of the shale to enable researchers create a sequence or trend that will be
attributed to the shales. The importance of shale charcterization is not far-fetched. It is necessary to
enhance our knowledge base about the mineralogical content of the shales, their native moisture content,
cation exchange capacity, water activity and other necessary properties that define the peculiar nature of
the Niger Delta shale.

Mineralogy of Niger Delta Shale

The mineral content of shale is very important when dealing with wellbore instability. Shale is known to
overwhelmingly consist of clay minerals and small amounts of other non-clay minerals such as quartz,
feldspar and calcite. Clay minerals are therefore highly studied to comprehend shale behavior. Various
methods such as X-Ray Diffraction Analysis, Differential Thermal Analysis and Adsorption Spectra are
used to identify and quantify the clay minerals present in shales. Several studies have been conducted to
ascertain the mineralogy of the Niger Delta shale. Lambert-Aikhionbare and Shaw (1982) submitted that
The Akata Formation shales are composed predominantly of clay minerals (55-90%) with lesser amounts
of quartz, feldspar, carbonates and pyrite. The clay mineral assemblage of the shales comprises 35-60%
kaolinite, 20-50% smectite (including some illite-smectite random mixed-layer phases) and 10-30% illite.
The shales of the Agbada Formation are also composed predominantly of clay minerals with minor
amounts of quartz, feldspar, carbonates and pyrite. However, their clay mineralogy differs from that of the
Akata Formation with more kaolinite (40-75%), less smectite (10-35%) and similar amounts of illite
(15-25%). Eme (2015) concluded that the shale samples used in his study are mainly composed of the
kaolinite group to the range of about 76%. Okoro (2012) presented the results of the mineralogy of
Agbada shale collected from two wells as shown in Table 1.
Table 1Shale Sample Mineralogy (Dosunmu and Okoro, 2012)
X-Ray Diffraction Analysis, % by Weight
Quartz
Carbonates
Feldspar
Apatite
Dolomite
Clay

Illite
Kaolinite
Smectite
Halloysite
Mixed layer
Total

Well A
2005 ft 2006 ft

Well B
3462.91 ft 3464 ft

20
8
9
4
7
15
10
3
4
20
52

22
10
11
5
1
17
6
0
8
20
51

Cation Exchange Capacity

Atoms other than silicon, aluminum and magnesium atoms could be encountered in clays crystal lattice
due to a process known as isomorphous substitution. This is the process where an atom is replaced by
other atoms, having similar sizes but lower charges without altering the general structure of the crystal
lattice order. For example, Si4 may be replaced with Al3 or Fe3, or Al3 may be replaced by Mg2
and Fe2. An overall charge deficit now exists causing a negative potential at the clay surface. This deficit
causes the clay to start seeking for cation that it will readily absorb to compensate for the imbalance.

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The process of isomorphous substitution and the subsequent adsorption of cation in clays cause a
disparity in their ability to be stable. The adsorbed cation is held loosely by the crystal structure and can
readily be exchanged for another cation, thus the term cation exchange capacity(CEC). In the presence
of water, the cations voluntarily undergo substitution by hydrogen or hydronium ions present. This results
in a high affinity for water molecules which can cause alteration of the shales physical properties. Cation
exchange capacity can be measured in the laboratory by introducing cationic species such as ammonium
(NH4), K, Na and methylene blue to completely balance the charge deficiency in the clay. The
methylene blue test is the simplest and most common test used in the drilling industry. The test results are
reported in units of meq/100g (milliequivalent weights of methylene blue/100g of dry clay). The CEC of
common clay minerals have been measured and are presented in Table 2.

Table 2CEC of major clay Minerals (After Boulding and Ginn 2003)
Clay Mineral

CEC (Mea/lOOg)

Smectite (Montmorillonite)
Chlorites
Mites
Kaolinites

80-150
10-40*
10-40*
3-15*

*Upper range occurs with smaller particle size

Table 3Formation Water Properties for a SOKU Field (Ukpabio, 2007)

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Table 4 Formation Water Properties for AGBADA Field (Ukpabio, 2007)

Native Moisture Content

Native moisture content is the amount of water present in shale as received in the laboratory after the
removal of coatings for preservation. Each shale type has a peculiar native moisture content that is unique
according to the environment of deposition. To accurately ascertain the native moisture content of a
particular shale sample, it is imperative to note that in order to preserve the properties of that clay sample,
careful coring and immediate immersion in mineral oil is necessary. This will prevent dehydration and
preserve the shales native moisture content. Native moisture content in combination with the adsorption
isotherm is usually used to obtain the native relative vapor pressure (P/Po) of shale. Relative vapor
pressure is the percent relative humidity divided by 100. It is usually used interchangeably with aqueous
activity due to their approximately equal values. Shales native relative vapor pressure directly corresponds to its adsorptive potential and state of hydration at the native moisture content value.

Water Activity
Water activity is a fundamental property of shale which directly indicates its state of hydration and its
ability to adsorb moisture. It is associated with the water contained in the shale structure and is highly
dependent on temperature. In-situ or laboratory measurements of aqueous activity of shales are impos-

10

SPE-184327-MS

sible. Instead, they are determined by measuring relative vapor pressures in the laboratory. Shales relative
vapor pressure is approximately equal to its aqueous activity. This relationship is expressed as follows:
(1)
Where,
aw aqueous activity
Pw vapour pressure of water in shale located between clay platelets at a temperature
Pw vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature
An important behavior observed in shales is the effect of lowering the aqueous activities of the fluid
they are immersed in. Water moves from an environment of higher activity to that of a lower activity. Thus
the water moves out of the shale. This gives rise to an increase in potential between the clay platelets,
consequently reducing their swelling capability. Another fundamental use of aqueous activity in shale
studies is in the determination of adsorptive and swelling pressures realized in shales. An established
relationship between these properties is as follows:
(2)
Where,
P swelling pressure
Pad adsorptive pressure
R universal gas constant
T absolute temperature
Vw partial molar volume
Vapour pressure above shale water (Pw) is less than the vapour pressure above pure water (Pw) due
to the fewer number of water molecules present per unit volume of shale. Therefore, the relative vapour
pressure of shale water is always less than one. Adsorptive pressures are therefore always negative.
Adsorptive pressure values are highly dependent on clay and water content.

Adsorption Isotherm Test

Adsorption is described by the quantity of adsorbate that undergoes adsorption onto a surface. Pertaining
to shale-drilling fluid interaction, it is the amount of moisture adsorbed onto the surface of shales. This
relationship is conveniently expressed on an adsorption isotherm. Adsorption isotherms are basically plots
showing the amount of moisture that adsorbs onto a shales surface as a function of the relative vapor
pressure at constant temperature. Fig. 3 shows an example of a typical shale adsorption isotherm obtained
by Chenevert (1970). Adsorption isotherm profiles are unique to each shale type. This distinctiveness has
been attributed to monolayer adsorption, multilayer adsorption and capillary condensation (Baver 1956,
Hiemenz 1977, Adamson 1982). The effect of particle size has also been explored by Osisanya (1991) and
found to play some role in adsorption isotherm profiles.

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11

Figure 3Niger Delta Depobelts

Figure 4 Adsorption Isotherm, West Texas Hard Shale (After Chenevert 1970)

Total Organic Carbon

Total Organic Carbon Content (TOC) is the quantity of carbon associated with organic matter. Organic
matter is formed from decaying vegetation and other metabolic activities of living organisms. Shale, being
a sedimentary rock formed partly from the deposition of organic material, has organic matter present
within its structure. TOC content can be determined using various methods such as high temperature
combustion, photo-oxidation, and high temperature catalytic oxidation. The main principle utilized by
these methods is the oxidation reaction to remove carbon.

12

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Development in wellbore stability studies

Over the years, different researchers have proposed different solution to the problem of wellbore
instability. Some of these results are region specific, some are based on the geomechanical properties of
the formation, others are based on the chemical reactions between the rock/fluid properties of the
formation and the properties of the drilling fluid, and more recently the trend is on the combination of both
the geomechanical and chemical interplay that occurs between the formation, its fluids and the reactions
that occurs when it comes in contact with drilling fluids.
There is also the possibility of solving the problem of chemical wellbore instability through the
introduction of silica nanoparticles. Though this possibility is still being studied, however if a breakthrough is achieved, it will effectively enhance the management of wellbore instability issues is the
petroleum industry.

Conclusion
The Petroleum industry seeks for improved and cost effective methods of managing well instability
challenges. This paper has reviewed in details the characterization of Niger Delta formation water, its
shale mineralogical content and characterization with a view to help curb chemical wellbore instability.
Studies reviewed showed that this is achievable through the formation characterization and understanding
the peculiar inter-relationship between rock/fluid system and the physio-chemical reaction between them.
With this understanding, a balance-activity drilling fluid can be designed that can effectively manage the
reactions between the ions of the formation pore fluid and those of the drilling fluid.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank The World Bank Africa Centre of Excellence for Oilfeild Chemical
Research, University of Port Harcourt, for the opportunity to prepare and publish this paper. We also wish
to thank the Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF) for their providing the grant necessary for
the completion of this research.

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