1.

GALAXY - a system of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust,
held together by gravitational attraction.
synonyms:

star system, solar system, constellation;

2. METEOR -a small body of matter from outer space that enters the earth's
atmosphere, becoming incandescent as a result of friction and appearing as a
streak of light.
synonyms:

falling star, shooting star, meteorite, meteoroid, bolide

3. BLACK HOLE -A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong

gravitational effects that nothingnot even particles and electromagnetic radiation
such as lightcan escape from inside it. The theory of general relativity predicts
that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole.
4. ASTEROID -a small rocky body orbiting the sun. Large numbers of these, ranging
in size from nearly 600 miles (1,000 km) across (Ceres) to dust particles, are
found (as the asteroid belt ) especially between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter,
though some have more eccentric orbits, and a few pass close to the earth or
enter the atmosphere as meteors.
Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The
larger ones have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been
applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sunthat did not show the disc of a
planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet.
As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have
volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, they were often
distinguished from asteroids of the asteroid belt.[1] In this article, the term
"asteroid" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those
co-orbital with Jupiter.
There are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the shattered remnants
of planetesimals, bodies within the young Sun's solar nebula that never grew
large enough to become planets.[2] The large majority of known asteroids orbit in
the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with
Jupiter (the Jupiter trojans). However, other orbital families exist with significant
populations, including the near-Earth objects. Individual asteroids are classified
by their characteristic spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups: Ctype, M-type, and S-type. These were named after and are generally identified
with carbon-rich, metallic, and silicate (stony) compositions, respectively. The
size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as 1000 km across.
Asteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets,
the difference is one of composition: while asteroids are mainly composed of
mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust and ice. In addition, asteroids
formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned
cometary ice.[3] The difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one
of size: meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids

have a diameter of greater than one meter.[4] Finally, meteoroids can be

composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials. [5]
Only one asteroid, 4 Vesta, which has a relatively reflective surface, is normally
visible to the naked eye, and this only in very dark skies when it is favorably
positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be visible to the
naked eye for a short time.[6] As of March 2016, the Minor Planet Center had data
on more than 1.3 million objects in the inner and outer Solar System, of which
750,000 had enough information to be given numbered designations.

5. MERCURY- Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System.
[a]
Its orbital period (about 88 Earth days) is less than any other planet in the Solar
System. Seen from Earth, it appears to move around its orbit in about 116 days. It
has no known natural satellites. It is named after the Roman deity Mercury, the
messenger to the gods.
Partly because it has almost no atmosphere to retain heat, Mercury's surface
temperature varies diurnally more than any other planet in the Solar System,
ranging from 100 K (173 C; 280 F) at night to 700 K (427 C; 800 F) during
the day in some equatorial regions. The poles are constantly below 180 K
(93 C; 136 F). Mercury's axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar
System's planets (about 130 degree), and its orbital eccentricity is the largest of
all known planets in the Solar System.[a] At aphelion, Mercury is about 1.5 times
as far from the Sun as it is at perihelion. Mercury's surface is heavily cratered
and similar in appearance to the Moon, indicating that it has been geologically
inactive for billions of years.
Mercury is tidally or gravitationally locked with the Sun in a 3:2 resonance,[14] and
rotates in a way that is unique in the Solar System. As seen relative to the fixed
stars, it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes
around the Sun.[b][15] As seen from the Sun, in a frame of reference that rotates
with the orbital motion, it appears to rotate only once every two Mercurian years.
An observer on Mercury would therefore see only one day every two years.
Because Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth's orbit (as does Venus), it can
appear in Earth's sky in the morning or the evening, but not in the middle of the
night. Also, like Venus and the Moon, it displays a complete range of phases as it
moves around its orbit relative to Earth. Although Mercury can appear as a bright
object when viewed from Earth, its proximity to the Sun makes it more difficult to
see than Venus. Two spacecraft have visited Mercury: Mariner 10 flew by in 1974
and 1975; and MESSENGER, launched in 2004, orbited Mercury over 4,000
times in four years, before exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet's
surface on April 30, 2015.[16][17][18]
Mercury, Latin Mercurius, in Roman religion, god of shopkeepers and merchants,
travelers and transporters of goods, and thieves and tricksters. He is commonly
identified with the Greek Hermes, the fleet-footed messenger of the gods.

6. VENUS- Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every
224.7 Earth days.[14] It has the longest rotation period(243 days) of any planet in
the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets. It has
no natural satellite. It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It is
the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon, reaching
an apparent magnitude of 4.6, bright enough to cast shadows. [15] Because Venus
orbits within Earth's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far
from the Sun; its maximum angular distance from the Sun (elongation) reaches a
maximum of 47.8.
Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet"
because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It
is radically different from Earth in other respects. It has the
densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than
96% carbon dioxide. The atmospheric pressure at the planet's surface is 92
times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on
Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a mean surface
temperature of 735 K (462 C; 863 F), even though Mercury is closer to the Sun.
Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid,
preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light. It may have
had water oceans in the past,[16][17] but these would have vaporized as the
temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect.[18] The water has
probably photodissociated, and the free hydrogen has been swept into
interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary
magnetic field.[19] Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like
rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism.
As one of the brightest objects in the sky, Venus has been a major fixture in
human culture for as long as records have existed. It has been made sacred to
gods of many cultures, and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as
the "morning star" and "evening star". Venus was the first planet to have its
motions plotted across the sky, as early as the second millennium BC, [20] and was
a prime target for early interplanetary exploration as the closest planet to Earth. It
was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft (Mariner 2) in 1962, and
the first to be successfully landed on (by Venera 7) in 1970. Venus's thick clouds
render observation of its surface impossible in visible light, and the first detailed
maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991. Plans have
been proposed for rovers or more complex missions, but they are hindered by
Venus's hostile surface conditions.
In Roman mythology, Venus was the goddess of love, sex, beauty, and fertility.
She was the Roman counterpart to the Greek Aphrodite. However, Roman Venus
had many abilities beyond the Greek Aphrodite; she was a goddess of victory,
fertility, and even prostitution.

7. JUPITER Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar
System. It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun, but two
and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter

is a gas giant, along with Saturn, with the other two giant
planets, Uranus and Neptune, being ice giants. Jupiter was known
to astronomers of ancient times.[12] The Romans named it after their god Jupiter.
[13]
When viewed from Earth, Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of 2.94,
bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows,[14] and making it on average
the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus.
Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass
being helium, though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of
molecules. It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements, [15] but like the other
giant planets, Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface. Because of its rapid
rotation, the planet's shape is that of an oblate spheroid (it has a slight but
noticeable bulge around the equator). The outer atmosphere is visibly
segregated into several bands at different latitudes, resulting in turbulence and
storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great Red
Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century
when it was first seen by telescope. Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary
ring system and a powerful magnetosphere. Jupiter has at least 67 moons,
including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galileiin
1610. Ganymede, the largest of these, has a diameter greater than that of the
planet Mercury.
Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft, most
notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by
the Galileo orbiter. In late February 2007, Jupiter was visited by the New
Horizons probe, which used Jupiter's gravity to increase its speed and bend its
trajectory en route to Pluto. The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno, which
entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4, 2016. [16][17] Future targets for
exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of
its moon Europa.
Jupiter (Latin: Iuppiter, also known as Jove) was the supreme God in the Roman
mythology pantheon. Like many of the figures of Roman mythology, Jupiter was
appropriated from the Greeks, and is virtually identical to the supreme
God Zeus in Greek mythology. Jupiter was known as the Roman god of the
heavens and the sky.

8. SATURN Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in
the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine
times that of Earth.[11][12] Although only one-eighth the average density of Earth,
with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive. [13][14][15] Saturn is
named after the Roman god of agriculture; its astronomical symbol () represents
the god's sickle.
Saturn's interior is probably composed of a core of ironnickel and rock
(silicon and oxygen compounds). This core is surrounded by a deep layer
of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium,
and finally outside the Frenkel line a gaseous outer layer.[16] Saturn has a pale

yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere. Electrical

current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn's
planetary magnetic field, which is weaker than Earth's, but has a magnetic
moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn's larger size. Saturn's magnetic
field strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter's. [17] The outer atmosphere is
generally bland and lacking in contrast, although long-lived features can
appear. Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1,800 km/h (500 m/s), higher than on
Jupiter, but not as high as those on Neptune.[18]
Saturn has a prominent ring system that consists of nine continuous main rings
and three discontinuous arcs and that is composed mostly of ice particles with a
smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. Sixty-two[19]moons are known to orbit
Saturn, of which fifty-three are officially named. This does not include the
hundreds of moonlets comprising the rings. Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and the
second-largest in the Solar System, is larger than the planet Mercury, although
less massive, and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial
atmosphere.[20]
Cronus (Saturn) In Greek mythology, Cronus was the son of Uranus and Gaea.
He lead his brothers and sisters, the Titans, in a revolt against their father and
became the king of the gods. He married the Titan Rhea.

9. URANUS -Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It has the third-largest
planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System. Uranus is
similar in composition to Neptune, and both have different bulk chemical
composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. For this reason,
scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as "ice giants" to distinguish them
from the gas giants. Uranus's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter's and Saturn's in its
primary composition of hydrogen and helium, but it contains more "ices" such as
water, ammonia, and methane, along with traces of other hydrocarbons.[12] It is the
coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of
49 K (224.2 C), and has a complex, layered cloud structure with water thought
to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds. [12] The
interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ices and rock. [11]
Uranus is the only planet whose name is derived from a figure from Greek
mythology, from the Latinised version of the Greek god of the sky Ouranos. Like
the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, a magnetosphere, and
numerous moons. The Uranian system has a unique configuration among those
of the planets because its axis of rotation is tilted sideways, nearly into the plane
of its solar orbit. Its north and south poles, therefore, lie where most other planets
have their equators.[16] In 1986, images from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as an
almost featureless planet in visible light, without the cloud bands or storms
associated with the other giant planets.[16] Observations from Earth have shown
seasonal change and increased weather activity as Uranus approached
its equinox in 2007. Wind speeds can reach 250 metres per second (900 km/h,
560 mph).[17]

Uranus was a primal Greek god, symbolising the sky. According to

Hesiod's Theogony, he was born by Gaea alone. Other sources say that his
parents were Gaea and Chaos, or Gaea and Aether.
Uranus and Gaea had many children; the twelve Titans, three Cyclopes, and
three Hecatoncheires. Hating his children, Uranusbanished them to Tartarus,
inside Gaea. Gaea was infuriated and created a diamond sickle, which she gave
to Cronus, one of the Titans. Cronus found his father and castrated him in his
sleep; from the blood that fell on the earth, the Erinnyes, the Giants and the
Meliads were born; while from the sperm that fell into the sea, Aphrodite was
born. Thus ended the reign of Uranus, and Cronusbecame the new ruler of the
universe.
Uranus Is also called Caelus, Ouranos.

10. NEPTUNE -Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun in
the Solar System. In the Solar System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter,
the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. Neptune is 17 times
the mass of Earth and is slightly more massive than its near-twin Uranus, which is
15 times the mass of Earth and slightly larger than Neptune. [c] Neptune orbits the
Sun once every 164.8 years at an average distance of 30.1 astronomical
units (4.50109 km). It is named after the Roman god of the sea and has
the astronomical symbol , a stylised version of the god Neptune's trident.

Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar
System found by mathematical prediction rather than by empirical observation.
Unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to deduce that its
orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an unknown planet. Neptune
was subsequently observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846[1] by Johann
Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Urbain Le Verrier. Its largest
moon, Triton, was discovered shortly thereafter, though none of the planet's
remaining known 14 moons were located telescopically until the 20th century.
The planet's distance from Earth gives it a very small apparent size, making it
challenging to study with Earth-based telescopes. Neptune was visited
by Voyager 2, when it flew by the planet on 25 August 1989.[11] The advent of
the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive
optics has recently allowed for additional detailed observations from afar.

Neptune's composition is similar to that of Uranus and unlike those of the

larger gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn. Like Jupiter's and Saturn's, Neptune's
atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces
of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, but contains a higher proportion of "ices"
such as water, ammonia, and methane. However, its interior, like that of Uranus,
is primarily composed of ices and rock,[12] which is why Uranus and Neptune are

normally considered "ice giants" to emphasise this distinction.[13] Traces of

methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet's blue
appearance.[14]

In contrast to the hazy, relatively featureless atmosphere of Uranus, Neptune's

atmosphere has active and visible weather patterns. For example, at the time of
the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989, the planet's southern hemisphere had a Great Dark
Spot comparable to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. These weather patterns are
driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System, with
recorded wind speeds as high as 2,100 kilometres per hour (580 m/s;
1,300 mph).[15] Because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptune's outer
atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, with temperatures
at its cloud tops approaching 55 K (218 C).

Temperatures at the planet's centre are approximately 5,400 K (5,100 C).[16]

[17]
Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system(labelled "arcs"), which was
first detected during the 1960s and confirmed by Voyager 2.[18]

Neptune (Latin: Neptnus [nptuns]) was the god of freshwater and the
sea[1] in Roman religion. He is the counterpart of the Greek god Poseidon.[2] In
the Greek-influenced tradition, Neptune was the brother of Jupiter and Pluto; the
brothers presided over the realms of Heaven, the earthly world, and
the Underworld.[3] Salacia was his consort.

Depictions of Neptune in Roman mosaics, especially those of North Africa, are

influenced by Hellenisticconventions.[4] Neptune was likely associated with fresh
water springs before the sea.[5] Like Poseidon, Neptune was worshipped by the
Romans also as a god of horses, under the name Neptunus Equester,
a patron of horse-racing.[6]

11. PLUTO Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in

the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune.[11] It was the first Kuiper belt
object to be discovered. It is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf
planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known
object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by
volume but is less massive than Eris, a dwarf planet in the scattered disc. Like
other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock [12] and is
relatively smallabout one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It
has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to
49 astronomical units or AU (4.47.4 billion km) from the Sun. This means that
Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital

resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding. Light from the Sun takes
about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance (39.5 AU).
Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, and was originally considered
the ninth planet from the Sun. After 1992, its planethood was questioned
following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt. In
2005, Eris, which is 27% more massive than Pluto, was discovered, which led
the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to define the term "planet" formally for
the first time the following year.[13] This definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it
as a member of the new "dwarf planet" category.[14]
Pluto has five known moons: Charon (the largest, with a diameter just over half
that of Pluto), Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra.[15] Pluto and Charon are
sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits
does not lie within either body.[16] The IAU has not formalized a definition for
binary dwarf planets, and Charon is officially classified as a moon of Pluto.[17] In
September 2016, astronomers announced that the reddish-brown cap of the
north pole of Charon is composed of tholins, organic macromolecules that may
be ingredients for the emergence of life, and produced
from methane, nitrogen and related gases released from the atmosphere of
Pluto and transferred over about 19,000 km (12,000 mi) distance to the orbiting
moon.[18]
On July 14, 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly
by Pluto.[19][20][21] During its brief flyby, New Horizons made detailed
measurements and observations of Pluto and its moons. [11][22][23][24] On October 25,
2016, at 05:48 pm ET, the last bit of data (of a total of 50 billion bits of data; or
6.25 gigabytes) was received from New Horizons from its close encounter with
Pluto on July 14, 2015.[25]
Pluto (Greek: , Ploutn) was the ruler of the underworld in classical
mythology. The earlier name for the god was Hades, which became more
common as the name of the underworld itself. In ancient Greek
religion and mythology, Pluto represents a more positive concept of the god who
presides over the afterlife. Ploutn was
frequently conflated with Ploutos (, Plutus), a god of wealth, because
mineral wealth was found underground, and because as a chthonic god Pluto
ruled the deep earth that contained the seeds necessary for a bountiful harvest.
[1]
The name Ploutn came into widespread usage with the Eleusinian Mysteries,
in which Pluto was venerated as a stern ruler but the loving husband
of Persephone. The couple received souls in the afterlife, and are invoked
together in religious inscriptions. Hades by contrast had few temples and
religious practices associated with him, and is portrayed as the dark and violent
abductor of Persephone.
Pluto and Hades differ in character, but they are not distinct figures and share
their two major myths. In Greek cosmogony, the god received the rule of the
underworld in a three-way division of sovereignty over the world, with his
brothers Zeus ruling the Sky and Poseidon the Sea. His central narrative is
the abduction of Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm.

[2]

Plouton as the name of the ruler of the underworld first appears in Greek
literature of the Classical period, in the works of the Athenian playwrights and of
the philosopher Plato, who is the major Greek source on its significance. Under
the name Pluto, the god appears in other myths in a secondary role, mostly as
the possessor of a quest-object, and especially in the descent of Orpheus or
other heroes to the underworld.[3]Plt ([pluto]; genitive Pltnis) is
the Latinized form of the Greek Plouton. Pluto's Roman equivalent is Dis Pater,
whose name is most often taken to mean "Rich Father" and is perhaps a direct
translation of Plouton. Pluto was also identified with the obscure Roman Orcus,
like Hades the name of both a god of the underworld and the underworld as a
place. The borrowed Greek name Pluto is sometimes used for the ruler of the
dead in Latin literature, leading some mythology handbooks to assert
misleadingly that Pluto was the Roman counterpart of Hades. [4] Pluto (Pluton in
French and German, Plutone in Italian) becomes the most common name for
the classical ruler of the underworld in subsequent Western literature and other
art forms.

12. GALAXIAS
13. SPIRAL-Kinds of spiral galaxy :
galaxy

has classification criterion Subdivided according to the openness of the

spiral arms as Sa spiral, Sb spiral or Sc spiral.
has mass 1010 to 1012 Msun
has definition A galaxy with a prominent nuclear bulge and luminous
spiral arms of gas, dust, and young stars that wind out from the nucleus.
is a kind of galaxy
has number of stars 106 to 1012

galaxy

has catalog galaxy catalog

celestial
body
physical
object

has spectra
has location or center of gravity
has angular momentum
has velocity
has momentum
has temperature
has volume
has extent
has material

barred spiral (3 kinds, 9 facts) - (in Hubble's (1936) classification, SB: in

Morgan's classification, B) A spiral galaxy whose nucleus is in the shape of a bar,
at the ends of which the spiral arms start.

o Milky Way (9 facts) - System of approximately 100000 million stars, of which our
Sun is one. It is a normal spiral galaxy of class Sb, with a diameter now reckoned
to be probably less than 100,000 light-years, and a strong but obscure energy
source at the center (emitting infrared radiation). It is undergoing galactic
rotation. Possibly one tenth of the galaxy's total mass - estimated at 1.8
1011 solar masses - comprises interstellar gas and dust., The galaxy to which the
Sun belongs. Our Galaxy is about 1010 years old and contains about 1011 stars.
Its mass is at least 1011 Msun, about 5-10 percent of which is in the form of gas
and dust. Diameter ~ 30 kpc; thickness of nuclear bulge about 4 kpc; thickness of
disk about 700-800 pc; distance between spiral arms about 1.4 kpc. Mv = - 20.5.
Mean density about 0.1 Msun per cubic parsec. Magnetic field about 3-5 10 6
gauss. Total luminosity about 1044 ergs s-1, Our own galaxy, the second largest
in the local group., A softly glowing band of light that bisects the skies of Earth,
produced by light from stars and nebulae in the galactic disk.
o Sa spiral (4 facts) (early-type spiral) - Spiral galaxy with arms tightly wound
around the nucleus., In Hubble's classification, a spiral with a large nuclear bulge
and closely coiled arms.
o Sb spiral (2 kinds, 25 facts) - Spiral galaxy with arms spread out from the
nucleus.
o Sc spiral (3 kinds, 36 facts) - Spiral galaxy with arms widely spread out from the
nucleus.
o Seyfert galaxy (2 kinds, 16 facts) - A type of spiral galaxy first discovered by Karl
Seyfert in the 1940s. The central region of a Seyfert galaxy is distinguished by
powerful radiation, much of it focused into narrow frequencies., One of a small
class of galaxies (many of which are spirals) of very high luminosity and very
blue continuum radiation with small, intensely bright nuclei whose spectra show
strong, broad, high-excitation emission lines probably caused by discrete clouds
moving at velocities that are higher than the escape velocity. Seyferts possess
many of the properties of QSOs, such as the ultraviolet excess of the continuum,
the wide emission lines, and the strong infrared luminosity. The energy sources in
their nuclei are unexplained; presumably the energy input can be associated with
some process that liberates gravitational binding energy to accelerate relativistic
particles. Seyferts comprise about 1 percent of the bright galaxies. The brightest
Seyfert known is NGC 1068. Weedman-Khachikian classification: class 1
Seyferts have broad Balmer line wings; class 2 have no obvious Balmer line
wings.
o Sombrero galaxy (7 facts) (M 104, NGC 4594) - A spiral galaxy in the
constellation Virgo. It was the first galaxy whose rotation was detected.
14. NEBULA a cloud of gas and dust in outer space, visible in the night sky either as
an indistinct bright patch or as a dark silhouette against other luminous matter.

DARK NEBULAE-A dark nebula or absorption nebula is a type of interstellar cloud that
is so dense it obscures the light from objects behind it, such as background stars
and emission or reflection nebulae. The extinction of the light is caused by interstellar
dust grains located in the coldest, densest parts of larger [clarification needed] molecular clouds.
Clusters and large complexes of dark nebulae are associated with Giant Molecular
Clouds. Isolated small dark nebulae are called Bok globules. Like other interstellar dust

or material, things it obscures are only visible using radio waves in radio
astronomy or infrared in infrared astronomy.
Dark clouds appear so because of sub-micrometre-sized dust particles, coated with
frozen carbon monoxide and nitrogen, which effectively block the passage of light at
visible wavelengths. Also present are molecular hydrogen, atomic helium, C 18O (CO
with oxygen as the 18O isotope), CS, NH3 (ammonia), H2CO (formaldehyde), cC3H2(cyclopropenylidene) and a molecular ion N2H+ (diazenylium), all of which are
relatively transparent. These clouds are the spawning grounds of stars and planets, and
understanding their development is essential to understanding star formation.[1][2]
The form of such dark clouds is very irregular: they have no clearly defined outer
boundaries and sometimes take on convoluted serpentine shapes. The largest dark
nebulae are visible to the naked eye, appearing as dark patches against the brighter
background of the Milky Way like the Coalsack Nebula and the Great Rift. These nakedeye objects are sometimes known as dark cloud constellations and take on a variety of
names.
In the inner outer molecular regions of dark nebulae, important events take place, such
as the formation of stars and masers.
15. LIGHT NEBULAE16. EMISSION NEBULAE- An emission nebula is a nebula formed of ionized
gases that emit light of various colors. The most common source of ionization is
high-energy photons emitted from a nearby hot star. Among the several different
types of emission nebulae are H II regions, in which star formation is taking place
and young, massive stars are the source of the ionizing photons; and planetary
nebulae, in which a dying star has thrown off its outer layers, with the exposed hot
core then ionizing them.
Usually, a young star will ionize part of the same cloud from which it was born although
only massive, hot stars can release sufficient energy to ionize a significant part of a
cloud. In many emission nebulae, an entire cluster of young stars is doing the work.
The nebula's color depends on its chemical composition and degree of ionization. Due
to the prevalence of hydrogen in interstellar gas, and its relatively low energy of
ionization, many emission nebulae appear red due to the strong emissions of
the Balmer series. If more energy is available, other elements will be ionized and green
and blue nebulae become possible. By examining the spectra of nebulae, astronomers
infer their chemical content. Most emission nebulae are about 90% hydrogen, with the
remainder helium, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements.
Some of the most prominent emission nebulae visible from the northern hemisphere are
the North America Nebula (NGC 7000) and Veil Nebula NGC 6960/6992 in Cygnus,
while in the south celestial hemisphere, the Lagoon Nebula M8 / NGC 6523
in Sagittarius and the Orion Nebula M42.[1] Further in the southern hemisphere is the
bright Carina Nebula NGC 3372.
Emission nebulae often have dark areas in them which result from clouds of dust which
block the light.
Many nebulae are made up of both reflection and emission components such as
the Trifid Nebula.

BERTIL LINDBLAD- Bertil Lindblad (rebro, 26 November 1895 Saltsjbaden,

outside Stockholm, 25 June 1965) was a Swedish astronomer.
After finishing his secondary education at rebro hgre allmnna lroverk, Lindblad
matriculated at Uppsala Universityin 1914. He received his filosofie magister degree in
1917, his filosofie licentiat degree in 1918 and completed his doctorate and became a
docent at the university in 1920. From 1927 he was professor and astronomer of
the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and head of the Stockholm Observatory. In
the latter capacity he was responsible for the observatory's move from the old building
in the centre of Stockholm to a newly built facility in Saltsjbaden Observatory, which
was opened in 1931.
Lindblad studied the theory of the rotation of galaxies. By making careful observations
of the apparent motions of stars, he was able to study the rotation of the Milky Way
Galaxy. He deduced that the rate of rotation of the stars in the outer part of the galaxy,
where the Sun is located, decreased with distance from the galactic core. This
deduction was soon confirmed by Jan Oort in 1927. A certain class of resonances in
rotating stellar or gaseous disks are named Lindblad resonances, after Bertil Lindblad.
Named after him

Lindblad (crater) on the Moon

Asteroid 1448 Lindbladia

17. BULGE- In astronomy, a bulge is a tightly packed group of stars within a larger
formation. The term almost exclusively refers to the central group of stars found in
most spiral galaxies (see galactic spheroid). Bulges were historically thought to
be elliptical galaxies that happened to have a disk of stars around them, but highresolution images using the Hubble Space Telescope have revealed that many
bulges lie at the heart of a spiral galaxy. It is now thought that there are at least
two types of bulges: bulges that are like ellipticals and bulges that are like spiral
galaxies.
Classical bulges
An image of Messier 81, a galaxy with a classical bulge. Notice that the spiral structure
ends at the onset of the bulge.
Bulges that have properties similar to those of elliptical galaxies are often
called classical bulges due to their similarity to the historic view of bulges. [2] These
bulges are composed primarily of stars that are older, Population II stars, and hence
have a reddish hue (see stellar evolution).[3] These stars are also in orbits that are
essentially random compared to the plane of the galaxy, giving the bulge a distinct
spherical form.[3] Due to the lack of dust and gasses, bulges tend to have almost no star
formation. The distribution of light is described by de Vaucouleurs' law.
Classical bulges are thought to be the result of collisions of smaller structures. These
disrupt the paths of stars, resulting in the randomness of bulge orbits. Following such a
merger, gas clouds are more likely to be converted into stars, due to the shocks from
the merger (see star formation).
Disk-like bulges

Many bulges have properties more similar to those of the central regions of spiral
galaxies than elliptical galaxies.[4][5][6] They are often referred to
as pseudobulges or disky-bulges. These bulges have stars that are not orbiting
randomly, but rather orbit in an ordered fashion in the same plane as the stars in the
outer disk. This contrasts greatly with elliptical galaxies.
Subsequent studies (using the Hubble Space Telescope) show that the bulges of many
galaxies are not devoid of dust, but rather show a varied and complex structure. [3] This
structure often looks similar to a spiral galaxy, but is much smaller. Giant spiral galaxies
are typically 2100 times the size of those spirals that exist in bulges. Where they exist,
these central spirals dominate the light of the bulge in which they reside. Typically the
rate at which new stars are formed in pseudobulges is similar to the rate at which stars
form in disk galaxies. Sometimes bulges contain nuclear rings that are forming stars at
much higher rate (per area) than is typically found in outer disks, as shown in NGC
4314 (see photo).

A Hubble Space Telescope image of the central region of NGC 4314, a galaxy with a
star-forming nuclear ring.
Properties such as spiral structure and young stars suggest that some bulges did not
form through the same process that made elliptical galaxies and classical bulges. Yet
the theories for the formation of pseudobulges are less certain than those for classical
bulges. Pseudobulges may be the result of extremely gas-rich mergers that happened
more recently than those mergers that formed classical bulges (within the last 5 billion
years). However, it is difficult for disks to survive the merging process, casting doubt on
this scenario.
Many astronomers suggest that bulges that appear similar to disks form outside of the
disk, and are not the product of a merging process. When left alone, disk galaxies can
rearrange their stars and gas (as a response to instabilities). The products of this
process (called secular evolution) are often observed in such galaxies; both spiral
disks and galactic barscan result from secular evolution of galaxy disks. Secular
evolution is also expected to send gas and stars to the center of a galaxy. If this
happens that would increase the density at the center of the galaxy, and thus make a
bulge that has properties similar to those of disk galaxies.
If secular evolution, or the slow, steady evolution of a galaxy,[7] is responsible for the
formation of a significant number of bulges, then that many galaxies have not
experienced a merger since the formation of their disk. This would then mean that
current theories of galaxy formation and evolution greatly over-predict the number of
mergers in the past few billion years.[3]
Most bulges are thought to host a supermassive black hole at their center. Such black
holes by definition can not be observed (light cannot escape them), but various pieces
of evidence strongly suggest their existence, both in the bulges of spiral galaxies and in
the centers of ellipticals. The masses of the black holes correlate tightly with bulge
properties; the tightest such correlation, the Msigma relation, is between black hole
mass and the velocity dispersion of stars in the bulge. [8] Until recently it was thought that
one could not have a supermassive black hole without a bulge around it, but galaxies

hosting supermassive black holes without accompanying bulges have now been
observed.[9]

18. INTERSTELLAR GALAXYIn astronomy, the interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter that exists in
the space between the star systems in a galaxy. This matter
includes gas in ionic, atomic, and molecular form, as well as dust and cosmic
rays. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the
surrounding intergalactic space. The energy that occupies the same volume, in
the form of electromagnetic radiation, is the interstellar radiation field.
An interstellar cloud is the generic name given to an accumulation of
gas, plasma, and dust in our and other galaxies. Put differently, an interstellar
cloud is a denser-than-average region of the interstellar medium. Depending on
the density, size, and temperature of a given cloud, the hydrogen in it can be
neutral (H I regions), ionized (H II regions) (i.e. a plasma), or molecular
(molecular clouds). Neutral and ionized clouds are sometimes also called diffuse
clouds, while molecular clouds are sometimes also referred to as dense clouds.

ELLIPTICAL GALAXY- An elliptical galaxy is a type of galaxy having an

approximately ellipsoidal shape and a smooth, nearly featureless brightness profile.
Unlike flat spiral galaxies with organization and structure, they are more threedimensional, without much structure, and their stars are in somewhat random orbits
around the center. They are one of the three main classes of galaxy originally described
by Edwin Hubble in his 1936 work The Realm of the Nebulae,[1] along
with spiral and lenticulargalaxies. Elliptical galaxies range in shape from nearly spherical
to highly flat and in size from tens of millions to over one hundred trillion stars. Originally
Edwin Hubble hypothesized that elliptical galaxies evolved into spiral galaxies, which
was later discovered to be false.[2] Stars found inside of elliptical galaxies are much
older than stars found in spiral galaxies.[2]
Most elliptical galaxies are composed of older, low-mass stars, with a sparse interstellar
medium and minimal star formationactivity, and they tend to be surrounded by large
numbers of globular clusters. Elliptical galaxies are believed to make up approximately
1015% of galaxies in the Virgo Supercluster, and they are not the dominant type of
galaxy in the universe overall.[3] They are preferentially found close to the centers
of galaxy clusters.[4] Elliptical galaxies are (together with lenticular galaxies) also called
"early-type" galaxies (ETG), due to their locatio
General characteristics[edit]

NGC 3597 is the product of a collision between two galaxies, and is slowly evolving to
become a giant elliptical galaxy.
Elliptical galaxies are characterized by several properties that make them distinct from
other classes of galaxy. They are spherical or ovoid masses of stars, starved of starmaking gases. The smallest known elliptical galaxy is about one-tenth the size of
the Milky Way. The motion of stars in elliptical galaxies is predominantly radial, unlike
the disks of spiral galaxies, which are dominated by rotation. Furthermore, there is very
little interstellar matter (neither gas nor dust), which results in low rates of star
formation, few open star clusters, and few young stars; rather elliptical galaxies are
dominated by old stellar populations, giving them red colors. Large elliptical galaxies
typically have an extensive system of globular clusters.[5]
The dynamical properties of elliptical galaxies and the bulges of disk galaxies are
similar, [6] suggesting that they are formed by the same physical processes, although
this remains controversial. The luminosity profiles of both elliptical galaxies and bulges
are well fit by Sersic's law.
Elliptical galaxies are preferentially found in galaxy clusters and in compact groups of
galaxies.
Star formation[edit]
The traditional portrait [citation needed] of elliptical galaxies paints them as galaxies where star
formation finished after an initial burst at high-redshift, leaving them to shine with only
their aging stars. Elliptical galaxies typically appear yellow-red, which is in contrast to
the distinct blue tinge of most spiral galaxies. In spirals, this blue color emanates largely
from the young, hot stars in their spiral arms. Very little star formation is thought to occur
in elliptical galaxies, because of their lack of gas compared to spiral or irregular
galaxies. However, in recent years, evidence has shown that a reasonable proportion
(~25%) of these galaxies have residual gas reservoirs [7] and low level star-formation.
[8]
Researchers with the Herschel Space Observatory have speculated that the central
black holes in elliptical galaxies keep the gas from cooling enough for star formation. [9]
Sizes and shapes[edit]

The central galaxy in this image is a gigantic elliptical galaxy designated 4C 73.08. [10]

The brilliant central object is a supergiant elliptical galaxy, the dominant member of
a galaxy clusterwith the name MACSJ1423.8+2404. Note the gravitational lensing.
Elliptical galaxies vary greatly in both size and mass, from as little as a tenth of
a kiloparsec to over 100 kiloparsecs, and from 107 to nearly 1013 solar masses.[citation
needed]
This range is much broader for this galaxy type than for any other. The smallest,
the dwarf elliptical galaxies, may be no larger than a typical globular cluster, but contain
a considerable amount of dark matter not present in clusters. Most of these small
galaxies may not be related to other ellipticals.
The Hubble classification of elliptical galaxies contains an integer that describes how
elongated the galaxy image is. The classification is determined by the ratio of the major
(a) to the minor (b) axes of the galaxy's isophotes:
Thus for a spherical galaxy with a equal to b, the number is 0, and the Hubble type
is E0. The limit is about E7, which is believed to be due to a bending instability that
causes flatter galaxies to puff up. The most common shape is close to E3. Hubble
recognized that his shape classification depends both on the intrinsic shape of the
galaxy, as well as the angle with which the galaxy is observed. Hence, some
galaxies with Hubble type E0 are actually elongated.
There are two physical types of ellipticals; the "boxy" giant ellipticals, whose shapes
result from random motion which is greater in some directions than in others
(anisotropic random motion), and the "disky" normal and low luminosity ellipticals,
which have nearly isotropic random velocities but are flattened due to rotation.
Dwarf elliptical galaxies have properties that are intermediate between those of
regular elliptical galaxies and globular clusters. Dwarf spheroidal galaxies appear to
be a distinct class: their properties are more similar to those of irregulars and late
spiral-type galaxies.
At the large end of the elliptical spectrum, there is further division, beyond Hubble
classification. Beyond gE giant ellipticals, lies D-galaxies and cD-galaxies. These
are similar to their smaller brethren, but more diffuse, with larger haloes. Some even
appear more akin to lenticular galaxies.

IRREGULAR GALAXY- An irregular galaxy is a galaxy that does not have a distinct
regular shape, unlike a spiral or an elliptical galaxy.[1] Irregular galaxies do not fall into
any of the regular classes of the Hubble sequence, and they are often chaotic in
appearance, with neither a nuclear bulge nor any trace of spiral arm structure.[2]
Collectively they are thought to make up about a quarter of all galaxies. Some irregular
galaxies were once spiral or elliptical galaxies but were deformed by an uneven external

gravitational force. Irregular galaxies may contain abundant amounts of gas and dust.
[3]
This is not necessarily true for dwarf irregulars.[4]

SUPERCLUSTER- Superclusters are large groups of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy

groups and are among the largest-known structures of the cosmos. The Milky Way is in
the Local Group galaxy cluster (that contains more than 54 galaxies), which in turn is in
the Laniakea Supercluster.[1] This supercluster spans over 500 million light-years, while
the Local Group spans over 10 million light-years. [2] The number of superclusters in the
observable universe is estimated to be 10 million. [3]
Galaxies are grouped into clusters instead of being dispersed randomly. Clusters of
galaxies are grouped together to form superclusters. Typically, superclusters contain
dozens of individual clusters throughout an area of space about 150 million light-years
across. Unlike clusters, most superclusters are not bound together by gravity. The
component clusters are generally shifting away from each other due to the Hubble flow.
The Milky Way galaxy falls within the Local Group, which is a poor and irregular cluster
of galaxies. Poor clusters may contain only a few dozen galaxies, as compared to rich
clusters with hundreds or even thousands. The Local Group is near the Local
Supercluster (also known as the Virgo Supercluster), which has a diameter of 100
million light-years. The Local Supercluster contains a total of about 10 15 times the mass
of the Sun.
The biggest cluster in the observable universe is called the Great Attractor. Its gravity is
so strong that the Local Supercluster, including the Milky Way, is moving in a direction
towards it at a rate of several hundred kilometers per second. The biggest supercluster
outside of the local universe is the Perseus-Pegasus Filament. It contains the Perseus
supercluster and it spans about a billion light-years, making it one of the largest known
structures in the universe.
19.

VOIDS Cosmic voids are vast spaces between filaments (the largest-scale structures in
the Universe), which contain very few or no galaxies. Voids typically have a diameter of
10 to 100 megaparsecs; particularly large voids, defined by the absence of
rich superclusters, are sometimes called supervoids. They have less than one-tenth of
the average density of matter abundance that is considered typical for the observable
Universe. They were first discovered in 1978 in a pioneering study by Stephen Gregory
and Laird A. Thompson at the Kitt Peak National Observatory.[1]
Voids are believed to have been formed by baryon acoustic oscillations in the Big Bang,
collapses of mass followed by implosions of the compressed baryonic matter. Starting
from initially small anisotropies from quantum fluctuations in the early Universe, the
anisotropies grew larger in scale over time. Regions of higher density collapsed more
rapidly under gravity, eventually resulting in the large-scale, foam-like structure or
cosmic web of voids and galaxy filaments seen today. Voids located in high-density
environments are smaller than voids situated in low-density spaces of the universe. [2]
Voids appear to correlate with the observed temperature of the cosmic microwave
background (CMB) because of the SachsWolfe effect. Colder regions correlate with
voids and hotter regions correlate with filaments because of gravitational redshifting. As
the SachsWolfe effect is only significant if the Universe is dominated

by radiation or dark energy, the existence of voids is significant in providing physical

evidence for dark energy.[3]
20.
21. UMBRA
22. PENUMBRA
23. Umbra[edit]

24.
25. Umbra, penumbra and antumbra formed through windows and shutters
26. The umbra (Latin for "shadow") is the innermost and darkest part of a shadow,
where the light source is completely blocked by the occluding body. Such as an
opaque object does not let light through it. An observer in the umbra experiences
a total eclipse. The umbra of a round body occluding a round light source forms
a right circular cone; to a viewer at the cone's apex, the two bodies are equal
in apparent size. The distance from the Moon to the apex of its umbra is roughly
equal to that between the Moon and Earth. Because the Earth is 3.7 times wider
than the Moon, its umbra extends correspondingly farther, roughly 1.4 million
kilometers.[1]
27. Penumbra[edit]
28. "Penumbra" redirects here. For other uses, see Penumbra (disambiguation).
29. The penumbra (from the Latin paene "almost, nearly") is the region in which only
a portion of the light source is obscured by the occluding body. An observer in the
penumbra experiences a partial eclipse. An alternative definition is that the
penumbra is the region where some or all of the light source is obscured (i.e., the
umbra is a subset of the penumbra). For example, NASA's Navigation and
Ancillary Information Facility defines that a body in the umbra is also within the
penumbra.[2]
30.

31. Earth's shadow, to scale, showing the extent of the umbral cone beyond the
Moon's orbit (yellow dot, also to scale)
32. Antumbra[edit]
33. The antumbra (from Latin ante, "before") is the region from which the occluding
body appears entirely contained within the disc of the light source. An observer in
this region experiences an annular eclipse, in which a bright ring is visible around

the eclipsing body. If the observer moves closer to the light source, the apparent
size of the occluding body increases until it causes a full umbra.

QUASAR- A quasar (/kwezr/) is a compact region surrounding a supermassive black

hole[2] and emitting enormous amounts of electromagnetic energy as mass from the
core of a surrounding galaxy, under the influence of the black hole's gravity, falls onto
its accretion disc. Although ranging in size from only 10 to 10,000 times
the Schwarzschild radius of the enclosed black hole, quasars are the most energetic
form of active galactic nucleus(AGN), emitting radio waves and visible light up to 100
times the luminosity of the entire Milky Way Galaxy.[3]
Most known quasars are both extremely distant and ancient, typically around 12 billion
years old. Quasars are thought to be a stage in the evolution of a galaxy that forms out
of the collision of smaller galaxies whose central black holes merge; [4] they later
gradually "die out" after "consuming" the inner region of the surrounding galaxy,
becoming a less energetic galactic nucleus.
The name "quasar" is a portmanteau of the words "quasi-stellar", reflecting the fact that
quasars appear in telescopes much like stars do but with broader emission lines than
known for stars.

SUPER NOVA- This article is about the astronomical event. For other uses,
see Supernova (disambiguation).

SN 1994D (bright spot on the lower left), a type Ia supernova in the NGC 4526 galaxy
A supernova is an astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar
evolutionary stages of a massive star's life, whose dramatic and catastrophic
destruction is marked by one final titanic explosion. For a short time, this causes the
sudden appearance of a 'new' bright star, before slowly fading from sight over several
weeks or months.
Only three Milky Way naked-eye supernova events have been observed during the last
thousand years, though many have been telescopically seen in other galaxies. The
most recent directly observed supernova in the Milky Way was Kepler's Supernova in
1604, but remnants of two more recent supernovae have been found retrospectively.
[1]
Statistical observations of supernovae in other galaxies suggest they should occur on
average about three times every century in the Milky Way, and that any galactic
supernova would almost certainly be observable in modern astronomical equipment. [2]

Supernovae are more energetic than novae. In Latin, nova means "new", referring
astronomically to what appears to be a temporary new bright star. Adding the prefix
"super-" distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae, which are far less luminous.
The word supernova was coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1931.[3] It is
pronounced /suprnov/ with the plural supernovae /
suprnovi/ or supernovas (abbreviated SN, plural SNe after "supernovae").
During maximum brightness, the total equivalent radiant energies produced by
supernovae may briefly outshine an entire output of a typical galaxy and emit energies
equal to that created over the lifetime of any solar-like star.[4] Such extreme
catastrophes may also expel much, if not all, of its stellar material away from the star,
[5]
at velocities up to 30,000 km/s or 10% of the speed of light. This drives an expanding
and fast-moving shock wave[6] into the surrounding interstellar medium, and in turn,
sweeping up an expanding shell of gas and dust, which is observed as a supernova
remnant. Supernovae create, fuse and eject the bulk of the chemical elements
produced by nucleosynthesis.[7] Supernovae play a significant role in enriching the
interstellar medium with the heavier atomic mass chemical elements.[8] Furthermore, the
expanding shock waves from supernova explosions can trigger the formation of new
stars.[9][10] Supernova remnants are expected to accelerate a large fraction of galactic
primary cosmic rays, but direct evidence for cosmic ray production was found only in a
few of them so far.[11] They are also potentially strong galactic sources of gravitational
waves.[12]
Theoretical studies of many supernovae indicate that most are triggered by one of two
basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star or the
sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core. In the first instance, a
degenerate white dwarf may accumulate sufficient material from a binary companion,
either through accretion or via a merger, to raise its core temperature enough to
trigger runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. In the second case, the
core of a massive star may undergo sudden gravitational collapse,
releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova. While some observed
supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical
collapse mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for
some time.

SEYFERT- Seyfert galaxies are one of the two largest groups of active galaxies, along
with quasars. They have quasar-like nuclei (very luminous, distant and bright sources of
electromagnetic radiation) with very high surface brightnesses whose spectrareveal
strong, high-ionisation emission lines,[1] but unlike quasars, their host galaxies are
clearly detectable.[2]
Seyfert galaxies account for about 10% of all galaxies [3] and are some of the most
intensely studied objects in astronomy, as they are thought to be powered by the same
phenomena that occur in quasars, although they are closer and less luminous than
quasars. These galaxies have supermassive black holes at their centers which are
surrounded by accretion discs of in-falling material. The accretion discs are believed to
be the source of the observed ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet emissionand absorption
lines provide the best diagnostics for the composition of the surrounding material. [4]
Seen in visible light, most Seyfert galaxies look like normal spiral galaxies, but when
studied under other wavelengths, it becomes clear that the luminosity of their cores is of
comparable intensity to the luminosity of whole galaxies the size of the Milky Way.[5]
Seyfert galaxies are named after Carl Seyfert, who first described this class in 1943.[6]

BLAZAR A blazar is a very compact quasar (quasi-stellar radio source) associated

with a presumed supermassive black hole at the center of an active, giant elliptical
galaxy. Blazars are among the most energetic phenomena in the universe and are an
important topic in extragalactic astronomy.[1]
Blazars are members of a larger group of active galaxies that host active galactic
nuclei (AGN). A few rare objects may be "intermediate blazars" that appear to have a
mixture of properties from both optically violent variable (OVV) quasars and BL Lac
objects. The name "blazar" was originally coined in 1978 by astronomer Edward
Spiegel to denote the combination of these two classes.
Blazars emit a relativistic jet that is pointing in the general direction of the Earth. The
jet's path corresponds with our line of sight, which accounts for the rapid variability and
compact features of both types of blazars. Many blazars have apparent superluminal
features within the first few parsecs of their jets, probably due to relativistic shock fronts.
[2]

The generally accepted picture is that OVV quasars are intrinsically powerful radio
galaxies while BL Lac objects are intrinsically weak radio galaxies. In both cases
the host galaxies are giant ellipticals.
Alternative models, for example, gravitational lensing, may account for a few
observations of some blazars which are not consistent with the general properties.

Structure[edit]

Blazars, like all AGN, are thought to be ultimately powered by material falling onto
a supermassive black hole at the center of the host galaxy. Gas, dust and the
occasional star are captured and spiral into this central black hole creating a
hot accretion disk which generates enormous amounts of energy in the form
of photons, electrons, positrons and other elementary particles. This region is quite
small, approximately 103parsecs in size.
There is also a larger opaque toroid extending several parsecs from the central black
hole, containing a hot gas with embedded regions of higher density. These "clouds" can
absorb and then re-emit energy from regions closer to the black hole. On Earth the
clouds are detected as emission lines in the blazar spectrum.
Perpendicular to the accretion disk, a pair of relativistic jets carries a highly
energetic plasma away from the AGN. The jet is collimated by a combination of intense
magnetic fields and powerful winds from the accretion disk and toroid. Inside the jet,
high energy photons and particles interact with each other and the strong magnetic
field. These relativistic jets can extend as far as many tens of kiloparsecs from the
central black hole.
All of these regions can produce a variety of observed energy, mostly in the form of a
nonthermal spectrum ranging from very low frequency radio to extremely energetic
gamma rays, with a high polarization (typically a few percent) at some frequencies. The
nonthermal spectrum consists of synchrotron radiation in the radio to X-ray range,
and inverse Compton emission in the X-ray to gamma-ray region. A thermal spectrum
peaking in the ultraviolet region and faint optical emission lines are also present in OVV
quasars, but faint or non-existent in BL Lac objects.

Relativistic beaming[edit]

Viewing angle - 1. at 90 degrees to the jet:: Radio galaxy / Seyfert 2 Galaxy; 2, 3. at an

angle to the jet: Quasar/Seyfert 1 Galaxy; 4. down the jet: Blazar.[3]
The observed emission from a blazar is greatly enhanced by relativistic effects in the jet,
a process termed relativistic beaming. The bulk speed of the plasma that constitutes the
jet can be in the range of 95%99% of the speed of light. (This bulk velocity is not the
speed of a typical electron or proton in the jet. The individual particles move in many
directions with the result being that the net speed for the plasma is in the range
mentioned.)
The relationship between the luminosity emitted in the rest frame of the jet and the
luminosity observed from Earth depends on the characteristics of the jet. These include
whether the luminosity arises from a shock front or a series of brighter blobs in the jet,
as well as details of the magnetic fields within the jet and their interaction with the
moving particles.
A simple model of beaming however, illustrates the basic relativistic effects connecting
the luminosity emitted in the rest frame of the jet, Se and the luminosity observed on
Earth, So. These are connected by a term referred to in astrophysics as the doppler
factor, D, where So is proportional to Se D2.
When looked at in much more detail than shown here, three relativistic effects are
involved:

Relativistic aberration contributes a factor of D2. Aberration is a consequence of

special relativity where directions which appear isotropic in the rest frame (in this

case, the jet) appear pushed towards the direction of motion in the observer's frame
(in this case, the Earth).

Time dilation contributes a factor of D+1. This effect speeds up the apparent
release of energy. If the jet emits a burst of energy every minute in its own rest
frame this may be observed on Earth as being a much faster release, perhaps one
burst every ten seconds.

Windowing can contribute a factor of D1 and then works to decrease the amount
of boosting. This happens for a steady flow, because there are then D fewer
elements of fluid within the observed window, as each element has been expanded
by factor D. However, for a freely propagating blob of material, the radiation is
boosted by the full D+3.

DWARF PLANET- A dwarf planet is a planetary-mass object that is neither a planet nor
a natural satellite. That is, it is in direct orbit of the Sun, and is massive enough for its
gravity to crush it into a hydrostatic equilibrium shape (usually a spheroid), but has
not cleared the neighborhood of other material around its orbit.[1][2]
The term dwarf planet was adopted in 2006 as part of a three-way categorization of
bodies orbiting the Sun,[1]brought about by an increase in discoveries of objects farther
away from the Sun than Neptune that rivaled Pluto in size, and finally precipitated by the
discovery of an even more massive object, Eris.[3] The exclusion of dwarf planets from
the roster of planets by the IAU has been both praised and criticized; it was said to be
the "right decision" by astronomer Mike Brown,[4][5][6] who discovered Eris and other new
dwarf planets, but has been rejected by Alan Stern,[7][8] who had coined the term dwarf
planet in April 1991.[9]
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) currently recognizes five dwarf
planets: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.[10] Brown criticizes this official
recognition: "A reasonable person might think that this means that there are five known
objects in the solar system which fit the IAU definition of dwarf planet, but this
reasonable person would be nowhere close to correct." [11] It is suspected that
another hundred or so known objects in the Solar System are dwarf planets.
[12]
Estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entire region
known as the Kuiper belt is explored, and that the number may exceed 10,000 when
objects scattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered. [13][dead link] Individual astronomers
recognize several of these,[12] and in August 2011 Mike Brown published a list of 390
candidate objects, ranging from "nearly certain" to "possible" dwarf planets. [11] Brown
currently identifies eleven known objectsthe five accepted by the IAU plus 2007
OR10, Quaoar, Sedna, Orcus, (307261) 2002 MS4 and Salaciaas "virtually certain",
with another dozen highly likely.[12] Stern states that there are more than a dozen known
dwarf planets.[13][dead link]
However, only two of these bodies, Ceres and Pluto, have been observed in enough
detail to demonstrate that they actually fit the IAU's definition. The IAU accepted Eris as
a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto. They subsequently decided that
unnamed trans-Neptunian objects with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and
hence a diameter of 838 km assuming a geometric albedo of 1)[14] are to be named
under the assumption that they are dwarf planets. [15] The only two such objects known at
the time, Makemake and Haumea, went through this naming procedure and were
declared to be dwarf planets. The question of whether other likely objects are dwarf
planets has never been addressed by the IAU.
The classification of bodies in other planetary systems with the characteristics of dwarf
planets has not been addressed.[16]

History of the concept[edit]

Main article: IAU definition of planet
Starting in 1801, astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and
Jupiter which were for some decades considered to be planets. Between then and
around 1851, when the number of planets had reached 23, astronomers started using
the word asteroid for the smaller bodies and then stopped naming or classifying them as
planets.[17]
With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to
have nine planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies
(asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years Pluto was thought to be larger
than Mercury,[18][19] but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became
possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller
than initial estimates.[20] It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made
Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as
the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had one-fifth the mass of Earth's Moon.
[21]
Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital
eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of
body from any of the other planets.[22]
In the 1990s, astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto
(now known as the Kuiper belt), and some even farther away.[23] Many of these shared
several of Pluto's key orbital characteristics, and Pluto started being seen as the largest
member of a new class of objects, plutinos. This led some astronomers to stop referring
to Pluto as a planet. Several terms, including subplanet and planetoid, started to be
used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets.[24][25] By 2005, three trans-Neptunian
objects comparable in size to Pluto (Quaoar, Sedna, and Eris) had been reported.[26] It
became clear that either they would also have to be classified as planets, or Pluto would
have to be reclassified.[27] Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large
as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly if
Pluto were to remain a planet.[28]
Eris (then known as 2003 UB313) was discovered in January 2005;[29] it was thought to
be slightly larger than Pluto, and some reports informally referred to it as the tenth
planet.[30] As a consequence, the issue became a matter of intense debate during
the IAU General Assembly in August 2006.[31] The IAU's initial draft proposal
included Charon, Eris, and Ceres in the list of planets. After many astronomers objected
to this proposal, an alternative was drawn up by Uruguayan astronomer Julio ngel
Fernndez: he proposed an intermediate category for objects large enough to be round
but which had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals. Dropping Charon from the list,
the new proposal also removed Pluto, Ceres, and Eris, because they have not cleared
their orbits.[32]
The IAU's final Resolution 5A preserved this three-category system for the celestial
bodies orbiting the Sun. It reads:
The IAU ... resolves that planets and other bodies, except satellites, in our Solar System
be defined into three distinct categories in the following way:
(1) A planet1 is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass
for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its
orbit.
(2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has
sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a
hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, 2 (c) has not cleared the neighbourhood
around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite.
(3) All other objects,3 except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively
as "Small Solar System Bodies."

Footnotes:
1
The eight planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune.
2
An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects either dwarf
planet or other status.
3
These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most TransNeptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies.
Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting
other stars,[16] the issue was not resolved; it was proposed instead to
decide this only when such objects start to be observed. [32]

COSMOLOGY- For other uses, see Cosmology (disambiguation).

The Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) was completed in September 2012 and shows
the farthest galaxies ever photographed. Except for the few stars in the foreground
(which are bright and easily recognizable because only they have diffraction spikes),
every speck of light in the photo is an individual galaxy, some of them as old as 13.2
billion years; the observable universe is estimated to contain more than 200 billion
galaxies.
Cosmology (from the Greek , kosmos "world" and -, -logia "study of"), is the
study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cosmology is
the scholarly and scientific study of the origin, evolution, large-scale structures and
dynamics, and ultimate fate of the universe, as well as the scientific laws that govern
these realities.[1]
The term cosmology was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas
Blount's Glossographia,[2] and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German
philosopher Christian Wolff, in Cosmologia Generalis.[3]
Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based
on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions
of creation and eschatology.
Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers and physicists, as
well as philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics,
and philosophers of space and time. Because of this shared scope
with philosophy, theories in physical cosmology may include both scientific and nonscientific propositions, and may depend upon assumptions that can not be tested.
Cosmology differs from astronomy in that the former is concerned with the Universe as
a whole while the latter deals with individual celestial objects. Modern physical

cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which attempts to bring

together observational astronomy and particle physics;[4] more specifically, a standard
parameterization of the Big Bang with dark matter and dark energy, known as
the Lambda-CDM model.
Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a "historical
science" because "when we look out in space, we look back in time" due to the finite
nature of the speed of light.[5]
Physics and astrophysics have played a central role in shaping the understanding of the
universe through scientific observation and experiment. Physical cosmology was
shaped through both mathematics and observation in an analysis of the whole universe.
The universe is generally understood to have begun with the Big Bang, followed almost
instantaneously by cosmic inflation; an expansion of space from which the universe is
thought to have emerged 13.799 0.021 billion years ago.[6] Cosmogony studies the
origin of the Universe, and cosmography maps the features of the Universe.
In Diderot's Encyclopdie, cosmology is broken down into uranology (the science of the
heavens), aerology (the science of the air), geology (the science of the continents), and
hydrology (the science of waters).[7]
Metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing of man in the universe
in relationship to all other entities. This is exemplified by Marcus Aurelius's observation
that a man's place in that relationship: "He who does not know what the world is does
not know where he is, and he who does not know for what purpose the world exists,
does not know who he is, nor what the world is." [8]
Physical cosmology[edit]
Main article: Physical cosmology
Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study
of the physical origins and evolution of the Universe. It also includes the study of the
nature of the Universe on a large scale. In its earliest form, it was what is now known as
"celestial mechanics", the study of the heavens. Greek philosophers Aristarchus of
Samos, Aristotle, and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories.
The geocentric Ptolemaic system was the prevailing theory until the 16th century
when Nicolaus Copernicus, and subsequently Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei,
proposed a heliocentric system. This is one of the most famous examples
of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology.
When Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica in 1687, he finally figured out
how the heavens moved. Newton provided a physical mechanism for Kepler's laws and
his law of universal gravitation allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by
gravitational interaction between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference
between Newton's cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle
that the bodies on earth obey the same physical laws as all the celestial bodies. This
was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology.

Evidence of gravitational wavesin the infant universe may have been uncovered by the
microscopic examination of the focal plane of the BICEP2 radio telescope.[9][10][11]

Modern scientific cosmology is usually considered to have begun in 1917 with Albert
Einstein's publication of his final modification of general relativity in the paper
"Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity" (although this paper
was not widely available outside of Germany until the end of World War I). General
relativity prompted cosmogonists such as Willem de Sitter, Karl Schwarzschild,
and Arthur Eddington to explore its astronomical ramifications, which enhanced the
ability of astronomers to study very distant objects. Physicists began changing the
assumption that the Universe was static and unchanging. In 1922 Alexander
Friedmann introduced the idea of an expanding universe that contained moving matter.
In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, one long-standing debate about the
structure of the cosmos was coming to a climax. Mount Wilson astronomer Harlow
Shapley championed the model of a cosmos made up of the Milky Way star systemonly;
while Heber D. Curtis argued for the idea that spiral nebulae were star systems in their
own right as island universes. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the
organization of the Great Debate on 26 April 1920 at the meeting of the U.S. National
Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C. The debate was resolved when Edwin
Hubble detected Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda galaxy in 1923 and 1924. Their
distance established spiral nebulae well beyond the edge of the Milky Way.
Subsequent modelling of the universe explored the possibility that the cosmological
constant, introduced by Einstein in his 1917 paper, may result in an expanding universe,
depending on its value. Thus the Big Bang model was proposed by
the Belgianpriest Georges Lematre in 1927 which was subsequently corroborated
by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the red shift in 1929 and later by the discovery of
the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow
Wilson in 1964. These findings were a first step to rule out some of many alternative
cosmologies.
Since around 1990, several dramatic advances in observational cosmology have
transformed cosmology from a largely speculative science into a predictive science with
precise agreement between theory and observation. These advances include
observations of the microwave background from
the COBE, WMAP and Plancksatellites, large new galaxy redshift
surveys including 2dfGRS and SDSS, and observations of
distant supernovae and gravitational lensing. These observations matched the
predictions of the cosmic inflation theory, a modified Big Bang theory, and the specific
version known as the Lambda-CDM model. This has led many to refer to modern times
as the "golden age of cosmology".[12]
On 17 March 2014, astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Astrophysics announced the detection of gravitational waves, providing strong evidence
for inflation and the Big Bang.[9][10][11] However, on 19 June 2014, lowered confidence in
confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported.[13][14][15]
On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers
reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% atomic
matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.[16]
Religious or mythological cosmology[edit]
See also: Religious cosmology
Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based
on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions
of creation and eschatology.

GEORGE GAMOW- George Gamow (March 4 [O.S. February 20] 1904 August 19,
1968), born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov (Russian: ; IPA: [

orj ntonvt amf] ( listen)), was a theoretical physicist and cosmologist. He

was an early advocate and developer of Lematre's Big Bang theory. He discovered a
theoretical explanation of alpha decay via quantum tunneling, and worked
on radioactive decay of the atomic nucleus, star formation, stellar
nucleosynthesis and Big Bang nucleosynthesis (which he collectively
called nucleocosmogenesis), and molecular genetics.
In his middle and late career, Gamow focused more on teaching and wrote popular
books on science, including One Two Three ... Infinity and the Mr Tompkins ... series of
books (19391967). Some of his books are still in print, more than a half-century after
their original publication.

34. BIG BANG(GASSES INVLOVE)

35. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from
the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution.[1][2][3] The
model accounts for the fact that the universe expanded from a very high density
and high temperature state,[4][5] and offers a comprehensive explanation for a
broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic
microwave background, large scale structure and Hubble's Law.[6] If the known
laws of physics are extrapolated to the highest density regime, the result is
a singularity which is typically associated with the Big Bang. Detailed
measurements of the expansion rate of the universe place this moment at
approximately 13.8 billion years ago, which is thus considered the age of the
universe.[7] After the initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the
formation of subatomic particles, and later simple atoms. Giant clouds of these
primordial elements later coalesced through gravity in halos of dark matter,
eventually forming the stars and galaxies visible today.

36.
37. Timeline of the metric expansion of space, where space (including hypothetical
non-observable portions of the universe) is represented at each time by the
circular sections. On the left the dramatic expansion occurs in the inflationary
epoch, and at the center the expansion accelerates (artist's concept; not to scale).
38. Since Georges Lematre first noted in 1927 that an expanding universe could be
traced back in time to an originating single point, scientists have built on his idea
of cosmic expansion. While the scientific community was once divided between
supporters of two different expanding universe theories, the Big Bang and

the Steady State theory, empirical evidence provides strong support for the
former.[8] In 1929, from analysis of galactic redshifts, Edwin Hubble concluded that
galaxies are drifting apart; this is important observational evidence consistent with
the hypothesis of an expanding universe. In 1965 the cosmic microwave
background radiation was discovered, which was crucial evidence in favor of the
Big Bang model,[9] since that theory predicted the existence of background
radiation throughout the universe before it was discovered. More recently,
measurements of the redshifts of supernovae indicate that the expansion of the
universe is accelerating, an observation attributed to dark energy's existence.
[10]
The known physical laws of naturecan be used to calculate the characteristics
of the universe in detail back in time to an initial state of
extreme densityand temperature.[11]

EDWIN HUBBLE- Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 September 28, 1953)
[1]
was an American astronomer who played a crucial role in establishing the field
of extragalactic astronomy and is generally regarded as one of the most important
observational cosmologists of the 20th century. Hubble is known for showing that
the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its distance from the earth, implying
the universe is expanding,[2] known as "Hubble's law", although a preliminary version of
this relation was proposed by Georges Lematre two years earlier in a less prominent
journal.
Edwin Hubble is also known for providing substantial evidence that many objects then
classified as "nebulae" were actually galaxies beyond the Milky Way.[3] A decade before,
the American astronomer Vesto Slipher had provided the first evidence that the light
from many of these nebulae was strongly red-shifted, indicative of high recession
velocities.[4][5] Hubble's name is most widely recognized for the Hubble Space
Telescope which was named in his honor, with a model prominently displayed in his
hometown of Marshfield, Missouri.

WILLIAM HERSCHEL- Frederick William Herschel,[1] KH, FRS (German: Friedrich

Wilhelm Herschel; 15 November 1738 25 August 1822) was a
British astronomer and composer of German origin, and brother of fellow
astronomer Caroline Herschel, with whom he worked. Born in the Electorate of
Hanover, Herschel followed his father into the Military Band of Hanover, before
migrating to Great Britain in 1757 at the age of nineteen.
Herschel constructed his first large telescope in 1774, after which he spent nine years
carrying out sky surveys to investigate double stars. The resolving power of the
Herschel telescopes revealed that the nebulae in the Messier catalogue were clusters of
stars. Herschel published catalogues of nebulae in 1802 (2,500 objects) and in 1820
(5,000 objects). In the course of an observation on 13 March 1781 he realized that one
celestial body he had observed was not a star, but a planet, Uranus. This was the first
planet to be discovered since antiquity and Herschel became famous overnight. As a
result of this discovery, George III appointed him Court Astronomer. He was elected as
a Fellow of the Royal Society and grants were provided for the construction of new
telescopes.

Herschel pioneered the use of astronomical spectrophotometry as a diagnostic tool,

using prisms and temperature measuring equipment to measure the wavelength
distribution of stellar spectra. Other work included an improved determination of the
rotation period of Mars, the discovery that the Martian polar caps vary seasonally, the
discovery of Titania and Oberon (moons of Uranus) and Enceladus and Mimas (moons
of Saturn). In addition, Herschel discovered infrared radiation. Herschel was made a
Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1816. He was the first President of the Royal
Astronomical Society when it was founded in 1820. He died in August 1822, and his
work was continued by his only son, John Herschel.

LUNAR ECLIPSE A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes directly behind
the Earth into its umbra (shadow). This can occur only when the sun, Earth and moon
are aligned (in "syzygy") exactly, or very closely so, with the Earth in the middle. Hence,
a lunar eclipse can occur only the night of a full moon. The type and length of
an eclipse depend upon the Moon's location relative to its orbital nodes.
A total lunar eclipse has the direct sunlight completely blocked by the earth's shadow.
The only light seen is refracted through the earth's shadow. This light looks red for the
same reason that the sunset looks red, due to rayleigh scattering of the more blue light.
Because of its reddish color, a total lunar eclipse is sometimes called a blood moon.
Unlike a solar eclipse, which can be viewed only from a certain relatively small area of
the world, a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of the Earth.
A lunar eclipse lasts for a few hours, whereas a total solar eclipse lasts for only a few
minutes at any given place, due to the smaller size of the Moon's shadow. Also unlike
solar eclipses, lunar eclipses are safe to view without any eye protection or special
precautions, as they are dimmer than the full moon.

SOLAR ECLIPSE- As seen from the Earth, a solar eclipse is a type of eclipse that
occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, and the Moon fully or
partially blocks ("occults") the Sun. This can happen only at new moon, when the Sun
and the Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth in an alignment referred to
as syzygy. In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In partial
and annular eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured.
If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit, a little closer to the Earth, and in the
same orbital plane, there would be total solar eclipses every month. However, the
Moon's orbit is inclined (tilted) at more than 5 degrees to the Earth's orbit around the
Sun (see ecliptic), so its shadow at new moon usually misses Earth. Earth's orbit is
called the ecliptic plane as the Moon's orbit must cross this plane in order for an eclipse
(both solar as well as lunar) to occur. In addition, the Moon's actual orbit is elliptical,
often taking it far enough away from Earth that its apparent size is not large enough to
block the Sun totally. The orbital planes cross each other at a line of nodesresulting in at
least two, and up to five, solar eclipses occurring each year; no more than two of which
can be total eclipses.[1][2] However, total solar eclipses are rare at any particular location
because totality exists only along a narrow path on the Earth's surface traced by the
Moon's shadow or umbra.
An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. Nevertheless, in some ancient and modern
cultures, solar eclipses have been attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as
bad omens. A total solar eclipse can be frightening to people who are unaware of
its astronomical explanation, as the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky
darkens in a matter of minutes.

Since looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage or blindness,
special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar
eclipse. It is technically safe to view only the total phase of a total solar eclipse with the
unaided eye and without protection; however, this is a dangerous practice, as most
people are not trained to recognize the phases of an eclipse, which can span over two
hours while the total phase can only last up to 7.5 minutes for any one location. People
referred to as eclipse chasersor umbraphiles will travel to remote locations to observe or
witness predicted central solar eclipses