Running head: CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING

COMPREHENSION
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Can Visual Literacy Be Used to Support Reading Comprehension for Students with
Learning Disabilities and Struggling Readers?
Brent A. Johnson
University of West Georgia
MEDT 7490: Visual and Media Literacy Technology

CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

Relationships Between Visual and Auditory Perceptual Skills and Comprehension

Independent of Decoding
By Phyllis A. Weaver & Jerome Rosner, 1975
Summary of the Review of Literature
The purpose of this research was to explore the potential correlation between visual and
auditory perceptual skills and reading and listening comprehension. The authors of the study
discussed the skills that are necessary for reading text. For example, it was noted that in order to
comprehend, or extract text, the reader must be able to transform visual symbols, or letters, into
language, decode words, have decent vocabulary skills, and meaning of some of the words being
read (Weaver & Rosner, 1975).
This multi-disciplinary set of skills allows the reader to extract meaning from what is
being read. Individuals who are unable to extract meaning from text are either believed to lack
decoding skills, which impacts their ability to put all of the words together to gain understanding,
or they are impacted by some other innocuous reason. These two types of learners are identified
as deficit poor or difference poor. This study addresses individuals who are able to decode, but
have other challenges with reading comprehension. The research questions for the study 1) How
well do visual and auditory processing skills serve as a predictor for reading comprehension and
2) How are decoding skills related to reading comprehension (1975).
Analysis of Methodology
This study consisted of a quantitative approach to data collection. The researchers
collected data using a variety of tests and other measurement systems. These included two
perceptual tests (one visual and one auditory), a word recognition test, and a combined listening2

CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

reading comprehension test. The visual perceptual skills test that was used was the Coloured
Progressive Matrices (CPM) test. The CPM consisted of 36 incomplete geometric shapes. The
test-taker have to select the shape that forms the completed shape from a group of shape options.
The test goes from simple shapes to more complex shapes. The auditory test used was Auditory
Motor Placement (AMP) tests of the Perceptual Skills Curriculum (as cited by Weaver & Rosner,
1975). This test consisted of 33 objectives, organized into 8 levels. Each level of the program
was based on the size of the phonological unit of analysis (word, phoneme, or syllable). These
two tests were used to measure predictor variables and criterion variables (as cited by Weaver &
Rosner, 1975).
The students listening and reading comprehension were measured using the Durrell
Listening-Reading Series, Primary Level. These tests contained vocabulary and sentence
subtests. Within this test, students would have to successfully categorize a given set of words and
sentences. Decoding skills were measured using the Diagnostic Reading Scales. This test
consisted of a set of word lists that the student would have to read. Only two out of three of these
word lists were administered due to the difficulty of the third test.
The participants consisted of 33 children who were enrolled in a non-graded school for
learning disabilities in California. These students were identified using data from the California
Achievement Test. The students had a reading grade equivalent score between 1.0 (first grade)
and 3.5 (fifth month of third grade). The researchers decided to omit 8 of the students due to their
history of being easily distracted and distracting others, which could impact the effectiveness and
reliability of testing. . The remaining 25 students ranged in age from 9 to 13 with a mean age of
10.8. The study was conducted at the Pace School in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Summary of Results
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CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

The study showed that there are strong positive relationships between the CPM and the
listening comprehension test in comparison to the weaker relationship between the CPM and the
reading comprehension test. Very weak relationships were found between the AMP and the
listening comprehension test in comparison to the relationship between the AMP and the reading
comprehension test. There was a weak relationship found between word recognition and the
listening comprehension test, but word recognition and reading comprehension were found to
have a highly significant relationship (1975). The data also showed that the CPM was a better
predictor of listening comprehension and the AMP was a better predictor for reading
comprehension. Word recognition explained the variance of scores in reading comprehension
scores than both the CPM and the AMP.
In conclusion, the research shows that visual perceptual skills predicted listening
comprehension far more than reading comprehension. Auditory perceptual skills predicted
reading comprehension better than listening comprehension. Word recognition and reading
comprehension maintain a strong relationship. The data showed that word recognition had little
significance on listening comprehension. Word recognition showed the greatest variance in
reading comprehension scores.
Opinion on the research and what Ive learned
I believe that this research was handled well. The study included a variety of measures
that were relevant to identifying the relationship between word recognition and reading
comprehension and listening comprehension. As a teacher, I read to my students as a whole
group or small group. Ive noticed that as I read to my students, they seem to understand not only
the overall material that I am reading to them, but they understand some of the words that they
would not have understood if they read the text independently or if I gave the word to them in
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CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

isolation. This study shows that there is no direct correlation between word recognition and
listening comprehension. However, the students do need to be able to recognize and understand
words that they read in order to comprehend a text.
I chose to use this research article as it shows the importance of word recognition to
support reading comprehension. Teachers need to include more visuals in their word study to
support word recognition. Special education teachers could benefit from using visual images
when teaching letter sounds, blends, digraphs, and other phonics. This study taught me that I
need to do more word studies in my instruction.

How Graphic Novels Support Reading Comprehension Strategy Development in Children

By Beverly Brenna, 2013
Summary of the Review of the Literature
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between comprehension
strategies and graphic novels (2013). Brenna (2013) states that reading comprehension takes
place before, during, and after reading. Reading comprehension also relies the reader to have and
to use multiple skills and strategies including text-based decoding and lexical skills, domain
knowledge, topic knowledge and interest and cognitive monitoring and strategy use as cited by
Brenna, (2013). An argument was presented as to whether or not graphic novels are considered
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CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

comics or not. Some argue that graphic novels fall under the umbrella of comics (as cited by
Brenna, 2013) and others argue that graphic novels are merely sequential art (as cited by Brenna,
2013).
Regardless of the argument, research shows that graphic novels hit each of the main
constructs of English/Language Arts: listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing, and
representing (2013). This study aims to not only examine the increase in motivation for students
to read using graphic novels, but it challenges the impact that reading graphic novels can have on
students reading comprehension and the implications that may occur as a result of this
information.
Analysis of Methodology
This qualitative study seeks to answer two research questions:
1) What comprehension strategies can students in a Grade 4 classroom learn to
apply to a study of age-appropriate graphic novels?
2) In what ways might graphic novels support students development as readers?
This study incorporates metacognitive comprehension strategies that are related to a
knowledge of self as well as a knowledge of task and text. The study was held with a group of 4 th
grade students at Cloverdale School over a 5 week period. The participants consisted of 21 fourth
grade students, an experienced teacher who also served as a part-time librarian, and one intern.
The intern supported a small group during the project. The students were divided into three
different groups organized by abilities, each assigned a different text according to the theme and
the varying level of difficulty. The teachers overall goal in the class was to teach reading
strategies and to teach students how to read for pleasure.
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CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

The participants came from various socio-economic backgrounds and exhibited a variety
of reading interests, cultures, and languages (2013). Three of the students had recently
immigrated from Germany and spoke English as a second language. One of the students spoke
Mandarin and Chinese at home. Instruction was delivered as a whole group by the classroom
teacher. One reading strategy was taught during that time. The students were then sent to their
small groups to practice that reading strategy using the graphic novel that was selected for their
group. The texts included Binky the Space Cat, Babymouse: Queen of the World, and the Tale of
Despereaux. The data was collected using classroom observation, informal discussions with
students, small-group activities using researcher-given protocols, written questionnaires that
explored the students use of the comprehension strategies and preference given to the assigned
texts.

Opinion of the Research

I believe that the researchers did a good job of incorporating graphic novels that spanned
across various genres. I also feel that the researchers used an appropriate amount of qualitative
data collection tools/instruments to answer the research questions. However, I believe that they
should have incorporated some quantitative instruments into their research. I would have liked to
have known how much the students improved in their ability to comprehend text. I would also
want to see a comparison of reading comprehension scores, one using a novel of an assigned text
and the other using the graphic novel of that same text. Furthermore, I believe that it would have
been helpful to add a few students with learning disabilities in the study. This would have helped
me understand whether or not the needle could truly be moved using graphic novels rather than
other forms of written text.
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CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

What Did You Learn From the Research

This text has taught me to allow my students to explore different types of text. I can
accomplish this by allowing them to visit the library and introduce them to unfamiliar forms (i.e.
graphic novels). I should also include more variety in my classroom library. One of the first goals
for helping my students become better readers is increasing their interest level in reading.
Making them more interested can help them become more engaged and thus become more
fluent. Finally, I should allow my students to discuss their texts with friends within the class.
This will assist them with communicating more efficiently when summarizing or providing
information about the text.

Summary of Results
Initially, the students within the study did not show any interest or preference towards the
graphic novel format. The study shows that graphic novels were a new concept to the students.
One of the participants cited that there were less words as a complaint regarding the graphic
novels. Throughout the study, the students began to take interest in graphic novels, which
increased their desire to read for pleasure. A classroom observation by the researcher showed that
many of the students had to frequently be reminded to put away their texts during other subjects.
It was also observed that many of the students were selecting graphic novels from the class
library during independent reading time.

CAN VISUAL LITERACY BE USED TO SUPPORT READING COMPREHENSION

At the close of the study, a survey was conducted to determine the students preferred reading
option. 6 of the students chose novels as their first choice and 5 of the students chose graphic
novels. As a second choice, 10 students chose graphic novels and 2 chose novels. This research
shows that graphic novels not only help students become motivated to read, but it helps them
overcome their discomfort when reading independently or with a peer.
Use of Kidspiration Software to Enhance the Reading Comprehension of Story Grammar
Components for Elementary-Age Students with Specific Learning Disabilities
By Erin Wade, Richard T. Boon, and Vicky G. Spencer
Review of Literature
This article aims to explore the impact of Kidspiration on reading comprehension within
elementary-aged students with specific learning disabilities (SLD). Kidspiration is a computer
software that uses visual presentations of the materials as well as visual aids and manipulatives
to teach academic standards. One of the highlights of the software is its story mapping feature.
Story mapping is identified as one of the primary research-based methods for teaching reading
comprehension (as cited by Wade, Boone, & Spencer, 2010). The literature shows that students
with SLD tend to experience deficits in with reading comprehension (2010). They also function
an academic grade level or more below their present grade level in reading (2010), which can
impact their ability to be successful in science and social studies. The literature also reports that
approximately 80% of SLD students have reading problems and struggle with comprehension of
written text.
Many of these students struggle with the ability to use cognitive strategies to compensate
for their struggles comprehending text. Kidspiration was created to serve as a way to support
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learners with learning academic content using visual models and representations. It is the goal of
this research team to determine whether or not students with SLD can improve their reading
comprehension using Kidspiration.
Analysis of Methodology
The participants were two third grade and one fourth grade students who were enrolled in
a diverse Title I school located in the southeastern part of the United States. The majority of the
students at the school were economically disadvantaged, most receiving free and reduced lunch.
All three students were reported as having a SLD and received direct special education services
in the special education setting for reading, writing, and spelling (2010). They did however
participate in science and social studies within the general education setting as well as specials.
The participants in the study needed to receive one hour special education services in a
self-contained setting for reading, had to score at least one grade level below on their
comprehension scores on the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA), needed to
have a reading comprehension goal specifically stated on their IEP, and had to attend a minimum
of 95% of the school days for the first 9 weeks of the marking period. They also needed to return
the student and parent consent forms (2010). The research consisted of a quantitative ABC
single-subject research design that was used to test the effectiveness of using computer-based
story maps to enhance students reading comprehension skills.
Baseline data was collected using text on their reading level. After reading the text, each
student had to answer questions about the text and answer 9 grammar components. After being
given the story mapping intervention by way of a 30 minute training using the Kidspiration
software, each student was given a text on their reading level. Each student had to complete a

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story map about the text. The students then had to read the story again and complete a blank
story map.
Summary of the Results
Student As baseline score was 22% on the reading comprehension and the story grammar
components. After using the Kidspiration software, his scores improved to 85%. During the
maintenance phase, he was given the same text. He was able to recall facts about the text and the
grammar components without using the software and achieved a score of 81%.
Student Bs achieved a baseline score of 44%. After using the software, he achieved a
score of 89%, improving 45% from the baseline data. During the maintenance phase, he was able
to recall the story components and achieved a score of 85%, higher than Student As maintenance
score.
Student C scored 33% on his baseline score. After using the software during the
intervention phase, Student C achieved a score of 85%. He scored 85% again during the
maintenance phase.
Opinion on the Research
After reviewing the research as well as the Kidspiration software, I was very impressed
with the results and findings. Kidspiration incorporates visual models and forces students to use
visual models and representations to display their understanding of the text. These results show
that the program does indeed work. Although I believe that they should have used a larger
sample size, the results are enough to make me consider using the software in my classroom. I
also would have liked to have seen a survey or questionnaire in which the students share their
thoughts about the software and its effectiveness. I would be interested in knowing the changes
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that the teachers saw in the students interactions during the intervention and maintenance in
comparison to the baseline and prior to the research experiment.
What Did You Learn From The Research
I learned that this software should definitely be considered in all special education
classrooms. This software not only includes instruction on reading, but it provides math and
writing instruction. Many of the strategies used in the reading instruction can be used during
science and social studies instruction. Students can use story mapping, graphic organizers, and
other Kidspiration visual strategies to support their understanding of science and social studies
text.

Reflection
This assignment was challenging for me as I found it difficult to find research that has
been conducted using visual literacy to support reading comprehension for students with learning
difficulties. I think that this may be indicative of the challenge that teachers and researchers have
with studying students with SLD as they vary in processing levels and overall academic
functioning. In my classroom, I have 9 fourth grade students who are identified as SLD. Each of
them read on different reading levels. Some are on a 1st grade level and others read on a second
grade or third grade level. Even though they may have a level that is appropriate to them, they
still have challenges comprehending the text or reading fluently.

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The topic I chose interests me as it gives me an idea on how I can better support my
students reading comprehension. In my three years of teaching, I have never seen significant
gains for any of my students in reading fluency or comprehension. If this program works, I
definitely intend on using it with my students and encouraging my other team members to use it.
I was also encouraged by the use of graphic novels and comics into the reading curriculum. This
tool is ideal for many young men as they seem to be interested in comic books. This can tool can
be used to motivate students to read when used in the classroom. Looking at the pictures can
make students wonder what the text says about the picture. The students in my class that read
graphic novels also love to share their books with their peers. Visual literacy seems to be a good
and preferred method of reading instruction for students with SLD.
References
Brenna, B. (2013). How graphic novels support reading comprehension strategy development in
children. Literacy. 47(2), pp. 88-94.
Wade, E., Boon, R.T., Spencer, V.G. (2010). Use of kidspiration software to enhance the reading
comprehension of story grammar components for elementary-age students with specific
learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal 8(2), pp. 31-41.
Weaver, P.A. & Rosner, J. (1975). Relationships between visual and auditory perceptual skills
and comprehension independent of decoding. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12(9), p.
617-621.

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