Professional Documents
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ARTICLES
Paul C. Abney, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Community Counseling in the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology at the University of Nevada,
Reno. He is Director of the Downing Counseling Clinic at UNR. Cleborne Maddux,
PhD, is Professor, Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, College of
Education, University of Nevada, Reno.
Address correspondence to: Paul C. Abney, PhD, Dept. of Counseling and Educational Psychology/281, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV 89557-0213 (E-mail:
abney@unr.edu).
Journal of Technology in Human Services, Vol. 22(3) 2004
http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JTHS
2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1300/J017v22n03_01
One of the hallmarks of the last two or three decades has been the
rapid pace of technological change. Sawyer and Zantal-Wiener (1993)
identify a long list of technological innovations that we take for granted
today, but that were not available as recently as 1972. This list includes,
among others, MRIs or CAT scans, space stations, walkmans, camcorders, VCRs, CDs, Fax machines, cordless telephones, cellular phones,
bar codes, genetic fingerprinting, laser surgery, and automatic teller machines (p. 70). To that list, we could add GPS receivers, digital cameras,
surround sound, large screen TV, high density TV, and perhaps most
significantly of all, the personal computer, the Internet, and the World
Wide Web.
In only a little less than 25 years, small computers have become ubiquitous necessities in nearly every walk of life across the globe. Rapid
change of any kind is never accomplished painlessly, and the incredibly
rapid pace with which computers have been integrated with diverse human activities has resulted in a number of problems and controversies.
One of these controversies is whether or not computers should be used
in the helping professions, and if so, how they should be used (Childers,
1985; Hayes, 1999; Maddux & Johnson, 1998; Morton, 1996; Sharf,
1985; Wagman & Kerber, 1984).
Currently, one such controversy centers on the proper role of technology, including computer programs, telecommunications, and the
Internet in counseling. The critical and growing importance of this controversy in the field of counseling prompted Gary Walz, Director of the
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Counseling and Student Services Clearinghouse (ERIC/CASS), to suggest that while counselors are currently confronting many challenges and difficult societal
their first appearance nearly 40 years ago. In fact, there are now well
over 300 computer-based assessment products provided by some 72
identified suppliers, nearly half of which are intended to assist in personality evaluation (Snyder, 2000).
One of the primary debates related to test administration centers on
the equivalence of results obtained by tests with and without computer
administration (Butcher, Perry, & Atlis, 2000). Counselors, psychologists, and other assessment professionals have questioned whether or
not the conversion of a test from human to computer administration
changes what is being measured.
Results of research on this issue are mixed. In fact, Snyder (2000) has
suggested that research results are so inconclusive that they permit considerable divergence in their interpretation (p. 52). In view of this caveat, it is
surprising that many reviewers of this research literature have been quite
positive with regard to this issue. A case in point is the following: Research has supported the position that, by and large, computer-administered tests are essentially equivalent to booklet-administered instruments
(Butcher, Perry, & Atlis, 2000, p. 15). Snyder (2000) takes issue with such
positive statements about equivalence, and suggests that research findings
show that Conclusions regarding equivalence are more ambiguous than
this (p. 53).
Some of the confusion in interpreting the research on equivalence has to
do with the use of different statistics for measuring it. For example, some
studies depend on comparison of mean scores of paper and pencil tests and
the same tests converted to computer administration. Many of these studies
find differences in means not to be significant. However, several reviewers
(Burke, 1993; Honaker, 1988; and Epstein & Klinkenbert, 2001) have
pointed to the importance of considering whether the same distributions
are obtained through computer administration, particularly the same rank
ordering. Obviously, if two forms of a test rank test-takers differently, they
cannot be said to be equivalent, even though means may not differ.
Honaker and Fowler (1990) concur and suggest that variances and criterion
validity should also be considered. According to these reviewers, many
equivalence studies fail to compare anything other than means.
The evidence is so contradictory, that Weiner (2003) has called it an
unresolved issue (p. 10). Overall, he suggests that equivalence is
fairly good for pencil-and-paper questionnaires, particularly those used
for personality assessment such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). It should be noted that some research has found
significant differences in results obtained with computerized versus traditional versions of the MMPI (e.g., Roper, Ben-Porath, & Watt, 1995).
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have, under the microscope of peer group study, been demonstrated to have remarkable therapeutic potential in ways that
have not been widely recognized or understood . . . In detailing
some of our experiences we hope to describe how effective our interventions can be in facilitating positive changes through guided
online mental health activities. (p. 1)
These authors go on to identify ten myths of online clinical work, one
of which is that online therapy cannot be effective.
TAKING A STAND ON THE USE
OF TECHNOLOGY IN COUNSELING
Since the research on the use of technology in counseling is in its infancy, and since results of that research are mixed, a logical question is
What is the basis for strong advocacy or opposition to the use of technology in counseling? Put another way, in the absence of evidence,
how are counselors and others deciding to accept or reject the use of
technology in their professional activities? It seems to us that the answer
to this question is that practitioners must be making their decision based
on grounds that could be loosely categorized as either practical or theoretical/philosophical (Snauwaert, 1999).
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN COUNSELING
Although actual research on the use of technology in counseling is not
voluminous, there are many articles describing advantages and disadvantages of each of the three major categories discussed in this article.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF COMPUTER-BASED TEST ADMINISTRATION
An advantage frequently cited for computerized tests over paperand-pencil versions is that since adaptive tests can be constructed that will
result in a typical client taking fewer test items, the time required to take
the test will be shortened. Additionally, since the difficulty level of each
succeeding item can be made to depend on the previous response, diffi-
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culty level of the entire test will be customized to the individual, and clients, because they will be continuously challenged at the proper level of
difficulty, will not be bored by items that are too easy, or intimidated by
items that are unreasonably difficult. Then too, because no two clients
take exactly the same items, test security may be easier to maintain.
Other advantages cited for computer-based tests in general include
the potential for immediate client feedback, the ability to track performance over time, and the fact that use of technology may motivate clients to try their hardest and contribute to making testing a more enjoyable
experience (Maddux & Johnson, 1998; Tymofievich & Leroux, 2000).
Maddux and Johnson (1998) identified some of the above advantages
as well as the following: assessment personnel will be relieved from
routine data gathering and freed to devote more time to direct service to
clients; test takers will feel more in control and will thus tend to be more
active participants in the counseling activity; precisely standardized administration procedures such as timing can be guaranteed; computers
are never impatient or judgmental; clients will have much more flexibility in when and where they take the test; special test formats can be developed to make tests accessible to individuals with disabilities; clients
can receive their scores as soon as they complete the test; and computers
and related technology will make it possible to develop new kinds of
tests. These authors provide extensive discussions of these and other advantages as well as numerous citations to articles related to each. Another advantage cited is the cost-effectiveness of computer-assisted
testing (Sampson, 1995; Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997).
Maddux and Johnson (1998) also include a list of actual and potential
disadvantages including lack of demonstrated equivalence between
most computer-based instruments and their original paper-and-pencil
versions; the fact that many tests, such as oral reading instruments, do
not lend themselves to computer implementation; hardware and software limitations such as the inability of test takers to review previously-answered items; lack of standardization of computer hardware
and peripherals; the need for extensive equipment maintenance and
staff technology training; the evidence that computerized tests are completed faster than paper-and-pencil versions, introducing the need for
shorter time limits on timed tests; the possibility of computers dehumanizing the assessment process; and the possibility that counselors
will neglect to take the necessary step of observing test takers in order to
be sensitive to variables such as emotional state or attitude.
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difficulty in obtaining professional insurance coverage for practicing online and they run the risk of unintentionally violating professional ethics.
THEORETICAL/PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN COUNSELING
As can be seen from this brief consideration of advantages and disadvantages, there are excellent arguments both for and against using technology in the three categories of counseling activities we have chosen
for this discussion. Because research on efficacy is in its infancy, and
because results tend to be mixed, many counselors who feel strongly
about the use of technology may be basing their advocacy or opposition
on such pragmatic concerns. However, we suspect that this is not the
case, and that many counselors are making decisions by relying on theoretical or philosophical considerations.
We believe that it may be helpful to clarify some of the differing theoretical and philosophical assumptions that may underlie advocacy or
opposition to the use of computer technology in counseling, particularly
for those counselors who may not as yet have made up their minds about
this controversial issue.
DIFFERING WORLDVIEWS AND THEIR EFFECT
ON COUNSELORS ATTITUDES ABOUT TECHNOLOGY
One approach to understanding these differences was offered in a
classic article by Reese and Overton (1970). These authors suggest that
every psychological theory contains a unique worldview of human nature, also called a paradigm, a set of presuppositions, or a world hypothesis. Some theories may share a common worldview, while other
theories are based on differing worldviews of human nature. Debates
about the value of theories based on differing worldviews are, according to Reese and Overton (1970), pointless and unproductive, since the
theories are based on differing presuppositions. These pointless debates, such as the once-vitriolic debate between behavioral and cognitive psychologists, they term paradigm debates, and they suggest that
such debates serve only to alienate and polarize a professional field.
They suggest that psychology has historically embraced one of two developmental psychology models: the organismic and mechanistic world
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Thus, the organismic model of human nature does not support quantification and mechanization of human behavior, or the goal to develop
equations for the purpose of predicting that behavior. Without the quantification of human experience and without the construction of functional equations, there is little basis for constructing prescriptive CBTIs.
MODERN AND POSTMODERN POSITIONS
Two epistemological approaches to human nature that also characterize some of the differences between those counselors who support the
use of technology and those counselors who believe that counseling is a
task for human clinicians, are that of modernism and postmodernism.
Modernists operate from the legacy of Descartes, engage in a quest for
certainty, and rely on the scientific method to explain and predict
(Connell, 1995, p. 7). Modernists would likely have few objections to
objective testing programs and the accompanying computer based test
administration, interpretation, or therapy programs if based on functional equations, statistical/actuarial rules, or other scientifically derived techniques.
Postmodernism, on the other hand, is based upon a relativistic theory
of knowledge. Rather than a single and certain truth existing about the
world, every question has an infinite number of answers, each equally
valid. Three general points are frequently found within postmodern literature (Burbules, 1993). These include: (a) a disavowal of the credibility of any claim to objectivity, impartiality, and universality, (b) a
rejection of any single universally accepted view of human nature, and
(c) a rejection of the idea that our aim should be finding common underlying principles, generalizable rules, or universal definitions as the
sign of theoretical coherence and credibility (Burbules, 1993, p. 3).
The idea of computerizing assessment or therapy would most likely not
find ready acceptance from this point of view.
Radical postmodernism or antimodernism (Burbules, 1993, p. 4)
virtually denies the existence of the Enlightment categories, leading to a
worldview that allows no objectivity, no judgments of better or worse,
no dialogue, and no understanding across worldviews. Certainly, from
this antimodern position, there would be little chance of acceptance of
computer administration, interpretation or therapy.
A more moderate postmodern worldviewthat knowledge is a socially
constructed presentation of the worldallows that when assessment procedures are necessary, the use of clinical judgment is preferable. Al-
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and Overton (1970) tell us about theories, models, and worldviews. What
then, should we do about the controversy about technology in the field of
counseling?
Most of all, we should avoid pointless and destructive polarization of the
counseling field such as that which took place years ago in psychology as a
consequence of disagreement between behaviorists and cognitivists. A
similar, equally bitter polarization continues to gather steam in science between modernists and postmodernists, and has come to be known as the
science wars (Bricmont, 1997).
LOOKING TOWARD THE FUTURE
What we believe needs to happen is for counselors to examine their
own theoretical roots, make sure that their positions with regard to technology is consistent with their worldviews, and agree to disagree with
those who approach counseling from a different worldview. Both sides
can then get on with the critical business of refining their own individual
counseling skills, regardless of whether or not technology is involved.
This is what finally occurred in psychology with regard to the behavioral/cognitive split. Advocates from both sides agreed to disagree,
scaled down the emotional content of their debate, and went about the
business of refining their own practices. There are signs that something
similar is occurring with regard to the science wars, where recently, the
invective has been toned down considerably (Snauwaert, 1999).
The important thing is that we do not permit the debate to polarize the
field, as Reese and Overton warn that paradigm debates often do. If we
acknowledge that the controversy itself may be merely symptomatic of
underlying differences in worldviews, the debate may serve a positive
purpose. That is, it may stimulate counselors to critically examine their
own unspoken assumptions and bring their own professional practices
more in line with their various worldviews. If such is the case, the debate will have been worthwhile, regardless of whether or not technology takes a more or less important role in counseling of the future.
Technology is here to stay, in counseling as in the culture at large
(Clauser, Swanson & Clyman, 1999; Garb, 2000a; Maddux & Johnson,
1998). Computers have simply become so ubiquitous, and have acquired so much cultural momentum that we could probably not prevent
them from continuing to find their way into the field of counseling, even
if we tried to do so. So, to us, the critical question is not so much
whether or not technology will be used in counseling in the future, but
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whether or not the controversy concerning their use will serve to enlighten and inform, or to embitter and divide. We have written this article in the hope that in some small way, it can help promote the former,
rather than the latter. If the manuscript increases the readers awareness
of the degree to which disagreements, which are really paradigm debates, may have on decision-making, then readers can make more
thoughtful individual choices about the appropriate use of technology in
counseling.
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