ETHICS IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

Contents
1. Introduction and Acknowledgements - Johanna
McDowell, IPRA board member.
2. Preface - Philip Sheppard, IPRA president 2007
3. Review of earlier Gold Papers related to the subject Gran Sjberg, member emeritus
4. Ethics and Core Values some definitions Gran
Sjberg
5. Ethics and Public Relations a 50 year perspective. Tim Traverse-Healy, member emeritus
6. Ethical Aspects on Openness and Transparency in
Transnational Communication - Margot Wallstrm, the Vice
President of the European Union
7. Ethics and Corporate Governance - Ambassador Ola
Ullsten, former Swedish Prime Minister, Chairman of
Global Forum for Corporate Governance
8. Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility a transAtlantic Dialogue Professor Dennis Wilcox, San Jos
State University, and Gran Sjberg
9. Ethics in a non-ethical world managing ethics across a
global network The Thin Red Line Laura Muchnik,
Argentina
10. Ethics in Politics and Business. - Aune Past,
University of Tartu, Estonia

Introduction and acknowledgements

2007 sees the renaissance of one of the International
Public Relations Associations hallmarks, the Gold Paper.
In this new series of Gold Papers, the content will be
published on line through the IPRA website on
www.ipra.org and in print utilizing a new online service.
We are hopeful that all of our new global technology will
enable Gold Papers to be accessible to all of those
individuals who wish to learn more about the world of public
relations as its sphere of influence continues.
The theme for the Gold Paper for 2007 is Ethics in Public
Relations and was chosen in line with our IPRA Presidents
theme for his year. We decided to invite contributions from
a number of experts and on a range of topics within the
overall theme.
Having been entrusted to organize and deliver the Gold
Paper this year, I am indebted to Gran Sjoberg, member
emeritus, who worked in partnership with me to co-ordinate
and define the contributions and contributors from around
the world.
These contributions have ensured that a wonderful range
of opinions and thoughts are available for all interested
readers. My thanks go to all of those illustrious figures who
took the time out of their busy lives to compile their
individual papers for the benefit of this Gold Paper.
I am particularly grateful for the editing support of our 2007
President, Philip Sheppard, the administrative support of
Jim Holt and the secretariat along with the input from our
FrontLine editor, Robert Gray

We trust that these readings within this Gold Paper will be

stimulating to new thought and further discussion around
the important topic of Ethics in Public Relations.

Preface
I am delighted to invite you to read, to enjoy and maybe to
learn from this Gold Paper all around the theme of ethics in
Public Relations.
It was ethics that I chose as my theme for the year and
made tangible with a new code of conduct for the
association: namely the Code of Brussels for public affairs
practitioners. Its core set of undertakings lists some basic
dos and donts of good conduct such as being transparent
about who you are and who you represent but for me
there are a couple of articles which I find the most
appealing:
article 1 - Integrity
Act with honesty and integrity at all times so as to secure
the confidence of those with whom the practitioner comes
into contact
article 3 - Dialogue
Establish the moral, psychological and intellectual
conditions for dialogue, and recognise the rights of all
parties involved to state their case and express their views;
If this code helps us secure the confidence of those to
whom we speak, and to help remind us to be as good
listeners as we are talkers, then I believe it will be doing its
job.
The Code of Brussels builds directly on the sure foundation
of our existing Codes of Athens and Venice and is a timely
reminder of the standards that IPRA represents. It was also
a necessary reaction to a shadow that has passed over our
profession with the advent of spin: and on the topic of spin
do enjoy what Professor Travers-Healey has to say on the
subject!

This Gold Paper is another in a series of collaborative

efforts where we have used the richness of IPRAs
membership and its members contacts to bring together a
truly international dimension to ethics and PR.
My sincere thanks go to Johanna McDowell and Gran
Sjberg for their dedication in bringing this Gold Paper from
an idea to a reality.
Philip Sheppard
IPRA President 2007

Ethics in IPRA through 50 Years

By Gran E. Sjberg
Ethics have always been one of the cornerstones in the 50
or so years of IPRA issues. The very first multi-national
gathering of public relations professionals after the Second
World War a meeting that later led to the foundation of
IPRA in 1955 ended with the signing of a statement that
read:
Having considered the necessity of furthering the skill and
ethics of their profession and a clear understanding of their
work, and considering further the value of international
exchange of information and cooperation, we have
resolved that a provisional International Committee be set
up with the object of furthering exchange and cooperation
and the eventual establishment of an international public
relations association.
Three objectives were agreed upon between 1950 and
1955: The problem of professional recognition; professional
skills; and The problem of professional ethics: linking and
perhaps completing the codes of professional conduct
being compiled in several countries.
The Codes
At the 2nd IPRA World Congress at Venice in May 1961, the
IPRA Code on Professional Conduct (The Code of
Venice) was approved unanimously, and similar codes
were adopted by many national public relations
associations in the years leading to 1965.
From there on, work continued to create an international
code of ethics. One of the icons of international public
relations, Lucien Matrat (France), fine-tuned the final text
that was adopted by the IPRA General Assembly in
Athens, Greece, on 12 May, 1965 hence the name The

Code of Athens. This code is still adhered to by public

relations associations worldwide.
The Code of Conduct of Public Affairs Worldwide (The
Code of Brussels) was adopted by IPRA in 2006. With
reference to the Code of Athens, it underlines inter alia that
practitioners in their conduct of public affairs shall observe
integrity, transparency and accuracy, avoid falsehood and
deception, honour confidentiality and neither propose nor
undertake any action which would constitute an improper
influence on public authorities. The Code also states that
members should help enforce disciplinary procedures of
IPRA in upholding any breaching of the Code.
(See appendix for The Code of Venice, The Code of
Athens, and The Code of Brussels)
Ethics in IPRA Gold Papers
When the series of IPRA Gold Papers was initiated in
1973, the logical theme for the initial paper was the First
Report on Standards and Ethics of Public Relations
Practice by Herbert M. Lloyd (UK). His research showed
that a quarter of the national associations that responded to
his questionnaire were beginning to spend more time
considering the question of ethics and enforcement and
that more disciplinary committees were being set up.
Among his ten conclusions and recommendations, the fith
stated that Ethics should be included in all curricula for
public relations education at all stages of training and
teaching ,and the sixth read: All countries should be
encouraged to have a respected Ethics tribunal preferably
with lay representatives, and an efficient disciplinary
procedure..
In 1982, Gold Paper number four was presented at the
World Congress in Bombay with the title A Model for
Public Relations Education for Professional Practice. The
task force, led by Gran Sjberg (Sweden), followed up on
Lloyds suggestions and included studies of ethics and
professional conduct in its recommendations for a

curriculum (which was later adopted in parts, by several

universities around the world).
Gold Paper number five, 1985, The Communicative
Society was written by professor Tom T. Stonier (UK) for
the World Congress in Amsterdam. He stated, among other
things, that the danger of unethical behaviour is that the
general public condemns the practitioner as a person who
is not concerned with disseminating information but with
manipulating it. He argues that practitioners should
become fully aware of the possible uses and misuses of
the techniques they have at their disposal, but also to resist
demand that may be made upon them to misuse their skills
and techniques.
Tim Traverse-Healy (UK) was the author of Gold Paper
number six in 1988, Public Relations and Propaganda
Values Compared, presented at the World Congress in
Melbourne. He explored the comparative values implicit in
the two terms. After examining inter alia Joseph Gbbels
use of propaganda, he noted that several leading public
relations professionals were very concerned about the
image of our profession as consisting of propagandists.
And he states: Truth, dialogue and the public interest lie at
the heart of the matter and should ideally be our guiding
principles as most, if not all, our definitions and national
codes of conduct presently suggest. On the individual
plane, the author writes, I am conscious that men use
language in four ways. One is cognitive in that it describes
what is fact. Another is emotive in that it expresses feeling.
The third is persuasive in that it seeks to influence thought,
and the fourth is imperative in that it affects conduct. When
communicators, and educators for that matter, misuse or
confuse these uses then they need to consider the ethics of
their chosen profession in order to straighten out their
thinking.
Gold Paper number eight in 1991 was written for the World
Congress in Toronto by John F.Budd Jr (USA) on Ethical
Dilemmas in Public Relations- a Pragmatic Examination.

The author raised the question whether we are ethically

literate and quoted Tim Traverse-Healy (UK) who had
warned in 1956 that the further development of public
relations depends on the confidence of the community in
the integrity of our practitioners.. One of Budds concluding
concerns was that materialism, short- term profit
pressure will silence moral reasoning. Not by wilful
neglect, or deliberate avoidance, but simply because it
takes time, slows things down and correspondingly we give
it little space on our daily agenda.
Gold Paper number ten, Quality, Customer Satisfaction,
Public Relations New Directions for Organisational
Communication, was presented at the World Congress in
Punta del Este, Uruguay, in 1995 by task force leader
Gran Sjberg (Sweden), Kirsten Berth (Denmark),
professor Claes Fornell (USA) and professor Donald K.
Wright (USA). The task force raised the question of how
clients can rely on our confidentiality and how we declare
that we subscribe to the IPRA Code of Athens and the ICO
(today ICCO) Rome Charter for consultants so that clients
will know how we behave in critical moments.
This initiative was followed up in 1997 when the Helsinki
Charter on Quality in Public Relations was signed at the
World Congress by the presidents of IPRA, CERP and
ICO, and where one of the seven points read: As a
profession public relations must be characterised by a
common body of knowledge, academic studies, research,
ethical rules and performance control. These
characteristics are complementary to each other and form
the cornerstones of quality as a concept for the profession.
Year 2007 onwards
The issue of ethics for public relations professionals is as
vital today and tomorrow as it was for the forefathers of
IPRA in the 1950s. That is why this Gold Paper is devoted
to the subject of ethics, seen from a number of different
perspectives.

Some Definitions
It is the objective of this Gold Paper to explore what Ethics
means in public relations. The definitions below, taken from
Websters are simply a starting point.
ETHICS is the general term for attempts to state or
determine what is good, both for the individual and for the
society as a whole. It is often termed the science of
morality.
BUSINESS ETHICS is the field of ethics that examines
moral controversies relating to the social responsibilities of
business practices, in any economic system. It looks at
various business activities and asks Is this ethically right
or wrong.
Business ethics can be applied at three levels: the
individual employee, the organization, and the society. Very
often situations arise in which the three levels are not in
line. A behaviour may be good for the employee, bad for
the company, and good for society
(or some other combination). Some ethicists see the role
of business ethics as the harmonization and reconciliation
of these three conflicting levels.

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Ethics and Public Relations

Tim Traverse- Healy
Introduction: In the early days of public relations there was
little debate about ethics as the pioneers in the field
perceived PR to be an ethical undertaking. Times and
attitudes have however changed radically, as have the
nature and vocabulary of communications. This paper is a
personal view of how the ethical landscape has evolved
and a plea that despite the many difficulties and pressures
communicators face, there must always be a place for
integrity.
Possibly the reason why I have been invited to review the
course of ethics in regard to the public relations profession
over its post World War Two developmental phase is
because I am the only founding father of the International
Public Relations Association and incidentally of the
British Chartered Institute of Public Relations still living on
this planet.
I am reminded of a quip by a personal hero of mine the
American comedian, George Burns. Making his last
television appearance just before his 100th birthday and his
demise he joked: I am so old that nowadays I get a
standing ovation for just standing!
I now know what he meant. I am here because I am still
here and therefore this contribution, I stress a personal
perspective, is probably my last professional will and
testament.
In the immediate post-war years ethics and codes of
conduct were not in my experience something ever
discussed by those early phase two, modernist, pioneers.

11

I know because I was there and privileged to take part in

their discussions. In the US men like Hill, Byoir, Earl
Newsome my personal mentor and the renowned
corporate executive Arthur Page. Tallents, Fife-Clark,
Hornsby, and Campbell-Johnson in the UK. And on the
mainland Europe lone leaders like Medboe, Matrat and
Coup de Frejac, Janssen, Oekl, Guido de Rossi, Brongers,
and Bjorkman.
These were men amongst others at that time who
witnessed at first hand the horrors and miseries of war.
Some had been comrades in arms, some prisoners in fact
or of conscience, some even military enemies.
Looking back I now believe that the apparent indifference
they displayed to the matter of ethics in our craft was
dictated by their profound belief that the very practice of
public relations as they envisaged it was in itself, in the
fractured and tortured world of the time, an ethical act
needing no explanations or defence.
I bear witness that they believed that public relations was
not publicity, not propaganda, not advertising or promotion,
not press agentry. Of course they recognised that all these
activities could be elements in the overall armoury of public
relations that might be deployed on any particular
programme.
But they believed that what distinguished public relations
from the aforementioned elements was the presence in
every stage of the public relations process of three
ingredients in more or less equal measure. Truth, concern
for the public interest, and genuine dialogue. They
understood that the first two ingredients were variables,
value judgements, nevertheless sincerely arrived at and
capable of debate.
But the third ingredient, dialogue, was not. It was either
taking place or it was not and indeed could even be
measured and evaluated.

12

To these practitioners publicity, for products and services,

and propaganda for ideas and concepts were generally if
not necessarily always essentially self-seeking in character.
Public relations on the other hand was based on the tenet
that what people believed, felt and thought truly mattered.
They believed that if true dialogue was taking place then
views and opinions and associated corporate actions and
group re-actions could sensibly be modified and the
possibilities of conflict lessened or avoided. To them
contact was essential to dialogue, information was the
currency of contact, and controversy the price that had to
be paid for the gain of trust.
The practitioners of today may consider these beliefs to be
idealistic and unrealistic, impractical and unworkable. But
they should help to explain why, believing as they did that
the very practice of public relations was implicitly an activity
of human social worth it did not occur to them that ethics in
regard to their chosen daily work was an issue calling for
deeper consideration.
That is what they felt and I have to admit so did I at that
time. And I still do and I make no apologies on that score.
By current reckoning we would appear a bunch of purists!
It appears to me on reflection that over the years since their
time, the professions attitudes and concerns regarding the
ethical values underpinning and governing our efforts have
been influenced by four distinct forces.

The societal demands of the moment

Occupational and commercial imperatives
The real nature of the work actually being
performed
The cultural mores impacting contemporary society
and particular communities at the point of time

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Those early second phase pioneers in the late forties and

early fifties considered they were responding to the societal
needs of the time. Indeed it has been advanced since that
if as a group they had not existed then society would have
had to have invented them because of the need:*
To meet the public clamour for more and more and
hopefully better and better information
*
To understand what information was required, how
it could be gathered, and how it could be released
*
To appreciate the impact of institutional and
corporate policies, plans, programmes and actions upon
society ;and to anticipate re-actions
*
To understand the nature of the different
constituencies and the structure of various communities
*
To help resolve or reduce conflict and
misunderstanding through improved communications
*
To monitor the complexity and speed of the
development of the media
By some definitions such a functionary could justifiably be
titled a public relations practitioner. Indeed if as a grouping
we were all addressing these requirements and performing
efficiently, the society would not just tolerate our existence
but welcome us.
For by doing so public relations would demonstrate its
societal value. But in return for such recognition we would
need to demonstrate, as an emerging profession, the
ethical standards which we insist be practiced by our
members
Arguably the Code of Athens adopted by the international
association in 1965 authored by the Frenchman Lucien
Matrat and based on the UN Universal Declaration of
Human Rights is the closest to a formulation of a moral
philosophy upon which the profession of public relations is
based. It is now signed up to by the vast majority of the
national associations that exist. But it must be recorded
that in the four decades since its inception most of the
codes subsequently constructed by these national

14

associations, albeit influenced by the example of the

original leaders, the United States, Canada and the United
Kingdom, have adopted a distinctly different emphasis.
Whilst admittedly re-iterating in their various ways calls for
truth, honesty and fairness and admonishing against
members bringing the craft into disrepute, most national
codes have focussed on occupational and commercial
concerns such as practitioner relationships with employers,
employees, clients, intermediaries and peers. In different
terms members are reminded to work within the law of the
land and to respect the codes of other professions.
But the bulk of the constraints placed upon members are
occupational. The need for accuracy. The obligation not to
misuse information. The honouring of confidences. The
improper influencing of elected politicians, public officials,
and media representatives.
And in regard to practitioner-employer-client relationships:
Seeking to supplant fellow professionals Actions or
statements denigrating colleagues. The dubious setting of
remunerations and fees. The making of false claims.
Conflict of interest. Unfair competition generally.
It is difficult to make an assessment of the extent, the
number and the exact nature of complaints and references
to these governing bodies under these headings since
most associations consider such infringements and
judgements to be confidential, often for legal reasons. But it
is clear that most of the complaints made are over trivial
matters and mostly by members complaining about others.
Clients or employers would appear to resolve these
situations by either parting with the individual involved or
by moving their account elsewhere. Public, social, or
political institutions rarely complain. And the media whilst
being vociferous making generalised attacks on
practitioners hardly ever take matters forward by providing
the evidence upon which the case could be reviewed and

15

judged by professional peers. It would seem that only in a

small number of instances have formal reprimands,
suspensions, or expulsions been the outcome of
disciplinary proceedings.
Indeed anecdotal evidence suggests that often where such
an outcome might result members have resigned prior to
hearings. Thus whilst the bulk of those operating under the
banner of public relations are outside the jurisdiction of
the professional bodies even those within membership
have a means of escape.
Herein rests the greatest hindrance to the task of doing
PR for PR: the apparent inability of recognised leaders
to police their chosen field of endeavour.
Associations find their actions in this regard hampered in
two ways. Lack of supportable evidence from third parties
to back cases. Legal concerns regarding counter claims
over defamation ,destruction of reputation, effect upon the
ability to earn a living.
However, clearly unless and until the intentions and actions
of practitioners can be publicly weighed against both
professional and professional norms and expectations and
open judgements arrived at, then the general public will
understandably continue to be anything from apprehensive
and cynical to outright suspicious about our activities.
And rightly so because in recent years the whole
communications field has burgeoned and its impact upon
our lives exploded.
Whilst the membership of national professional
associations has blossomed and their influence increased,
it is a fact that the ranks of the many outside membership
but labelling themselves public relations executives has
exploded. Under the broad banner of being
communicators, publicists, propagandists, promoters,
marketers and press agents the numbers on the scene
have swelled.

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The reality of the situation is that the vast majority of

operatives are not governed by any codes of conduct or
regulations. That is not to say that ninety per cent of them
are not acting ethically or scrupulously.
Far from it. Most are doing a worthwhile job in a worthy
fashion albeit sometimes in difficult circumstances working
for unprincipled masters or on the staff of a so-called
consultancy totally driven by the profit motive.
But the activities of some are highly questionable hence the
label invented by the media and now in general public use
Spin Doctors. It must be said however that some of the
journalists who are most vociferous in attacking Spin
Doctors in general are often the very same individuals who
are dealing with them most often; using them as sources
often on an exclusive basis and thereby becoming pawns
complicit in influencing their readers, listeners and viewers;
falling down on their responsibilities.
What is it then that Spin Doctors do that is causing such
concern both within the ranks of legitimate executives and
without amongst community leaders? What are the
practices these persons employ that are concerning such
concern? Manipulative practices that are outlawed under
the various codes which demand that practitioners present
a balanced picture of the organisations or interests they
represent.
Spin Doctors never tell lies by commission only by
omission. There is always a basis of fact ,an element of
truth, in any statement they make. They engage in
repetition providing a steady drip of the main theme. They
maintain a clear, simple, objective behind a whole series of
actions. They select various audience groups to expose to
tailor made readily recurring messages.
More sinister is their de-selection of specific audiences
depriving them from receiving particular sorts of

17

information. They plant stories and leak information to

chosen members of the media excluding others. They
incorporate and repeat either a slogan or concept in the
form of a colourful sound-bite or catchy strapline. They
routinely conceal their true motives and camouflage the
origin of their utterances. They raid moral philosophy and
invest warm words like trust with totally new meanings.
They often employ the trick of attributing thoughts and
suggestions to respected third parties who they believe are
not likely to deny them thus providing endorsement. They
then arrange for others to publicly support the views
expressed.
They encourage what has become known as laser
reportage a commentator focusing on a particular, often
small, aspect of a situation and ignoring the overall picture.
They suborn selected journalists by embedding them firmly
into their own organisations by providing a level of
knowledge, assistance and facilities ensuring that they
become totally dependent on the Spin Doctor to continue to
do their job.
To these tricks of their trade must be added: The setting up
of fake, front organisations peddling propaganda without
identifying the true source, what is now termed
Astroturfing, the creation and promotion of false internet
blogs, plus the age old action of delaying the necessary
release of bad news until the attention of the media, for
professional or technical reasons, is focused elsewhere
and space available for coverage that much less.
Such manipulative techniques are indeed outlawed in the
various codes governing our work. But how if at all can
such activities be policed? The good news is that more
and more academics are now researching and commenting
on our field of endeavour. More and more students at all
levels are being taught to become media savvy.
Today media monitoring services make it that much easier
to detect Spin Doctors at work. But in light of the fact that

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so many operators are outside our jurisdiction could we do

more? Could we support, promote and help fund an
independent body comprising intermediaries, community
leaders and members of the public to name and shame
such activities whenever they are detected and proven? A
form of Ofcom. On reflection we may come to realise that
we have more in common than not with the various
watchdog concerns available on the internet, such as PR
Watch.
Steps are being taken in the right direction. The PRSA in
the US expressly demands that its members must report
unethical behaviour by fellow members.
The CIPR has recently added to the rules of its
Professional Practices Committee an important change
enabling the Institute to investigate an apparent breach of
its code without receiving a formal complaint and also
where a member has resigned before a case is
investigated then the process is still proceeded with and a
judgement announced.
The CIPR is of the opinion that
rapid and public condemnation of bad practice is essential
for the defence of the professions good image.
The public identification and proscribing of unethical
practices in defence of the overall reputation of legitimate
practitioners is only one of the two issues, dilemmas, facing
us.
The second in my view is the thorny question of
whether or not as individuals or consultancies we should
work for particular employers or as counsel act for certain
clients? Indeed in any situation what exactly should our
role be?
In considering this matter it is important to recognise the
context of our operations as pointed out by academics
teaching ethics. In their opinion we are conditioned by two
traditions and two paradigms. The traditions go by the
names respectively of Deontology and Teleology. The
paradigms have been described as the Systems view
and the Rhetorical view.

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Deontology is where something is done because of duty or

obligation and in situations wherein the actions are judged
to be societally worthy and possess true value. Teleology
is the tradition holding the view that a right action is the one
that has or is likely to have a sound outcome, good
consequences.
The Systems paradigm sees an organisation as part of the
social, political, commercial scheme of things and public
relations practice becomes dedicated to the task of helping
the concern adjust itself to an ever-changing set of
situations influenced by multiple issues and external
pressures. On the other hand the Rhetorical paradigm
views public relations practice as activities which seek to
persuade the immediate stakeholders and members of the
public likely to be affected by a particular point of view aired
by organised dialogue and hopefully resolved by the
achievement of consensus.
In reality most practitioners apply a mix of these four
factors when deciding who to work or act for and the nature
of their input. But it is my personal view that the argument
that like lawyers we act either in defence or prosecution
according to which interest hired us first is fast becoming
untenable. The my client right or wrong school of thought
raises a real question bearing on the public image of our
craft. If only for the basic reason that the debate has
moved on from the public has a right to information, via the
tenet that to withhold information is an infringement of
human rights, to the proposition that if subjected to
information the public has a right to respond. And
significantly, should be provided with the resources in equal
so to do.
Perhaps Ethics is just a fancy word for conscience. Each
person knows what for them is right or wrong based upon
their individually-held values. Values honed by culture,
nationality, religion, schooling, family, community and
peers. Frankly I have had no trouble over the years I was in

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practice over knowing what was acceptable or what was

not as to the methodology I employed.
I had little difficulty over deciding what was the truth. I was
able to decide to my satisfaction as to whether or not the
intention to achieve dialogue existed. But I did over the
matter of the public or general interest measured against
the vested. Whether or not to act or to continue to act for a
particular client. Altogether I faced eleven moral
dilemmas.

To work for an industry whose product harms most

people.
To resign a major international client when it
became clear that it was a front for laundering the
monies of organised crime
Resigning an industry when it became obvious that
it rigged the market causing gluts and famines when
and where it wanted
Deciding to act for the nuclear industryfor the
chemical industry providing a watching brief
following the Bhopal catastrophefor the
contraceptive industry
Resigning the accounts of a well known concern
whose pro-green programme only served to mask
serious environmental infringementsof an
international giant which was definitely employing
unethical marketing methods in the Third Worldof
a well known business leader who lied in my
presence on a financial matter to two top editors
Refusing to act for the tourism and trade ministries
of a regime guilty of human rights violations
Against my personal feelings deciding in principle to
act for the pro-abortion campaign but then finding
that none of my colleagues wished to work on the
task!
And finally before an official government enquiry
and under oath and threat of being instantly
committed to gaol for contempt for refusing to

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disclose the names of prominent individuals in

public life who I had consulted when endeavouring
to decide what my advice to my client, a highly
thought-of corporation, should be
Other than pleading with academics, educators, teachers
and trainers working in our field to allocate more time and
effort to the teaching of ethics on their courses encouraging
discussion and debate, I do not know what we should do.
In any event it would be presumptuous of me to make any
suggestions since this matter is one for the students,
learners and improvers of today and tomorrow.
But I am hopeful. When I first put up my plate in 1947 we
practitioners talked about releases; share of voice;
opportunity to hear, read or view; column inches; image,
identity, deadlines and the familiarity-favourability factor.
Today a new set of terms has entered into the public
relations glossary - all with ethical undertones. Credibility,
responsibility, transparency, accountability, governance
and empowerment. We talk of content and gap analysis.
Of reputational risk. Of issue and crisis management, of
social auditing and of social reportage. Our employers and
our clients are demanding we become involved in such
matters.
And of course we will but surely the guiding watchwords
must be: personal integrity, professional vigilance and
moral courage.

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Ethical aspects of openness and transparency

in trans-national communication
Margot Wallstrm
Introduction: Citizens have a democratic right to know
what their public authorities are proposing, deciding and
doing. In few places can this need for honest disclosure be
more important than the European Union, with is
complexities, perceived remoteness of decision making,
national and supra-national interests. In this paper I
explore the ethical aspects to formulating open and
transparent communication that will reach a trans-national
audience.
"Do not lie" is the fundamental ethical principle of human
communication. It is one of the famous 'ten
commandments' which, for centuries, were regarded as the
foundational moral code for European societies. It is just as
valid a principle in today's secular, multi-cultural Europe.
People of all faiths and none recognize the importance of
honesty. Without it, trust is destroyed, human relationships
break down and society cannot function.
Truth is also essential to justice. That is why witnesses in
courts of law in England, for example, must promise to tell
"the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth".
The point of the phrase "the whole truth" is, of course, that
without lying you can deceive people by being
economical with the truth. Presenting carefully selected
facts that paint a false picture has long been a favourite
tool of politicians, who nowadays like to call it 'spin'. I prefer
to call it what it is: propaganda.
When I took up my present post, as European Commission
Vice-President with responsibility for communication,
eurosceptics nicknamed me 'the Commissioner for
propaganda'. They assumed my role would be to persuade
people to love the European Union and that EU

23

communication meant 'selling' EU policies through slick

advertising.
That is most definitely not how I see my job. To me,
honesty in public communication is essential. Not only as a
basic ethical principle but because honesty is by far the
best policy. Only honesty can build trust between people.
Without the trust of the citizens, politicians cannot do their
job and a political project such as the European Union
cannot succeed.
Citizens have a democratic right to know what the public
authorities are proposing, deciding and doing. This is even
more imperative at European Union than at national level
because of the complexity and perceived remoteness of
EU decision-making. Institutions such as the European
Commission therefore have a duty to inform the public fully
and accurately, and to explain our actions clearly.
It is then up to the individual citizen to approve or
disapprove of what we are doing and to react accordingly.
Each citizen is free to form his or her own opinion about the
European Union and its policies. I want people to make up
their minds on the basis of knowledge and understanding,
not ignorance or prejudice. And certainly not on the basis of
mendacious propaganda.
Transparency is just as vital as honesty. Citizens need to
be able to check the accuracy of the information they
receive from us, and to dig deeper into the facts by
accessing background documents. European institutions
therefore need to make available as much information as
possible, and to ensure it is accessible through the
appropriate media.
This, of course, presents a number of practical problems.
One is the choice of media platform. Television is still the
medium through which most people in Europe prefer to get
their news and current affairs information. But TV
broadcasters rarely find EU affairs newsworthy enough to

24

allot them more than a few minutes of prime time coverage.

Unless, of course, there is a juicy scandal or a political
crisis to report.
The internet is the medium of choice for the young, but not
the old, and the printed press is fragmented into thousands
of newspapers and magazines catering for different
readerships. EU communicators therefore need to use the
whole range of media and tailor their communication to
meet the needs and interests of each specific audience.
A second problem is the sheer complexity of the European
Union: its institutions and agencies, its treaties, its decisionmaking processes, its many policies and programmes
How do you communicate this complex political and
economic reality in clear and comprehensible terms? You
are forced to simplify, and therefore run the risk of
distorting the picture by "dumbing down". You have a duty
to tell the whole truth, but you cannot do so in a single
booklet, DVD or podcast.
Practically the only place where a citizen can find a
complete body of information about the EU is on the
internet. The 'Europa' web portal gives access to a vast
amount of material including all EU documents that are not
confidential or merely internal. However, not all EU citizens
have ready access to the internet and are willing and able
to use it. There is an ethical issue here: equality of
opportunity.
There is also another practical problem: information
overload. How do you find your way through the jungle of
documents to the particular piece of information you are
looking for? We try to help by structuring Europa in a
logical and user-friendly way: simple and general
information at the top level with a chain of links enabling
the reader to dig down and find more detailed material at
the lower levels.

25

We also provide an answering service enabling citizens in

any European Union country to e-mail or telephone us (free
of charge) and receive a clear answer, in their own
language, to any question about the EU.
This brings us to the issue of multilingualism. Clearly, every
citizen should be able to access the information they want
in a language they understand, and ideally in their own
native tongue. For an individual country this is not a major
problem: for the European Union, however, it is a
mammoth task. The EU institutions do their best to present
as much information as possible in all the EU's official
languages. But their resources including translation
resources are limited.
In short, there are a number of obstacles in the way of
telling the whole truth to everyone all the time. But at least
people should know that the EU institutions are honest and
transparent that we are committed to providing full
access to as much information as possible.
However, communication is more than just information.
Real communication between people is about listening to
one another and exchanging views and ideas. Political
communication, as I see it, should therefore be a process
of dialogue between governments and the governed, and
of open public debate about matters of public policy.
Citizens have the right to hear the full range of views
expressed in that public debate, and the right to have their
own views heard by the policy-makers.
Dialogue and debate of this kind are vital for democracy.
Without them, how can policy-makers understand the views
and wishes of the citizens? And how can individual citizens
reach informed judgments about the issues on which they
will be asked to vote?
In Europe, dialogue and debate are not very difficult to
achieve in a local, regional or national context. The media
keep people informed about public policies and TV or radio

26

debates allow audiences to question politicians and other

experts.
But the process gets more difficult at the trans-national
European level. Cross-border debate is hampered by
language barriers. There are hardly any trans-national
mass media, and very few trans-national fora in which
citizens of different countries can meet to discuss issues of
common concern.
European Union politicians such as Commissioners and
MEPs are not well-known outside their own country and
their contact with the general public is limited. The
institutional mechanisms of the European Union are little
known by the general public, so it is hard for people to
understand how decisions are taken and how to influence
them.
In addition to these practical obstacles there are ethical
issues. National leaders sign up to EU policies and
legislation, but they are less than forthright about this when
speaking to their home audiences. All too often they 'spin'
their action as a victory over other countries or as a
defeat for which they blame 'Brussels' rather than
explaining it as a collective decision taken in the collective
European interest. This, to my mind, is not the kind of
honest and accurate communication to which EU citizens
are entitled.
The media too surely have a responsibility to inform the
public in a balanced and objective fashion. Is it fair to report
European issues only from a national and indeed
nationalistic perspective? Is it responsible to focus only
on political personalities, crises and conflicts? How can
citizens reach a balanced judgment about the actions of EU
institutions if their favourite newspaper feeds them a
constant diet of euromyths and EU-hostile editorial
commentary? In national politics the media are expected to
provide a fair debate: why not also in European politics?

27

In February 2006 the Commission published a consultative

document (a "White Paper") addressing these issues. We
argued strongly for a European Communication Policy that
gives citizens the tools for democracy to which they are
entitled: relevant and accurate information; fora and
meeting-places for debate; channels for dialogue with
European decision-makers.
Delivering these things is a task well beyond the capacity of
the European Commission itself or indeed of any single
institution. It will require concerted action by all the EU
institutions, national governments, regional and local
authorities, as well as civil society and the media.
It should start in schools. Young people should learn the
basic facts about the EU as part of their civic education
curriculum. It should continue in adult life with the media
providing regular information about what is being discussed
and decided in Brussels and Strasbourg.
Local authorities should organize public meetings in the
town hall or local school where citizens can meet with local
politicians,
environmental
activists,
consumer
representatives, trade unionists and business people to
discuss the impact of EU legislation on life in the local
community.
NGOs should provide topic-focused discussion fora on the
internet, and hold international conferences where citizens
from across Europe can meet to discuss the hot topics with
EU officials and MEPs.
This might seem over-ambitious: but just consider what
people rightly expect in national, regional or local politics.
Why should they be content with anything less in European
politics?
The European Commission can and will organize transnational citizens' debates and conduct opinion polls to get
an overview of European public opinion. Our public

28

information networks and contact centre will also help us to

identify the issues of greatest concern to citizens. The
results of this "listening" exercise will feed directly into the
process of formulating EU policies.
European political parties should also be permanently
taking part in this public debate. When the time comes for
elections to the European Parliament, these parties should
clearly present their positions on the key issues and thus
give citizens a real choice between live options. This will
motivate many people to turn out and vote, and that in turn
will give greater democratic legitimacy to European
institutional decision-making.
European Communication Policy, as I envisage it, will
therefore certainly not be about legitimizing the status quo
or 'selling' any particular view of Europe's future. It will be
about making the EU more understandable and accessible.
It must also stimulate a healthy debate in which the citizen
can compare different views: pro- and anti-integration
views; views for and against specific EU policies; the views
of all political parties and of the European Commission,
whose job is to foster the common European interest.
Moreover, in any EU country citizens should be able to
hear the views of people from the other EU countries. It
should be a genuinely open-ended trans-national
discussion.
When might such a Communication Policy become
reality? In the summer of 2007 the Commission published
a new policy document proposing a range of measures
that it is prepared to take jointly with other EU
institutions, with governments and with civil society. The
emphasis is on setting up practical working partnerships.
Our document puts forward an agenda for concerted
action on communication. We would not presume to tell
any of our partners what to do, but we can and will make
concrete suggestions for doing the job together.

29

The European Union is a political project and it must

therefore be conducted democratically, ensuring that EU
policies reflect the will of the citizens in all EU countries.
That is possible only with honest and transparent political
communication across national boundaries. In short,
ethical trans-national communication is an essential tool
for European democracy.

30

Ethics and Corporate Governance

Ola Ullsten
Introduction: Corporate Social Responsibility is not a
philanthropic project to make corporations look good. It
should be seen as part of a business strategy that helps
the bottom line. I believe the time has come for
corporations to provide leadership, realizing the competitive
power of ethical behavior and the importance for their
business of a good social image.
When Albert Einstein suggested that Relativity applies to
physics, not to ethics he was right. Ethics is about norms
for human behavior. And a norm is by definition an
absolute. If it isnt, its not a norm
But as the late Professor John Ziman (Science, UK, 4
December 1998) observes, Ethics is not just an abstract
intellectual discipline. It is about the conflicts that arise in
trying to meet real human needs and values. Ethical
norms are something that people agree upon as the right
thing to do. Ethics are based on value systems that
develop over time.
Rules and regulations might reflect those values but ethics
goes beyond abiding by the law of the land. Ethics may be
an absolute at any given time, but it is one that is culture
dependent. As cultures develop, so does ethics. Ethics is
about the courage to extend or otherwise alter existing
norms.
Ethics can be spelled out in various ways. Parents try to
instill norms for their kids. Schools have rules for what is
acceptable from the students. Sport authorities may have
strict ethical rules for athletes. So does business and the
uninstitutional institution of CSR - Corporate Social
Responsibility.

31

But corporations, most particularly the big multinationals,

have more power than most other organizations in modern
society. There are more than half a million foreign affiliate
corporations in the world. The 100 biggest multinationals
have assets in the magnitude of 2000 billion dollars, which
is more than the GDP of China, India, South Korea,
Singapore and Malaysia combined. These are countries
with more than one third of the worlds population.
Economy drives politics. Business shapes social values
and influences culture. Industrial activities impact on the
human environment; on the climate, on biodiversity, on the
survival of forests and fishery. Business has the power and
the technology to make a difference.
Globalization has created these giants and made them
powerful. That is why corporate governance has become
more vital than ever. The ethics of business can be
regulated only so much from outside: it is from within
corporations that new behaviours must arise. Sometimes
legislation will help to create a level playing field for those
in favour of high ethnical standards.
CSR is about ethics. It is an idea concerned with how
corporations can behave ethically and pursue industrial
processes that have a positive impact on society. It
advocates transparency, accountability, integrity, and
responsibility in the governance of corporations.
The World Council for Corporate Governance is part of the
CSR movement and for us CSR is not a philanthropic
project to make corporations look good. It should be seen
as part of a business strategy that helps the bottom line.
We agree with Charles Handy, an Irish philosopher and
author, when he suggests: To say that profit is a means to
another ends and not an end in itself is not a semantic
quibble, it is a serious moral point.
We use the politically sounding term equity because we
consider it important that corporate governance includes

32

participation from all stakeholders. We like to see

corporations taking a holistic view and be aware of the
socio-political and environmental impact of their activities. It
helps to make use of the knowledge base of society that a
participatory process offers.
CSR started out in a local context when corporations
realised that their ethical codes and social image mattered.
It became generally accepted: 1) that people feel better
and do a better job when working for a respected company
than for one with a bad image, and that better labor quality
means better products and more profit; 2) that a bad image
due to poor ethical standards, such as poor working
conditions in developing countries, negatively effects the
building of brands.
There are different opinions on what CSR is or should be
all about. A Mallen Baker (mallenbaker.net) survey showed
that in the United States CSR is often akin to charity.
Business makes money and gives some of it back to the
local community. While in Europe the dominant perception
is that social responsibility should be considered an integral
part of the wealth creation process. Says an envious US
CEO Champions Andre Sigler: An ethical company will in
the short run and in the long term be a better
institutionbehavior is simply good business
These differences on what CSR is or is not exist between
corporations in the same regions as well. Corporations fall
into three groups in their approach to social responsibility:
1) irresponsible corporations - those who do not care much
about either societal goals or their own social image; 2)
compliant corporations - those who obey laws but nothing
more; 3) pro-active corporations - those who provide
leadership, realizing the competitive power of ethical
behavior and the importance for their business of a good
social image.
The last approach is the one whose time has come.
Corporations, big or small are working in an increasingly

33

integrated world economy. Their social image depends as

much on the work environment of their suppliers,
employees, as on that of their own.
Business said yes when Kofi Annan wanted the business
community to become a partner in the UN Millennium
Development Goals which range from cutting in half
extreme poverty to stopping the spread of HIV/AIDS and
guaranteeing universal primary education by 2015. To
achieve those goals requires a concerted action by
governments, international donor and other organizations
and civil society. The partnership isnt working that well
according to some. But usually new ideas take time to be
effectively implemented.
And the idea seems to be an indisputably good one.
Development does not happen without economic growth
and economic growth requires investment. Whole new
markets are opening up for those who dare think big when
thinking small, and adjust product development,
manufacturing, marketing and financing to meeting the
needs of the poor.
Climate change and other environmental ills are no less of
a challenge. And no less of an opportunity either. We have
all contributed to the mess we are in by driving our cars,
trucks and buses; by heating and cooling our homes; by
criss-crossing the continents in gasoline-slurping jets; by
the way we cook our meals, farm the land and fish the
oceans; by cutting down the worlds forests and consuming
ever more products. Producers or consumers, we are all
part of the problem, and we all have to take part in finding
the solutions.
On legislative matters the usual attitude of business is one
of oppose and accept. Typically business is against new
regulations but adapts to it once introduced. With a
different attitude business to their own advantage, could
from time to time be a partner in policy making instead of
an opponent. And for sure a climate change in business

34

would help to combat the climate change in nature.

Still, the role of government and business should be kept
apart. Governments should listen to business when setting
the targets through framework legislation. Business should
be trusted to finding the best way, in terms of choosing
technology and otherwise, for reaching those targets.
Markets alone cannot always deliver the right solutions.
Government and business must learn how to work
together.
Some say that governments have failed to come up with
solutions, so now it is time for business to take the lead. In
some areas that might be so. A more likely development is
that business will ask for more government on
environmental issues to level the playing field in setting
higher standards for protecting the environment.
Far sighted business leaders have read the Stern report
and believe its findings that unabated climate change might
cost the global economy 5 to 20 times more than the cost
of reducing the emissions that causes global warming. The
whole business community has listened carefully to
financial institutions predictions on how companies might
be affected when climate change is an accepted fact.
Said one institution following the publication of the latest
UN report on global warming: The pace of firms
adaptation to climate change over the next several years is
likely to prove to be another of the forces that influence
whether any given firm survives and prospers or withers
and, quite possibly dies.
Said another institution: Policies to combat the threat of
global warming are converging to influence peoples
behavior, alter the risk profile of various businesses and
improve the outlook for others.
Globalization if we manage to make it work for both poor
and rich countries and people, is a good thing for

35

development and peoples well-being. World poverty 4

billion people are today living on less than 2 dollars a day
is a challenge with serious human, economic and political
consequences. Environmental ills are a serious threat with
unknown implications far into the future of mankind. In all of
this there is an ethical dimension: Do we care, or do we
not?

36

Ethics and CSR: An American and a (North) European

Perspective
Dennis L. Wilcox and Gran E. Sjberg
Introduction: Few would argue against corporations
demonstrating their responsibilities to society but precisely
how they should do so is a much more contentious and
divisive matter. In Ethics and CSR: An American and a
(North) European Perspective, we hope our debate centred
on crucial CSR issues will help underline some important
benefits and potential pitfalls in areas such as ethical
business and cause marketing.
DW: Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has received a
lot of media attention in the United States, not all of it
favorable. Many skeptics, for example, say corporations
use the rubric of CSR as just a marketing and public
relations strategy to make them look good instead of a
genuine effort on the part of corporations to instill CSR into
the core values of the organization and how it conducts its
business at all levels.
Indeed, this perception is reinforced by surveys of CEOs.
The Conference Board asked executives why they
participated in corporate citizenship programs, and the top
answer (92 percent of the respondents) was that such
programs enhanced corporate reputation and brand.
Another 74 percent said such programs helped recruit and
retain employees.
Even Christian Aid, an NGO, has concluded that CSR is a
burgeoning industry now seen as a vital tool in
promoting and improving the image of the worlds largest
companies and corporations.
Enhanced corporate reputation is one legitimate outcome
of a CSR program, but most U.S. experts agree that CSR
programs must be based on ethical principles such as
action, truth, genuine concern, and core corporate values.
Michael Coates, CEO of Hill & Knowlton Canada, simply

37

says, For a company to behave ethically, it must live and

breathe its code of conduct, train its personnel, and
communicate the code through its visioning statements. It
cannot just print a manual that sits on a corporate shelf. In
sum, ethical CSR means that a companys vision, values,
mission, and strategy have to become an integral part of its
entire corporate culture. Indeed, CSR is unethical if it is
just another strategy of the marketing, public relations, or
advertising department.
GS: I agree completely, but unfortunately many top
managers fail to realize that they can reach more win-win
situations if they commit themselves to solid CSR programs
and let the goodwill of it come out as a result of, not a
prerequisite for, the programs.
We must accept that CEOs and Boards of Directors
primarily look after the quarterly dividends and thus want to
see a measurable positive impact on the bottom line even
of CSR programs; they should, however, also consider the
long-term positive outcome of programs that make their
companies stand out as ethically conscious, good citizens,
good neighbors, good employers which will have nice
effects on the brand value of the company.
DW: Establishing trust and credibility are major factors in
the conduct of ethical CSR programs. The Public Relations
Coalition, consisting of 20 major public relations
organizations in the United States, issued a report
Restoring Trust in Business: Models for Action, which
called on corporate leaders to put a priority on ethics. Two
of the three major recommendations touched on ethics;
one called for corporations to articulate a set of ethical
principles that are closed connected to core values and
strong management commitment. Another
recommendation was to make trust and ethics a boardlevel corporate governance issue and establish a formal
system of measuring how well the corporation measures up
to their CSR commitments.

38

There are several dimensions to ethical CSR. Some key

components of ethical CSR include: (l) treat employees
fairly and respect human rights on a global basis, (2)
compete fairly with competitors, (3) ensure an ethical
supply chain, (4) act responsibly toward the environment,
(5) make sustainability a key priority, (6) do more than the
minimum set by law, and (7) be honest and upfront about
your efforts, mistakes, and goals.
GS: Your #3 is a difficult ethical dilemma how do you
keep control of the entire chain from raw materials through
refining, finishing, transporting and marketing a product?
To check that tropical wood is not used in furniture is
relatively easy; to find out whether e.g. child labor is used
or trade union rights are not violated down the supply chain
is far more difficult. When news broke that a remote
supplier to a Swedish multinational corporation used child
labor, media cried shame on the Swedish corporation. It
sent a mission to the supplier and found that accusations
were true. Instead of sacking the supplier, however, the
Swedes guaranteed a system whereby the children could
go to school half the week and work in the factory the other
half. End result of the ethical dilemma: better educated
children, income to their families still guaranteed; and
corporate reputation restored or even reinforced.
DW: Companies should be highly strategic about their CSR
efforts, which is ethical, but they should not be nave in the
respect that all stakeholders will applaud their efforts.
Some stakeholders, particularly those critical of the
organizations past efforts, will dismiss any CSR efforts as
simply a marketing and public relations gambit. Also, it is
rare that a corporation will score well on all the dimensions
of CSR. Google, for example, has the corporate credo of
do no evil but critics still believe the company is unethical
when it comes to ensuring the privacy of its customers.
And Ford Motor Company, although introducing more fuel
efficient cars, is still criticized by the Sierra Club for
producing the industrys most gas-guzzling fleet of cars

39

and says Fords CSR is another example of corporate

rhetoric trumping reality.
Perhaps a more ethical CSR approach, for Ford and other
corporations, is to be honest about their current
shortcomings and articulate their ultimate goals. Most
stakeholders know many societal and environmental
problems cant be solved overnight, but they do expect
corporations to set some long-range goals and articulate
their plans to achieve them. Nike, for example, has
announced that it was working toward labor rights and the
freedom to join and form unions in all of its overseas
factories by the year 2011. Coca-Cola has also announced
its aspiration to become water-neutral by gradually
reducing the amount of water it uses to make its products.
It is announcing benchmarks and working with the World
Wildlife Fund (WFF) to monitor its progress.
Indeed, an important dimension of ethical CSR practice is
for corporations to engage in an honest, sincere dialogue
with various stakeholders, including activist groups
concerned about everything from treatment of employees
to pollution, global warming, and sustainable resources.
The idea of a productive dialogue and involving
stakeholders in finding solutions is a relatively new concept
among U.S. companies. In past years, there has been a
more adversarial relationship between activist groups and
corporations where name-calling and shrill rhetoric were
the norm. Today, however, there is more emphasis on
conflict resolution and how the company can do better with
the assistance and help of NGOs, etc. In addition, outside
groups can provide credibility and legitimacy for the
corporations CSR program.
GS: Here you find quite a difference between several
European countries and the USA: while several countries in
my area solve their social security problems through state
intervention, you solve it principally through private
insurance or the like. In our case, this opens up for a

40

division of responsibilities between state (or

regional/municipal) authorities and business: in each case,
we should ask ourselves: how do we
- Define societys needs?
- Define our corporations self-interest?
- Define state/municipal responsibility?
- Discuss the gaps?
- Suggest divisions + co-operation?
This way, we can avoid duplications of efforts and collision
of responsibilities, thus optimizing the results of the joint
efforts of public and private industrys investments and
work in the social responsibility sectors. And there is
another important effect of this co-operation between the
public sector and the business world: their dialogue helps
diminish the ethics window-dressing and create more
results to the benefit of society.
An example from my own experience in Sweden as early
as 30 years ago may illustrate my point: The forest
industry, which is a backbone of Swedish industry, was
rightly criticized for its emissions to air and water. A
three-year long intensive effort by all experts on process
and environment led to substantial reductions of the
environmental hazards. We naturally trumpeted out the
improvements our task forces had created. But and that
is crucial we also put on record which problems they had
not been able to solve despite their considerable joint effort
and why. Furthermore, the announcement of the
improvements was made after consultation not only with
the Environmental Protection Agency but also with the
trade unions and several green NGOs. This strategy had a
double positive effect: we had good partners and we
avoided criticism for green-washing.
DW: A good example, but this is not to infer that all
dialogue and negotiation is a win-win situation.
Environmentalists, for example, are no more homogeneous
than the corporate world and differing points of view are
standard. Should a company endorse the concept of
biofuels, which pleases some groups, but also raises

41

hackles among other environmental groups (including a UN

commission) who are concerned about biofuel production
causing food shortages, increased poverty, and lost of
biodiversity. Such differences of opinion are part of the
wrangle in the marketplace of public opinion and,
ultimately, a corporation has to balance all the arguments
and make a decision that is ethically right for them in
terms of corporate self-interest and the greater public good.
GS: True. In the Harvard Business Review December 2006
issue, Michael Porter and Mark Kramer remarked that The
CSR field remains strongly imbued with a moral imperative.
It is nature of moral obligations to be absolute
mandates, however, while most corporate social choices
involve balancing competing values, interests, and costs.
DW: Cause-marketing is a popular manifestation of CSR in
the United States, but it also raises ethical questions. The
Gap, for example, spent $100 million on its Product Red
campaign in which 50 percent of its sales were directed to
raising money for fighting HIV/AIDS in Africa raising a
total of $25 million. The ethical question, of course, is
whether the amount spent on marketing justifies the end
result. Some critics, for example, fault companies for
spending large sums on marketing and suggest that CSR
might be better accomplished if the corporation just made a
major donation to the cause.
David Hessekiel, president of the Cause Marketing Forum,
thinks advocates of increased corporate philanthropy are
being unrealistic and nave. CSR, in order to gain the
approval of investors and stockholders, must be grounded
in solid business practice. Acts of philanthropy, although
admirable, are not sustainable if a CSR program doesnt
benefit the business as well as the cause. He says, A
major advantage of this win-win approach is that such
alliances are sustainable. Profitable responsibility is not
only ethical but the major point. Hindustan Lever, a
subsidiary of Unilever, is an example.

42

It makes a profit selling small bars of Lifebuoy soap to the

poor in India, but it also actively promotes using hand-soap
among Indian villagers as a way to reduce the estimated l.8
million deaths annually caused by diarrhea-related
diseases.
In sum, an ethical corporation has to assess its causerelated marketing and its purpose. One criteria that can be
used: Do you feel comfortable doing a $l million marketing
or and advertising campaign that only generates $l0,000 for
the cause? Scott Pansky, from Allison & Partners public
relations, makes a good point: Social responsibility should
be the beginning of any cause initiative, not the sales end.
These relationships need to come from the heart and be
authentic while working long-term, ultimately making a real
social change.
A final note from my side: Consumers increasingly are
getting more sophisticated about what corporation are
doing, or not doing, regarding an ethical approach to CSR.
They, as well as employees, no longer tolerate the greenwashing of packaged products or claims that the company
is committed to CSR. Indeed, one survey of US adults by
Capstrat and FGI Research indicated that 50 percent of the
respondents say that their concern about the quality of
CSR work has increased over the past several years.
The ethical mandate for corporate communicators is to be
honest, document results, be accessible, establish ongoing
relationships, engage in conflict resolution and negotiation,
and practice transparency in all dealings with an
organizations various stakeholders.
GS: And a final note from my Swedish perspective too:
Ethics are measured with different yard-sticks in different
business and political cultures. It is not without
complications to set down a document on ethical standards
for a corporation that is a world-wide actor. Bribery, kickbacks, intermediaries, half-truths etc. exist to a varying
degree in most cultures. Above all, I think that many of

43

the multinational corporations must confess that their socalled CSR programs are primarily aimed at enhancing
their profiles as good citizens rather than really being
good citizens. Brand value enhancement and serious
Corporate Social Responsibility are not necessarily twins
It is a monumental task for management, as well as for the
public relations function, to find and agree upon principles
that can be adhered to and that make the CEO and his
public relations manager sleep well at night, with good
conscience. Recent experience shows that we are
improving the ethical standards in most businesses but
there is still a long struggle ahead for us all.

44

The thin red line

Laura Muchnik
Introduction: Dysfunctional government and overly powerful
media have contributed to ethical distortion in Latin America.
High levels of corruption often necessitate that PR
practitioners perform a high wire balancing act on behalf of
the organizations they represent. But good reputation is
highly and increasingly prized, partly because it is so hard to
keep. In my paper, The Thin Red Line, I suggest tools that
the PR industry can use to create an ethical atmosphere; an
approach that will help it grow by leaps and bounds.
The waters in Latin America are so murky that it would be
better to speak about micro ethics than of ethics at large. It is
no wonder that when I started out in this industry, twenty
years ago, most PR professionals were lawyers.
In these twenty years public relations (reference IPRA style
minimlise use of capitals) have changed in fundamental
ways. In Latin America we have gone through a process of
innovation and professionalization that picked up speed in
the past decade. It is now a much more complex industry,
one that requires abilities complementary to the
communications core: being a good business-person,
understanding the business models from several different
markets, nourishing a network of relations and having sound
ethics.
In our corner of the world the lack of independence of the
Judiciary and Congress from the government is taken for
granted. Routinely there is a superimposition of powers and
an invasion of spheres from the part of the Executive. The
Judiciary tends to be inefficient and lacking in resources. The
situation creates a complex void filled out by the media, that
tend to become a factor in politics and mete out verdicts and
punishments. As a result, the media in Latin American wield
a power that is often excessive. Ethics in the region are

45

deeply distorted by those two elements: a dysfunctional

government, a too-powerful media.
Except for Chile, (which found itself in a comfortable position
in the Transparency International ranking of country at
number twenty in a group with the US and Belgium) (and for
Uruguay at number 28 along with Malta and Slovenia), Latin
America emerges poorly showing in hard figures the level of
corruption that affects the continent. Brazil, Mxico and Peru
share rank 73 with India, Ghana and Saudi Arabia, while
Argentina is ranked number 93, in a group with Eritrea, Syria
and Tanzania, among others. In fact, the 2006 Corruption
Index ends with two Latin American countries, Ecuador and
Venezuela, which equally rank at number 138.
Morals spawn a long list of concepts and ideas: ethics-virtuegoodness-deeds-concience-duty-justice-severity-delicacyscruples-respect-rights-convention-habit-conduct-disciplinecommandments-principles-morality-health. It is a concept of
enormous potential. And a concept of enormous diversity, as
varied as the cultural differences to be found in Latin
America.
Ethics and culture might differ from man to man and from
country to country, but Latin American countries have in
common political and economic instability, the lack of longterm planning, social inequality, faulty educational systems
and scarce social mobility.
The media, of course, are affected by that situation. They are
companies with policies that change according to their
relationship and degree of agreement with the changing
powers-that-be. PR professionals act as enablers of dialogue
between sectors, governments, media, companies, NGOs,
and opinion makers. It's a complex act. There is a thin red
line there.
The key issue impacting ethics and morals in this situation is
corruption. There are high levels of corruption in our
countries, and the media are not exempt. While media

46

companies have private interests and change their policies

according to who is in office, journalists are quite
independent and act following their own rules, not always in
tune with their companies. That is quite common in Latin
America because the situation is not clear and limits are
flexible; it would be quite remarkable in countries with a
higher level of transparency and control. The waters here are
murkier and journalists find it more congenial both to
investigate and expose, and to cover up.
PR professionals in Latin America have become high-wire
artists. There are many PR policies possible and we must
understand them all. It is not an easy task to tell good stories
about people who are entrepreneurs, who create something
from nothing, invent products or services, or are well known
businessmen. Our role is to create bridges between the
companies and their map of opinion-makers. Therein lies our
ethical dilemma: create a map that will help our clients to act
as good corporate citizens, build up a corporate identity and,
if they do what they say they'll do, gain a corporate
reputation. Reputations are highly valued in Latin America
because they are very hard to keep.
New PR
Only now are companies starting to delve into creativity and
hesitantly to trust PR as a tool to build brand value, corporate
reputation and sales. The Latin American PR business is
reinventing itself as part of a global trend. Part of our ethical
construction should be to make clear promises, to be able to
set realistic expectations, regularly tally results and contribute
directly to our clients' business.
After a deep crisis in the region's major countries, the PR
market has bounced back strongly. In the last two years of
this post-crisis period the leading PR firms have gained in
strength, created jobs and worked non-stop. Competition
today is fast and furious. All multinational companies have
already chosen local PR partners to handle their
communications with opinion makers. Regional firms look for

47

regional PR and local companies understand that tool as

very cost-effective.
On the other hand, the buy-out fever that in the nineties
made it commonplace that multinational PR firms would
acquire local and regional partners has abated almost
completely. In a way, that fact has spurred local PR firms into
developing new business. Now multinationals are back in the
market, keenly looking for new partners, trying to determine
who shares their ethical standards and growth projections. A
few have understood that markets are no longer local but
regional and that Latin America is the map where we have to
act, interfacing with complex and varied local realities.
The most innovative and sophisticated PR markets in the
region are Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. Then comes a
second tier with the Andean region and Caribbean countries.
More and more opportunities are popping up in the region to
create advertainment, brand activation, segmented
advertisement, viral marketing, technological marketing, oneon-one marketing, niche marketing, mouth to mouth
marketing and relational marketing. All these require a high
dose of creativity coming from PR and not merely from
advertising or below the line companies.
PR now can create 360-degree communications campaigns
and that means it can grow in the market. If it had the "leave"
of the ad world or if it could break out, PR would find a
market with great potential. I personally have trust in the
room for growth that new PR has, focusing in the creation of
contents --activation ideas, advertorials, advertainment -- and
in communications consulting to help create links with
opinion makers. I think that all professionals who work to
make our clients' brands "greater", to find value in those
brands, to discover stories of interest to consumers and
readers, to expose the public interest of private activities, are
under the obligation to think big. And to think about our ethics
at a personal, local, regional and global level.

48

What does that mean? How do we go about building

credibility with creativity?
It means knowing the marketing and communications tools. It
means helping to communicate. It means helping to sell. It
means finding means and ways to put together brands and
consumers, and all the intermediate audiences that change
the message with their own experiences and opinions. It
means creating new channels, new ways, new spaces of
visibility, new and original spaces of dialogue with those that
are tempted by the messages generated by each product,
brand or company. It means daring to measure up results
beyond the intangibles, entering a realm of analysis that
measures results along with sales.
And it also means being creative, original and credible, good
listeners for our clients in each company, and above all good
messengers. Along these lines, the PR industry can grow by
leaps and bounds in Latin America, creating an ethical
atmosphere that will reflect well on us.
The tools are simple:

Integrity, which demands impeccable conduct and

honesty, and a rigorous coherence between our
corporate practices and our values.

Transparency, built up by the truthfulness of the

information we emit and on the clear communication
of our clients' activities.

Responsibility, which consists in assuming ours, as

high as they might be, and behave accordingly.
We must engage all our talents in helping interests that
have in the end a proper social sense and are, therefore,
ethical. Without those values our task is rudderless. Ethics
do exist. Only some give them a wide swerve.
Laura Muchnik
President of Muchnik, Alurralde, Jasper & Asoc/ M,
S&L

49

Ethics in Politics and Business

Aune Past
Introduction: During the last 15 years, new countries, which
have been freed from the Soviet Unions planned economy,
have joined the market society. How was modern ethical
and effective public relations born in countries that were
ruled by ideology and where public relations was largely
the tool of the ruling party, or a propaganda vehicle? Do the
countries that are new to public relations base their public
relations on ethics? Is ethics in business and politics also
reflected in public relations ethics?
I endeavor to answer these questions in my paper, "Ethics
in Business & Politics".
At the University of Tartu (www.ut.ee), (style point we need
to refer to the IPRA style guide for hyperlinks) media and
communications have been taught since 1954, while the
public relations specialty was established in 1996. The
EPRA (in full) (www.epra.ee) was established in the same
year and a code of ethics, which is based largely on the
IPRA code of ethics, was adopted at the first meeting.
Estonia became independent in 1991
(www.vm.ee/estonia), while private enterprise was
introduced a few years earlier. The need for public relations
already existed during the period of Estonias struggle for
independence. In 1987, public meetings and joint actions
took place in opposition to the establishment of phosphorus
mining in Estonia. The mines would have polluted nature
and the imported labour (need for a UK English spell check
all contributions) force would have made Estonians a
minority in Estonia during one generation. A popular TV
series called for the formation of a National Front, which
was supposed to support Gorbachevs perestroika policies.
In answer to an appeal by the National Front, every fourth
Estonian resident, including children and the elderly,
gathered at the Song Festival Grounds, which is a very
symbolic place for Estonians. Today, the Estonian

50

independence movement is called the Singing Revolution,

and the highlight of this revolution was the Baltic Chain, in
which people holding hands in a 600-kilometer chain that
reached from Tallinn to Vilnius, joined the people of the
three Baltic countries. Since the majority of the Estonian
population participated in the peaceful campaigns to
restore Estonian independence, it is understandable that
public relations continues to be focused primarily on mutual
communications that aspires to symmetry. Public relations
was not born as an advocacy service but as a consulting
service, regarding the representation of public interests as
its goal.
(need to have consistent paragraphing style and maybe
subtitles)
With the development of the market economy, the number
of public relations practitioners increased. The students
that were admitted to the public relations specialty in the
fall of 1996 had already found work at leading banks and
state institutions by Christmas. The majority worked
throughout their study period. Ethics had a very important
role in the curriculum, because the faculty perceived its
responsibility in the establishment of the standards of the
new specialty. Public relations quickly became a specialty
with great competition for admittance. However, the
necessary number of PR specialists was not enough , and
enterprising (former) journalists became public relations
specialists, as did some with an economic academic
background, plus sothers who simply found PR to be an
attractive profession.
Reputation and image have become fashionable words
connected to distinct activities. Estonia, which has become
one of the most successful transition countries during the
last fifteen years, is no exception. Reputation is a word
often used in politics and economics as a threat: you are
ruining Estonias reputation or image. In academic
literature, the words reputation and image are
differentiated, but not in economics or politics. I asked
Estonian public relations practitioners what image is, and I
got 45 different definitions from 75 PRO-s. in 1996.

51

Grunig (Hon and Grunig1999), who has great influence on

the EPRA and academic public relations, says that
reputation is what the public says and remembers about an
organization:it is a quality function of relations with the
public. Image cannot be managed but the process of
forming an image can be managed.Therefore public
relations practitioners manage the communications process
in order to create and preserve good relations with the
target group. We cannot directly influence reputation or
relations, but we can manage the communications process
that influences relations and reputation.
Thanks to a good level of philosophical education, the
works of Kant and Habermas were familiar to many in
Estonia. Jim and Larissa Grunig personally sent me
materials on which we established the teaching of
academic PR ethics. The Quality Public Relation Series
No. 1 by G. Sjberg and K. Bertht was material necessary
for a specialized education. The Gold Paper materials
received at the IPRA Congress in Helsinki and meetings at
the IPRA headquarters were the basis that determined the
ethics and objectives of public relations in both politics and
business in a transition society.
Although it seemed that the mixed motive model of PR is
working, research revealed a different picture. In 1999,
together with the students taking the ethics course, we
conducted research on the perceptions of public relations
among Estonian business people. The expectations
regarding the content and results of public relations differed
between academicians and specialized people.
Sixty-six percent of company directors found that the
principal objective of public relations was to create positive
media reporting and to advertise them. One company CEO
claimed, We dont need public relations, because we only
tell the truth. Another added, We are so successful that
we dont need public relations.

52

In 1999, the importance of public relations activities in

companies was ranked as follows: media relations,
advertising, and client events. The respondents did not
think that internal communications or the development of
social responsibility was important. The main qualification
for public relations practitioners was familiarity with
journalists and a good appearance (Past 2004).
By 2004, the situation had already changed-73% of
companies use public relations often, 23% from time to
time, and 4% seldom (Markuashvili, 2005). Even today,
most public relations specialists are part of marketing
departments. The majority used in-house specialists. The
trend is toward the increased importance of internal
communications and social responsibility. The 2004 study
showed increased awareness among company directors of
the role of public relations, but only 5% of the respondents
treated public relations as a management tool. At the same
time, press articles, as well a public relations handbooks
and academic training, concentrated on the fact that public
relations is a management tool and reputation is formed as
a result of good relations, not reputation management.
I feel the reason that public relations had not established
itself as a management tool in the businesses of a
transition society is the differing language and knowledge
of managers and public relations practitioners. Public
relations practitioners with strong communications skills are
not qualified in organizational management and company
directors see public relations primarily as the development
of a reputation. A study conducted among the Top 100
companies designated by the economic publication ripev
(Kuusik 2005), showed that the public relations
practitioners at successful companies see the creation of
reputations as most important, while the job descriptions for
public relations specialists place the management of
internal communications and media relations first. The
public relations directors of successful companies belong to
management and public relations in these companies is
practiced as a management tool.

53

The cooperation between journalists and public relations

practitioners is also progressing. A study by Eneken
Laasme
(www.jrnl.ut.ee/loputood/2005bakatood/laasme_eneken.pdf
in Estonian) showed that journalists think that 48% of public
relations practitioners see journalists as their partners, but
only 28% of public relations practitioners think that
journalists should be their main partners.
The importance of various public relations activities were
rated a followed on a scale of 5. The function of public
relations is to be:

a management tool, 3 points;

a bridge between the organization and the media, 5

points;

creation of a reputation, 4 points;

a means of advertising, 4 points.

We analyzed the image of Estonias largest commercial
bank, Hansapank, among its workers and the public.
Hansapank has always been a leader in reputation
research. I consider the reason to be the choices of Kristi
Liiva, the director of communications at the time. Pragmatic
public relations practitioners do not think about ethics, they
fulfill tasks; idealistic public relations practitioners as a
member of the management act based help to create
organizational cultures in which the entire decision-making
process is based on ethics.
Organizational public relations must be based on the
attitudes and value assessments of the publics. The values
of Estonias transition period have been analyzed by a U of
T research project entitled Me. The World. The Media.
In 2003, people primarily appreciated values related to
physical well-being and a secure environment. Less
important were individualistic values (possession of power,
social recognition, wealth, a pleasant life). Individualistic
values were highly valued by younger people. A

54

characteristic of transitional society is youth-worship and

the majority of public relations practitioners are under 30.
Here a hidden risk exists for the ethical practice of public
relations, as middle-aged people are deprived of
information or their interest cannot come to the fore.
Collective values like health, a clean society, and honesty
are not highly valued among young people, while these
values become more important as they get older. Company
directors and public relations managers are well-paid
specialists. However, research (Kalmus, Vihalemm) shows
that people with higher incomes value self-realization and
the possession of power higher than other respondents.
When creating an organizational public relations strategy in
a transition society, one must keep in mind that people who
are not satisfied with the changes, who have adapted less
well to changes, value a comfortable life higher than other
values, and this is clearly a deficit value. An equal and
pleasant world is also valued higher, and the reason for this
is the need of people who have adapted poorly to change
for mental support.
The change in value judgments during a transition period
shows an increase of individualistic values and those
related to consumption, which indicates the freeing of
individuals from an equalizing and standardizing
environment. During the transition period, the appreciation
of the possession of power has increased, which indicates
that the need for self-realization has also increased. The
need for self-realization is closely related to brand
awareness and consumerism, with consuming becoming a
part of peoples lifestyles.
The transition period clearly highlights the individualization
of values by generation.
An image is peoples picture of something or someone, and
knowledge of how things are. To analyze Estonias
image, we asked the following questions, among others:
Which of the pair of words characterizes your feelings
about Estonia and to what degree?

55

The rhetoric about Estonia as the Baltic tiger corresponds

to the popular visionEstonia is seen as a developing, and
open country. The intimacy factor is very definitely visible
Estonia is ones own, attractive, and friendly.
Transition societies are characterized by cultural trauma.
This must be taken into account when planning public
relations strategy, in politics as well as business. Since
directors and communications managers have coped more
successfully with change, from the standpoint of public
relations ethics, it is very import to analyze the ability of
various publics to adapt to the changes, because only then
it is possible to practice ethical public relations.
The results of research conducted in Estonia in 2003:
For me, the changes have been
Gratifying More
Hard More
Distressing
gratifying
to say distressing
than
than
distressing
gratifying
14%
41%
22%
20%
2%
In Estonian society, change has been assessed as rather
positive since 1996, and the number of people that are able
to cope is increasing. Changes at the state level are
assessed more positively, and social changes are
assessed more negatively. Peoples hopes to improve their
lives are related primarily to the improvement of their
material well-being.
Reforms in a transition society are about the replacement
of a socialistic planned economy with a liberal market
economy. The implementation and assessment of reforms
is based on value judgments. The ethics of
communications and public relations practices depend on
the broader worldview of the public relations practitioners
(Hon and Grunig 1999) . It is important for public relations
practitioners to determine how many people in their target
group agree with liberal principles and how much they
appreciate social values.

56

In Estonia, the attitudes toward changes vary between

ethnic groups, rural and urban people, as well as people
with various levels of education and coping opportunities.
Those who are happy about the changes hold more liberal
views, while more critical publics expect increased social
responsibility from organizations and state support for the
weaker members of society. People that are oriented to
self-fulfillment also find it easier to adapt to change, while
those with lower self-esteem need more balanced mutual
communication. If we compare the informational level of
people with changes in coping, one notices that wellinformed people are more satisfied with changes.
Public relations in a transitional society is very much a
means of development, and therefore, it is important that
public relations practitioners be familiar with ethics and
quality standards and that these be implemented in public
relations at the management level of both business and
politics.
Bibliography (need to standardize style for this)
Berth, K. and Sjberg, G. Quality Public relations Series
No1. The International Institute for Quality in Public
Relations.
Grunig, J.E and Hon, L. C (1999) Guidelines for Measuring
Relationships in public Relations. IPRA
Kuusik, K. (2005) Suhtekorraldajad suhtekorraldusest
Eesti riettevtetes / PRO-s about PR in Estonian
companies. In Estonian./ Tartu: Tartu likooli Kirjastus.
Marukashvil, I. (2005) Suhtekorralduse kasutamine Eesti
riettevtetes /Practical PR in Estonian companies. In
Estonian / Tartu: Tartu likooli Kirjastus
Laasme, Eneken
(http://www.jrnl.ut.ee/loputood/2005bakatood/laasme_enek
en.pdf in Estonian)
Past, A. (2004) Corporate self-image and public relation.
Tartu: Tartu University Press

57

Appendix
IPRA Codes
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC RELATIONS ASSOCIATION
CODE OF CONDUCT
(adopted in Venice May 1961)
A
Personal and Professional Integrity. It is
understood that by personal integrity is meant the
maintenance of both high moral standards and a
sound reputation. By professional integrity is meant
observance of the Constitution rules and, particularly,
the Code as adopted by IPRA.
B
Conduct towards Clients and Employers. A
member has a general duty of fair dealing towards
his/her clients or employers, past and present. A
member shall not represent conflicting or competing
interests without the express consent of those
concerned. A member shall safeguard the confidences
of both present and former clients or employers. A
member shall not employ methods tending to be
derogatory of another members client or employer. In
performing services for a client or employer a member
shall not accept fees, commission or any other
valuable consideration in connection with those
services from anyone other than his/her client or
employer without the express consent of his/her client
or employer, given after a full disclosure of the facts.
A member shall not propose to a prospective client
that his/her fees or other compensation be contingent
on the achievement of certain results; nor shall he/she
enter into any fee agreement to the same effect.
C
Conduct towards the Public and the Media. A
member shall conduct his/her professional activities
with respect to the public interest and for the dignity of
the individual. A member shall not engage in practice
which tends to corrupt the integrity of channels of

58

public communication. A member shall not

intentionally disseminate false or misleading
information. A member shall at all times seek to give a
faithful representation of the organisation which
he/she serves. A member shall not create any
organisation to serve some announced cause but
actually to serve an undisclosed special or private
interest of a member or his/her client or employer, nor
shall he/she make use of it or any such existing
organisation.
D
Conduct towards Colleagues. A member shall not
intentionally injure the professional reputation or
practice of another member. However, if a member has
evidence that another member has been guilty of
unethical, illegal or unfair practices, including
practices in violation of this Code, he/she should
present the information to the Council of IPRA. A
member shall not seek to supplant another member
with his employer or client. A member shall co-operate
with fellow members in upholding and enforcing this
Code.

59

INTERNATIONAL CODE OF ETHICS

Code of Athens
Author: Lucien Matrat, Member Emeritus (France) Adopted
by IPRA General Assembly, Athens, May 1965 and
modified at Teheran, April 1968
CONSIDERING that all Member countries of the United
Nations Organisation have agreed to abide by its Charter
which reaffirms its faith in fundamental human rights, in
the dignity and worth of the human person and that having
regard to the very nature of the profession, Public Relations
practitioners in these countries should undertake to
ascertain and observe the principles set out in this Charter:
CONSIDERING that, apart from rights, human beings
have not only physical or material needs but also
intellectual, moral and social needs, and that their rights
are of real benefit to them only insofar as these needs are
essentially met;
CONSIDERING that, in the course of their professional
duties and depending on how these duties are performed,
Public Relations practitioners can substantially help to meet
these intellectual, moral and social needs;
And lastly, CONSIDERING that the use of the techniques
enabling them to come simultaneously into contact with
millions of people gives Public Relations practitioners a
power that has to be restrained by the observance of a
strict moral code.
On all these grounds, all members of the International
Public Relations Association agree to abide by this
International Code of Ethics, and that if, in the light of
evidence submitted to the Council, a member should
be found to have infringed this Code in the course of
his/her professional duties, he/she will be deemed to

60

be guilty of serious misconduct calling for an

appropriate penalty.
Accordingly, each member:
SHALL ENDEAVOUR
1. To contribute to the achievement of the moral and
cultural conditions enabling human beings to
reach their full stature and enjoy the indefeasible
rights to which they are entitled under the
Universal declaration of Human Rights;
2.

To establish communications patterns and channels

which, by fostering the free flow of essential
information, will make each member of the group feel
that he/she is being kept informed, and also give
him/her an awareness of his/her own personal
involvement and responsibility, and of his/her solidarity
with other members;

3.

To conduct himself/herself always and in all

circumstances in such a manner as to deserve and
secure the confidence of those with whom he/she
comes into contact;

4.

To bear in mind that, because of the relationship

between his/her profession and the public, his/her
conduct even in private will have an impact on the
way in which the profession as a whole is appraised;

SHALL UNDERTAKE
5. To observe in his/her professional duties, the moral
principles and rules of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights;
6.

To pay due regard to, and uphold human dignity and to

recognise the right of each individual to judge for
himself/herself;

61

7.

To establish the moral, psychological and intellectual

conditions for dialogue in its true sense, and to
recognise the rights of these parties involved to state
their case and express their views;

8.

To act, in all circumstances, in such a manner as to

take account of the respective interests of the parties
involved; both the interests of the organisation which
he/she serves and the interests of the publics
concerned;

9.

To carry out his/her undertakings and commitments

which shall always be so worded as to avoid any
misunderstanding, and to show loyalty and integrity in
all circumstances so as to keep the confidence or
his/her clients or employers, past or present, and all of
the publics that are affected by his/her actions;

SHALL REFRAIN FROM

10. Subordinating the truth to other requirements;
11. Circulating information which is
established and ascertainable facts;

not

based

on

12. Taking part in any venture or undertaking which is

unethical or dishonest or capable of impairing human
dignity or integrity;
13. Using any manipulative methods or techniques
designed to create subconscious motivations which the
individual cannot control of his/her own free will and so
cannot be held accountable for the action taken on
them.

62

Code of Brussels
for the conduct of public affairs worldwide
Adopted, Brussels 2007
RECALLING the Code of Venice 1961 and the Code of
Athens 1965, of the International Public Relations
Association, which together specify an undertaking of
ethical conduct by public relations practitioners worldwide;
RECALLING that the Code of Athens binds public relations
practitioners to respect the Charter of the United Nations
which reaffirms its faith in fundamental human rights, in
the dignity and worth of the human person";
RECALLING that the Code of Athens binds public relations
practitioners to observe the moral principles and rules of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights";
RECALLING that public affairs is one discipline undertaken
by public relations practitioners;
RECALLING that the conduct of public affairs provides
essential democratic representation to public authorities;
This Code of Brussels is a code of ethical conduct applying
to public relations practitioners worldwide as they conduct
public affairs and interact with public authorities including
staff and public representatives.
In the conduct of public affairs, practitioners shall:
1. Integrity.
Act with honesty and integrity at all times so as to secure
the confidence of those with whom the practitioner comes
into contact;
2. Transparency.
Be open and transparent in declaring their name,
organisation and the interest they represent;

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3. Dialogue.
Establish the moral, psychological and intellectual
conditions for dialogue, and recognise the rights of all
parties involved to state their case and express their views;
4. Accuracy.
Take all reasonable steps to ensure the truth and accuracy
of all information provided to public authorities;
5. Falsehood.
Not intentionally disseminate false or misleading
information, and shall exercise proper care to avoid doing
so unintentionally and correct any such act promptly;
6. Deception.
Not obtain information from public authorities by deceptive
or dishonest means;
7. Confidentiality.
Honour confidential information provided to them;

8. Influence.
Neither propose nor undertake any action which would
constitute an improper influence on public authorities;
9. Inducement.
Neither directly nor indirectly offer nor give any financial or
other inducement to members of public authorities or public
representatives;
10. Conflict.
Avoid any professional conflicts of interest and to disclose
such conflicts to affected parties when they occur;
11. Profit.

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Not sell for profit to third parties copies of documents

obtained from public authorities;
12. Employment.
Only employ personnel from public authorities subject to
the rules and confidentiality requirements of those
authorities.

Sanctions.
Practitioners shall co-operate with fellow members in
upholding this Code and agree to abide by and help
enforce the disciplinary procedures of the International
Public Relations Association in regard to any breaching of
this Code.

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