Fundamentals of digital signal

processing

Sound modeling
sound
symbols
aims
analysis
synthesis
processing
classification:
signal models
source models
abstract models

Digital signals
analog
sampling
processing
reconstruction

x(t)

x(n)

y(n)

y(t)

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

-0.05

-0.05
500 0

0
t in s ec

-0.05
10
n

20

-0.05
0

10
n

20

500
t in s e c

sampling interval T
sampling frequency fs= 1/T

Digital signals: time representations

0.5
x(n)

8000 samples
100 samples
line with dots

-0.5
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

x(n)

0.5

-0.5

x(n)

vertical quantization
integer
e.g. -32768 .. 32767
normalized
e.g. -1 .. (1-Q)
Q = quantization step

100

200

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400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

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-0.05
n

Spectrum: analog vs. digital signal

sampling leads to a replication of the baseband spectrum

Spectrum: analog vs. digital signal

Sampling leads to a replication of the analog signal spectrum
Reconstruction of the analog signal:
low pass filtering the digital signal

Discrete Fourier Transform

Magnitude

Phase

Discrete Fourier Transform (example)

FFT with 16 points
cosine (16 points)

Cos ine s ignal x(n)

a)

0
-1
0

b)

10

12

14

16

Ma gnitude s pe ctrum |X(k)|

0.5
0
0

10

12

14

16

1
c)

magnitude (16 points)

normalization:
0 dB for sinusoid 1
magnitude
(frequency points)

Ma gnitude s pe ctrum |X(f)|

0.5

kfs / N

0
0

step fs/N

0.5

1.5

2
f in Hz

2.5

3.5
x 10

20

magnitude dB vs. Hz
|X(f)| in dB

Magnitude s pe ctrum |X(f)| in dB

0
-20
-40
0

0.5

1.5

2
f in Hz

2.5

3.5
x 10

Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

if X(k) = X*(N-k)
then IDFT gives N discrete-time real values x(n)

Frequency resolution
Zero padding: to increase
frequency resolution

8 s amples

8-point FFT
10

8
6
|X(k)|

x(n)

1
0

4
2

-1

0
0

8 s amples + ze ro-pa dding

16-point FFT
10

8
6
|X(k)|

x(n)

1
0

4
2

-1

0
0

10
n

15

10

15

10

Window functions

to reduce leakage:
weight audio samples by
a window

Hamming window
wH(n) = 0.54 0.46 cos(2 n/N)

Blackman window
wB(n) = 0.42 0.5cos(2 n/N) + 0.08(4 n/N)
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Window
Reduction of the leakage effect by
window functions:
(a) the original signal,
(b) the Blackman window function
of length N =8,
(c) product x(n)w(n) with 0 n N-i,
(d) zero-padding applied to z(n)
w(n) up to length N = 16
The corresponding spectra are
shown on the right side.

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Spectrograms

13

Waterfall representation

S ignal x(n)
1
0.5
x(n)

0
-0.5
-1

Magnitude in dB

1000

2000

3000

4000
5000
6000
7000
n
Waterfall Repres entation of S hort-time FFTs

8000

0
-50

0
2000
4000
6000

-100
0

10

15

20

f in Hz

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Digital systems

15

Definitions
Unit impulse

Impulse reponse h(n) = output to a unit impulse

h(n) describes the digital sistem

Discrete convolution:
y(n)=x(n)*h(n)

16

Algorithms and signal graphs

Delay
e.g. y(n) = x(n-2)
Weighting factor
e.g. y(n) = a x(n)
Addition
e.g.
y(n) = a1 x(n) + a2 x(n)

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Simple digital system

weighted sum over several input samples

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Transforms
Frequency domain desciption of the digital system
Z transform
Discrete time Fourier
transform

Transfer function H(z):

Z transform of h(n)

Frequency response:
Discrete time Fourier
transform of h(n)
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Causal and stable systems

Causality: a discrete-time system is causal
if the output signal y(n) = 0 for n <0 for a given input signal
u(n) = 0 for n <0.
This means that the system cannot react to an input before the
input is applied to the system
Stability: a digital system is stable if
stability implies that transfer function H(z) and frequency
response are related by

20

IIR systems
= system with infinte impulse response
e.g. second order IIR system

Difference equation

Transfer function
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IIR systems
= system with infinte impulse response h(n)

Difference equation

Z transform of diff. eq.

Transfer function
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FIR systems
= system with finite impulse response h(n)
e.g. second order FIR system

Difference equation
Z transform of diff. eq.
Transfer function
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Fir example
computation of frequency response
(a ) Impuls e Re s pons e h(n)

(b) Magnitude Res pons e |H(f)|

0.8
0.6

0.1

0.4

|H(f)|

0.2

0.2

-0.1
0
0

n
(c ) P ole/Zero plot

10

20
30
40
f in kHz
(d) P ha s e Res pons e
H(f)

0
1

-0.5
4

H(f)/

Im(z)

impulse response
magnitude resp.
pole/zero plot
phase resp.

0.3

-1
-1.5

-1

-2
-1

1
Re (z)

10

20
f in kHz

30

40

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