Materials for Automobiles

Lec 11
HR & CR Flat products
26 September 2011

Plan
1

HR Steels

CR steel

CR New Developments

Anisotropy and Forming limit diagram

Dual phase steel

Tailor welded blank

HR Steel

UTS MPa
YS MPa
%E
Bend ( r)

IS 1079
Grade D

IS 1079
Grade DD

IS 1079
Grade EDD

IS 2062
Grade B

260-400

260 - 390

260 - 380

410 min

250 min

25

28

32

23 min.

0.5 t

close

close

Hot Rolled HSLA

HSLA plates are produced by addition of trace alloying additions Nb/Ti/V followed
by controlled cooling after hot rolling
Chemical
Comp (%)
(BSK 46)

Mn

Si

0.12 max

0.8 1.4

0.25 max

0.01- 0.025

0.03 max

Others

Chemical Composition (%), max

Nb:0. 08 max / Al: 0. 02 min / N: 80 PPM max /Cu:0.2 max
Mo+ Ni:0.4 max / Cr :- 0.2 max
Carbon Equivalent (CE):- 0.41 Max
C.E.= (C+(Mn/6)+((Cr+Mo+V)/5)+((Cu+Ni)/15))
Tramp/Trace elements other than specified should not exceed 0.2% in
total by weight

Mech Props

UTS(Mpa)

YS(Mpa)

%E

Bend
Radius
180

Charpy (J)

Fatigue
Str (Mpa)

500-640

460 - 560

21 min

1t

90 min

285 min

Refer also IS 5986

Sheet metal forming Operations

Process
Roll forming
Stretch forming

Drawing
Stamping

Rubber forming

Spinning
Superplastic
forming
Peen forming
Explosive forming

Magnetic-pulse
forming

Details
Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high
production rates; high tooling costs.
Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high
labor costs; tooling and equipment costs depend on part size.
Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates; high
tooling and equipment costs.
Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing,
bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high
production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor cost is low.
Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected
by rubber membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs.
Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but
labor costs can be high unless operations are automated.
Complex shapes, fine detail and close tolerances; forming times are long,
hence production rates are low; parts not suitable for high-temperature use.
Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs can
be high; process is also used for straightening parts.
Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually
axisymmetric; low tooling costs, but high labor cost; suitable for low-quantity
production; long cycle times.
Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively low-strength
sheets; most suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates; requires special
tooling.

Characteristics of Metals Important in Sheet Forming

Elongation

Determines the capability of the sheet metal to stretch without necking and failure; high
strain-hardening exponent (n)and strain-rate sensitivity exponent (m)desirable.
Yield-point
Observed with mild-steel sheets; also called Lueders bands and stretcher strains;
elongation
causes flamelike depressions on the sheet surfaces; can be eliminated by temper
rolling, but sheet must be formed within a certain time after rolling.
Anisotropy
Exhibits different behavior in different planar directions; present in cold-rolled sheets
(planar)
because of preferred orientation or mechanical fibering; causes earing in drawing; can
be reduced or eliminated by annealing but at lowered strength.
Anisotropy
Determines thinning behavior of sheet metals during stretching; important in deep(normal)
drawing operations.
Grain size
Determines surface roughness on stretched sheet metal; the coarser the grain, the
rougher the appearance (orange peel); also affects material strength.
Residual
Caused by nonuniform deformation during forming; causes part distortion when
stresses
sectioned and can lead to stress-corrosion cracking; reduced or eliminated by stress
relieving.
Springback
Caused by elastic recovery of the plastically deformed sheet after unloading; causes
distortion of part and loss of dimensional accuracy; can be controlled by techniques
such as overbending and bottoming of the punch.
Wrinkling
Caused by compressive stresses in the plane of the sheet; can be objectionable or can
be useful in imparting stiffness to parts; can be controlled by proper tool and die design.
Quality
of Depends on process used; edges can be rough, not square, and contain cracks,
sheared
residual stresses, and a work-hardened layer, which are all detrimental to the formability
edges
of the sheet; quality can be improved by control of clearance, tool and die design, fine
blanking, shaving, and lubrication.
Surface
Depends on rolling practice; important in sheet forming as it can cause tearing and poor
condition of surface quality;
sheet

Forming Temperatures

Parameter
Material Grade
Condition
UTS (MPa)
YS (MPa)
El(%)
R Bar
n value

Hardness (HRB)
Bend radius
C

Si
Mn
Incl. rating
EQ Stds.

CR Steels
IF

IS513 Gr.D

IS513/EDD

HSQCR 450

GA (GALV /
ANN)
CR
270 -330
140 -180
45 MIN

SPRC 40

CR
270 min
140/160
46 min
1.8 min
0.21 min
30/40
Close
0.0035%
max
0.015%
max
0.15 %
max
Thn:2/
Thk:1

CR
271/410
175/280
28 min
1.5 min

CR
450 MIN
300 MIN
27 MIN

50-60
Close
0.12 max

CR
270/350
150/220
32 min
1.6 min
0.22 min
50 max
Close
0.08 max

0.1 MAX

0.0035 MAX

CLOSE
.0.04 0.06

0.06 max

0.015 max

0.1 MAX

0.015 MAX

0.06 MAX

0.5 max

0.4 max

1.0-1.5

0.05 0.15

0.4 -0.5

JIS G 3302

JIS G 3135

CR (HIF)
390 -490
210 - 280
34 MIN
1.2 MIN

same
St12
/DIN1623(1)
ASTMA619-75
SPCD/JisG3141

St14/DIN1623(1)
ASTMA620-75
SPCE/JISG3141

Erichsen Cupping Test ( IS 513)

High Strength CR steel

CR Steel Developments
In the body shop, cold-rolled sheet steel with a thickness ranging from 0.5 to
1.5mm is mostly used.
In the past, soft unalloyed materials were preferred because they offer a high
degree of formability and freedom of design.
In addition to deep drawing and stretch forming, the suitability for welding,
joining, and painting are significant criteria of processing
These requirements are also met by the higher-strength thin sheets (with a
minimum yield point of >180 MPa), that have been developed during the past 20
years :
At present, there is a tendency toward Dual-phase (DP) steels, partially
martensitic, and transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels or multiphase
(MP) steels.
soft unalloyed steels suitable for cold working
higher-strength steels suitable for cold working with augmented yield points
higher strength, stretch-forming quality categories, and the MP steels.

CR Steel Developments

The basic problem with increasing strength is a natural decline in the forming
capability.
This has led to a new concept, the so-called MP steels. The raising of the
strength is based on structural hardening :
To a matrix of soft, ferritic portions, a harder portion is added, which consists
of one or more other phases, and which should be distributed as evenly as
possible.
This development started with the DP steels, followed by TRIP steels. Recently,
Complex-phase (CP) steels, which are of even higher strength, have been
developed (Figure 2.8).

Cold Rolled Steels New Development

1

Low-Carbon Deep Drawing Steels

Cold-rolled flat products made of low-carbon steels for cold forming, are
killed by aluminum,.Owing to new developments in the vacuum
treatment, it has become possible to keep the content of carbon and
nitrogen as low as possible, and fix corresponding alloying elements that
are required for the fabrication of DC 05 and 06 (mild unalloyed steels).
In the same way, the content of sulfur is set at the lowest values by
metallurgical measures, which in turn, permits a reduction of the
manganese content.
In addition to these, solid solution hardening elements (C, N,Mn), and
the grain growth inhibiting elements, such as trace elements, are also to
be restricted, which leads to a special selection of scrap.

Microalloyed Steel Age hardening of finely distributed carbonitrides

results in an increase in the strength and higher-strength drawing
properties of the conventional microalloyed steel. Even a small amount
of titanium, vanadium, and niobium in the region of about 0.01% in the
composition of the alloy, leads to a clear increase of the yield point to
260540Nmm2 and the tensile strength to 350620 Mpa. Owing to the
finely distributed precipitates, a slightly lower elongation at fracture can
be observed, compared to phosphor-alloyed steels.

CR Steels New Developments

3

Phosphor-Alloyed Steel Solid solution hardening leads to an increase of the yield point to
220360 MPa and the tensile strength to 300500N MPa. Here, the structure can be
compared to that of low-carbon deep drawing steels.
Phosphor is the element with the strongest solid solution hardening effect. Addition of
0.01% affects an increase in the yield point by approximately 8 MPa.

Bake-Hardening (BH) Steel This refers to phosphor-alloyed cold-rolled

steel strips which resist aging at room temperature, and which experience an
additional yield point increase of approximately 40 MPa by a controlled carbon
aging during baking of the automotive paint (at 180 C).
This means that at room temperature, there is a stable carbon super saturation in the
structure, so that the steel is not subject to natural aging as long as it is stored in the
usual way. The stabilization of carbon is achieved by microalloying of the steel with
diffusion-inhibiting or carbide-forming alloy elements.

Interstitial Free (IF) Steel

For very complex products like inner door panels, side parts, or inner wheelhouses,
microalloyed interstitial free (IF) steels are available. The content of C and N in IF steels
ranges between 20 and 40 ppm . By addition of titanium and/or niobium, a complete
fixation of carbon and nitrogen is reached in the form of nitrides (TiN), carbides (TiC), or
carbonitrides (TiCN).
This gives excellent forming ability, low yield points, and at the same time, high forming
characteristics r (anisotropy) and n (hardening exponent). As a result of the complete
fixation of carbon and nitrogen, the IF steels resist aging, and therefore, they are used
largely for the fabrication of special deep drawing products in hot-dip galvanized design,
for which resistance to aging would otherwise only be reached by an additional heat
treatment.

CR Steels New Development

6

Isotropic Steel These steels possess unidirectional flow characteristics

in the sheet-metal level and therefore, a better deep-drawing property and at
the same time an increase in their strength. The minimum yield point in the
delivery status of these sheet metals ranges between 210 and 280 MPa.
These steels too, show a bake-hardening effect after preforming

Dual-Phase (DP) Steel Dual-phase steels belong to the group of polyphase

steels. In DP steels, the structure is essentially formed by a ferritic matrix
with an island like embedded martensite portion of up to 20%. Thereby, it
possesses :
good isotropic forming properties with a higher strength level,
a favorable spring-back behavior,
high hardening and energy-absorbing capacity.
Moreover, these steels possess
a bake-hardening potential,
a low yield point ranging between 70 and 380 MPa and
a high tensile strength of 500600 MPa
These properties make DP cold-rolled steels useful for application in:
the flat-outer panels,especially in strength-relevant, structural, and
crash-relevant parts (Figure 2.9).

CR Steels New Developments

8

Retained Austenite (RA) Steel These steels essentially consist of a Ferritic

bainitic matrix, with retained austenite. During the forming process, the
remaining austenite parts change to hard martensite, which leads to a
considerable hardening, known as TRIP.
Retained austenite (RA) steels are characterized by a high elongation without
necking, and thus a high hardening capacity, recognizable by the high n-value.
Compared to DP steels, RA steels have higher strengths of up to 850 MPa at a
comparable elongation.

Complex-Phase (CP) Steels CP steels are currently fabricated as hot-rolled

steel strips, with a minimum thickness of approximately 1.5 mm. Their
fabrication as cold-rolled steels is still being developed. The materials known
so far in this class of strength have, as a rule, to be hot rolled, and
subsequently quenched and tempered.
The advantage of the CP steels is that cold forming, without subsequent
quenching and tempering, is possible, thus implying a considerable cost-saving
potential. Essentially, this kind of steel consists of a fine-grained, ferritic
bainitic, and martensitic structure, which in addition to its high strength, has a
good cold-forming and welding capacity.

CR / HR Steels New Developments

10

Martensite Phase (MS) Steels These steels are also hot rolled and
essentially consist of a martensitic structure. Yield points range between
750 and 900Nmm2 with a tensile strength of 10001200Nmm2. These
values, the good cold-rolling and welding ability at a high tensile strength,
and resistance to wear, make this material ideal for door-impact beams and
crash-relevant parts

11

ManganeseBoron Steels
For hot forming and hardening, the manganeseboron steels offer the
highest strengths of up to 1650N mm2 in the hardened condition. After
having heated the steel to the austenitization temperature, a subsequent
controlled cooling leads to a martensitic structure, and thus, to a high
strength of the material.
Manganeseboron steels are of special interest for parts with complex
geometries, and high demands concerning strength.
The mechanical properties, which can be influenced by tempering,
correspond to the highest demands, and enable significant weight saving
when these steels are used in the production of strength-dimensioned,
structural, and safety parts of vehicles, like bumper supports, side impact
beams, column, and body reinforcing panels

Plastic-strain ratio
1

Plastic-strain ratio, r, describes the resistance of steel sheet to thinning during forming
operations. This is the ratio of the true strain in the width direction, w, to the true strain in
the thickness direction, t, of plastically strained sheet metal(Eqn 3)
The plastic-strain ratio is related to the crystallographic orientation of low-carbon steels. A
standard method for determining r by using the tension test is given in ASTM E 517. The
value will vary with test direction (relative to the coil rolling direction) in anisotropic metals.
An average value, rm, (sometimes designated r ), represents the normal plastic anisotropy
of the steel sheet( Eqn 4)
Hot-rolled and normalized cold-rolled steels are generally isotropic (rm of 1.0). Rimmed
steels usually have an rm of 1.2, but this value may be higher in special cases, as with some
low-manganese low-sulfur products. Aluminum-killed steels will be more anisotropic, with
rm of 1.6. Higher values (up to 2.5) may be attained by controlling composition and
processing. The upper limit for commercial steels is about 3.0, although values near 3.0 are
seldom achieved. Interstitial-free steels tend to have the highest rm at approximately 2.0.
The rm value predicts the ability of metals to deform in draw.

Planar anisotropy may be reported as:(Eq 5). Planar anisotropy is a measure of the amount
of high points, or ears, that will develop on the edges of deep-drawn cylindrical cups or
similar parts. High points in the rolling and transverse directions are noted when r is
positive (for low-carbon, drawing-quality, aluminum-killed steel sheet). For some highstrength low-alloy steels, r is negative, and earing occurs at 45 to the rolling direction. For
most applications, values of r near 0 are preferred, because such values imply a minimal
tendency to form ears when metals are drawn into cylindrical cups.

Equations
Eqn no.
3

Plastic strain ratio

4
Normal anisotrophy
5
6

Planar anisotrophy
The n value, or strain-hardening coefficient, is determined by the dependence of
the flow (yield) stress on the level of strain. In materials with a high n value, the flow
stress increases rapidly with strain. This tends to distribute further strain to regions
of lower strain and flow stress. A high n value is also an indication of good
formability in a stretching operation.
In the region of uniform elongation, the n value is defined as:

where T is the true stress (load/instantaneous area). This relationship implies that
the true stress-strain curve of the material can be approximated by a power law
constitutive equation proposed in :
T = kn
where k is a constant known as the strength coefficient.

The strain-hardening exponent

6

The strain-hardening exponent, n, is the slope of the true stress-true strain

curve, when plotted on logarithmic coordinates. A significant portion of the
curve is nearly a straight line for many low-carbon steels. The data are
assumed to fit the equation( Eqn.6)
The n value will normally be approximately 0.22 for low-carbon steels used
to form complex-shape parts. Higher values (up to 0.26) indicate improved
capabilities to deform in stretch. Freshly rolled rimmed steels generally have
n values comparable to those of aluminum-killed steels. After aging, values
of n for rimmed steels are less than those for aluminum-killed steels. Some
low-carbon steels that are not fully processed for formability, especially hotrolled grades, will have n values as low as 0.10, but most of the formable
grades will have n values above 0.14.
The effects of different n values on strain distribution in critical regions of a
specific formed part are shown in Fig. 3 . Parts formed from steel sheet with
a low n value (0.21) may undergo excessive thinning and fracture in critical
regions. Identical parts formed from sheet with a higher n value (0.23)
frequently will be strong enough in the critical areas to transfer strain to
adjacent areas, thereby avoiding failure during forming.

Effects of Steel Composition on Formability

Low-carbon sheet steels are generally preferred forming. These steels typically contain less than
0.10% carbon and less than 1% total intentional and residual alloying elements. The amount of
manganese, the principal alloying addition, normally ranges from 0.15 to 0.35%. Controlled amounts
of silicon, niobium, titanium, or aluminium may be added either as deoxidizers or to develop certain
properties.
Alloy sheet steels (including high-strength low-alloy grades) however, contain specified amounts of
one or more of these elements.

Carbon content is particularly significant in steels that are intended for complex forming applications.
An increase in the carbon content of steel increases the strength of the steel and reduces its
formability. These effects are caused by the formation of carbide particles in the ferrite matrix and by
the resulting small grain size. The amount of carbon in steel sheet is generally limited to 0.10% or less
to maximize the formability of the sheet.

Manganese enhances the hot-working characteristics of the steel and facilitates the
development of the desired grain size. Some manganese is also necessary to neutralize the
detrimental effects of sulfur, particularly for hot workability. Typical manganese contents for
low-carbon steel sheet range from 0.15 to 0.35%; manganese contents up to 2.0% may be
specified in high-strength low-alloy steels. When the sulfur content of the steel is very low, the
manganese content also can be low, which allows the steel to be processed to develop high r
values.

Phosphorus and sulfur are considered undesirable in steel sheet intended for forming,
drawing, or bending because their presence increases the likelihood of cracking or splitting.
For more applications, phosphorus may be added to the steel to increase the strength.
Silicon content in low-carbon steel varies according to the deoxidation practice employed
during production.

Forming Limit Diagram

Figure 16.2 (a) Schematic

illustration of shearing with a
punch and die, indicating
some of the process variables.
Characteristic features of (b) a
punched hole and (c) the slug.
Note that the scales of the two
figures are different.

Shearing

Clearance

Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As
the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice,
clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV)
contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in) thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: H. P.
Weaver and K. J. Weinmann.

Slitting

Figure 16.6 Slitting with rotary

knives. This process is similar to
opening cans.

Shaving and Shear Angles

Figure 16.9 Schematic
illustrations of the shaving of a
sheared edge. (a) Shaving a
sheared edge. (b) Shearing and
shaving, combined in one stroke.

Figure 16.10
Examples of the
use of shear
angles on punches
and dies.

Bending
(a)

(c)

(b)

Figure 16.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated

inclusions (stringers) on cracking, as a function of the
direction of bending with respect to the original rolling
direction of the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of
an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90o. Note the
narrowing of the tope surface due to the Poisson effect.

Conventional Spinning
Figure 16.40 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process. (b) Types of parts
conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.

Bending in a Press Brake

Figure 16.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations
in a press brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Verson
Allsteel Company.

Roll Forming
Figure 16.26 Schematic
illustration of the roll-forming
process.

Hydroforming

Hydroforming

Hydroforming
Hydroforming is a forming technology that uses fluid pressure to deform the
sheet steel into the desired shape and is commonly associated with tube
applications.
There are four main types of hydroforming.
1. Low-pressure hydroforming simply reshapes the tube. It produces a very
good shape, but it is less suitable when greater cross-sectional definition is
required.
2. High-pressure hydroforming changes the tube shape totally, altering the
ratio of length to circumference by up to 50%. It gives exceptionally good
tolerance control, thanks to the robustness of the process.

3. Panel hydroforming is suited to the manufacture of tight panels, e.g.

automotive roof panels. The attraction of hydromechanical forming is that it
produces essentially flat panels with a controlled degree of deformation and
hence tightness. Hydraulic pressure is used to expand the material into the
die set with uniform strain; the punch then comes down to re-deform the
metal into the required panel shape.
4. Pillow hydroforming uses hydraulic pressure to form the component from
two steel sheets that have been continuously welded around the perimeter.
This allows the hydroforming of, for example, vehicle A or B pillars, which
need to be slim at the top and wider at the bottom. It also makes it easy to
leave a weld flange for subsequent assembly.

Dual Phase steel

Dual Phase Steel

DUAL-PHASE STEELS are a new class of high-strength low alloy (HSLA) steels.
This class is characterized by a tensile strength value of approximately 550
MPa (80 ksi) and by a microstructure consisting of about 20% hard martensite
particles dispersed in a soft ductile ferrite matrix. The term dual phase refers
to the predominance in the microstructure of two phases, ferrite and
martensite (Fig. 1 ). However, small amounts of other phases, such as bainite,
pearlite, or retained austenite, may also be present.
In addition to high tensile strength, other unique properties of these steels
include continuous yielding behavior, a low 0.2% offset yield strength, and a
higher total elongation than other HSLA steels of similar strength.

Dual Phase steel

Tailor Welded Blanks

Laser Welding
Figure 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body, by laser butt-welding and stamping.
Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

Examples of Laser Welded

Parts

Figure 16.8 Examples of laser butt-welded and stamped automotive body components. Source:
After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

TWB and PWB

Tailored Products
These products are based on the idea that single parts which are joined by
laser welding, are employed to make sheet metal with optimized
properties, that is, tailored blanks, tailored tubes, or tailored strips. These
semifinished products possess locally defined properties such as thickness,
mechanical properties, and surface coating which depend on the space.
The tailored technology can be used to save weight, by replacing spot
welds at overlapping sheet-metal edges by continuous laser welds. The
continuous joints of the single sheets increase the stiffness of the design
Patchwork Blanks
Patchwork blanks are blanks of sheet metal that are partially reinforced by
one or more patches. In contrast to the conventional way of reinforcing,
the patches are applied before the forming process. In this manner, the
technology of the tailored blanks can be enlarged, because even the
smallest of areas can be reinforced easily.
To connect the patches with the base blanks, methods such as spot
welding, laser welding, and bonding are employed. These methods can also
be combined.

Tailored blanks can have a

simple geometry with linear
welds or complex shape
with non-linear welds.
This type of tailored blank is
used industrially for
automotive body parts such
as rails, floor and their cross
members, body side and
inners, A, B and C pillars,
rear and front wheel house
fender inner, dash panels,
etc. and for closures such as
door inners, hood inner or
tail gates, etc.

Patchwork blanks are

spot welded or remote
laser welded blanks that
overlap, suitable for
components requiring
local reinforcement. They
increase locally the
stiffness performance, the
fatigue life behavior, and
the resistance to
maximum loads.

More recent than laser

welded blanks, they are
used for automotive
bodyparts such as shock
tower, rails, dash panel, Bpillars reinforcements,
body side, tailgate inner,
etc.